Cross-Reference to Related Applications

[0001] This patent application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent

Application No. 61/733,002 filed December 4, 2012, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

Statement Regarding Federally Sponsored Research or Development

[0002] This invention was made with government support under Contract No.

FA8721-05-C-0002 awarded by the U.S. Air Force. The U.S. government has certain rights in the invention.

Technical Field

[0003] The present invention relates to electrochemical cells for use in dynamic storage of energy, and more particularly, to anaerobic aluminum- water electrochemical cells.

Background Art

[0004] Aluminum metal is an energy-dense (e.g., greater than 80MJ/L) fuel with the potential to enhance a variety of common systems. Because aluminum can oxidize in water, it is especially promising as a power source for undersea devices, which are severely limited by the low energy density of conventional anaerobic energy storage media (e.g., less than 1MJ/L for Li -ion batteries). However, while recent advancements in the scalable de- passivation of aluminum have eliminated some barriers to effective energy storage in aluminum, efficient energy conversion from the heat of reaction 2A1 + 6H ₂ 0→ 3H ₂ + 2A1(0H) ₃ + Q remains elusive. This difficulty is mainly attributable to the slow kinetics of the reaction, which are not conducive to maintenance of the steep temperature gradient required for efficient thermal energy conversion. In electrochemical Al-based devices, the continuous loss of some of the aluminum anode due to parasitic corrosion reduces the energy density of the cell and shortens the self-discharge time of the system. Thus, previous attempts to commercialize Al-air and Al-water fuel cells have failed, largely due to the high anodic overpotentials and parasitic anodic corrosion that reduces discharge efficiencies to -10-50 percent.

Summary of Embodiments

[0005] In accordance with one embodiment of the invention, an anaerobic aluminum- water electrochemical cell includes a plurality of electrode stacks, each electrode stack having an aluminum or aluminum alloy anode, and at least one solid cathode configured to be electrically coupled to the anode. The electrochemical cell further includes a liquid electrolyte between the anode and the at least one cathode, one or more physical separators between each electrode stack adjacent to the cathode, a housing configured to hold the electrode stacks, the electrolyte, and the physical separators, and a water injection port, in the housing, configured to introduce water into the housing.

[0006] In accordance with another embodiment of the invention, an anaerobic aluminum-water electrochemical system includes an aluminum-water electrochemical cell, such as described above, and a waste separation system in fluid communication with the cell and configured to receive the electrolyte and aluminum hydroxide waste from the aluminum- water electrochemical cell and to separate the aluminum hydroxide waste from the electrolyte. The electrochemical system further includes a fuel injector, in fluid

communication with the waste separation system and the water injection port, configured to receive the electrolyte from the waste separation system and to provide the electrolyte to the water injection port(s). The water injection port(s) may introduce water into the electrolyte from an external or internal water supply.

[0007] In accordance with another embodiment of the invention, an anaerobic aluminum-water electrochemical cell includes a stack of solid cathodes and a liquid anode including aluminum or an aluminum alloy and configured to be electrically coupled to the stack of cathodes. The electrochemical cell further includes a liquid electrolyte between the liquid anode and each cathode, a housing configured to hold the cathode stack, the electrolyte, and the liquid anode, an aluminum port configured to introduce the aluminum or aluminum alloy in a solid phase into the housing, and a water injection port, in the housing, configured to introduce water into the housing.

[0008] In related embodiments, the anode may be in a solid phase or liquid phase. The electrode stack may include two or more cathodes on either side of the anode. The electrolyte may include an aqueous electrolyte or a non-aqueous electrolyte having about 90 wt% of water or less. The electrolyte or water may include seawater. The water injection port(s) may be configured to introduce the water into the housing so that the water flows through the physical separators. The fuel injector may be configured to receive water from a water supply. The one or more physical separators may be formed from a mesh material having openings of about ΙΟΟμιη or larger. When the anode is in the liquid phase, the housing may include an aluminum port configured to introduce the aluminum or aluminum alloy in a solid phase into the housing. The stack of cathodes may be arranged in a vertical direction so that one end of each cathode is surrounded by the liquid anode.

