This invention relates to a portable electricity-generating apparatus comprising a reactor for producing hydrogen at low pressures and a hydrogen fuel cell to generate electricity.

Background of the Invention As of 2017, up to one third of homes in the USA lose electrical power at some time each year due to outages in electricity supplied by the electricity grid. In such outages, backup auxiliary sources of electricity are required to enable users to continue to use electrically powered items.

Power generators running on petrol (gasoline) or diesel are typically used as auxiliary sources of electricity.

Solar powered energy sources are a common type of auxiliary power supply used in domestic situations. However, these suffer from the disadvantage that they are less effective (or even fail to work at all) on cloudy days or at night.

In recent years, fuel cells have been proposed as a means of generating electricity in situations where there is no mains power available. Fuel cells which make use of alternative energy sources have a number of advantages over petrol- or diesel-fuelled internal combustion engines traditionally used in stand-alone power generators. The waste product of the operation of a fuel cell run on hydrogen is solely water, and no carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide is produced. Fuel cells are also more efficient than petrol- or diesel- fuelled internal combustion engines. A further advantage of a fuel cell compared to a conventional petroleum burning generator is that fuel cells can be miniaturised, thereby making them more portable.

An apparatus for generating electricity from hydrogen gas would be beneficial and would overcome problems associated with electricity generated from fossil fuels and solar energy. Although, at present, various systems for generating hydrogen gas are available, these are not generally suitable for domestic use.

The generation of hydrogen by the reaction of aluminium with sodium hydroxide is described in US2009/0252671 (Fullerton). The hydrogen generating apparatuses of the type described above are relatively large scale fixed installations that are not readily suited for domestic use.

Therefore, there remains a need for auxiliary, preferably portable, power supplies which make use of alternative energy sources (such as hydrogen). An advantage of a portable power supply is that it can be taken to remote locations where grid electricity is not available as a source of electricity.

The invention

The present invention provides an apparatus for generating electricity by converting hydrogen generated in situ within the apparatus into electricity. The apparatus is portable and is safe to use in domestic environments.

The apparatus comprises a housing inside which are mounted a reactor for producing hydrogen and a hydrogen fuel cell that consumes the hydrogen to produce electricity.

The apparatus comprises a chemical reactor in which a reaction takes place to generate hydrogen gas. The hydrogen gas can then exit the chemical reactor through a hydrogen gas outlet and can be delivered to other components of the apparatus for conversion into electricity.

The chemical reactor comprises upper and lower body sections that are connected together to form a gas-tight seal but can be separated to allow the introduction of reactants into the chemical reactor. Typically, separation of the upper and lower sections constitutes the sole means by which reactants other than a liquid reactant or liquid reaction medium can be introduced into the chemical reactor. The upper body section may be, for example, a lid.

The upper and lower body sections are typically made from a suitable metal material, e.g. a corrosion-resistant metal material such as stainless steel. Alternatively, either or both of the upper and lower body sections can be made from a suitably tough, chemically resistant (to the reactants) and thermally resistant plastics material.

The upper and lower body sections are tightly connected together so that a substantially gas-tight seal is formed between them. A sealing element such as an elastomeric sealing gasket may be located between the upper and lower body sections to provide the substantially gas-tight seal. The upper and lower body sections can be secured to one another by means of a clamp or a threaded connection.

Inside the chemical reactor is located a removable liner which is constructed so as to be able to contain reactants for the hydrogen-producing reaction. The reaction between the reactants takes place within the removable liner thereby avoiding or minimising the need for reactants to come into contact with the inner surfaces of the upper and lower body sections. The liner can be pre-filled with one or more reactants (typically solid reactants) and can be provided as a sealed cartridge with a removable lid that can be removed prior to placing the liner/cartridge in the reactor. The liner may be formed (e.g. by moulding) from a suitable plastics material.

The reaction within the reactor is initiated by introducing a liquid reactant or liquid reaction medium through a liquid inlet into the reactor so that the liquid reactant or liquid reaction medium is brought into contact with one or more reactants in the removable liner to produce hydrogen gas. The liquid reactant or liquid reaction medium (which in each case can be water) is typically pumped into the reactor from a reservoir of such liquid. The liquid (e.g. water) reservoir may also be contained within the housing and may thus form part of the apparatus of the invention.

