PRIOR RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application claims benefit of and priority to of U.S Patent Application Serial No. 17/010,680, filed on September 2, 2020, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH STATEMENT

[0002] The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC52-07NA27344 between the U.S. Department of Energy and Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC, for the operation of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.

FIELD OF DISCLOSURE

[0003] The disclosure relates to electrochemical reactors, and, in particular, to an advanced manufactured vapor-feed electrochemical reactor (AM- VFR).

BACKGROUND

[0004] The increasing rate of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions into the atmosphere necessitates the development of methods to reduce carbon emissions. Significant efforts have been taken to develop carbon utilization technologies; these methods focus on converting CO2 into a myriad of valuable products. Electrochemical conversion of CO2 (CO2R) is a promising approach to carbon utilization due to the ability to run these systems at ambient temperatures and pressures. Furthermore, CO2R can be combined with renewable sources of electricity (e.g., wind, solar) to drive a process that is net carbon negative.

[0005] The vast majority of CO2R studies have taken place in two classes of electrochemical cells: liquid-fed reactors (LFRs) and vapor-fed reactors (VFRs). LFRs, which include H-cells and flow cells, depend on the dissolution and diffusion of CO2 through a liquid electrolyte. As such, they become limited by the rate of CO2 mass transport to the electrocatalyst surface, which often prevents high CO2R current densities from being achieved. Comparatively, VFRs exhibit increased mass transport of CO2 to the electrocatalyst surface because diffusion of CO2 in the gas phase is three orders of magnitude higher than in the aqueous phase. VFRs typically include aqueous electrolyte cells, sometimes referred to as gas diffusion electrode (GDE) cells, and polymer electrolyte cells, which are often referred to as membrane electrode assemblies or MEA cells. While much progress has been made to understand and advance CO2R in both classes of reactors, a large focus has been placed on changing and controlling the electrocatalyst in these systems.

[0006] Therefore, there is a need for an advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM- VFR) with higher selectivity for multi-carbon (C2+) products than existing CO2R systems and with a high single pass conversion of CO2 in neutral electrolytes.

SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE

[0007] Applicant has developed 3D-printing and advanced manufacturing techniques for use in a variety of applications, for example electrochemical reactor design. In one aspect, this disclosure describes an advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM- VFR) to convert, for example, CO2 from a variety of sources and concentrations to valuable hydrocarbon products, such as ethylene (C2H4), and alcohols, such as ethanol (C2H5OH) and propanol (C3H7OH). In neutral electrolytes, the AM-VFR reactor achieves higher selectivity for multi-carbon (C2+) products than existing CO2R systems, and a high single-pass conversion of CO.

[0008] In an embodiment, an advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM-VFR) system comprises, or consists essentially of, or consists of a cathode gas compartment, a catholyte compartment, and anolyte compartment and an anodes gas compartment. One or more of the cathode gas compartment, the catholyte compartment, the anolyte compartment and the anode gas compartment are made of a 3D printing plastic.

[0009] The cathode gas compartment has a first inlet, and a first outlet. In an embodiment, the first inlet of the cathode gas compartment and the fourth inlet of the anode gas compartment are feed inlets for one or more of one or more of CH4, CO2, CO, H ₂ , H2O and O2. [0010] The catholyte compartment has a centrally located window for a cathode and an optional membrane, a second inlet, a second outlet, and a reference electrode. In an embodiment, the cathode comprises an electrocatalyst and a support. In an embodiment, the electrocatalyst is one or more of Ag, Au, Cu, Fe, IrCb, IrCb/C, Ni, Pd, Pt, Pt/C, Sn, metal alloys and metal oxides. In an embodiment, the support is one or more of a fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP), a perfluoroalkoxy alkane (PF A), a polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), an ethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene (ECTFE) and a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). In an embodiment, the cathode comprises, consists essentially of or consists of Cu-polytetrafluoroethylene (Cu-PTFE).

[0011] In an embodiment, the cathode has a cathode geometric current density from about -10 mA/cm ² to about -500 mA/cm ² , and any range or value there between. In an embodiment, the cathode has a cathode geometric current density from about -35 mA/cm ² to about -500 mA/cm ² . In an embodiment, the cathode has a cathode geometric current density of from about -200 mA/cm ² to about -500 mA/cm ² .

[0012] The anolyte compartment has a centrally located window for the optional membrane and an anode, a third inlet and a third outlet.

[0013] The anode gas compartment has a fourth inlet and a fourth outlet.

[0014] In an embodiment, the cathode is disposed between the cathode gas compartment and the catholyte compartment.

[0015] In an embodiment, the membrane is disposed between the catholyte compartment and the anolyte compartment.

[0016] In an embodiment, the anode is disposed between the anolyte compartment and the anode gas compartment.

[0017] In an embodiment, one or more of the cathode gas compartment, the catholyte compartment, the anolyte compartment and the anode gas compartment have a thickness from about 0.1 cm to about 1.0 cm.

[0018] In an embodiment, the cathode, the membrane and the anode have a geometric surface area from about 1 cm ² to about 100 cm ² , and any range or value there between. [0019] In an embodiment, a method of using an advanced manufactured vapor- fed electrochemical reactor (AM- VFR) comprises fluidly connecting a feed to the AM- VFR reactor as described herein, wherein the AM- VFR reactor is fluidly connected to a feed and a buffer to produce a product.

[0020] In an embodiment, a cathode has a cathode geometric current density from about -10 mA/cm ² to about -500 mA/cm ² , and any range or value there between. In an embodiment, a cathode has a cathode geometric current density from about -35 mA/cm ² to about -500 mA/cm ² . In an embodiment, the cathode has a cathode geometric current density from about -200 mA/cm ² to about -500 mA/cm ² .

[0021] In an embodiment, the feed is one or more of CFh, CO2, CO, H2, H2O and O2. In an embodiment, the feed is CO2. In an embodiment, the feed comprises, or consists essentially of or yet further consisting of CO.

[0022] In an embodiment, the feed is one or more of CH4, CO2 and CO to the cathode gas compartment and H2 to the anode gas compartment. In an embodiment, the feed is CO2. In an embodiment, the feed comprises, or consists essentially of or yet further consisting of CO.

[0023] In an embodiment, the feed has a flow rate of < about 50 seem, and any range or value there between. In an embodiment, the feed has a flow rate of < about 15 seem. In an embodiment, the feed has a flow rate of < about 5 seem.

[0024] In an embodiment, the buffer is from about 0.1 M to about 1 M HCO3 in water, and any range or value there between.

[0025] In an embodiment, the buffer has a flow rate of < about 100 mL/min, and any range or value there between. In an embodiment, the buffer has a flow rate of about 10 mL/min. In an embodiment, the buffer has a flow rate of about 5 mL/min.

[0026] In an embodiment, the product is one or more of CFh, CH3OH, CO2, CO, C2H4, C2H4O, C2H4O2, C2H5OH, C3H7OH, HCOOH, H+, H2, H2O and O2. In an embodiment, the product is one or more of C2H4, C2H5OH and O2.

[0027] In an embodiment, a method of making an advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM- VFR) comprises printing one or more of a cathode gas compartment, a catholyte compartment, an anolyte compartment and an anode gas compartment of the AM- VFR reactor using a 3D printing technique, and assembling the AM- VFR reactor.

[0028] In an embodiment, the 3D printing technique is a stereolithography (SLA) 3D printing technique, an extrusion 3D printing technique or a selective laser sintering 3D printing technique. In an embodiment, the 3D printing technique is a stereolithography (SLA) 3d printing technique.

[0029] In an embodiment, a cathode is disposed between the cathode gas compartment and the catholyte compartment.

[0030] In an embodiment, an optional membrane is disposed between the catholyte compartment and the anolyte compartment.

[0031] In an embodiment, an anode is disposed between the anolyte compartment and the anode gas compartment.

[0032] In an embodiment, the method further comprises fluidly connecting a plurality of AM-VFR reactors in parallel to increase productivity.

[0033] In an embodiment, the method further comprises comprising fluidly connecting a plurality of AM-VFR reactors in series to improve conversion.