Brief Description of the Drawings

[0009] The foregoing features of the invention will be more readily understood by reference to the following detailed description, taken with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:

[0010] FIG. 1 shows an anaerobic aluminum-water electrochemical cell according to embodiments of the present invention;

[0011] FIG. 2 schematically shows a series of anaerobic aluminum-water electrochemical cells in a multi-cell configuration according to embodiments of the present invention;

[0012] FIGS. 3A-3C schematically show one electrode stack in an aluminum-water electrochemical cell configuration according to embodiments of the present invention;

[0013] FIG. 4A schematically shows one electrode stack in an aluminum-water electrochemical cell configuration with a water miscible electrolyte, and FIG. 4B

schematically shows a comparison of anion and water concentrations over the length of the stack in FIG. 4A according to embodiments of the present invention;

[0014] FIG. 5 schematically shows an aluminum-water electrochemical cell configuration with a liquid anode and a vertical stack of cathodes according to embodiments of the present invention;

[0015] FIG. 6 schematically shows an aluminum- water electrochemical cell system according to embodiments of the present invention; [0016] FIG. 7 schematically shows an aluminum- water electrochemical cell with a single electrode stack according to embodiments of the present invention;

[0017] FIG. 8 schematically shows an aluminum- water electrochemical cell with a second metal electrochemical cell according to embodiments of the present invention;

[0018] FIG. 9 shows an aluminum-water electrochemical cell configuration with an acidic electrolyte according to embodiments of the present invention;

[0019] FIG. 10 shows an aluminum-water electrochemical cell configuration with an alkaline electrolyte according to embodiments of the present invention;

[0020] FIGS. 11A and 11B show performance curves for the cell shown in FIG. 1 according to embodiments of the present invention; and

[0021] FIGS. 12A and 12B show performance curves for the cell shown in FIG. 6 according to embodiments of the present invention.

Detailed Description of Illustrative Embodiments

[0022] Embodiments of the present invention provide an anaerobic aluminum- water electrochemical cell that harvests energy from the oxidation of aluminum metal in an aqueous electrolyte or a non-aqueous electrolyte having a small amount of water. Aluminum reacts with the water at the anode-electrolyte interface, and hydrogen gas is produced at the cathode. Using catalytic effects to separate the half-cell reactions, embodiments of the present invention demonstrate energy densities of about 3.7-20MJ/L, up to 25 times the effective energy density of conventional anaerobic energy storage media, e.g., Li-ion batteries, the current state of the art in underwater power sources, albeit with some power limitations. Details of illustrative embodiments are discussed below. [0023] FIG. 1 shows an anaerobic aluminum- water electrochemical cell 10, and FIG. 2 schematically shows a series of anaerobic aluminum- water electrochemical cells 10 in a multi-cell configuration according to embodiments of the present invention. As used herein, the term electrochemical cell may encompass an individual electrochemical cell or cell unit, such as shown in FIG. 1, as well as configurations having an array of electrochemical cells, such as shown in FIG. 2. Referring to FIGS. 1 and 2, the electrochemical cell 10 includes a number of interdigitated electrode stacks 12 of thin anodes 14 and cathodes 16 separated by one or more physical separators 18. The anode 12 includes an aluminum or an aluminum alloy and may be in a solid phase (as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2), e.g., formed into a plate, or a liquid phase (as shown in FIG. 5 and discussed in more detail below). The electrode stack 12 may include two cathodes plates 16 on either side of an anode plate 14, such as shown in FIG. 2, although any number of cathode plates may be used within each stack. In addition, any number of stacks 12 may be used within the electrochemical cell 10 depending on the application and desired size. The stacks 12 can be parallel to one another (as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2) perpendicular to one another (not shown), or a combination of both configurations. The anodes 14 and cathodes 16 are electrically connected by leads 34 through which electrons may pass to an external source or sink (not shown).

[0024] The electrochemical cell 10 also includes an electrolyte 20, e.g., a basic or acidic aqueous media or non-aqueous, water miscible media, disposed between the anodes 14 and cathodes 16, and a housing 24 configured to hold the electrode stacks 12, the physical separators 18, and the electrolyte 20. The housing 24 may be made from any electrically insulating, non-reactive material, such as a plastic material (e.g., HDPE or LDPE), that is corrosion-resistant to the electrolyte 20 and the two electrode 14 and 16 materials. The housing 24 includes one or more water injection ports 22 configured to introduce water into the housing 24. Preferably, the water is injected into the electrolyte 20 close to the cathode 16 and away from the anode 14. For example, the water injection ports 22 may be configured to introduce the water into the housing 24 so that the water flows through the physical separators 18 next to the cathodes 16. This configuration increases the concentration of water near the cathode 16, increasing the rate at which water is split into H ⁺ and OH ^" , and decreases the concentration of water at the anode 14, minimizing the parasitic corrosion reaction. In embodiments of the present invention, the electrochemical cell 10 undergoes two primary reactions, as shown in FIGS. 3 A through 3C:

