Novel Adjuvant Compositions

Field of the Invention

The invention relates to immunogenic compositions. In particular it relates to compositions for raising prophylactic or therapeutic immune responses against desired antigens, such as vaccine compositions.

Background to the Invention

Local immune responses at mucosal surfaces are thought to be important in combating infection to many bacteria, viruses and parasites, which gain access to the host through these surfaces. However, stimulation of local immune responses with purified non- replicating antigens is difficult. In fact, the healthy immune system appears tolerant to non-living antigens when they are presented at mucosal surfaces. This has seriously inhibited the development of new vaccines that can be delivered mucosally. To date, only a few proteins have been identified which activate strong local and systemic immune responses following mucosal presentation. Of these, the highly homologous enterotoxins, Cholera toxin (CT) from Vibrio cholerae and heat labile toxin from enterotoxigenic E. coli (LT) have been studied extensively [1, 2] . In addition to the generation of strong anti-toxin responses, these proteins are able to activate immune responses to normally non- immunogenic co-administered antigen [3] . The adjuvant activity of these toxins has been studied extensively in animal models. Their high toxicity, however, makes them impractical for use in humans.

To circumvent the toxicity problem, site directed mutants of these toxins have been engineered which are no longer enzymatically active but which retain adjuvant activity [4-7] . It is hoped that these non-toxic derivatives will be suitable for inclusion in new vaccine formulations. A number of such mutant toxins have been constructed and characterised. This work has helped to establish a structure/function relationship between adjuvant activity of these

proteins and the holotoxin formation [8] . However, little time and effort has been spent on the identification, of alternative adjuvants .

Pneumolysin produced by Streptococcus pneumoniae is a pore forming protein produced by the majority of the disease causing serotypes. Vaccination with this protein has been shown to elicit some protective effects in animal models of infection.

Pneumolysin has at least two major activities important in its role in pathogenesis: the ability to form pores and the ability to activate the complement pathway. The functional regions for these activities have been located within the molecule and both activities have been shown to be important in the causation of disease [9] . The toxin is important in the pathogenesis of meningitis as it can cause damage to the ependymal cilia of the brain [10] and can induce apoptosis of brain cells [11] . The neurotoxity of pneumolysin has been shown to be due to alterations in calcium flux into cells and signalling via activation of the p38 MAP kinase [11, 12] . Pneumolysin has recently been shown to bind to Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4) [13] . This interaction with TLR-4 was essential for the protection of mice against invasive disease caused by the pneumococcus . Pneumolysin therefore plays a diverse and important role in the pathogenesis of pneumoccocal infections .

Listeriolysin 0 has previously been used to deliver heterologous antigen peptides to the MHC class I antigen presentation pathway in order to stimulate cytotoxic T cell responses against the heterologous antigen. In this system, nucleic acids encoding the listeriolysin O protein fused to the heterologous antigen (e.g. a tumour-specific antigen or viral antigen) were administered directly to the subject as

DNA vaccines, or used to transform the intracellular bacteria

Listeria monocytogenes which were themselves used as live vaccines. In either case, it is believed that the fusion protein is produced within the vaccinated subject's own cells (either by the cells themselves, or by the infecting bacteria) , degraded in the usual manner, and presented to the immune system via MHC class I molecules. See [14] and references cited therein.

Summary of the Invention The present inventors have now found that cytolysin proteins possess adjuvant activity in their own right when administered in conjunction with other peptide antigens.

Accordingly, in its broadest form, the present invention provides the use of a cytolysin protein as an adjuvant, when administered in conjunction with a heterologous peptide antigen, in particular when administered as a fusion with the heterologous peptide antigen.

In one aspect, the invention provides a method of generating an immune response against a peptide antigen, comprising administering to a subject a fusion protein comprising said peptide antigen and a cytolysin.

The invention further provides the use of a fusion protein comprising a peptide antigen and a cytolysin in the preparation of a medicament for the generation of an immune response against the peptide antigen.

The invention further provides a fusion protein comprising a peptide antigen and a cytolysin, for use in the generation of an immune response against the peptide antigen.

The invention also provides an immunogenic composition comprising a fusion protein and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, wherein the fusion protein comprises a peptide antigen and a cytolysin.

The invention further provides a fusion protein comprising a peptide antigen and a cytolysin for use in a method of medical treatment.

The compositions and methods of the invention are used for generating an immune response in a subject against a target peptide antigen. The subject is typically a mammal, for example, a primate (e.g. Old World monkey, New World monkey, great ape or human), rodent (e.g. mouse or rat), canine (e.g. domestic dog), feline (e.g. domestic cat), equine (e.g. horse), bovine (e.g. cow), caprine (e.g. goat), ovine (e.g. sheep) or lagomorph (e.g. rabbit).

As well as administering the fusion protein directly, it is also possible to use so-called "DNA vaccination" techniques, wherein a nucleic acid encoding the fusion protein is administered to the subject such that the nucleic acid is taken up by the subject's own cells and the fusion protein is expressed by those cells from the nucleic acid. In general, it will be desirable for the fusion protein to be secreted from the cells in which it is synthesised. This may allow the fusion protein to enter the subject's system and exert a similar effect to a fusion protein which has been administered directly. Without wishing to be bound by theory, this may include_ uptake and presentation of the target antigen and/or the cytolysin by antigen presenting cells via the MHC class II pathway.

Thus the invention further provides a method of generating an immune response against a peptide antigen, comprising administering to a subject a nucleic acid encoding a fusion protein, wherein the fusion protein comprises said peptide antigen and a cytolysin, and wherein the fusion protein is secreted from a cell of the subject when expressed within said cell. ^■

The subject is typically a mammal, as described above.

The invention further provides the use of a nucleic acid encoding a fusion protein in the preparation of a medicament for the generation of an immune response against a peptide antigen, wherein the fusion protein comprises the peptide antigen and a cytolysin, and wherein the fusion protein is secreted from a mammalian cell when expressed within said cell.

The invention further provides a nucleic acid encoding a fusion protein for use in the generation of an immune response against a peptide antigen, wherein the fusion protein comprises a peptide antigen and a cytolysin, and wherein the fusion protein is secreted from a mammalian cell when expressed within said cell.

The invention also provides an immunogenic composition comprising a nucleic acid encoding a fusion protein and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, wherein the fusion protein comprises a peptide antigen and a cytolysin, and wherein the fusion protein is secreted from a mammalian cell when expressed within said cell.