The reactor has a gas outlet through which hydrogen gas can exit the reaction chamber for onward flow to the fuel cell.

Accordingly, in a first aspect of the invention (Embodiment 1.1) there is provided an apparatus for generating electricity, the apparatus comprising:

a housing and, mounted in the housing, a hydrogen fuel cell and a chemical reactor for producing hydrogen to supply the fuel cell to enable the fuel cell to generate electricity; and

a power outlet to which an electrical power-consuming device can be attached; wherein the chemical reactor comprises:

upper and lower body sections connected together so as to enclose a reaction chamber, the upper and lower body sections being separable to allow the introduction of one or more chemical reactants into the reaction chamber and being reconnectable to form a gas-tight seal therebetween;

a removable liner disposed inside the reaction chamber and being supported within the lower body section, the removable liner being capable of holding liquid and containing one or more reactants that react in the presence of water to form hydrogen gas; the removable liner being removable from the reaction chamber when the upper and lower body sections are separated; and

wherein the reactor has a liquid inlet for introducing a liquid which serves as a liquid reactant and/or liquid reaction medium into the removable liner such that a chemical reaction can take place between chemical reactants in the removable liner to produce hydrogen; and a gas outlet through which hydrogen gas can exit the reaction chamber for onward flow to the hydrogen fuel cell.

Further embodiments of the apparatus of the invention are set out in the following embodiments 1.2 to 1.6. 1.2 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.1 wherein the upper and lower body sections are formed from a metal, such as stainless steel.

1.3 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.1 or Embodiment 1.2 wherein the reactor is substantially cylindrical in form.

1.4 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.3 wherein the upper body section of the chemical reactor is in the form of a lid.

1.5 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.4 wherein the upper and lower body sections of the chemical reactor are removably connected together by means of a clamp or a threaded connection. .6 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.5 wherein a sealing ring or gasket (e.g. an elastomeric seal) is provided between the upper and lower body sections of the chemical reactor to form a gas-tight seal when the upper and lower body sections are connected together.

The gas outlet may comprise an upwardly extending gas outlet conduit located in the lower body section of the reactor, the gas outlet conduit having one or more openings to allow hydrogen gas produced in the reaction chamber to exit the chamber for onward flow to the hydrogen fuel cell. The upwardly extending gas outlet conduit can be, for example, a tube (a gas outlet tube) which is upstanding from and connected to a base or floor of the lower body section. Thus, gas produced in the reactor can exit the reaction chamber through one or more openings in the gas outlet conduit and then down and out through the base of the reactor.

The upwardly extending gas outlet conduit may be provided at an upper end thereof with a gas outlet opening that communicates with the interior of the reaction chamber and/or the conduit may be provided with one or more lateral gas outlet openings. The gas outlet openings are typically located above the liquid inlet, to prevent fluid entering the reaction chamber and passing straight through the lateral opening(s) and into the gas outlet conduit. The lateral opening(s) may also be positioned above the removable liner such that the removable liner does not block or obscure the opening(s). Hydrogen gas produced in the reactor can therefore pass through the lateral gas outlet openings, through the gas outlet conduit and out through the base of the reactor.

The removable liner can be configured so as to surround the gas outlet conduit. Thus, the upwardly extending gas outlet conduit may be arranged centrally within the lower body section and the removable liner may be annular in form.

The reactor may be provided with a pressure sensor for monitoring the pressure of hydrogen generated in the reaction chamber. The pressure sensor is typically set into a wall of the lower body section, although it could alternatively be set into a wall of the upper body section. The lower (or upper) body section may therefore be provided with an opening (e.g. a threaded opening) for receiving a pressure sensor.

Accordingly, in further embodiments (Embodiments 1.7 to 1.18), the invention provides: 1 .7 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.6 wherein the gas outlet comprises an upwardly extending gas outlet conduit located within the lower body section, the upwardly extending gas outlet conduit having one or more openings that serve as a gas outlet to enable hydrogen gas produced in the reaction chamber to exit the reaction chamber for onward flow to the fuel cell. 1.8 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.7 wherein the gas outlet conduit is upstanding from and connected to a base or floor of the lower body section.