1) 3H ₂ 0+3e→ 1.5H ₂ + 30H ^~ (cathode)

2) A1+30H ^~ → Al(OH) ₃ +3e (anode)

yielding a total reaction of: A1+3H ₂ 0→ 1.5H ₂ +A1(0H) ₃

[0025] Referring again to FIG. 2, the water injection ports 22 are in fluid

communication with a water supply 30. The water supply 30 may be an internal tank that stores water or may be an external supply drawn from outside the electrochemical cell 10, such as seawater. The housing 24 also includes one or more hydrogen release valves 28 configured to allow the hydrogen generated at the cathode 16 to be released from the electrochemical cell 10. Aluminum hydroxide waste 26 forms on the aluminum anode 14 when the aluminum reacts with the hydroxide ions. The aluminum hydroxide waste 26 can reduce the performance of the fuel cell 10. To reduce this effect, the hydrogen flow from the cathodes 16 may be channeled over the anodes 14, carrying the waste away from the anode surface and into the electrolyte 20. The waste 26 may be removed from the electrolyte 20 using filters and similar technologies or may be allowed to build up in the electrolyte 20. If waste removal is desired, the individual cells 10 may each have a separate waste removal system or may have a shared waste removal system 32. For example, the waste 26 may be carried over and around the cells by the flow of hydrogen before settling to the bottom of the housing 24, where it may be removed or become trapped in a low-conductivity water immiscible fluid, such as mineral oil. The waste 26 or the fluid with the waste may be pumped out to a shared waste filter / ejection system 32 (such as described in more detail below in FIG. 6). If the waste 26 is allowed to build up in the electrolyte 20 or some electrolyte 20 is lost during operation, the electrolyte 26, or some portion thereof, may be replaced periodically.

[0026] As mentioned above, the electrolyte 20 may include basic or acidic aqueous media or non-aqueous, water miscible media. For example, seawater or water, alkaline KOH or NaOH solution, acidic HC1 or H ₂ SO ₄ solution, or alkaline ionic liquid or primary alcohol (e.g., methanol or ethanol) solutions, and mixtures thereof, may be used as the electrolyte 20. The goal of the electrolyte 20 is to allow the transport of hydroxide ions without allowing water to react directly with the aluminum fuel in the anode 14. Thus, further additions may be made to the electrolyte 20 to increase the power output and reduce the corrosion rate of the fuel cell. For example, a surfactant, e.g., Triton X, or sodium dodecyl sulfate, may be added to increase the rate at which hydrogen bubbles are shed from the surface of the electrodes 14, 16, ensuring that most or all of the surface area remains available to reactants and reduces bubble-overpotential caused by the drop in ion concentration in a region filled with bubbles. In addition, the surfactant reduces the size of the bubbles that are formed, which allows the electrodes 14, 16 to be kept closer to one another. To reduce corrosion, inert compounds, such as ionic liquids (e.g., l-ethyl-3-methylimidazlium hydroxide and 1- butyl-3 -methyl imidazolium tetraflouroborate) may be added to the electrolyte 20 to decrease the water activity of water molecules in the solution. This reduction in mobility helps trap the water molecules near the cathode 16, further reducing the water concentration near the anode 14 which causes parasitic corrosion. Other liquids, such as primary alcohols (e.g., 60% methanol), secondary alcohols (e.g., 2-propanol), acetonitrile (e.g., 30% ACN), dimethyl carbonate, and dimethyl sulfoxide may also be added to the electrolyte in order to promote good OH- ion (anion) conductivity. The anion conductivity can be increased by dissolving a base, such as KOH, into the electrolyte 20. The ionic liquids, surfactant, and other liquids may be added in varying amounts to the electrolyte 20, e.g., from about 5-95 vol%> of the total electrolyte.