[0034] These and other objects, features and advantages will become apparent as reference is made to the following detailed description, preferred embodiments, and examples, given for the purpose of disclosure, and taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings and appended claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0035] For a further understanding of the nature and objects of the present disclosure, reference should be made to the following detailed disclosure, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like parts are given like reference numerals, and wherein: [0036] FIG. 1 A illustrates an exemplary process flow diagram for an advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM-VFR) according to an embodiment of the disclosure;

[0037] FIG. IB illustrates an exploded view of the AM-VFR reactor of FIG. 1A, showing a cathode gas compartment, a catholyte compartment, an anolyte compartment and an anode gas compartment;

[0038] FIG. 2 illustrates an exploded view of an AM-VFR reactor according to an embodiment of the disclosure, showing a cathode gas compartment, a catholyte compartment, an anolyte compartment and an anode gas compartment;

[0039] FIG. 3 illustrates a schematic of an exemplary computing device for the AM-VFR reactor according to an embodiment of the disclosure;

[0040] FIG. 4A illustrates a table of exemplary chemical reactions for the AM- VFR reactor according to an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0041] FIG. 4B illustrates a table of exemplary possible reactions for the AM- VFR reactor according to an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0042] FIG. 4C illustrates a table of exemplary possible reactions for the AM- VFR reactor according to an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0043] FIG. 5 illustrates an exemplary flow diagram for the AM-VFR reactor according to an embodiment of the disclosure;

[0044] FIG. 6 illustrates a photograph of a prototype AM-VFR reactor according to an embodiment of the disclosure;

[0045] FIG. 7 illustrates a table of metrics for the prototype AM-VFR reactor according, showing > about 50% energy efficiency;

[0046] FIG. 8A illustrates a graph of Geometric Current Density (mA/cm ² ) vs. Faradaic Efficiency (%) and Geometric Current Density (mA/cm ² ) vs. CO2 Conversion (%) for the prototype AM-VFR reactor; [0047] FIG. 8B illustrates a graph of Number of Carbons in Product (# C) vs. Faradaic Efficiency (%) for the prototype AM- VFR reactor;

[0048] FIG. 8C illustrates a graph of “Working Electrode Potential (EWE) VS Reversible Hydrogen Electrode (RHE) (V)” vs Partial Current Density of Products (mA/cm ² ) for the prototype AM- VFR reactor;

[0049] FIG. 8D illustrates a graph of “Working Electrode Potential (EWE) VS Reversible Hydrogen Electrode (RHE) (V)” vs “Partial Current Density of Products (mA/cm ² ) for the prototype AM- VFR reactor;

[0050] FIG. 9 illustrates a graph of Injection Time (minutes) vs. Faraday Efficiency (%) for the prototype AM- VFR reactor;

[0051] FIG. 10 illustrates a cross-sectional view of a membrane in the prototype AM-VFR reactor, showing mass transfer limitations;

[0052] FIG. 11 A illustrates a graph of CO2 Flow Rate (seem) vs. %EtOH yield (mol EtOH/mol CO2), showing higher yields with AM-VFR reactor at low CO2 flow rates;

[0053] FIG. 1 IB illustrates a graph of EtOH Partial Current Density (mA/cm ² ) vs. %EtOH yield (mol EtOH/mol CO2);

[0054] FIG. 12A illustrates a graph of CO2 Flow Rate (seem) vs. %Ethylene yield (mol Eth/mol CO2), showing higher yields with AM-VFR reactor at low CO2 flow rates;

[0055] FIG. 12B illustrates a graph of Eth Partial Current Density (mA/cm2) vs. Eth yield (mol Eth/mol CO2);

[0056] FIG. 13 A illustrates a right, front perspective view of an exemplary projection stereolithography system;

[0057] FIG. 13B illustrates a right, front perspective view of an exemplary extrusion printing system; [0058] FIG. 13C illustrates a right, front perspective view of an exemplary selective laser sintering system;

[0059] FIG. 14 illustrates a flow chart of a method of making an advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM-VFR) according to an embodiment of the disclosure;

[0060] FIG. 15 illustrates a flow chart of a method of using an advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM-VFR) according to an embodiment of the disclosure;

[0061] FIG. 16 illustrates a schematic of species transport in an advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM-VFR);

[0062] FIG. 17 illustrates a graph of Gas Injection Number vs Faradaic Efficiency (%), showing about 45% selectivity towards ethylene and about 88% selectivity towards CCb-reduced products using an advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM-VFR) in 0.1 M KCHCh;

[0063] FIG. 18 illustrates a schematic of species transport in an advanced vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM-VFR), showing a hydrogen oxidation reaction at an anode and a CO2 reduction reaction at a cathode;

[0064] FIG. 19 illustrates a graph of time/h vs. Working Electrode Potential (Ewe)/V - Cathode Electrode Potential (Ece)/V using an advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM-VFR), showing a total cell voltage of IV at - lOmA/cm ² for a hydrogen oxidation reaction at an anode and a CO2 reduction reaction at a cathode;

[0065] FIG. 20 illustrates a graph of time/h vs. Working Electrode Potential (Ewe)/V - Cathode Electrode Potential (Ece)/V using an advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM-VFR), showing a total cell voltage of 0.8V at - 10 mA/cm ² for a hydrogen oxidation reaction at an anode and a CO2 reduction reaction at a cathode. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0066] The following detailed description of various embodiments of the present disclosure references the accompanying drawings, which illustrate specific embodiments in which the invention can be practiced. While the illustrative embodiments of the disclosure have been described with particularity, it will be understood that various other modifications will be apparent to and can be readily made by those skilled in the art without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. Accordingly, it is not intended that the scope of the claims appended hereto be limited to the examples and descriptions set forth herein but rather that the claims be construed as encompassing all the features of patentable novelty which reside in the present disclosure, including all features which would be treated as equivalents thereof by those skilled in the art to which the disclosure pertains. Therefore, the scope of the present disclosure is defined only by the appended claims, along with the full scope of equivalents to which such claims are entitled.

Advanced Manufactured Vapor-Fed Electrochemical Reactor (AM- VFR)

[0067] FIG. 1 A illustrates an exemplary process flow diagram for an advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM-VFR) 100 according to an embodiment of the disclosure; and FIG. IB illustrates an exploded view of the AM- VFR reactor 100 of FIG. 1A, showing a cathode gas compartment 130, a catholyte compartment 138, an anolyte compartment 146, and an anode gas compartment 154.

[0068] FIG. 2 illustrates an exploded view of the AM-VFR reactor according to an embodiment of the disclosure, showing a cathode gas compartment, a catholyte compartment, an anolyte compartment and an anode gas compartment.

Cathode Gas Chamber

[0069] As shown in FIGS. 1A-1B and 2, a catholyte chamber 102, 202 comprises a cathode gas compartment 130, 230, a cathode 134, 234 and a catholyte compartment 138, 238. The cathode 134, 234 may be disposed between the cathode gas compartment 130, 230 and the catholyte compartment 138, 238. [0070] In an embodiment, a first gasket 232 may be disposed between the cathode gas compartment 130, 230 and the cathode 134, 234.

[0071] In an embodiment, a second gasket 236 may be disposed between the cathode 134, 234 and the catholyte compartment 138, 238.

[0072] In an embodiment, the cathode gas compartment 130, 230 comprises a first inlet 104, 204 to the catholyte chamber 102, 202 and a first outlet 106, 206 from the catholyte chamber 102, 202.

[0073] In an embodiment, the cathode gas compartment 130, 230 comprises a centrally located window (opening) for the cathode 134, 234. In an embodiment, the centrally located window (opening) for the cathode 134, 234 has a geometric surface area for the cathode 134, 234.

[0074] The centrally located window (opening) for the cathode 134, 234 of the cathode gas compartment 130, 230 may be any suitable size (e.g., geometric surface area, thickness).

[0075] For example, a suitable geometric surface area for the window (opening) of the cathode gas compartment 134, 234 includes, but is not limited to, from about 1 cm ² to about 100 cm ² , and any range or value there between.

[0076] In an embodiment, the geometric surface area is about 100 cm ² .

[0077] In an embodiment, the geometric surface area is about 1.5 cm ² .

[0078] For example, a suitable thickness for the window (opening) for the cathode gas compartment 134, 234 includes, but is not limited to, from about 0.1 cm to about 1.5 cm, and any range or value there between.

[0079] In an embodiment, the thickness is about 1.5 cm.

[0080] In an embodiment, the thickness is about 0.7 cm.

[0081] In an embodiment, the thickness is about 0.3 cm. [0082] For example, a suitable geometric surface area for the cathode 134, 234 includes, but is not limited to, from about a 1 cm ² to about 100 cm ² , and any range or value there between.

[0083] In an embodiment, the geometric surface area for the cathode 134, 234 is about 1 cm ² .

[0084] In an embodiment, the cathode 134, 234 comprises an electrocatalyst and a support.

[0085] The centrally located window (opening) for the cathode 134, 234 of the cathode gas compartment 130, 230 may be any suitable shape. For example, a suitable shape includes, but is not limited to, a cylinder, a rectangular prism (e.g., cube, cuboid), and combinations and/or portions thereof.

[0086] In an embodiment, the shape is a cylinder.

[0087] In an embodiment, the shape is a rectangular prism (e.g., cube, cuboid)

[0088] The electrocatalyst may be any suitable electrocatalyst. For example, a suitable electrocatalyst includes, but is not limited to Ag, Au, Cu, Fe, IrCb, IrCb/C, Ni, Pd, Pt, Pt/C, Sn, metal alloys, metal oxides, and combinations thereof.

[0089] In an embodiment, the catalyst is IrCb on activated carbon (IrCb/C).

[0090] In an embodiment, the catalyst is Pt on activated carbon (Pt/C).

[0091] The support may any suitable electrocatalyst support. For example, a suitable support includes, but is not limited to, a fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP), a perfluoroalkoxy alkane (PF A), a polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), an ethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene (ECTFE), a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and combinations thereof.