1.9 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.7 or Embodiment 1.8 wherein the gas outlet conduit takes the form of a tube. 1.10 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.9 wherein the tube is located centrally within the reaction chamber.

1.11 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.7 to 1.10 wherein the gas outlet conduit is provided with one or more lateral gas outlet openings through which hydrogen gas generated in the reaction chamber can enter the gas outlet conduit. 1.12 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.11 wherein the one or more lateral openings are positioned above the liquid inlet.

1.13 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.11 or Embodiment 1.12 wherein the one or more lateral openings are positioned above the removable liner (when in place).

1.14 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.7 to 1.13 wherein the gas outlet conduit extends through the reaction chamber from a base of the lower body section to an upper end of the reaction chamber.

1.15 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.14 wherein a top end of the gas outlet conduit is connected to the upper body section.

1.16 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.15 wherein the top end of the gas outlet conduit is threaded and engages with a complementary threaded portion of the upper body section.

1.17 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.15 or Embodiment 1.16 wherein the upper body section is a lid and the top end of the gas outlet conduit is connected to the lid.

1.18 An apparatus as defined in any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.17 wherein a pressure sensor is provided for monitoring the pressure of hydrogen generated in the reaction chamber. 1.19 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.18 wherein the pressure sensor is set into a wall of the lower body section.

1.20 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.19 wherein the lower body section is provided with an opening (e.g. a threaded opening) for receiving a pressure sensor. The apparatus generates hydrogen through mixing one or more reactants, typically solid reactants, with a liquid reactant or in a liquid reaction medium. The liquid reactant or reaction medium may be stored within the apparatus in a liquid reservoir. In use, the liquid is conveyed from the liquid reservoir to the reactor and through the liquid inlet and into the reaction chamber (more specifically into the removable liner) where reaction between the reactants takes place in the removable liner to generate hydrogen gas.

Thus, the liquid entering the reaction chamber through the liquid inlet may be a liquid reactant which reacts with reactants (e.g. solid reactants) in the removable liner, or it may be a liquid reaction medium which solubilizes one or more reactants in the removable liner so that reaction can take place between solid reactants that would not react with one another in the dry state. The liquid may serve as both a reactant and a reaction medium.

The liquid preferably comprises or consists of water which reacts with one or more reactants in the removable liner as well as functioning as a reaction medium. Examples of solid reactants that may be present in the removable liner include aluminium and alkali metal hydroxides such as sodium hydroxide. The liquid (e.g. water) is stored in a liquid reservoir and is typically pumped to the reactor by one or more pumps such as peristaltic pumps or diaphragm pumps. A one way valve which permits liquid to be introduced into the reaction chamber but prevents the leakage of hydrogen out of the reaction chamber is typically located between the pumps and the reaction chamber. Accordingly, in further embodiments (1.21 to .27) there is provided:

1.21 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.20 wherein a liquid comprising or consisting of water serves as the liquid reactant and liquid reaction medium. 1.22 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.21 comprising a liquid reservoir for containing the liquid.

1.23 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.22 wherein the liquid reservoir is connected to the liquid inlet by one or more pumps. 1.24 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.23 wherein the one or more pumps are selected from peristaltic pumps and diaphragm pumps.

1.25 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.23 wherein the one or more pumps are peristaltic pumps.

1.26 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.23 to 1.25 further comprising a one-way valve in a pipe or tubing between the one or more pumps and the liquid inlet which allows liquid to enter the reactor but prevents gas from travelling from the liquid inlet back towards and into the pump.

1.27 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.26 further comprising a flow restrictor in or in-line with the liquid inlet, to control the rate at which liquid enters the chemical reactor.

As described above, the apparatus comprises a removable liner which contains one or more reactants which can react to generate hydrogen gas. The removable liner, which is located inside the reaction chamber and is typically supported within the lower body section, is removable from the reaction chamber when the upper and lower body sections are separated.