[0027] The volume of the electrolyte 20 in the electrochemical cell 10 should be kept roughly constant to ensure that the electrodes 14, 16 remain covered. If the electrolyte 20 is volatile, hydrogen may be allowed to build up at the top of the chamber 24, increasing the pressure and reducing electrolyte evaporation. If the electrolyte 20 is lost to side reactions or as part of the process of removing waste 26, a supplementary tank of electrolyte 20 may be used to ensure that the volume is maintained and the housing 24 remains filled. The water content of the electrolyte 20 directly controls the power output of the fuel cell 10. Therefore, the power may be increased or decreased depending on the water injection rate.

[0028] FIG. 4A schematically shows an electrochemical cell 10 configuration with a water miscible electrolyte 20. In this embodiment, the electrolyte 20 is a non-aqueous, water miscible material with good OH- ion (anion) conductivity. For example, ionic liquids and light alcohols, such as methanol, may be used. As shown, water may be gradually injected into the electrolyte 20, preferably near the cathode 16. The non-aqueous, water miscible electrolyte may have about 90 wt% of water or less. In addition, the water or the electrolyte 20 may have one or more of the additives mentioned above, e.g., ions dissolved in it, to promote ion conductivity, adjust power output, and reduce the corrosion rate of the fuel cell. Due to the low water content of the electrolyte 20, parasitic corrosion of the aluminum or aluminum alloy anode 14 is significantly reduced since the concentration of water at the anode 14 is reduced (as shown in FIG. 4B), making the half-cell reactions much more favorable over the parasitic reaction.

[0029] As mentioned above, the anode 14 material includes an aluminum or aluminum alloy that may be in a solid phase or a liquid phase. When in the solid phase, the aluminum or aluminum alloy anode 14 may be in the form of a thin plate, as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2. The thickness of the anode 14 may vary depending on the power or energy density requirements, e.g., for higher power density, a thinner anode may be used and for higher energy density the mass of the anode may be increased. Preferably, the anode thickness may be about l-3mm. Any purity of aluminum may be used, though certain impurities, such as iron and copper, may decrease the energy density of the fuel cell by increasing the rate of parasitic corrosion. The goal of the anode 14 is to avoid passivation with both AI ₂ O ₃ and Al(OH) ₃ as well as hinder the H ₂ evolution reaction. Alloying the aluminum with a metal with a high hydrogen overpotential and a higher nobility than aluminum in the

electrochemical series (e.g., indium) reduces the corrosion of the aluminum metal and may increase the discharge potential. Alloying the aluminum with a metal that disrupts the alumina passivation layer which covers the anode 14 (e.g., gallium) increases the current density. Combinations of metals can be alloyed with aluminum to achieve a mixture of effects, e.g., Al or Al alloy with Ga, In, Sn, and/or Mg. Preferably, the anode 14 is made of an aluminum alloy with about 0.1 wt% of In and 0.1 wt% of Ga. In embodiments using a solid anode, the electrochemical cell 10 is mechanically recharged by replacing the solid aluminum or aluminum alloy anodes 14.

[0030] When in the liquid phase, the anode 14 material may be comprised of a liquid metal alloy that includes aluminum. The liquid metal (e.g., an alloy comprised of Ga, In, Sn, and/or Mg) is not consumed in the anode-side reaction. Rather, the liquid metal merely facilitates the passage of aluminum fuel to the anode-electrolyte interface. For example, the liquid material may be about 100 wt% gallium or may be about 65-70% wt% Ga, 20-25% wt%> In, and 5-15 wt%> Sn. Advantages of this embodiment over solid-anode technology are that it provides a higher standard cell potential vs. both oxygen reduction and hydrogen evolution electrodes and a significantly slower rate of anodic corrosion relative to the rate of galvanic discharge. The oxidation of aluminum in the electrochemical cell 10 can proceed through either the electrochemical pathway described above and shown in FIGS. 3 A through 3C, or through the corrosion reaction 2AI + 6H ₂ O→ 3H _? + 2Al(OH)s occurring entirely on the anode 14. In addition to the depassivation effect mentioned above, the liquid anode 14 may be preferable to a solid aluminum or aluminum-alloy anode 14 because the liquid anode 14 configuration retards this corrosion reaction. This effect may be attributable to the low surface activity of liquid metal surfaces, in particular the alloys of Ga, In, and Sn, for the hydrogen evolution reaction in both basic and acidic aqueous and non-aqueous media. In addition, the liquid phase anode 14 may increase the open-circuit potential of the anode 14 relative to the cathode 16 or hydrogen electrode. Whereas solid Al alloys typically passivate with a thick Al(OH) ₃ gel or layer during anodic polarization, convection on the liquid metal anode surface reduces this effect, and open circuit potentials up to -1.55V vs. H ₂ -H ₂ 0 may be observed.