[0092] In an embodiment, the cathode 134, 234 may be a Cu-PTFE.

[0093] In an embodiment, a cathode geometric current density may be from about -10 mA/cm ² to about -500 mA/cm ² , and any range or value there between. In an embodiment, a cathode geometric current density may be from about -35 mA/cm ² to about -500 mA/cm ² . In an embodiment, the cathode current density may be from about -200 mA/cm ² to about -500 mA/cm ² .

[0094] In an embodiment, the catholyte compartment 138, 238 comprises a centrally located window (opening) for the cathode 134, 234. In an embodiment, the centrally located window (opening) for the cathode 134, 234 has a geometric surface area for the cathode 134, 234.

[0095] The centrally located window (opening) for the cathode 134, 234 of the catholyte compartment 138, 238 may be any suitable size (e.g., geometric surface area). For example, a suitable geometric surface area for the cathode 134, 234 includes, but is not limited to, from about a 1 cm ² to about 100 cm ² , and any range or value there between.

[0096] In an embodiment, the geometric surface area for the cathode 134, 234 is about 1 cm ² .

[0097] The centrally located window (opening) for the cathode 134, 234 of the catholyte compartment 138, 238 may be any suitable shape. For example, a suitable shape includes, but is not limited to, a cylinder, a rectangular prism (e.g., cube, cuboid), and combinations and/or portions thereof.

[0098] In an embodiment, the shape is a cylinder.

[0099] In an embodiment, the shape is a rectangular prism (e.g., cube, cuboid)

[0100] In an embodiment, the catholyte compartment 138, 238 comprises a second inlet 108, 208 to the catholyte chamber 102, 202 and a second outlet 110, 210 from the catholyte chamber 102, 202.

[0101] In an embodiment, the catholyte compartment 138, 238 comprises a reference electrode 112, 212.

[0102] The reference electrode 112, 212 may be any suitable reference electrode. For example, a suitable reference electrode 112, 212 includes, but is not limited to, a saturated calomel reference electrode (SCE), a silver/silver chloride reference electrode (Ag/AgCl), mercury/mercurous sulfate reference electrode (Hg/Hg2SO4), mercury/mercury oxide reference electrode (Hg/HgO), a reversible hydrogen electrode reference electrode (RHE), and silver/silver nitrate non-aqueous reference electrode (Ag/Ag+).

[0103] In an embodiment, the reference electrode 112, 212 may be a silver/silver chloride reference electrode (Ag/AgCl). In an embodiment, the reference anode 112, 212 may be a reversible hydrogen electrode reference electrode (RHE).

Vapor-Fed Reactor

[0104] A vapor-fed reactor 114, 214 comprises a catholyte compartment 138, 238, an optional membrane 142, 242 and an anolyte compartment 146, 246. The membrane 142, 242 may be disposed between the catholyte compartment 138, 238 and the anolyte compartment 146, 246.

[0105] In an embodiment, a third gasket 240 may be disposed between the catholyte compartment 138, 238 and the membrane 142, 242.

[0106] In an embodiment, a fourth gasket 244 may be disposed between the membrane 142, 242 and the anolyte compartment 146, 246.

[0107] In an embodiment, the catholyte compartment 138, 238 comprises a second inlet 108, 208, to the catholyte chamber 102, 202 and a second outlet 110, 210 from the catholyte chamber 102, 202.

[0108] In an embodiment, the catholyte compartment 138, 238 comprises a reference electrode 112, 212.

[0109] The reference electrode 112, 212 may be any suitable reference electrode. For example, a suitable reference electrode 112, 212 includes, but is not limited to, a saturated calomel reference electrode (SCE), a silver/silver chloride reference electrode (Ag/AgCl), mercury/mercurous sulfate reference electrode (Hg/Hg2SO4), mercury/mercury oxide reference electrode (Hg/HgO) and silver/silver nitrate non-aqueous reference electrode (Ag/Ag+).

[0110] In an embodiment, the catholyte compartment 138, 238 comprises a centrally located window (opening) for the membrane 142, 242. In an embodiment, the centrally located window (opening) for the membrane 142, 242 has a geometric surface area for the membrane 142, 242.

[OHl] The centrally located window (opening) for the membrane 142, 242 of the catholyte compartment 138, 238 may be any suitable size (e.g., geometric surface area, thickness).

[0112] For example, a suitable geometric surface area for the window (opening) of the catholyte compartment 138, 238 includes, but is not limited to, from about 1 cm ² to about 100 cm ² , and any range or value there between.

[0113] In an embodiment, the geometric surface area is about 100 cm ² .

[0114] In an embodiment, the geometric surface area is about 1.5 cm ² .

[0115] For example, a suitable thickness for the window (opening) for the catholyte compartment 138, 238 includes, but is not limited to, from about 0.1 cm to about 1.5 cm, and any range or value there between.

[0116] In an embodiment, the thickness is about 1.5 cm.

[0117] In an embodiment, the thickness is about 0.7 cm.

[0118] In an embodiment, the thickness is about 0.3 cm.

[0119] For example, a suitable geometric surface area for the membrane 142, 242 includes, but is not limited to, from about 1 cm ² to about 100 cm ² surface area, and any range or value there between.

[0120] In an embodiment, the geometric surface area for the membrane 142, 242 is about 1 cm ² .

[0121] The centrally located window (opening) for the membrane 142, 242 of the catholyte compartment 138, 238 may be any suitable shape. For example, a suitable shape includes, but is not limited to, a cylinder, a rectangular prism (e.g., cube, cuboid), and combinations and/or portions thereof.

[0122] In an embodiment, the shape is a cylinder. [0123] In an embodiment, the shape is a rectangular prism (e.g., cube, cuboid).

[0124] The membrane 142, 242 may be any suitable ion-exchange membrane. For example, a suitable membrane 142, 242 includes, but is not limited to, any anion exchange membrane, any cation exchange membrane, any bipolar exchange membrane, and combinations thereof.

[0125] In an embodiment, the membrane 142, 242 is a commercially available anion exchange membrane (e.g., Sustanion®).

[0126] In an embodiment, the anolyte compartment 146, 246 comprises a first inlet 116, 216 (in through membrane 142, 242) to the vapor-fed reactor 114, 214 and a first outlet 118, 218 (out through membrane 142, 242) from the vapor-fed reactor 114, 214.

[0127] In an embodiment, the anolyte compartment 146, 246 comprises a second inlet 120, 220 to the anolyte chamber 124, 224 and a second outlet 122, 222 from the anolyte chamber 124, 224.

[0128] In an embodiment, the anolyte compartment 146, 246 comprises a centrally located window (opening) for the membrane 142, 242. In an embodiment, the centrally located window (opening) for the membrane 142, 242 has a geometric surface area for the membrane 142, 242.

[0129] The centrally located window (opening) for the membrane 142, 242 of the anolyte compartment 146, 246 may be any suitable size (e.g., geometric surface area, thickness).

[0130] For example, a suitable geometric surface area for the window (opening) of the anolyte compartment 146, 246 includes, but is not limited to, from about 1 cm ² to about 100 cm ² , and any range or value there between.

[0131] In an embodiment, the geometric surface area is about 100 cm ² .

[0132] In an embodiment, the geometric surface area is about 1.5 cm ² . [0133] For example, a suitable thickness for the window (opening) for the anolyte compartment 146, 246 includes, but is not limited to, from about 0.1 mm to about 1.5 cm, and any range or value there between.

[0134] In an embodiment, the thickness is about 1.5 cm.

[0135] In an embodiment, the thickness is about 0.7 cm.

[0136] In an embodiment, the thickness is about 0.3 cm.

[0137] For example, a suitable geometric surface area for the membrane 142,

242 includes, but is not limited to, from aboutl cm ² to about 100 cm ² , and any range or value there between.

[0138] In an embodiment, the geometric surface area for the membrane 142, 242 is about 1 cm ² .

[0139] The centrally located window (opening) for the membrane 142, 242 of the anolyte compartment 146, 246 may be any suitable shape. For example, a suitable shape includes, but is not limited to, a cylinder, a rectangular prism (e.g., cube, cuboid), and combinations and/or portions thereof.

[0140] In an embodiment, the shape is a cylinder.

[0141] In an embodiment, the shape is a rectangular prism (e.g., cube, cuboid)

Anolyte Chamber

[0142] An anolyte chamber 124, 224 comprises an anolyte compartment 146, 246, an anode 150, 250 and an anode gas compartment 154, 254. The anode 150, 250 may be disposed between the anolyte compartment 146, 246 and the anode gas compartment 154, 254.

[0143] In an embodiment, a fifth gasket 248 may be disposed between the anolyte compartment 146, 246 and the anode 150, 250.

[0144] In an embodiment, a sixth gasket 252 may be disposed between the anode 150, 250 and the anode gas compartment 154, 254. [0145] In an embodiment, the anolyte compartment 146, 246 comprises a second inlet 120, 220 to the anolyte chamber 124, 214 and a second outlet 122, 222 from the anolyte chamber 124, 224.