The removable liner is typically shaped to conform to the inner contours of a lower part of the reaction chamber. Thus, for example, when the reaction chamber is cylindrical and the gas outlet conduit is a tube which is upstanding from a base of the lower body section, the removable liner may be configured so as to conform to the shape of the gas outlet conduit. Thus, for example, the removable liner may surround the gas outlet conduit. More particularly, the removable liner can be annular in shape. The annular removable liner may have a ring-shaped base portion and (typically concentric) cylindrical inner and outer walls, the space between the inner and outer walls serving to hold the reactants during reaction to form hydrogen. The inner wall typically surrounds a central passage within which the upstanding gas outlet conduit is located.

The removable liner may have an interior (e.g. the space between the inner and outer walls when present) which is partitioned into a plurality of individual compartments, each of which can contain a dose of reactants that can react together with or in the presence of the liquid reactant or liquid reaction medium to form hydrogen. By providing a plurality of separate compartments each containing a set of reactants, the generation of hydrogen can be controlled more closely. For example, the compartments can be configured so that the liquid from the liquid inlet falls into one or a selected number of (but not all) compartments so that reaction is initiated in the one compartment or selected number of compartments in question, and then flows to other compartments thereby bringing about reaction in those compartments. The compartments can be configured so that liquid from one compartment will only flow to another (e.g. adjacent) compartment when liquid in the one compartment has reached a particular level. Thus, for example, partition walls between the compartments can be configured so that when the liquid in one compartment has reached a particular level, it will overflow into only a single or selected small number of (e.g. one, two or three) adjacent compartments, and preferably only a single adjacent compartment. In this way, the extent of reaction in the reaction chamber can be controlled by controlling the rate of flow of water into the reaction chamber. When the removable liner has concentric inner and outer walls, the space between the concentric inner and outer walls may be divided into a plurality of compartments by one or more partition walls extending in a radially outward direction from the inner circular wall. One or more further concentric intermediate cylindrical walls may also be provided between the inner and outer walls thereby increasing the number of compartments. When there are two or more radially extending partition walls, one of the radially extending partition walls may have a height greater than the other radially extending partition walls and the liquid inlet may be positioned so that liquid is initially deposited in a compartment bounded on one side by the higher radially extending partition wall. As liquid is introduced into the compartment, it will eventually overflow in a direction away from the higher radially extending partition wall. Depending on which side of the higher radially extending partition wall the liquid is introduced into a compartment, the liquid flow around the liner may be either clockwise or anticlockwise.

Where there are one or more further concentric intermediate cylindrical walls between the inner and outer walls, a more convoluted flow path may be provided by configuring the partition walls between adjacent compartments so that a first compartment (where the liquid is initially received) has a single partition wall of reduced height and all except one of the remaining compartments have two partition walls of reduced height so that liquid can pass from the first compartment sequentially through the other compartments to a final compartment in the flow path, which has only a single partition wall of reduced height. Alternatively (or additionally), the partition walls separating the compartments can be provided with openings that are arranged to direct the flow of liquid around the liner in a predetermined manner. For example, a first compartment (where the liquid is initially received) and the final compartment in the flow path may each have a single opening and the remaining compartments may have two or more (typically only two) openings through which liquid may pass. The term "opening" in the context of the openings in the partition walls can mean either a hole or a notch or cut away region in a wall.

When the liner has one or more further concentric intermediate cylindrical walls between the inner and outer walls, each cylindrical intermediate wall may have a height of less than the inner and outer walls (for example, a height of less than half of the height of the outer wall.)

It will be appreciated from the foregoing that by virtue of the radially extending partition wall(s) and, when present, the concentric intermediate wall(s), the interior of the removable liner is configured to provide a discrete number of compartments into which measured weights or volumes of reactant can be added. Each compartment may, for example, contain the same weight of reactant. Alternatively, but less usually, different amounts of reactants can be provided in each compartment.