[0031] As shown in FIG. 5, a solid aluminum or an aluminum alloy material 36 may be fed into the liquid material via an in-situ interdiffusion process, such as described in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2013/0276769, incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. Preferably, the rate of reaction at the liquid anode-water interface (point 1 in FIG. 5) is equal to the rate of diffusion of solid fuel material 36 into the liquid anode 14 at the fuel feed (point 2 in FIG. 5). A high surface-area cathode material 16, such as Pt-loaded carbon paper, felt, cloth, or mesh (as will be described in more detail below), is separated from the liquid anode material 14 by the surface properties of the electrolyte 20 and liquid metal anode 14. In this case, additional physical separators 18 do not need to be included, although they may be used. The stack of cathodes 16 may be arranged in a vertical direction so that one end of each cathode is surrounded by the liquid anode 14. The fuel supply material 36 may be any arbitrary size relative to the reactor vessel 24 and may consist of pure aluminum or an aluminum alloy with In, Mg, Sn, and/or Ga. For example, the aluminum alloy may be aluminum with about 0.1 wt% of In and 0.1 wt% of Ga. The solid aluminum or aluminum alloy material 36 may be introduced into the liquid anode material as a wire, foil, block, pellets, or a combination thereof. In addition, an additive may be added to the liquid material in order to facilitate the dissolution of the aluminum or the aluminum alloy in the liquid. The electrical lead 34 to the anode (point 5 in FIG. 5) may be made with any electrically conductive material, such as a small diameter wire or razor blade, preferably composed of a material such as tungsten which easily wets to the liquid metal alloys in the anode 14. [0032] Whether using a solid or liquid anode 14, the cathode 16 may be made of any material with a low hydrogen overpotential which is chemically stable in the chosen electrolyte 20. For example, nickel and platinum both have low hydrogen overpotentials, although platinum is not stable in methanol. In addition, the cathode 16 preferably has a high surface area to decrease the current density on its surface and reduce overpotential losses. This may be achieved by selecting materials with highly engineered surfaces, such as carbon paper, felt, cloth, or mesh material, and then depositing Ni or Pt on its surface. For example, the cathode 16 may be Pt coated carbon or titanium or a NiC matrix material. The cathode 16 may be in the form of a thin plate that is spaced apart from the anode 14. The thickness of the cathode 16 may vary depending on the power or energy density requirements, and one or more cathodes 16 may be used in the electrode stack. Preferably, the cathode thickness may be about 40-100μιη. Additional anion permeable polymer layers, such as nafion or anion exchange membranes, may be added to the cathode 16 if ions in the electrolyte 20 tend to deposit on and contaminate the cathode 16.

[0033] The one or more physical separators 18 may be made of any material with a relatively high electrical resistivity which is chemically stable in the chosen electrolyte 20, such as a plastic material (e.g., HDPE or LDPE). For example, the electrical resistivity may be greater than about 10 ohms -cm. In addition, the physical separator 18 preferably has a high areal density (e.g., mostly open area), so that the water may be introduced and allowed to flow through the physical separator 18. For example, the physical separator 18 may be made with a mesh material having about 95% or greater areal density (e.g., thin strands of a polymer material), preferably having openings of about ΙΟΟμιη or larger. In addition, the physical separator 18 may be in the form of a thin plate disposed adjacent to the cathode 16. The thickness of the physical separator 18 may vary, but is preferably about 200μιη or less.

[0034] FIG. 6 schematically shows an aluminum-water electrochemical system 40 that uses the electrochemical cell 10 according to embodiments of the present invention. The system 40 includes the electrochemical cell 10, a waste separation system 32 in fluid communication with the electrochemical cell 10, and a fuel injector 38 in fluid

communication with the waste separation system 32 and the water injection port(s) 22. The waste separation system 32 is configured to receive the electrolyte 20 and the aluminum hydroxide waste 26 from the electrochemical cell 10, e.g., at periodic times or when the electrolyte 20 is determined to have sufficient waste build up. The waste separation system 32 then separates the waste 26 from the electrolyte 20, and provides the cleaned up electrolyte 20 to the fuel injector 28. The fuel injector 38 receives the electrolyte 20 from the waste separation system 32 and receives water from a water supply 30, e.g., an external supply such as seawater. If the electrochemical cell 10 includes a water supply 30 that is internal to the cell 10, then the fuel injector 38 provides the electrolyte 20 to the cell 10, which is then combined with the water from the internal water supply 30.