[0146] In an embodiment, the anolyte compartment 146, 246 comprises a centrally located window (opening) for the anode 150, 250. In an embodiment, the centrally located window (opening) for the anode 150, 250 has a geometric surface area for the anode 150, 250.

[0147] The centrally located window (opening) for the anode 150, 250 of the anolyte compartment 146, 246 may be any suitable size (e.g., geometric surface area, thickness).

[0148] For example, a suitable geometric surface area for the window (opening) of the anolyte compartment 146, 246 includes, but is not limited to, from about 1 cm ² to about 100 cm ² , and any range or value there between.

[0149] In an embodiment, the geometric surface area is about 100 cm ² .

[0150] In an embodiment, the geometric surface area is about 1.5 cm ² .

[0151] For example, a suitable thickness for the window (opening) for the anolyte compartment 146, 246 includes, but is not limited to, from about 0.1 cm to about 1.5 cm, and any range or value there between.

[0152] In an embodiment, the thickness is about 1.5 cm.

[0153] In an embodiment, the thickness is about 0.7 cm.

[0154] In an embodiment, the thickness is about 0.3 cm.

[0155] For example, a suitable geometric surface area for the anode 150, 250 includes, but is not limited to, from about 1 cm ² to about 100 cm ² , and any range or value there between.

[0156] In an embodiment, the geometric surface area for the anode 150, 250 is about 1 cm ² . [0157] The centrally located window (opening) for the anode 150, 250 of the anolyte compartment 146, 246 may be any suitable shape. For example, a suitable shape includes, but is not limited to, a cylinder, a rectangular prism (e.g., cube, cuboid), and combinations and/or portions thereof.

[0158] In an embodiment, the shape is a cylinder.

[0159] In an embodiment, the shape is a rectangular prism (e.g., cube, cuboid)

[0160] The anode 150, 250 may be any suitable anode. For example, a suitable anode 150, 250 includes, but is not limited to, an IrO-carbon, Ni foam, Pt-carbon, and combinations thereof.

[0161] In an embodiment, the anode 150, 250 is a commercially available IrO- carbon anode.

[0162] In an embodiment, the anode gas compartment 154, 254 comprises a first inlet 126, 226 to the anolyte chamber 124, 224 and a first outlet 128, 228 from the anolyte chamber 124, 224.

[0163] In an embodiment, the anode gas compartment 154, 254 comprises a centrally located window (opening) for the anode 150, 250. In an embodiment, the centrally located window (opening) for the anode 150, 250 has a geometric surface area for the anode 150, 250.

[0164] The centrally located window (opening) for the anode 150, 250 of the anode gas compartment 154, 254 may be any suitable size (e.g., geometric surface area). For example, a suitable geometric surface area for the anode 150, 250 includes, but is not limited to, from about 1 cm ² to about 100 cm ² , and any range or value there between.

[0165] In an embodiment, the geometric surface area for the anode 150, 250 is about 1 cm ² .

[0166] The centrally located window (opening) for the anode 150, 250 of the anode gas compartment 154, 254 may be any suitable shape. For example, a suitable shape includes, but is not limited to, a cylinder, a rectangular prism (e.g., cube, cuboid), and combinations and/or portions thereof.

[0167] In an embodiment, the shape is a cylinder.

[0168] In an embodiment, the shape is a rectangular prism (e.g., cube, cuboid)

[0169] In an embodiment, the cathode gas compartment 130, 230, the catholyte compartment 138, 238, the anolyte compartment 146, 246 and the anode gas compartment 154, 254 may any suitable shape. For example, a suitable shape includes, but is not limited to, a cylinder, a rectangular prism (e.g., cube, cuboid), and combinations and/or portions thereof.

[0170] In an embodiment, the shape is a cylinder.

[0171] In an embodiment, the shape is a rectangular prism (e.g., cube, cuboid).

[0172] In an embodiment, the cathode gas compartment 130, 230, the catholyte compartment 138, 238, the anolyte compartment 146, 246 and the anode gas compartment 154, 254 may any suitable size. For example, a suitable size includes, but is not limited to, from about 4 cm ² to about 120 cm ² , and any range or value there between.

[0173] In an embodiment, the shape is a cylinder and the size is from about 0.6 cm in diameter to about 40 cm in diameter.

[0174] In an embodiment, the shape is a rectangular prism and the size is from about 2 cm long X about 2 cm wide to about 10.1 cm long X about 10.1 cm wide.

[0175] In an embodiment, the shape is rectangular prism and the size may be about 6 cm X 6 cm.

[0176] In an embodiment, the cathode gas compartment 130, 230, the catholyte compartment 138, 238, the anolyte compartment 146, 246 and the anode gas compartment 154, 254 may any suitable thickness. For example, a suitable thickness includes, but is not limited to, from about 0.1 cm to about 10 cm, and any range or value there between. [0177] In an embodiment, the thickness may be about 1.5 cm.

[0178] In an embodiment, the thickness may be about 0.7 cm.

[0179] In an embodiment, the thickness may be about 0.3 cm.

[0180] In an embodiment, a plurality of the AM- VFR reactors may be fluidly connected to form a stack. In an embodiment, the plurality of AM- VFR reactors may be fluidly connected in parallel to increase productivity. In an embodiment, the plurality of AM- VFR reactors may be fluidly connected in series to increase conversion.

[0181] In an embodiment, the first gasket 232, the second gasket 236, the third gasket 240, the fourth gasket 244, the fifth gasket 248 and the sixth gasket 252 may be made of any suitable plastic or polymer capable of sealing the AM- VFR. For example, a suitable plastic or polymer includes, but is not limited to, an ethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene (ECTFE), a fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP), a nylon, a perfluoroalkoxy alkane (PFA), a polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), a polysiloxane, a silicone, and combinations thereof.

[0182] In an embodiment, the first gasket 232, the second gasket 236, the third gasket 240, the fourth gasket 244, the fifth gasket 248 and the sixth gasket 252 may be made of polysiloxane.

[0183] In an embodiment, the first gasket 232, the second gasket 236, the third gasket 240, the fourth gasket 244, the fifth gasket 248 and the sixth gasket 252 may be made of silicone.

[0184] In an embodiment, the cathode gas compartment 130, 230, the catholyte compartment 138, 238, the anolyte compartment 146, 246 and the anode gas compartment 154, 254 may be made of any suitable plastic capable of withstanding chemical reaction conditions. For example, a suitable plastic includes, but is not limited to acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), carbon fiber, nylon, polyacrylate, polycarbonate, polyethylene (PE, HDPE), polyethylene terephthalate (PETG), polypropylene (PP, HDPP), and combinations thereof. [0185] In an embodiment, the plastic may be any 3D printing plastic. In an embodiment, the plastic may be any 3D printing plastic compatible with a stereolithography (SLA) 3D printing technique, an extrusion 3D printing technique, and/or a selective laser sintering 3D printing technique.

[0186] In an embodiment, the plastic may be a polyacrylate-based commercial resin.

Exemplary Computing Device for AM- VFR Reactor

[0187] FIG. 3 illustrates a schematic of an exemplary computing device for the AM- VFR reactor according to an embodiment of the disclosure. Referring to the drawings in general, and initially to FIGS. 1A-1B and 2-3 in particular, an exemplary operating environment for implementing embodiments of the present disclosure is shown and designated generally as a computing device 300 for the AM- VFR reactor. The computing device 300 is but one example of a suitable computing environment and is not intended to suggest any limitation as to the scope of use or functionality of the invention. Neither should the computing device 300 be interpreted as having any dependency or requirement relating to any one or combination of components illustrated.

[0188] Embodiments of the disclosure may be described in the general context of computer code or machine-executable instructions stored as program modules or objects and executable by one or more computing devices, such as a laptop, server, mobile device, tablet, etc. Generally, program modules including routines, programs, objects, components, data structures, etc., refer to code that perform particular tasks or implement particular abstract data types. Embodiments of the disclosure may be practiced in a variety of system configurations, including handheld devices, consumer electronics, general-purpose computers, more specialty computing devices, and the like. Embodiments of the disclosure may also be practiced in distributed computing environments where tasks may be performed by remote-processing devices that may be linked through a communications network.

[0189] With continued reference to FIG. 3, the computing device 300 of the AM-VFR reactor includes a bus 310 that directly or indirectly couples the following devices: memory 312, one or more processors 314, one or more presentation components 316, one or more input/output (I/O) ports 318, I/O components 320, a user interface 322 and an illustrative power supply 324. The bus 310 represents what may be one or more busses (such as an address bus, data bus, or combination thereof). Although the various blocks of FIG. 3 are shown with lines for the sake of clarity, in reality, delineating various components is not so clear, and metaphorically, the lines would more accurately be fuzzy. For example, one may consider a presentation component such as a display device to be an VO component. Additionally, many processors have memory. The inventors recognize that such is the nature of the art, and reiterate that the diagram of FIG. 3 is merely illustrative of an exemplary computing device that can be used in connection with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. Further, a distinction is not made between such categories as “workstation,” “server,” “laptop,” “mobile device,” etc., as all are contemplated within the scope of FIG. 3 and reference to “computing device.”