The invention further provides a nucleic acid encoding a fusion- protein, wherein the fusion protein comprises a peptide antigen and a cytolysin, and wherein the fusion protein is secreted from a mammalian cell when expressed within said cell.

The nucleic acid may be .provided as part of an expression vector, and/or within a cell capable of expressing and secreting the fusion protein. The invention therefore provides an expression vector comprising a nucleic acid as described above. The invention also ^' provides a cell comprising a nucleic acid or an expression vector as described above .

The invention further provides the use of a cell or expression vector for the generation of an immune response against a peptide antigen, comprising administering such a cell or expression vector to a subject.

The invention further provides the use of a cell or expression vector as described in the preparation of a medicament for the generation of an immune response against a peptide antigen.

The invention further provides a cell or expression vector as described, for use in the generation of an immune response against the peptide antigen.

The invention also provides an immunogenic composition comprising a cell or expression vector as described and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

The invention further provides a cell or expression vector as described for use in a method of medical treatment.

The immune response may be generated for prophylaxis or therapy of any condition in which it is beneficial to the subject to mount an immune response against a target antigen. Such conditions include, but are not limited to, infection by an infectious organism, and also include the treatment of cancer. For example, in the treatment of cancer, it may be desirable to induce or increase an immune response to a marker expressed specifically or preferentially on cancer cells. Such markers are often referred to as tumour-specific markers, although their expression is not restricted to solid tumours. Infectious organisms include intracellular and extracellular bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other parasites such as malaria parasites .

The target antigen (i.e. the antigen against which it is desirable to generate an immune response) is a peptide

antigen. The term "peptide" refers to the nature of the antigen, i.e. that it is formed .from amino acids linked by peptide bonds, and should not be taken to imply any particular size or length. Typically the peptide antigen will be at least 8 amino acids in length, and may be up to 50 amino acids in length, up to 100 amino acids, up to 200 amino acids, or even longer.

Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, the peptide antigen, when not fused to the cytolysin protein, should be capable of binding to a MHC class II molecule, or should be capable of being processed within an antigen- presenting cell to give rise to one or more peptides capable of binding to a MHC class II molecule.

The target peptide antigen may be from any source and is provided in a fusion protein with the cytolysin. Thus the fusion protein is a single chain of amino acids containing the sequence of a cytolysin molecule (or a fragment thereof having adjuvant activity - see below) and a peptide antigen which is not part of the same peptide chain as the cytolysin protein in nature .

In the fusion protein, the cytolysin may be N-terminal of the peptide antigen. Alternatively, the peptide antigen may be N- terminal of the cytolysin. The fusion protein may comprise other protein components, such as a linker peptide between the peptide antigen and the cytolysin, or a peptide tag for affinity purification (for example at the N- or C-terminus of the molecule) .

In general, the peptide antigen is heterologous to the cytolysin; that is to say, it is not the cytolysin protein itself or a fragment thereof. (Although in certain circumstances it may be desirable to use a fusion protein comprising two copies of the same cytolysin, e.g. in order to induce a response to the cytolysin protein itself.) The

target antigen may be a complete protein, an isolated domain of a protein, or a peptide fragment of a protein. It may be derived from the same organism as the cytolysin. When the antigen is from a species which produces a cytolysin, it may be desirable to use the cytolysin from that species, as any immune response which is generated against the cytolysin itself will contribute to the protection afforded against that organism. For example, when the cytolysin is pneumolysin, the antigen may be an antigen from S. pneumoniae, such as PsaA (Pneumococcal surface antigen A) or a fragment thereof.

However, it may be from a different organism, and in various embodiments, the target peptide antigen is derived from an organism which does not express, a cytolysin.

The target antigen may be derived from an infectious organism, including a bacterium, fungus, virus or other parasite, such as a malarial parasite. In alternative embodiments, the target antigen may be derived from the same species as the subject to which it is to be administered. For example, it may be derived from a protein expressed on a cancer cell (e.g. a tumour-specific marker, as mentioned above) . In such cases, the target peptide antigen may be derived from the subject to whom the fusion protein is to be administered.

In particular, the fusion proteins described herein (and the nucleic acids encoding them) may be used to generate (or enhance generation of) serum antibodies against the target antigen, or against the protein from which the target antigen is derived. The serum antibodies produced are typically IgG, and may include IgGl.

Administration may be by any suitable route, and may be oral or parenteral. Because of the difficulties experienced with oral delivery of peptide agents, parenteral administration may prove the most suitable. Suitable parenteral routes include but are not limited to intravenous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, cutaneous, subcutaneous, transdermal, and

other mucosal routes such as nasal, buccal, rectal and vaginal rputes.-

As well as stimulating serum antibody production against a target antigen, the inventors have found that cytolysin proteins have the ability to stimulate production of a mucosal immune response against the associated target peptide antigen. It is well-known in the art that it is difficult to reliably generate mucosal immune responses. Presentation of non-living antigens at mucosal surfaces often induces tolerance, rather than immunity. However, mucosal immune responses are desirable, as they form a first line of defence against those types of infectious organism which gain access to the body -via the mucosa. Mucosal immune response are typically characterised by the production of IgA at the relevant mucosal surfaces .

In order to generate a mucosal immune response, mucosal administration may be used (i.e. such that the fusion protein is taken up through a mucosal surface) . Any suitable mucosal route may be applied, including nasal, buccal, rectal, vaginal or oral (for uptake through the intestinal mucosa) . Nasal administration may be particularly convenient.

Any cytolysin may be used in the methods and compositions of the invention. Examples include pneumolysin from Streptococcus pneumoniae, perfringolysin O from Clostridium perfringens, intermedilysin from Streptococcus intermedius, alveolysin from Bacillus alvei, anthrolysin from Bacillus anthracis, putative cereolysin from Bacillus cereus, ivanolysin 0 from Listeria ivanovii, pyolysin from Arcanobacterium pyogenes, seeligeriolysin O from Listeria seeligeri, streptolysin O from S. pyogenes, suilysin from Streptococcus suis _r tetanolysin from Clostridium tetani, listeriolysin 0 from Listeria monocytogenes, streptolysin 0 from Streptococcus equisimilis, streptolysin O from S. canis, thuringiolysin O from Bacillus thuringiensis, latersporolysin

O from B. laterosporus, botulinolysin from Clostridium botulinum, chauveolysin from C. cha.uvoei,. bifermentolysin from C. bifermentans, sordellilysin from C. sordellii, histolyticolysin from Clostridium histiolyticum, novylysin 5 from Clostridium novyi and septicolysin 0 from Clostridium septicum.