The liquid may be introduced into the removable liner through the open top of the liner. Alternatively, a side wall of the removable liner may be provided near its upper edge with an opening through which the liquid from the liquid inlet can enter the liner. The opening in the side wall of the removable liner may be one which is only created immediately before or during the placing of the liner in the reaction chamber. Thus, it may have a closure which is removed to create the opening. The closure may take the form of a frangibly linked break-out portion of the wall. When the liquid inlet comprises a tube or pipe that extends into the reaction chamber, the break-out portion of the wall may be constructed so that it is broken by the liquid inlet when the removable liner is placed in the chemical reactor.

The removable liner is typically integrally formed (e.g. by a moulding technique such as injection moulding) from a mouldable plastics material, and more preferably a

biodegradable plastics material. Alternatively, the liner may be formed by machining or 3d- printing a plastics material or formed from a metal material (typically one which is substantially inert to the reactants).

The plastics material is chosen so that it is impervious to water and any other liquids that may be used as a reactant or reaction medium, and is resistant to both the reactants and the reaction products. Examples of suitable plastics materials include polyamides such as nylon, biodegradable polymers such as polylactic acid/polylactide and mixtures thereof.

The removable liner and/or each compartment thereof, contains one or more reactants that react with or in the presence of the liquid to produce hydrogen. There may, for example, be only a single reactant which reacts with water (when water is the liquid introduced through the liquid inlet) or there may be two or more reactants that react with or in the presence of the liquid (e.g. water) to give hydrogen.

The reactants may, for example, comprise aluminium and an alkali metal hydroxide such as sodium hydroxide. Both the alkali metal hydroxide and the aluminium will typically be in particulate (e.g. powder) form. As an alternative, a metal borohydride such as sodium borohydride may be used as the reactant. Sodium borohydride reacts with water to produced hydrogen.

The removable liner may be provided with an alignment guide which engages a complementary guide element in the interior of the reactor so that the removable liner can only be placed in the reactor in a predetermined orientation. The alignment guide can be, for example, a groove, recess, rib, ridge, protrusion or group of protrusion that engages a complementary groove, recess, rib, ridge, protrusion or group of protrusions in or from an internal wall of the reactor. More particularly, the alignment guide can be, for example, a groove extending down an outer face of the removable liner, wherein the groove engages a protrusion extending inwardly from the internal wall of the reactor (for example an internal wall of the lower body section). The protrusion can be, for example, a pipe or other tubular formation constituting or forming part of the liquid inlet.

Thus, in further embodiments (Embodiments 1.28 to 1.58), the invention provides:

1.28 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.27 wherein the removable liner is shaped to conform to the inner contours of a lower part of the reaction chamber.

1.29 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.28 wherein the reaction chamber is cylindrical, the gas outlet conduit is a tube which is upstanding from a base of the lower body section, and the removable liner is configured so as to conform to the shape of (e.g. surround) the gas outlet conduit. 1.30 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.29 wherein the removable liner is annular in shape.

1 .31 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.30 wherein the annular removable liner has a ring-shaped base portion and cylindrical inner and outer walls, the space between the inner and outer walls serving to hold the reactants during reaction to form hydrogen. 1 .32 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.31 wherein the inner and outer walls are concentric.

1 .33 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.31 or Embodiment 1.32 wherein the inner wall surrounds a central passage within which the upstanding gas outlet conduit is located.

1.34 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.33 wherein the removable liner has an interior (e.g. the space between the inner and outer walls when present) which is partitioned into a plurality of individual compartments, each of which can contain a dose of reactants that can react together with or in the presence of the liquid reactant or liquid reaction medium to form hydrogen. 1.35 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.34 wherein the compartments are configured so that liquid from the liquid inlet falls into one or a selected number (preferably one), but not all, of the compartments so that reaction is initiated in the one compartment or selected number of compartments, and then flows to other compartments thereby bringing about reaction in the said other compartments.

1.36 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.35 wherein the compartments are configured so that liquid from one compartment will only flow to another (e.g. adjacent) compartment when liquid in the one compartment has reached a particular level.

1.37 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.36 wherein partition walls between the compartments are configured so that when the liquid in one compartment has reached a particularly level, it will overflow into only a single or selected small number of (e.g. one, two or three) adjacent compartments, and preferably only a single adjacent compartment.