[0190] The computing device 300 of the AM- VFR reactor typically includes a variety of computer-readable media. Computer-readable media can be any available media that can be accessed by the computing device 300 and includes both volatile and nonvolatile media, removable and non-removable media. By way of example, and not limitation, computer-readable media may comprise computer-storage media and communication media. The computer-storage media includes volatile and nonvolatile, removable and non-removable media implemented in any method or technology for storage of information such as computer-readable instructions, data structures, program modules or other data. Computer-storage media includes, but is not limited to, Random Access Memory (RAM), Read Only Memory (ROM), Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM), flash memory or other memory technology, CD-ROM, digital versatile disks (DVD) or other holographic memory, magnetic cassettes, magnetic tape, magnetic disk storage or other magnetic storage devices, or any other medium that can be used to encode desired information and which can be accessed by the computing device 300.

[0191] The memory 312 includes computer-storage media in the form of volatile and/or nonvolatile memory. The memory 312 may be removable, nonremovable, or a combination thereof. Suitable hardware devices include solid-state memory, hard drives, optical-disc drives, etc. The computing device 300 of the AM- VFR reactor includes one or more processors 314 that read data from various entities such as the memory 312 or the I/O components 320.

[0192] The presentation component(s) 316 present data indications to a user or other device. In an embodiment, the computing device 300 outputs present data indications including, but not limited to, cathodic geometric current density to a presentation component 316. Suitable presentation components 316 include a display device, speaker, printing component, vibrating component, and the like.

[0193] The user interface 322 allows the user to input/output information to/from the computing device 300. Suitable user interfaces 322 include keyboards, key pads, touch pads, graphical touch screens, and the like. For example, the user may input a type of signal profile into the computing device 300 or output, for example, a geometric current density to the presentation component 316 such as a display. In some embodiments, the user interface 322 may be combined with the presentation component 316, such as a display and a graphical touch screen. In some embodiments, the user interface 322 may be a portable hand-held device. The use of such devices is well- known in the art.

[0194] The one or more I/O ports 318 allow the computing device 300 to be logically coupled to other devices and other I/O components 320, some of which may be built in. Examples of other I/O components 320 include a printer, scanner, wireless device, and the like.

Exemplary Chemical Reactions for AM- VFR Reactor

[0195] FIG. 4A illustrates a table of exemplary chemical reactions for the AM- VFR reactor according to an embodiment of the disclosure; FIG. 4B illustrates a table of exemplary possible reactions for the AM- VFR reactor according to an embodiment of the present disclosure; and FIG. 4C illustrates a table of exemplary possible reactions for the AM- VFR reactor according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0196] Any suitable chemical reaction may be used with the AM- VFR reactor. For example, a suitable chemical reaction includes but is not limited to, a CO2 reduction reactions, a CO reduction reaction, a hydrogen oxidation reaction, a hydrolysis reaction, a methane oxidation reaction, an oxygen reduction reaction, and combinations and/or variations thereof.

Exemplary Flow Diagram

[0197] FIG. 5 illustrates an exemplary flow diagram for the AM- VFR reactor according to an embodiment of the disclosure.

Cathode Gas Chamber

[0198] As shown in FIG. 5, a catholyte chamber 102, 202 comprises a cathode gas compartment 530, a cathode 534 and a catholyte compartment 538. See e.g., FIGS. 1A-1B & 2. The cathode 534 may be disposed between the cathode gas compartment 530 and the catholyte compartment 538.

[0199] In an embodiment, the cathode gas compartment 530 comprises a first inlet 504 to the catholyte chamber 102, 202 and a first outlet 506 from the catholyte chamber 102, 202. See e.g., FIGS. 1A-1B & 2.

[0200] In an embodiment, a feed is fluidly connected to the first inlet 504 to the cathodic chamber 102, 202. See e.g., FIGS. 4A-4B.

[0201] The feed may be any suitable feed compatible with the chemical reaction and the AM- VFR reactor. For example, a suitable feed includes, but is not limited to, CEE, CO2, CO, H2, H2O, O2, and combinations thereof.

[0202] In an embodiment, the feed is CEE. In an embodiment, the feed is CO2. In an embodiment, the feed is CO. In an embodiment, the feed is EE. In an embodiment, the feed is O2.

[0203] The feed may have any suitable flow rate. For example, a suitable flow rate includes, but is not limited to, from about 0 seem to about 50 seem, and range or value there between.

[0204] In an embodiment, the flow rate may be < about 10 seem.

[0205] In an embodiment, a cathode geometric current density may be from about -10 mA/cm ² to about -500 mA/cm ² , and any range or value there between. In an embodiment, a cathode geometric current density may be from about -35 mA/cm ² to about -500 mA/cm ² . In an embodiment, the cathode current density may be from about -200 mA/cm ² to about -500 mA/cm ² .

[0206] In an embodiment, the catholyte compartment 538 comprises a second inlet 508 to the catholyte chamber 102, 202 and a second outlet 510 from the catholyte chamber 102, 202. See e.g., FIGS. 1A-1B & 2.

[0207] In an embodiment, a buffer may be fluidly connected to the second inlet 508 to the cathodic chamber 102, 202. See e.g., FIGS. 1A-1B & 2.

[0208] The buffer may be any suitable buffer compatible with the chemical reaction and the AM- VFR reactor. For example, a suitable buffer includes, but is not limited to, any KHCCh buffer.

[0209] In an embodiment, the buffer is from about 0.1 M KHCCh to about 1 M KHCCh in water, and any range or value there between. In an embodiment, the buffer is about 1 M KHCCh in water. In an embodiment, the buffer is about 0.1 M KHCCh in water.

[0210] The buffer may have any suitable flow rate. For example, a suitable flow rate includes, but is not limited to, from about 0 mL/min to about 100 mL/min, and range or value there between.

[0211] In an embodiment, the flow rate may be about 10 mL/min. In an embodiment, the flow rate may be about 5 mL/min.

[0212] In an embodiment, the catholyte compartment 538 comprises a reference electrode 512.

Vapor-Fed Reactor

[0213] A vapor-fed reactor 114, 214 comprises a catholyte compartment 538, an optional membrane 142, 242 and an anolyte compartment 546. See e.g., FIGS. 1 A- 1B & 2. The membrane 142, 242 may be disposed between the catholyte compartment 538 and the anolyte compartment 546. [0214] In an embodiment, the catholyte compartment 538 comprises a second inlet 508, to the catholyte chamber 102, 202 and a second outlet 510 from the catholyte chamber 102, 202. See e.g., FIGS. 1A-1B & 2.

[0215] In an embodiment, the catholyte compartment 538 comprises a reference electrode 512.

[0216] In an embodiment, the anolyte compartment 546 comprises a first inlet 116, 216 (in through membrane 142, 242) to the vapor-fed reactor 114, 214 and a first outlet 118,218 (out through membrane 142, 242) from the vapor-fed reactor 114, 214. See e g., FIGS. 1A-1B & 2.

[0217] In an embodiment, the anolyte compartment 546 comprises a second inlet 520 to the anolyte chamber 124, 224 and a second outlet 522 from the anolyte chamber 124, 224. See e.g., FIGS. 1A-1B & 2.

[0218] In an embodiment, a buffer may be fluidly connected to the second inlet 520 to the anolyte chamber 124, 224. See e.g., FIGS. 1 A-1B & 2.

[0219] The buffer may be any suitable buffer compatible with the chemical reaction and the AM- VFR reactor. For example, a suitable buffer includes, but is not limited to, any KHCCh buffer.

[0220] In an embodiment, the buffer is from about 0.1 M KHCCh to about 1 M KHCCh in water, and any range or value there between. In an embodiment, the buffer is about 1 M KHCCh in water. In an embodiment, the buffer is about 0.1 M KHCCh in water.

[0221] The buffer may have any suitable flow rate. For example, a suitable flow rate includes, but is not limited to, from about 0 mL/min to about 100 mL/min, and range or value there between.

[0222] In an embodiment, the flow rate may be about 10 mL/min. In an embodiment, the flow rate may be about 5 mL/min.

Anolyte Chamber [0223] An anolyte chamber 124, 224 comprises an anolyte compartment 546, an anode 150, 250 and an anode gas compartment 554. See e.g., FIGS. 1A-1B & 2. The anode 150, 250 may be disposed between the anolyte compartment 546 and the anode gas compartment 554.

[0224] In an embodiment, the anolyte compartment 546 comprises a second inlet 520 to the anolyte chamber 124, 224 and a second outlet 522 from the anolyte chamber 124, 224. See e.g., FIGS. 1A-1B & 2.

[0225] In an embodiment, a buffer may be fluidly connected to the second inlet 520 to the anolyte chamber 124, 224. See e.g., FIGS. 1 A-1B & 2.

[0226] The buffer may be any suitable buffer compatible with the chemical reaction and the AM- VFR reactor. For example, a suitable buffer includes, but is not limited to, any KHCCh buffer.