Cytolysin mutants may also be used. Particularly suitable mutants ^' are those described in WO2005/108419 and WO2005/108580

10 which possess a mutation (e.g.- a deletion or substitution) of one or more amino acids within the region corresponding to amino acids 144 to 161 of the wild type pneumolysin sequence .which reduces haemolytic activity and/or oligomerisation activity relative to the wild type cytolysin protein.

15

Thus the mutant cytolysin may differ from the wild type protein by the presence of a mutation (e.g. a deletion or substitution) within the region corresponding to amino acids 144 to 151 of the wild type pneumolysin sequence. ^• 20

For example, an amino acid corresponding to alanine 146 of pneumolysin may be substituted or deleted.

The mutant protein may differ from the wild type protein by 25 the deletion of two adjacent amino acids within the region corresponding to amino acids 144 to 151 of the wild type pneumolysin sequence.

For example, amino acids corresponding to valine 144 and 30 proline 145 of pneumolysin, or corresponding to alanine 146 and arginine 147 of pneumolysin, or corresponding to methionine 148 and glutamine 149 of pneumolysin, or corresponding to tyrosine 150 and glutamic acid 151 of pneumolysin may be deleted. 35

Additionally or alternatively, the mutant may possess a substitution at a position corresponding to position 181 in

wild-type perfringolysin sequence. For example, the mutant may. carry a . substitution .equivalent to Y181A in wild-type perfringolysin .

Additionally or alternatively, the mutant may possess at least one amino acid substitution or deletion in at least one of the regions corresponding to amino acids 257-297, 367-397 or 424τ 437 of the wild type pneumolysin sequence which reduces haemolytic activity relative to the wild type protein. Preferred positions include those corresponding to amino acids 367, 384, 385, 428, 433 and 435 of the pneumolysin sequence. In such cases, the mutant may be a mutant of pneumolysin.

Additionally or alternatively, the mutant may comprise at least one mutation in the region corresponding to amino acids 368 to 397 of wild-type pneumolysin which reduces complement- activating activity relative to the wild type cytolysin. For example, the mutant may comprise a substitution or deletion at a residue corresponding to positions 384 or 385 of wild type pneumolysin.

Description of the Figures

Figure 1: Plasmid map of eGFPPLY construct.

Figure 2: Haemolytic activity of the various derivatives of PLY to red blood cells.

Figure 3: Immune responses to eGFP in the serum of mice immunised with different vaccination combinations. Each bar represents the geometric mean titre for 5 mice per group and each error bar the standard deviation from the mean. Arrows indicate times of vaccination.

Figure 4: Titre of eGFP specific IgA detected in the mucosal washes of the nose (Figure 4a) and lungs (Figure 4b of immunised animals. Each dot represents an individual animal

(5 animals per group) and each line the mean response of the 5 individual animals

Figure 5: Immune responses to pneumolysin in the serum of animals over time. Each bar represents the geometric mean titre for 5 mice per group, and each error bar the standard deviation from the mean. Arrows indicate times of vaccination.

Figure 6: Immune responses to eGFP in the serum of animals over time. Each bar represents the geometric mean titre for 5 mice per group and each error bar the standard deviation from the mean. Arrows indicate times of vaccination.

Figure 7: Mean titres of eGFP specific IgA in the nasal and lung lavages of animals immunised intranasally with eGFPPLY, LT + eGFP or eGFP alone. The results show the calculated geometric mean titre of IgA in the nasal wash (D) or lung wash ( ■ ) from 5 animals per group. The error bars reflect the standard deviation from the mean of each group.

Figure 8 : Amino acid sequences of selected wild-type cytolysin polypeptides. A. Pneumolysin from Streptococcus pneumoniae; B. Perfringolysin O from Clostridium perfringens; C. Intermedilysin from Streptococcus intermedius; D. Alveolysin from Bacillus alvei; E. Anthrolysin from Bacillus anthracis; F. Putative Cereolysin from Bacillus cereus; G. Ivanolysin 0 from Listeria ivanovii; H. Pyolysin from Arcanobacterium pyogenes; I. Seeligeriolysin O from Listeria seeligeri; J. Streptolysin O from S. pyogenes; K. Suilysin from Streptococcus suis; L. Tetanolysin from Clostridium tetani; M. Listeriolysin O from Listeria monocytogenes; N. Thuringiolysin from Bacillus thuringiensis (previously annotated as perfringolysin) . All accession numbers are derived from NCBI-GenBank Flat File Release 141.0, April 15 2004, apart from apart from those of thuringiolysin which are from NCBI-GenBank Flat File Release 153.0, April 15 2006.

Figure 9: Pain scores at 0,- 24 and 48 hours after inoculation with S. pneumoniae. Challenge with S. pneumoniae took place at least 4 weeks after final immunisation with the specified vaccination combinations .

Figure 10: Bacterial load in blood determined at 24 and 48 hours after inoculation with S. pneumoniae.

Detailed Description of the Invention Cytolysins

Cytolysins are cholesterol-binding toxin molecules produced by a number of types of bacteria. They bind to cholesterol in host cell membranes and oligomerise to form large 30- to 50- member ring structures which form lytic pores in the host cell membrane (see e.g. Palmer, M. (2001) Toxicon 39:1681-1689; Jedrzejas, MJ, Microbiol MoI Biol Rev. 2001 Jun; 65 (2) : 187- 207). As a result, cytolysins display haemolytic activity against red blood cells.

Thus, a cytolysin is a molecule which, in the wild-type state, is capable of binding to membrane cholesterol molecules, and has the ability to oligomerise and form pores in cholesterol- containing membranes.

The amino acid sequences of a number of wild type cholesterol- binding cytolysins (CBCs) are shown in Figure 8. Figure 8 also indicates the GenBank identification number for each sequence. The methods and compositions described in this specification are not restricted to the cytolysins shown in Figure 8, but encompass use of any cholesterol-binding cytolysin.