[0035] Although the electrochemical cell 10 discussed above includes a number of electrode stacks 12 with anodes 14 and cathodes 16, a single stack 12 may also be used, such as shown in FIG. 7. In addition, a second metal electrochemical cell 42, such as a Li-H ₂ 0 cell 42, may be used in conjunction with the aluminum- water electrochemical cell 10 discussed above, such as shown in FIG. 8. EXAMPLES

[0036] To further illustrate embodiments of the present invention, the following non- limiting Examples are provided.

Example 1 : Electrochemical A1-H?0 reactor in acidic electrolyte [0037] An acidic cell was created in 30 mM HC1 electrolyte with a Pt coated cathode, as shown in FIG. 9. Voltages ranging from 0.8 to 1.5 V were produced between the electrodes, with 95% of H ₂ production occurring on the Pt cathode, rather than the Al-Ga anode surface. The cell was operated at room temperature. While the exact half-cell reactions in this system are not known exactly, the following hypothetical pathway is consistent with observations to date:

Rxn 1 (Al + Ga anode): 2A1 + 6H ₂ 0→ 2A1(0H) ₃ + 6H ⁺ + 6e ^~ E = -1.49V

Rxn 1.5 (HC1 solution): Al(OH) ₃ + 3H ⁺ → Al ³⁺ + 3H ₂ 0 E = 0

Rxn 2 (Pt cathode): 3H ⁺ + 3e ^" → 1.5H ₂ E = 0

Example 2: Electrochemical A1-H?Q reactor in alkaline electrolyte [0038] An electrochemical cell was constructed using an Al-Ga anode and Pt coated cathode with a 0.5M NaOH electrolyte, as shown in FIG. 10. This cell produced 1.6V with approximately 90%> H ₂ production on the Pt cathode. The cell was also observed to produce 300mW through a 5-Ohm resistor for an efficiency of -65%. The cell was operated at room temperature. The following pathway is confirmed by the XRD data of an electrolyte precipitate and is consistent with the observed open circuit voltage, the absence of solid hydroxide precipitate, and the steady decrease in electrolyte pH: Rxn 1 (Al + Ga anode): 2A1 + 80H ^" → 2A1(0H) ₄ ^" + 6e ^~ E = -2.33V

Rxn 2 (Pt cathode): 6H ₂ 0+6e ^" → 3H ₂ + 60H ^" E = -.82V

Example 3 : Various Electrolyte Compositions

[0039] Electrochemical cells were constructed using an Al-Ga anode and Pt cathode with various electrolyte mixtures. The following performance metrics were measured for the electrolyte mixtures:

Table 1

In Table 1 , ¾c is the short-circuit current, Voc is the open-circuit voltage, and I _corr is the corrosion current.

Example 4: Small Reactor Cell (44mm cube)

[0040] An electrochemical cell was constructed using Al99.7Gao.15Ino.15 anodes and platinized titanium cathodes with an 0.5M KOH in H ₂ 0 ₄ oMethanol ₂ oAcetonitrile ₄ o electrolyte, as shown in FIG. 1. This cell produced about 1.9W/L power density, 3.7MJ/L (@1.2W/L) energy density, and had a neutral buoyancy of about 1.2g/cm . FIGS. 9A and 9B show the performance curves for the cell that was run for about 30 hours. Example 5: Large Reactor Cell (330ml cylinder)

[0041] An electrochemical cell was constructed using Al anodes and Ni (Ni electroplated on carbon) cathodes with a 1M KOH (aq) electrolyte, as shown in FIG. 6. This cell produced about 6W/L power density and 5MJ/L (@1.2W/L) energy density. FIGS. 10A and 10B show the performance curves for the cell that was run for about 30 hours.

[0042] Although the above discussion discloses various exemplary embodiments of the invention, it should be apparent that those skilled in the art can make various

modifications that will achieve some of the advantages of these embodiments without departing from the true scope of the invention.