[0227] In an embodiment, the buffer is from about 0.1 M KHCCh to about 1 M KHCCh in water, and any range or value there between. In an embodiment, the buffer is about 1 M KHCCh in water. In an embodiment, the buffer is about 0.1 M KHCCh in water.

[0228] In an embodiment, the anode gas compartment 554 comprises a first inlet 526 to the anolyte chamber 124, 224 and a first outlet 528 from the anolyte chamber 124, 224. See e.g., FIGS. 1A-1B & 2.

[0229] In an embodiment, a feed may be fluidly connected to the first inlet 526 of the anolyte chamber 124, 224. See e.g., FIGS. 1A-1B & 2.

[0230] The feed may be any suitable feed compatible with the chemical reaction and the AM- VFR reactor. For example, a suitable feed includes, but is not limited to, CH ₄ , CCh, CO, H ₂ , H ₂ O and O2.

[0231] In an embodiment, the feed is CH ₄ . In an embodiment, the feed is CO2. In an embodiment, the feed is CO. In an embodiment, the feed is H2. In an embodiment, the feed is O2. [0232] The feed may have any suitable flow rate. For example, a suitable flow rate includes, but is not limited to, from about 0 seem to about 50 seem, and range or value there between.

[0233] In an embodiment, the flow rate may be < about 10 seem.

Prototype AM- VFR Reactor Testing

[0234] FIG. 6 illustrates a photograph of a prototype AM- VFR reactor 600 according to an embodiment of the disclosure.

[0235] As shown in FIG. 6, the prototype AM- VFR reactor 600 comprises a cathode gas compartment 130, 230, a catholyte compartment 138, 238, an anolyte compartment 146, 246, and an anode gas compartment 154, 254. See e.g., FIGS. 1A- 1B & 2.

[0236] The cathode gas compartment 130, 230, the catholyte compartment 138, 238, the anolyte compartment 146, 246, and the anode gas compartment 154, 254 were made of a polyacrylate-based commercial resin.

[0237] The cathode gas compartment 130, 230, the catholyte compartment 138, 238, the anolyte compartment 146, 246, and the anode gas compartment 154, 254 were printed of using a stereolithography (SLA) 3D printing technique with a polyacrylate- based commercial resin. See e.g., FIG. 13A.

[0238] The cathode gas compartment 130, 230 had a centrally located window for the cathode 134, 234 with a geometric surface area of about 1 cm ² .

[0239] The catholyte compartment 138, 238 had a centrally located window for the cathode 134, 234 with a geometric surface area of about 1 cm ² .

[0240] The catholyte compartment 138, 238 had a centrally located window for the membrane 142, 242 with a geometric surface area of about 1 cm ² .

[0241] The anolyte compartment 146, 246 had a centrally located window for the membrane 142, 242 with a geometric surface area of about 1 cm ² . [0242] The anolyte compartment 146, 246 had a centrally located window for the anode 150, 250 with a geometric surface area of about 1 cm ² .

[0243] The anode gas compartment 154, 254 had a centrally located window for the anode 150, 250 with a geometric surface area of about 1 cm ² .

Metrics for AM- VFR Prototype Reactor

[0244] FIG. 7 illustrates a table of metrics for the prototype AM- VFR reactor according, showing >50% energy efficiency.

Testing of Prototype AM- VFR Reactor

[0245] The prototype AM- VFR reactor was manufactured such that the cathode gas compartment, the catholyte compartment, the anolyte compartment and the anode gas compartment each had a thickness of 0.7 cm. The catalyst was IrCh/C; and the membrane was a commercially available anion exchange membrane (e.g., Sustanion®).

[0246] Measurements of product selectivity towards 0-carbon (H2), 1 -carbon (CO, HCOO-, CH ₄ ), 2-carbon (C2H4, C2H5OH, CH3COO; CH3CHO), and 3 -carbon (C3H7OH) products and partial current densities for the prototype AM- VFR reactor with an electrolyte flow rate of 5 mL/min and a CO2 injection flow rate of 10 seem. Eight (8) different cathodic geometric current densities, ranging from about -35 mA/cm ² to about -500 mA/cm ² , were tested.

[0247] FIG. 8A illustrates a graph of Geometric Current Density (mA/cm ² ) vs. Faradaic Efficiency (%) and Geometric Current Density (mA/cm ² ) vs. CO2 Conversion (%) for the prototype AM- VFR reactor, showing Faradaic efficiencies of products (H2, CH4, CO, C2H4, HCOO-, CH3CHO, CH3COO-, C3H7OH, C2H5OH, C2H4) formed in the prototype AM- VFR reactor with a Cu-PTFE cathode as a function of cathode geometric current density.

[0248] FIG. 8B illustrates a graph of Number of Carbons in Product (# C) vs. Faradaic Efficiency (%) for the prototype AM- VFR reactor, showing Faradaic efficiencies of 0-carbon (H2), 1 -carbon (CO, HCOO", CH4), 2-carbon (C2H4, C2H5OH, CEECOO", CEECHO), and 3 -carbon (C3H7OH) products formed in the prototype AM- VFR reactor with a Cu-PTFE cathode at different cathode geometric current densities (-35 mA/cm ² , -71 mA/cm ² , -142 mA/cm ² , -214 mA/cnn, -285 mA/cm ² , -357 mA/cm ² , -428 mA/cm ² , -500 mA/cm ² ).

[0249] FIG. 8C illustrates a graph of “Working Electrode Potential (EWE) VS Reversible Hydrogen Electrode (RHE) (V)” vs Partial Current Density of Products (mA/cm ² ) for the prototype AM- VFR reactor, showing partial current densities of 0- carbon (H2), 1 -carbon (CO, HCOO", CH4), 2-carbon (C2H4, C2H5OH, CHsCOO", CH3CHO), and 3 -carbon (C3H7OH) products formed in the prototype AM- VFR reactor with a Cu-PTFE cathode as a function potential.

[0250] FIG. 8D illustrates a graph of “EWE VS RHE (V)” vs “Partial Current Density of Products (mA/cm ² ) for the prototype AM- VFR reactor, showing partial current densities formed towards CO2R and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) in the prototype AM- VFR reactor with a Cu-PTFE cathode as a function of potential.

[0251] As shown in FIG. 8A, the prototype AM- VFR reactor demonstrated remarkable selectivity for CO2R at various cathode geometric current densities in neutral electrolytes. For example, over 90% Faradaic efficiency for CO2R was achieved from about -142 mA/cm ² to about -285 mA/cm ² , and a maximum of about 94% Faradaic efficiency was reached at about -214 mA/cm ² . Further, CO2 conversion increases linearly until about -285 mA/cm ² and, then, parabolically reaches maximum value of about 12% single-pass CO2 conversion at about -428 mA/cm ² . These results show that high selectivity for CO2R and CO2 conversion can be achieved in bulk pH- neutral environments with little to no modifications or additives to either the electrocatalyst or electrolyte.

[0252] Total C2+ selectivity reaches a maximum of > about 86% Faradaic efficiency at about -285 mA/cm ² , which is one of the highest selectivities to multicarbon products achieved for CO2R, particularly for pH-neutral electrolytes. Selectivity towards ethylene and ethanol, the primary multi-carbon products formed, reach maximums of about 49.8% and about 32.8% at about -214 mA/cm ² and about -357 mA/cm ² , respectively. Other multi-carbon products, such as n-propanol and acetic acid, are also produced at lower Faradaic efficiencies, reaching maximum values of about 5.6% and about 5.1% at about -142 mA/cm ² and about -500 mA/cm ² , respectively. Comparatively, low quantities of single-carbon products are observed across a wide range of current densities. Carbon monoxide (CO) and formate (HCOO"), both 2- electron CO2R products, steadily decrease as the current becomes increasingly cathodic. CO drops from about 16.6% at about -35 mA/cm ² to about 0.8% at about - 500 mA/cm ² , while HCOO" decreases from about 12.9% at about -35 mA/cm ² to about 0.3% at about -500 mA/cm ² . The selectivity towards methane (CH4) appears to be parabolic compared to the other CO2R products (i.e., minimum Faradaic efficiency of about 0.4% at about -285 mA/cm ² ).

[0253] To further understand the selectivity for the prototype AM- VFR reactor, the specific trends of product Faradaic efficiency are shown in FIG. 8B. Hydrogen, the only zero-carbon product produced at the cathode, decreases in Faradaic efficiency from about 35% to about 6% between about -35 mA/cm ² and about -142 mA/cm ² (see FIG. 8B), remaining below about 9% from about -142 to about -285 mA/cm ² . This indicates that CO2R may be preferred compared to HER in this system within this current density range. Comparatively, the total selectivity for C2 products rapidly increases from about -35 mA/cm ² to about -285 mA/cm ² , reaching a maximum of about 82.2% Faradaic efficiency. As a result, Ci product selectivity is low in this regime, but raises at higher current densities due to increased methane production. This inverse relationship may result from several factors, such as sufficient concentration of CO2* and CO* on the electrocatalyst surface, favorable kinetics for carbon-carbon coupling, and potential pH effects.