Wild type cytolysin molecules may be used, particularly for veterinary use. However, in the eventuality that a wild type cytolysin molecule is unacceptable or disadvantageous for any reason (e.g. unacceptably toxic for human use), it is possible

to use a cytolysin mutant comprising one or more mutations which affect one or more biological activities of the cytolysin such as haemolytic activity, ability to oligomerise, or ability to activate complement.

For example, WO2005/108419 and WO2005/108580 disclose cytolysin mutants having a mutation (e.g. a substitution or deletion) within the region corresponding to amino acids 144 to 161 of the wild type pneumolysin protein. These mutants have reduced haemolytic activity and/or oligomerisation as compared to the wild type cytolysins, and therefore are less toxic. The reduction in oligomerisation activity also improves their suitability for use in a therapeutic product by reducing their tendency to aggregate when formulated into a medicament.

The regions of the cytolysins shown in Figure 8 corresponding to residues 144 to 161 of wild-type pneumolysin are listed below.

The mutant may have a substitution or deletion of one or more amino acids within the region corresponding to amino acids 144 to 161, e.g. 144 to 151 of the wild type pneumolysin sequence. Among the cytolysins shown in Figure 8, the consensus sequence of the region corresponding to amino acids 144 to 151 of the wild type pneumolysin sequence is VPARMQYE.

Thus, the mutant cytolysin may have a mutation, e.g. a substitution or deletion, at one or more of the amino acid residues corresponding to amino acids 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160 or 161 of wild type pneumolysin.

Certain preferred mutant cytolysin proteins differ from the wild type protein by the substitution or deletion of two adjacent amino acids within the region corresponding to amino acids 144 to 151 of the wild type pneumolysin sequence. Examples of such double mutants are those which contain substitutions or deletions of amino acids corresponding to valine 144 and proline 145, alanine 146 and arginine 147, methionine 148 and glutamine 149., or tyrosine 150 and glutamic acid 151, i.e. the corresponding amino acids shown in the table above.

The mutant may have a substitution at a residue corresponding to Y181 of perfringolysin. This residue corresponds to Y150 of pneumolysin. Such mutants may be derived from perfringolysin, or from other cytolysin proteins.

Further mutants of cytolysins having reduced haemolytic activity are described in WO 90/06951, and contain at least one amino acid substitution or deletion in at least one of the regions corresponding to amino acids 257-297, 367-397 or 424- 437 of the wild type pneumolysin sequence, and in particular at positions corresponding to amino acids 367, 384, 385, 428, 433 and 435 of the pneumolysin sequence. Thus the cytolysin protein used in the methods and compositions described herein

may comprise one or more such mutations in addition to, or instead of, the mutation in the region corresponding to amino acids 144-161 of the pneumolysin sequence.

Mutations reducing the ability to activate complement may be made, for example, in the region corresponding to amino acids 368 to 397 of wild-type pneumolysin, and in particular at residues corresponding to positions 384 (Tyr) and 385 (Asp) of wild type pneumolysin. Such mutations are described by Mitchell, T.J. et al, Complement Activation and Antibody

Binding by Pneumolysin via a Region of the Toxin Homologous to a Human Acute-Phase Protein. Molecular Microbiology, 1991. 5(8) : p. 1883-1888.

The cytolysin proteins may comprise other mutations relative to the sequences shown in Figure 8. These mutations may themselves reduce one or more biological activities of -the cytolysin protein, such as the haemolytic activity, the oligomerisation activity, or the ability to activate complement, or they may be phenotypically silent.

Deletions and substitutions are examples of mutations which may be used to provide the mutant proteins of the invention with reduced toxicity. Non-conservative substitutions may be particularly suitable for reducing toxicity of the mutant, as a mutant having a non-conservative mutation is less likely to retain wild-type levels of function than one having a conservative substitution.

A conservative substitution may be defined as a substitution within an amino acid class and/or a substitution that scores positive in the BLOSUM62 matrix as shown below, thus a non- conservative substitution maybe defined as a substitution between amino acid classes, or which does not score positive in the BLOSUM62 matrix.

According to one classification, the amino acid classes are acidic, basic, -.uncharged polar and nonpolar, wherein acidic amino acids are Asp and GIu; basic amino acids are Arg, Lys and His; uncharged polar amino acids are Asn, GIn, Ser, Thr and Tyr; and non-polar amino acids are Ala, GIy, VaI, Leu, lie, Pro, Phe, Met, Trp and Cys .

According to another classification, the amino acid classes are small hydrophilic, acid/acidamide/hydrophilic, basic, small hydrophobic and aromatic, wherein small hydrophilic amino acids are Ser, Thr, Pro, Ala and GIy; acid/acidamide/hydrophilic amino acids are Asn, Asp, GIu and GIn; basic amino acids are His, Arg and Lys; small hydrophobic amino acids are Met, lie, Leu and VaI; and aromatic amino acids are Phe, Tyr and Trp.

Conservative substitutions, which score positive in the BLOSUM62 matrix, are as follows:

Amino acid insertions within the region of amino acids 144 to 161, e.g. 144 to 151, may also be used to reduce toxicity of the PLY mutant. For example, insertions of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20 or more amino acids may be used. However, deletions and substitutions are generally preferred to insertions as they are less likely to disrupt the wild type epitope; such disruption could reduce the immunogenicity of the mutant protein, which may be undesirable if the immunogenic composition is intended to generate an immune response against the bacterium which produces the wild-type cytolysin. ^'

The cytolysin protein preferably has at least 80% amino acid identity with the corresponding wild type sequence, e.g. as shown in Figure 8. The mutant may have at least 85% identity, at least 90% identity, or at least 95% identity with the wild type sequence.

Percent (%) amino acid sequence identity with respect to a reference sequence is defined as the percentage of amino acid residues in a candidate sequence that are identical with the amino acid residues in the reference sequence, after aligning the sequences and introducing gaps, if necessary, to achieve the maximum percent sequence identity, and not considering any conservative substitutions as part of the sequence identity. % identity values may be determined by WU-BLAST-2 (Altschul et al., Methods in Enzymology, 266:460-480 (1996)). WU-BLAST-2 uses several search parameters, most of which are set to the default values. The adjustable parameters are set with the following values: overlap span = 1, overlap fraction = 0.125, word threshold (T) = 11. A % amino acid sequence identity value is determined by the number of matching identical residues as determined by WU-BLAST-2, divided by the total number of residues of the reference sequence (gaps introduced by WU-BLAST-2 into the reference sequence to maximize the alignment score being ignored), multiplied by 100.