[0254] As shown in in FIG. 8C, when analyzing the partial current density of products on a potential scale, two distinct regimes are identified based on electric potential. The first regime, between about -0.87 V and about -1.0 V vs RHE (corresponding to current densities of about -35 mA/cm ² to about -285 mA/cm ² ), CO2R partial current density increases linearly as a function of potential (see FIG. 8D). This indicates that a sufficient quantity CO2 is being supplied to the electrocatalyst surface. Further, this suggests that the performance of the electrocatalyst in this region may be kinetically limited, adhering to the behavior of Butler-Volmer kinetics. In addition, the partial current densities of the 2-carbon (C2H4, C2H5OH, C LCOO", CH3CHO) products correlate with each other, with an increasing oxygenate-to-hydrocarbon ratio at more negative applied potentials. Further, the slopes of the partial current densities for most of the C2 products (e.g., C2H4, C2H5OH, and C LCOO') appear to be similar (e.g., 48 mV/dec to 72 mV/dec), indicating that these C2 products may share similar reaction pathways and intermediates.

[0255] The second region is more cathodic than -1.0 V vs RHE in FIG. 8D. In the second region, a transition from a linear to an asymptotic CO2R current density occurs around about -307 mA/cm ² . This suggests that the performance in this regime is likely a convolution of inhibiting mass transport and kinetic effects. Further, this understanding of the performance is supported by an increasing HER and a changing CO2R product distribution within this regime, as shown in FIG. 8C. While ethylene and ethanol partial current densities flatten, CH4 partial current density increases with a similar slope to that of H2. This relationship between CH4 and H2 suggests a higher adsorbed hydrogen (H*) coverage on the electrocatalyst surface, leading to a greater probability of protonating adsorbed single-carbon species. Interestingly, while the other multi-carbon products reach a constant partial current density, acetate production continues to increase throughout both regimes. This suggests acetate formation is correlated with concentration of OH". Further, in the case of acetate production via solution-based reactions, a positive correlation with over potential is observed.

[0256] As the total current density approaches about -500 mA/cm ² , most of the additional current contributes to HER, as water reduction is the only other reaction available in the absence of CO2 at the surface. Further, at sufficiently high current densities, total CO2 conversion decreases, suggesting a modified reaction environment that favors of hydrogen evolution. This may be due to a number of factors, such as a sufficiently high applied potential, a dominant proton-donor shift, or nucleation of gas bubbles, blocking CO2 active sites or inhibiting mass transport.

[0257] FIG. 9 illustrates a graph of Injection Time (minutes) vs. Faraday Efficiency (%) for the prototype AM- VFR reactor, showing Faradaic efficiencies for gaseous products (H2, CO, CH4, C2H4) formed in the prototype AM- VFR reactor with a Cu-PTFE cathode at a current density of about -142 mA/cm ² as a function of time.

[0258] Production of C2H4 was demonstrated to be constant (with a selectivity of -55%) over the 19 hours of continuous operation.

Mass Transfer Limitations [0259] FIG. 10 illustrates a cross-sectional view of a Cu-PTFE cathode in an AM- VFR reactor, showing mass transfer mass transfer limitations.

[0260] As shown in the upper, right detailed view of FIG. 10, resistive heating causes dynamic changes in temperature (i.e., increasing temperature), reducing solubility of CO2.

[0261] As shown in the middle right detailed view of FIG. 10, OH- formed from the reaction reacts with CO2, forming bicarbonate.

[0262] As shown in the lower, right detailed view of FIG. 10, ethanol generated at the electrocatalyst changes the wettability of the PTFE support, leading to partial flooding.

Unexpected Results with AM- VFR Reactor

[0263] The performance of the prototype AM- VFR reactor was compared to the performance of prior VFR reactors for two chemical reactions (e.g., ethanol, ethylene), as follows:

2 CO2 + 3 H2O — > C2H5OH + 3 O2

CO2 + 2 H2O — > C2H2 + (5/2) O2

[0264] FIG. 11 A illustrates a graph of CO2 Flow Rate (seem) vs. %EtOH yield (mol EtOH/mol CO2), showing higher ethanol yields with AM- VFR Reactor at low CO2 flow rates; and FIG. 1 IB illustrates a graph of EtOH Partial Current Density (mA/cm ² ) vs. %EtOH yield (mol EtOH/mol CO2).

[0265] In FIGS. I la and 1 IB, yield is defined as follows:

[0266] As shown in FIGS. 11 A and 1 IB, the AM- VFR Reactor produces higher yields of ethanol than previous VFR reactors (e.g., neutral pH, alkaline pH, MEA), particularly at lower CO2 flow rates (e.g., < about 15 seem). [0267] FIG. 12A illustrates a graph of CO2 Flow Rate (seem) vs. %Ethylene yield (mol Eth/mol CO2), showing higher ethylene yields with AM- VFR reactor at low CO2 flow rates; and FIG. 12B illustrates a graph of Eth Partial Current Density (mA/cim) vs. Eth yield (mol Eth/mol CO2).

[0268] In FIGS. 12A and 12B, yield is defined as follows:

[0269] As shown in FIGS. 12A and 12B, the AM- VFR reactor produces higher yields of ethylene than previous VFR reactors (e.g., neutral pH, alkaline pH, MEA), particularly at lower CO2 flow rates (e.g., < about 5 seem).

[0270] The reference numbers in FIG. 11A-11B and 12A-12B correspond to the present disclosure, as follows:

1. The present disclosure at a cathode geometric current density of about - 214 mA/cm ² and a CO2 flow rate of about 5 seem.

2. The present disclosure at a cathode geometric current density of about - 357 mA/cm ² and a CO2 flow rate of about 10 seem.

3. The present disclosure at a cathode geometric current density of about - 357 mA/cm ² and a CO2 flow rate of about 10 seem.

4. The present disclosure at a cathode geometric current density of about - 428 mA/cm ² and a CO2 flow rate of about 10 seem.

Exemplary 3D Printing and Advanced Manufacturing Techniques

[0271] FIG. 13 A illustrates a right, front perspective view of an exemplary stereolithography projection system; FIG. 13B illustrates a right, front perspective view of an exemplary extrusion printing system; and FIG. 13C illustrates a right, front perspective view of an exemplary selective laser sintering system. [0272] As shown in FIG. 13 A, a stereolithography (SLA) 3D printing technique uses a projection stereolithography system 1302 having a projection system 1304 to print a photosensitive material 1306.

[0273] In an embodiment, the SLA 3D printing technique may be used to print one or more of the cathode gas compartment 130, 230, the catholyte compartment 138, 238, the anolyte compartment 146, 246 and the anode gas compartment 154, 254 of the AM- VFR reactor 100, 200.

[0274] As shown in FIG. 13B, an extrusion 3D printing technique uses an extrusion printing system 1312 having an extruder 1314 to print an extrudate (e.g., bioink) 1316.

[0275] In an embodiment, the extrusion 3D printing technique may be used to print one or more of the cathode gas compartment 130, 230, the catholyte compartment 138, 238, the anolyte compartment 146, 246 and the anode gas compartment 154, 254 of the AM- VFR reactor 100, 200.

[0276] As shown in FIG. 13 C, a selective laser sintering 3D printing technique uses a selective laser sintering system 1322 having a laser objective 1324 and a laser beam 1324a to print a powder bed 1326.

[0277] In an embodiment, the selective laser sintering 3D printing technique may be used to print one or more of the cathode gas compartment 130, 230, the catholyte compartment 138, 238, the anolyte compartment 146, 246 and the anode gas compartment 154, 254 of the AM- VFR reactor 100, 200.

Method of Making AM- VFR Reactor

[0278] FIG. 14 illustrates a flow chart of a method of making an advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM-VFR) according to an embodiment of the disclosure.

[0279] As shown in FIG. 14, the method of making the AM-VFR reactor includes a) printing one or more of a cathode gas compartment, a catholyte compartment, an anolyte compartment and a anode gas compartment of the AM-VFR reactor using a 3D printing technique 1402; and assembling the AM-VFR reactor such that a cathode is disposed between the cathode gas compartment and the catholyte compartment, an optional membrane is disposed between the catholyte compartment and the anolyte compartment, and an anode is disposed between the anolyte compartment and the anode gas compartment 1404.

[0280] In an embodiment, the 3D printing technique is a stereolithography (SLA) 3D printing technique, an extrusion 3D printing technique, a selective laser sintering 3D printing technique, and combinations thereof.

Method of Using AM- VFR Reactor

[0281] FIG. 15 illustrates a flow chart of a method of using an advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM-VFR) according to an embodiment of the disclosure.

[0282] As shown in FIG. 15, the method of using the AM-VFR reactor includes: a) providing an AM-VFR reactor as discussed herein 1502; b) fluidly connecting a feed to the AM-VFR reactor 1504; c) fluidly connecting a buffer to the AM-VFR reactor 1506; and d) operating the AM-VFR reactor to produce a product 1508.