Percent (%) amino acid similarity is defined in the same way as identity, with the exception that residues scoring a positive value in the BLOSUM62 matrix are counted. Thus, residues which are non-identical but which have similar properties (e.g. as a result of conservative substitutions) are also counted.

References in this specification to an amino acid of a first sequence "corresponding to" an amino acid of a second sequence should be construed accordingly. That is to say, residues which align with one another when the two sequences are

aligned as described above, can be considered to correspond to one another.

Fragments of wild-type or mutant cytolysin proteins which retain adjuvant activity may also be used. Such fragments may be, for example, at least 50 amino acids in length, at least 100 amino acids in length, at least 200 amino acids in length, at least 300 amino acids in length, or at least 400 amino acids in length, as long as they retain adjuvant activity. The term "cytolysin" or the name of any specific cytolysin should be construed to include such functional fragments unless the context demands otherwise.

Adjuvant activity The methods and compositions described in this specification are capable of stimulating immune responses against a target peptide antigen; that is to say, enhancing a pre-existing immune response against the antigen, or generating a response de novo.

In particular, the methods and compositions of the present ^' invention may be used to stimulate serum immunoglobulin production against the target peptide antigen. The serum immunoglobulin typically comprises, or consists primarily of, IgG.

Additionally or alternatively, the methods and compositions of the present invention may be used to stimulate mucosal immunity against the target peptide antigen. Mucosal immunity is normally characterised by the production of IgA, but may also involve activation of lymphocytes in mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue.

This is in contrast to the methods described by Singh et al. [14] which are intended to generate cytotoxic T cells capable of killing cells expressing the target antigen.

Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, the difference in effect may be due to the different mechanisms of presentation of the target antigen in the two systems.

In general, immune responses which favour generation of serum antibodies against a target antigen are often described as Th2-type responses. In Th2 responses, T cell proliferation is biased towards CD4 ⁺ T cell proliferation. Cytokine production is biased towards production of one or more of IL-3, IL-4, IL- 5, IL-6 and IL-13, rather than interferon gamma and IL-2. Normally, such responses are believed to result from presentation of the target antigen by professional antigen presenting cells (such as .B cells, macrophages and dendritic cells) in the context of MHC class II molecules. The antibodies generated may include the IgGl isotype.

By contrast, generation of cytotoxic T cells is normally favoured by a so-called ThI response, in which antigen is presented in the context of MHC class I molecules. The predominant cytokines produced in ThI responses are interferon gamma, IL-2, TNF alpha and beta and GM-CSF. Serum antibody may also be generated in such responses, but are likely to include IgG2a, rather than IgGl.

Th2 responses may be favoured by soluble antigen which may be taken up by antigen presenting cells. ThI responses may be favoured by cytosolic production of antigen, which facilitates presentation via MHC class I molecules. See, for example, Rush et al. (2002) J. Immunol. 169: 4951-4960.

Modes of administration, and pharmaceutical formulations The proteins described in this specification may be administered directly to subjects.

Alternatively, a nucleic acid encoding the fusion protein may ^¬ be administered to a subject such that the fusion protein is expressed from the subject's own cells. Typically the nucleic

acids will be part of one or more expression vectors, which may be administered as naked, nucleic acid or in a delivery- vehicle such as a viral vector (e.g. a retroviral, lentiviral or adenoviral vector) . The vector could be targeted to selected cell types for production of the fusion proteins, or it could contain regulatory elements which are switched on more or less selectively in those selected cell types.

The expression vector will contain an open reading frame encoding the fusion protein, optionally containing one or more introns, operably linked to appropriate regulatory sequences to drive expression of the fusion protein in one or more types of eukaryotic (particularly mammalian) cell. Regulatory sequences including promoter sequences, enhancer sequences, and transcriptional and translational terminator sequences, the vectors may contain one or more marker genes and other sequences as appropriate. The skilled person will be capable of designing a suitable vector for expression of the fusion protein.

The fusion protein is typically secreted from the cell expressing it. The open reading frame encoding the fusion protein may therefore contain a suitable signal sequence capable of directing the fusion protein into the secretory pathway of the appropriate mammalian cell type. Suitable signal sequences are well-known to the skilled person. The signal sequence will typically be derived from a mammalian gene, or from a gene from a virus capable of infecting mammalian cells. Preferably it is derived from a gene from the same species as the cell in which the fusion protein is to be expressed.

Cells capable of expressing and secreting the fusion protein may also be administered to the subject. Thus a cell may be administered which contains a nucleic acid or expression vector as described above. These cells may be syngeneic or histocompatible with the subject; for example, they may have

been obtained from the subject, engineered to express the fusion, protein, and.readministered to the subject (optionally after one or more divisions in culture in order to increase the cell number) . Alternatively they may be xenogeneic (derived from a different species to the subject) or allogeneic (derived from a different member of the same species as the subject) , in which case they may be treated to prevent or reduce rejection by the subject's immune system. For example, they may be encapsulated in an inert polymer.

All such proteins, nucleic acids and cells will typically be administered as part of a pharmaceutical composition. These compositions may comprise, in addition to one of the above substances, a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, carrier, buffer, stabiliser or other materials well known to those skilled in the art. Such materials should be non-toxic and should not interfere with the efficacy of the active ingredient. The precise nature of the carrier or other material may depend on the route of administration.

Administration may be via any suitable route. Mucosal administration may be desirable if it is intended to generate a mucosal immune response, so that the fusion protein is absorbed through a mucosal surface. Mucosal routes include nasal, buccal, rectal, vaginal or oral (for uptake through the intestinal mucosa) . For generating systemic immune response, the route of administration may be less important and may- include oral administration or any suitable parenteral route including intravenous, cutaneous or subcutaneous, nasal, intramuscular and intraperitoneal routes.

Nucleic acids are typically administered transdermally, but other routes, including mucosal administration, are possible.

Pharmaceutical compositions for oral administration may be in tablet, capsule, powder or liquid form. A tablet may include a solid carrier such as gelatin. Liquid pharmaceutical

compositions generally include a liquid carrier such as water, petroleum,- animal or vegetable oils,, mineral oil or synthetic ^• oil. Physiological saline solution, dextrose or other saccharide solution or glycols such as ethylene glycol, propylene glycol or polyethylene glycol may be included.