[0283] In an embodiment, the feed is one or more of CFL, CO2, CO, H2, H2O and O2. See e.g., FIGS. 4A-4B.

[0284] In an embodiment, the optional buffer is any KHCO3 buffer. In an embodiment, the optional buffer is from 0.1 M to 1 M KHCO3 in water. In an embodiment, the optional buffer is 1 M KHCO3 in water. In an embodiment, the optional buffer is 0.1 KHCO3 in water.

[0285] In an embodiment, the product is one or more of CFL, CH3OH, CO2, CO, C2H4, C2H4O, C2H4O2, C2H5OH, C3H7OH, HCOOH, H+, H ₂ , H2O and O2. See e g., FIGS. 4A-4B.

[0286] FIG. 16 illustrates a schematic of species transport in an advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM-VFR).

Further Testing of Prototype AM-VFR Reactor [0287] The prototype AM- VFR reactor was manufactured such that the cathode gas compartment, the catholyte compartment, the anolyte compartment and the anode gas compartment each had a thickness of 0.3 cm. The catalyst was IrCh/C; and the membrane was a commercially available anion exchange membrane (e.g., Sustanion®).

[0288] Measurements of product selectivity towards 0-carbon (H2), 1 -carbon (CO, HCOO-, CH ₄ ), 2-carbon (C2H4, C2H5OH, CH3COO; CH3CHO), and 3 -carbon (C3H7OH) products and partial current densities for the prototype AM- VFR reactor with a buffer (i.e., 0.1 M KHCO3 in water) flow rate of 10 mL/min and a CO2 injection flow rate of 10 seem. A cathodic geometric current density of -100 mA/cm ² was tested.

[0289] FIG. 17 illustrates a graph of Gas Injection Number vs Faradaic Efficiency (%), showing about 45% selectivity towards ethylene and about 88% selectivity towards CCb-reduced products using an advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM- VFR) in 0.1 M KCHO3.

Unexpected Results with AM- VFR Reactor

[0290] The performance of the prototype AM- VFR reactor was compared to the performance of prior VFR reactors. Typically, the use of prior VFR reactors at low electrolyte concentrations (e.g., 0.1 M KHCO3 in water) is limited due to diffusion of charge-carrier species across large length scales, resulting in large electrolyte resistance, and, therefore, difficult measurements.

[0291] However, the prototype AM- VFR reactor with 0.3 cm thicknesses does not appear to be significantly adversely affected at low electrolyte concentrations (e.g., 0.1 M KHCO3 in water) by diffusion of large-carrier species across length scales. Surprisingly, the low electrolyte concentration (e.g., 0.1 M KHCO3 in water) in the AM-VFR reactor does not appear to affect the distribution of products from the CO2 reduction reaction.

Further Testing of Prototype AM-VFR Reactor

[0292] The prototype AM-VFR reactor was modified for a hydrogen oxidation reaction on the anode and a CO2 reduction reaction on the cathode. Nearly ideal mass transport of H2 to the anode and CO2 to the cathode, allow, for example, a CO2 reduction reaction to occur at significantly higher total energy efficiencies, as discussed below.

[0293] FIG. 18 illustrates a schematic of species transport in an advanced vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM- VFR), showing a hydrogen oxidation reaction at an anode and a CO2 reduction reaction at a cathode.

[0294] For an initial test, the prototype AM- VFR was manufactured such that the cathode gas compartment, the catholyte compartment, the anolyte compartment and the anode gas compartment each had a thickness of 0.7 cm. The catalyst was Pt/C; and the membrane was a commercially available anion exchange membrane (e.g., Sustanion®).

[0295] Measurements of product selectivity towards 0-carbon (H2) and 1- carbon (CO) products for the prototype AM-VFR with a buffer (i.e., 1 M KHCO3 in water) flow rate of 10 mL/min, a CO2 injection flow rate of 10 seem to the cathode gas compartment, and a H2 injection rate of 10 seem to the anode gas compartment. A cathodic geometric current density of -10 mA/cm ² was tested.

[0296] FIG. 19 illustrates a graph of time/h vs. Working Electrode Potential (Ewe)/V - Cathode Electrode Potential (Ece)/V using an advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM-VFR), showing a total cell voltage of IV at - lOmA/cm ² for a hydrogen oxidation reaction at an anode and a CO2 reduction reaction at a cathode.

Unexpected Results with AM-VFR Reactor

[0297] At -10 mA/cm ² , the prototype AM-VFR reactor with a hydrogen oxidation reaction at the anode and CO2 reduction reaction at the cathode (HOR) has a total cell voltage of 1 V compared to the AM-VFR reactor without the hydrogen oxidation reaction at the anode (OER), which has a total cell voltage of 3.2 V. Nearly ideal mass transport of EE to the anode and CO2 to the cathode, allow, for example, a CO2 reduction reaction to occur at significantly higher total energy efficiencies. Chemical reactions maybe combined with the advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM-VFR) to greatly improve energy efficiencies. [0298] Further, the prototype AM- VFR reactor achieved a high selectivity for the CO2 reduction reaction with the hydrogen oxidation reaction at the anode: - 93% CO, and 9 % H ₂ .

[0299] As a comparative test, the prototype AM- VFR was manufactured such that the cathode gas compartment, the catholyte compartment, the anolyte compartment and the anode gas compartment each had a thickness of 0.3 cm. The catalyst was Pt/C. No membrane was used.

[0300] Measurements of product selectivity towards 0-carbon (H2), 1 -carbon (CO) products for the prototype AM- VFR with a buffer (i.e., 1 M KHCO3 in water) flow rate of 10 mL/min, a CO2 injection flow rate of 10 seem to the cathode gas compartment and a H2 injection flow rate of 10 seem to the anode gas compartment. A cathodic geometric current density of -10 mA/cm ² was tested.

[0301] FIG. 20 illustrates a graph of time/h vs. Working Electrode Potential (Ewe)/V - Cathode Electrode Potential (Ece)/V using an advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM- VFR), showing a total cell voltage of 0.8V at - 10 mA/cm ² for a hydrogen oxidation reaction at an anode and a CO2 reduction reaction at a cathode.

[0302] At -10 mA/cm ² , the prototype AM- VFR reactor having 0.3 cm thicknesses with a hydrogen oxidation reaction at the anode and CO2 reduction reaction at the cathode (HOR) has a total cell voltage of 0.8 V — a 25% improvement — compared to the AM- VFR reactor having 0.7 cm thicknesses, which has a total cell voltage of IV.

[0303] Nearly ideal mass transport of H2 to the anode and CO2 to the cathode, allow, for example, a CO2 reduction reaction to occur at significantly higher total energy efficiencies. Chemical reactions maybe combined with the advanced manufactured vapor-fed electrochemical reactor (AM- VFR) and/or thicknesses of the cathode gas compartment, the catholyte compartment, the anolyte compartment and the anode gas compartment within the AN-VFR reactor may be reduced to greatly improve total cell efficiencies. [0304] Further, the prototype AM- VFR reactor without the optional membrane achieved a high selectivity for the CO2 reduction reaction with the hydrogen oxidation reaction at the anode.

[0305] The embodiments and examples set forth herein are presented to best explain the present disclosure and its practical application and to thereby enable those skilled in the art to make and utilize the invention. However, those skilled in the art will recognize that the foregoing description and examples have been presented for the purpose of illustration and example only. The description as set forth is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the disclosure to the precise form disclosed. Many modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teaching without departing from the spirit and scope of the following claims. The disclosure is specifically intended to be as broad as the claims below and their equivalents.

Definitions

[0306] As used herein, the terms “a,” “an,” “the,” and “said” means one or more, unless the context dictates otherwise.

[0307] As used herein, the term “about” means the stated value plus or minus a margin of error, or plus or minus 10% if no method of measurement is indicated.

[0308] As used herein, the term “or” means “and/or” unless explicitly indicated to refer to alternatives only or if the alternatives are mutually exclusive.

[0309] As used herein, the terms “comprising,” “comprises,” and “comprise” are open-ended transition terms used to transition from a subject recited before the term to one or more elements recited after the term, where the element or elements listed after the transition term are not necessarily the only elements that make up the subject.

[0310] As used herein, the terms “containing,” “contains,” and “contain” have the same open-ended meaning as “comprising,” “comprises,” and “comprise,” provided above.

[0311] As used herein, the terms “having,” “has,” and “have” have the same open-ended meaning as “comprising,” “comprises,” and “comprise,” provided above. [0312] As used herein, the terms “including,” “includes,” and “include” have the same open-ended meaning as “comprising,” “comprises,” and “comprise,” provided above.

[0313] As used herein, the phrase “consisting of’ is a closed transition term used to transition from a subject recited before the term to one or more material elements recited after the term, where the material element or elements listed after the transition term are the only material elements that make up the subject.

[0314] As used herein, the term “simultaneously” means occurring at the same time or about the same time, including concurrently.

Incorporation By Reference

[0315] All patents and patent applications, articles, reports, and other documents cited herein are fully incorporated by reference to the extent they are not inconsistent with this disclosure.