For intravenous, cutaneous or subcutaneous injection, or injection at the site of affliction, the active ingredient will be in the form of a parenterally acceptable aqueous solution which is pyrogen-free and has suitable pH, isotonicity and stability. Those of relevant skill in the art are well able to prepare suitable solutions using, for example, isotonic vehicles such as Sodium Chloride Injection, Ringer's Injection, Lactated Ringer's Injection. Preservatives, stabilisers, buffers, antioxidants and/or other additives may be included, as required.

The compositions described here may be administered in conjunction with one or more other adjuvants in order to increase the immunogenicity of the peptide antigen yet further.

Whatever the nature of the active agent that is to be given to an individual, administration is preferably in a "prophylactically effective amount" or a "therapeutically effective amount" (as the case may be, although prophylaxis may be considered therapy) , this being sufficient to show benefit to the individual. The actual amount administered, and rate and time-course of administration, will depend on the nature and severity of what is being treated. Prescription of treatment, e.g. decisions on dosage etc, is within the responsibility of general practitioners and other medical doctors, and typically takes account of the disorder to be treated, the condition of the individual patient, the site of delivery, the method of administration and other factors known to practitioners. Examples of the techniques and protocols mentioned above can be found in Remington' s Pharmaceutical

Sciences, 20th Edition, 2000, pub. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins-.

A composition may be administered alone or in combination with other treatments, either simultaneously or sequentially dependent upon the condition to be treated.

A notable characteristic of the fusion proteins described in this specification is that, unusually, just one administration can lead to a detectable immune response against the peptide antigen. Nevertheless, to optimise the response obtained, it may be desirable to administer more than one dose, the doses being separated by suitable intervals of time, e.g. at least a week, at least two weeks, or at least one month.

Examples

Materials and Methods

Construction of expression vectors pET33b-eGFPPLY The GFP coding sequence was amplified from pNF320 [15] by PCR using primers 2OG and 20H (see Table 1) . The amplified product was digested with Nhel and BgIII ₁ ligated into Nhel/BamHI- digested pET33bPLY and transformed into TOPlO E. coli (Invitrogen) . Figure Ia shows the map of the plasmid constructed. Mutations F64L and S65T [16] were introduced into GFP by site-directed mutagenesis (Quikchange SDM Kit, Stratagene) using primers 24W and 24X.

pET33b-Del6eGFPPLY δβeGFPPLY was constructed by site-directed mutagenesis

(Quikchange SDM Kit, Stratagene) of pET33b-eGFPPLY using primers 23B and 23C to introduce the δ6 mutation (Deletion of A146 and R147) within the ply coding sequence.

pET33b-eGFP .

The coding sequence for eGFP was amplified by PCR from pET33b- eGFPPLY using primers 2OG and 45L (see Table 1) . The resulting product was cut with Nhel and Sacl, gel purified and ligated into Nhel/Sacl cut, CIAP-treated pET33b. The ligation reaction was transformed into XL-I cells (Stratagene)

Vector encoding- PsaAPly fusion protein

To create .a destination vector suitable for use in the Gateway® Cloning LR (Invitrogen) reaction, a Gateway® reading frame cassette was ligated into blunt ended, CIAP-treated pET33bPly and transformed into DB3.1 E. coli cells which are resistant to the effects of the ccdB death gene found in the Gateway® cassette. This plasmid was designated pET33bGatewayPly .

Genomic fragments corresponding to the most immunogenic portion of pneumococcal surface adhesin A (PsaA) were amplified by PCR and cloned into the pET33bGatewayPly vector in a two step Gateway® cloning reaction.

Primers (Sigma-Genosys Ltd., Haverhill, United Kingdom) were designed to amplify a 867 bp region of psaA from D39 S. pneumoniae genomic DNA using PCR. Nucleotides corresponding to amino acids 1 to 290 of the mature PsaA polypeptide were amplified using primers shown below. The first 30 nucleotides coded for the attB fragment and the remaining nucleotides were sequence specific. Primers were ordered in a desalted, dry format and resuspended in TE buffer to a lOOμM concentration.

Recombination of the PCR product with the pDONR™/Zeo vector in a BP reaction led to the creation of entry clones, which were transformed into DH5α E. coli. Entry clones positive for the presence of the psaA gene were recombined in a LR reaction with pET33bGatewayPly destination vector to create expression clones. These were transformed into DH5α E. coli. Successful transformants were propagated and used for the expression of PsaAPly protein.

Table 1 . Primers used in amplification

All plasmids were transformed into BL21(DE3) E. coli for protein expression, except for the PsaPly construct which was transformed into DH5α E. coli.

The construction of all plasmids was checked by DNA sequencing by the Molecular Biology Support Unit, University of Glasgow.

Protein expression and purification

Recombinant E. coli containing either pET33beGFPPLY or pET33b- DelβeGFPPLYwere grown in terrific broth containing kanamycin with shaking at 37 ⁰ C until they had reached an OD ₆₀₀ of lUnit. Expression of the recombinant protein was then induced by addition of ImM IPTG and the bacteria grown for a further 3h before bacterial cells were harvested by centrifugation. Bacterial pellets were disrupted by sonication and the cell lysates were centrifuged at 1800Og for 30 minutes to remove cell debris.

E. coli containing the pET33beGFP plasmid were prepared as described above except that following induction, bacteria were

left to grow overnight before harvesting the cells by centrifugation, ;

PsaAPly was expressed in BL21 (RIP.L) cells from Stratagene that were grown in Terrific Broth until an O.D. of 0.6 was reached. The cells were then induced with isopropyl-beta-D- thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) at ImM concentration for 2 hours. The cells were pelleted and resuspended in PBS before being disrupted using a Constant Flow Cell Disruptor at 20000 psi. The lysate was clarified by centrifugation at 13000 rpm for 30 min and filtered using 0.22 μm syringe filters.

Purification of βGFPPLY by hydrophobic interaction chromatography eGFPPLY and DelβeGFPPLY were purified from cell supernatants by hydrophobic interaction chromatography using a PE matrix on a BioCad 700E workstation (PerSeptive Biosystems) . Purified proteins were dialysed into 0. IM phosphate buffer and further purified by anion exchange (HQ) chromatography was performed using the BioCad. Following elution with 15OmM NaCl, the proteins were immediately dialysed against PBS and concentrated using Amicon Ultra centrifugal concentrators (Millipore) with 3OkDa cut-off membranes.

Nickel-affinity chromatography eGFP was purified by EPLC on a Nickel-charged NTA Superflow (Qiagen) column, with elution on a 0-30OmM continuous imidazole gradient in PBS. Purified proteins were dialysed three times against a greater than 50-fold volume of PBS and concentrated using Amicon Ultra centrifugal concentrators (Millipore) with a minimal 1OkDa range.

Purification of PsaAPly and Ply

PsaAPly was purified using metal affinity chromatography (MAC) , size exchange chromatography (SEC) and anion exchange chromatography (AEC) . PsaA was purified from a pQE31 expression vector in BL21 (DE3) E. coli in Luria Broth using

MAC and AEC. All proteins were checked for purity using SDS- PAGE and Coomassie .Blue staining.

Analysis of the Proteins .

Concentration

Total protein measurements of the proteins were calculated using a standard Bradford assay. The concentration of eGFPPLY, DelδeGFPPLY and eGFP was 0.63mg/ml, 0.7mg/ml and 3.84mg/ml respectively. The proteins were also further analysed for presence of other contaminating proteins or degeneration of the protein using overloaded SDS/PAGE or western .blots respectively..

LPS levels Following purification, both antigens were tested for the presence of contaminating Gram negative LPS using a colorimetric LAL assay (KQCL-. BioWhittaker) . This assay indicated that there was less that 5IU/ of LPS per immunisation dose, a level that is currently acceptable in manufactured vaccines for human health. This level is also considered insufficient for the LPS to activate immunological responses non-specifically.

Haemolytlc Activity Haemolytic assays were performed by a modification of technique described by Walker et al 1987 [17] . In brief, horse defibrinated blood was exposed to decreasing concentrations of the eGFPPLY, DelδeGFPPLY or eGFP proteins in round bottomed 96 well plates. Following incubation, the plates were centrifuged at IOOOG and 50μl supernatant from each well was transferred to a new plate. The absorbance at 54OnM was measured using a 96 well plate reader and the A ₅₄₀ for each sample was expressed as a percentage of the A ₅₄₀ for a completely lysed control well

Animals and Immunisation

Groups of-five female BALB/c mice aged 6-8 weeks (Harlan Olac, UK) were immunised intranasally (i.n.) with either the toxin admixed with the eGFP protein or given as a genetically fused conjugated protein (as described in table 2) . To reduce the impact of toxicity, animals were immunised with increasing doses of antigen. For the first immunisation 0.2ug of PLY was admixed with approx 0. lug of eGFP. This was calculated to ensure the ratio of PLY to eGFP was identical to that present in an equivalent dose of the eGFPPLY protein. Similar concentrations of LT (0.2ug) and eGFP (O.lug) were administered to those animals receiving LT+eGFP or eGFP alone. For subsequent immunisations, doses equivalent to 0.4 and 0.8 of PLY were administered.

In the second experiment, eGFPPLY was administered at the same concentration as described above for the first three immunisations, however a fourth 0.8ug dose was also given. In this experiment, the concentration of DelβeGFPPLY and LT were increased tenfold resulting in concentrations of 2, 4, 8, 8ug of toxins given in each subsequent dose. For the LT group approximately 1, 2, 4 and 4 ug of eGFP were admixed with the toxin. Animals given eGFP alone were immunised using the higher concentration of eGFP administered with LT. Each dose was diluted to a final volume of 20ul in PBS (pH7.2) and lOul was administered to the nostrils of lightly anaesthetised animals. Mice were immunised on days 1, 14, 28 and 42. Serum samples were collected from the tail vein of each animal 1 day prior to immunisation, day 13, day 27 and day 41. All animals were exsanguinated on day 42 (expt 1) or day 56 (expt 2) by cardiac puncture. Nasal and lung lavages were performed on day 42 or 56 respectively using 0.1% (wt/vol) bovine serum albumin in PBS. Samples were all stored frozen prior to testing.

In the third experiment, Female Balb/c and MFl mice aged 6-8 weeks old were obtained from Harlan, Bichester, United

Kingdom. Mice were lightly anesthetized with 2% halothane-1.5% oxygen (1.5 liter/min) (Astra-Zeneca, Macclesfield, United Kingdom) and treated intranasally (i.n.) with purified EGFPPIy, PsaAPly or PsaA at 0.1 μg toxin/dose in 25 μl of saline with a saline-only control group [n = 4 to 8) . PsaA concentration was adjusted to be the same molar quantity as that in the fusion protein. Subsequent boosts used 0.2 and 0.4 μg toxin/dose respectively on days 22 and 35/40. Blood was taken from the lateral tail vein prior to each dose. Mice were culled on day 77 and nasal and lung lavage was performed (n=4) .

Challenge with S. pneumoniae

Mice that had received the previous vaccination schedule were heavily anaesthetized with 2% halothane-1.5% oxygen (1.5 liter/min) (Astra-Zeneca, Macclesfield, United Kingdom) . They were then inoculated i.n. with either 10 ⁵ or 10 ⁶ colony forming units of TIGR4 S pneumoniae in 50 μl PBS at least 4 weeks after the last boost. Mice were weighed and monitored for pain before they were culled at 48 hours and processed for bacterial counts in the nasal tissue and nose wash, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and lung tissue, and blood (n=8). Pain scores were attributed according to a scale that uses morbidity rather than mortality as an end point. This scale is detailed below:

ELISA

Anti-PLY and anti eGFP responses within individual serum samples were determined by enzyme linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA) . These assays were performed as described (1) with ELISA plates coated overnight at 4 ⁰ C with eGFP (0. lug/well in PBS) or PLY (0.02ug/well in PBS). ELISA titres were calculated as the reciprocal of the of the highest serum dilution which gave an absorbance of 0.3 above the background.

The levels of anti -PLY and eGFP within the mucosal lavage samples were determined by ELISA as described above except biotinylated IgA (Sigma) was used as the detection antibody. ELISA titres were calculated as the reciprocal of the highest dilution that gave an absorbance of 0.2 above the background.

Results

Haemolytic activity.

The haemolytic activity of the proteins was tested in a standard haemolytic assay. The results shown in Figure 2 indicate that conjugation of the eGFP protein to the native form of PLY does not affect the haemolytic activity of the protein. As expected the DelβeGFPPLY protein has no detectable haemolytic activity.

In vivo testing - Experiment 1

The aim of this experiment was to determine whether PLY could act as a mucosal adjuvant to eGFP when administered intranasally to mice as genetically fused proteins or as unlinked proteins.

In this first experiment, animals were immunised with increasing doses of eGFP and PLY as a simple admixed

formulation or as the genetic fusion protein eGFPPLY. In this experiment, LT, which is a well-described mucosal adjuvant - acted as a positive control. In addition the non-toxic version of PLY (DelδPLY) was formulated and delivered admixed with eGFP or given as a genetic fusion protein (DelβeGFPPLY)

From data presented in Figure 3, it would appear that administration of the eGFPPLY resulted in the production of high levels of antibodies to eGFP. In contrast, no response was observed when PLY and eGFP admixed formulation was given. These data are particularly interesting as unlike other previously described adjuvants such as LT, the response to the conjugated antigen was rapid being detectable following a single immunisation. In addition, the concentration of antigen required to stimulate this response was low, with responses being generated using five fold lower amounts of eGFPPLY than is usually described for LT. In fact the relative poor response demonstrated by LT in this experiment probably reflects the fact that LT was given at a relatively low dose to allow direct comparison with the eGFPPLY fusion protein.

Mucosal responses to the antigens were also tested and the results (shown in Figure 4) clearly show that mucosal IgA to eGFP were generated in all animals immunised with the eGFPPLY fusion and that these were present in both the nasal (nasal wash -figure 4a) and pulmonary tract (lung wash - figure 4b) . In contrast, no eGFP IgA was observed in animals given either eGFP alone or that admixed with the PLY protein. Small responses to eGFP were observed in those animals given LT as an adjuvant but these were only detected in the lung washes of immunised animals.

Together these results suggest that PLY is able to efficiently deliver fused antigens to the mucosal surface of the respiratory tract, resulting in the rapid production of

antibodies to that antigen both in the blood and on the ■ mucosal surface,

Anti-pnevimolysin responses In contrast to the GFP responses, the immune response to pneumolysin itself was limited. No response was observed after a single dose of the toxin (Figure 5) and low but detectable responses for DelδeGFPPLY were only observed after 3 doses of the toxin were given. Mucosal responses were only observed in only 1 animal per group of five immunised with the PLY alone or as a conjugate protein. This is useful if this protein is to be used as a basis for multivalent vaccines.

Jn vivo testing -Experiment 2 The aim of this experiment was to determine the reproducibility of the adjuvant activity for the eGFP construct and to compare data with that generated using previously published concentrations of LT.

In this experiment, mice were immunised either with eGFPPLY at the concentrations as used for the first experiment or 10 fold higher concentrations for both DelδeGFPPLY and LT (LT first dose 2ug of LT admixed with lug of eGFP) . The eGFP given as a control was administered at the higher concentration.

Results shown in Figure 6 indicate that as for the first experiment, anti eGFP responses were detectable in the serum of animals after a single intranasal administration of the eGFPPLY conjugate. These responses were enhanced on boosting. In contrast no serum responses were detected in any of the animals immunised with eGFP. In contrast to the first experiment and in agreement with the literature, responses to eGFP were detected in the serum of animals given eGFP and LT. This probably reflects the higher dose of LT given in this experiment. Although a fourth dose was given in this experiment, it does not appear to be required as data from the serum would suggest the maximum response to the antigen has

been achieved. In this experiment the non-toxic DelβeGFPPLY is as effective, as the .highly . toxic LT at inducing immune responses to the eGFP protein.

Mucosal responses to eGFP also confirmed previous observations with high levels of eGFP IgA present in both the nasal and pulmonary tracts of animals immunised with the eGFPPLY fusion (Figure 7) . Interestingly, as reported previously, LT appears to generate higher levels of antigen specific IgA in the lungs, with less detected in the nasal samples. In contrast, in the two experiments performed using eGFPPLY the levels of ^■ eGFP specific IgA in the lungs and nasal tissue have not reflected any level of bias, in fact antigen specific IgA appears to be equally stimulated at the two locations. This may reflect differences in the specific ligand used by these toxins when interacting with the host cells. The low level of eGFP specific IgA detected in this experiment in the eGFP control group probably reflects the impact of multiple vaccinations with a relative high concentration of eGFP.

In vivo testing - Experiment 3

The aim of this experiment was to test the ability of a PsaA- PIy fusion protein to induce a protective immune response against S. pneumoniae.

PsaA (Pneumococcal surface antigen A) is known to be capable of inducing a ^' protective immune response against S. pneumoniae. Animals were vaccinated intranasally with a PsaA- PIy fusion protein, or with eGFPLY, PsaA alone, or PBS vehicle control. At least 4 weeks after the final boost, they were challenged intra-nasally with live S. pneumoniae. Pain scores (as an indication of symptoms of bacterial infection) were determined at 0, 24 and 48 hours (Figure 9) , and bacterial load in blood at 24 and 48 hours (Figure 10) . Bacterial loads in the respiratory tract at 48 hours were also determined

(data not shown) . Results with the PsaAPly fusion protein are clearly superior to those achieved with PsaA alone.

Conclusion

Pneumolysin generated by Streptococcus pneumoniae is described as a pore forming cytolysin. However, to describe its activity in terms of its pore forming activity hugely understates its ability to modulate the immune response to both itself and to the organism from which it is generated.

In these experiments we have shown how this immunomodulatory capacity can be harnessed to generate the type of rapid and specific immune response that are essentials characteristics of new vaccine formulations. Intranasal vaccination with the model antigen eGFP fused to PLY resulted in seroconversion of all animals after a single dose of a relatively small amount of fusion protein (less than 0.2ug of PLY) . This response was boostable on further exposure to the toxin and generated detectable antigen specific IgA responses to eGFP in mucosal secretions. These responses equivalent to those generated by administration of eGFP with native LT (the previously most effective mucosal adjuvant tested) however, significantly higher levels of LT are required to generate such a response.

In these experiments activity has been demonstrated using the model antigen (eGFP) , and we believe that this principle could be applied to any antigen, including ^" but not limited to those from viral, bacterial and other parasitic pathogens. These could be fused to the PLY for potentially successful delivery to the immune system. This provides the potential for the development of a generic vaccine platform to which many different antigens could be rapidly applied. One advantage of this approach would appear to be the relatively low response generated to the PLY itself. In contrast to LT, in which strong responses are first generated to the toxin, in these experiments, it would appear that anti-PLY responses are low.

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