1.38 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.37 wherein the removable liner has concentric inner and outer walls, and the space between the concentric inner and outer walls is divided into a plurality of compartments by one or more partition walls extending in a radially outward direction from the inner wall.

1.39 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.31 to 1.33 and Embodiment 1.38 wherein one or more further concentric intermediate cylindrical walls are provided between the inner and outer walls. 1.40 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.38 or Embodiment 1.39 wherein one of the radially extending partition walls has a height greater than the other radially extending partition walls and the liquid inlet is positioned so that liquid is initially deposited in a compartment bounded on one side by the higher radially extending partition wall.

1.41 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.39 wherein the partition walls between adjacent compartments are configured so that a first compartment (where the liquid is initially received) has a single partition wall of reduced height and all except one of the remaining compartments have two partition walls of reduced height so that liquid can pass from the first compartment sequentially through the other compartments to a final compartment in the flow path, which has only a single partition wall of reduced height. 1.42 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.34 to 1.41 wherein partition walls separating the compartments are provided with openings that are arranged to direct the flow of liquid around the liner along a predetermined flow path.

1.43 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.42 wherein a first compartment (where the liquid is initially received) and a final compartment in the flow path each have a single opening and the remaining compartments have two or more (typically only two) openings through which liquid may pass.

1.44 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.39 wherein, each concentric intermediate cylindrical wall has a height of less than the inner and outer walls (for example, a height of less than half of the height of the outer wall).

1.45 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.44 wherein the liquid inlet and removable liner are configured such that liquid can be introduced into the removable liner through an open top of the liner.

1.46 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.45 wherein a side wall of the removable liner is provided near an upper edge thereof with an opening through which the liquid from the liquid inlet can enter the liner.

1.47 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.46 wherein the side wall of the removable liner is constructed so that the opening is closed by a closing element prior to placing the removable liner in the reaction chamber, and the closing element is removable before or during the placing of the liner in the reaction chamber.

1.48 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.47 wherein a protrusion is provided on an inner surface of the reactor for removing the closing element in the side wall of the removable liner as the removable liner is inserted into the reaction chamber.

1.49 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.48 wherein the protrusion is configured and positioned so as to be capable of displacing a frangibly linked break-out portion of the wall of the removable liner to create the opening as the removable liner is inserted into the reaction chamber. 1.50 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.49 wherein the protrusion comprises a pipe or other tubular formation constituting or forming part of the liquid inlet.

1.51 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.50 wherein the removable liner is integrally formed from a mouldable plastics material. 1.52 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.51 wherein the plastics material is a biodegradable plastics material.

1.53 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.51 wherein the plastics material is selected from polyamides such as nylon, biodegradable polymers such as polylactic acid/polylactide and mixtures thereof. 1.54 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.53 wherein the reactants comprise aluminium and an alkali metal hydroxide such as sodium hydroxide.

1.55 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.54 wherein the removable liner is provided with an alignment guide which engages a complementary guide element in the interior of the reactor so that the removable liner can only be placed in the reactor in a predetermined orientation.

1.56 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.55 wherein the alignment guide comprises one or more features selected from grooves, recesses, ribs, ridges and protrusions that engage one or more complementary features selected from grooves, recesses, ribs, ridges and protrusions in or from an internal wall of the reactor. 1.57 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.56 wherein the alignment guide comprises a groove extending down an outer face of the removable liner, wherein the groove engages a protrusion extending inwardly from the internal wall of the reactor (for example an internal wall of the lower body section).

1.58 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.57 wherein the protrusion comprises a pipe or other tubular formation constituting or forming part of the liquid inlet.

Hydrogen generated in the reaction chamber exits the chamber through the gas outlet conduit to the gas outlet whence it typically passes through a water-removing device (for example a water trap and/or desiccator) and then a pressure-reducing device to the fuel cell. The pressure reducing device reduces the gas pressure to a pressure suitable for the particular type of fuel cell. The fuel cell is preferably a proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell. The pressure-reducing device can be selected so as to limit the pressure of hydrogen entering the fuel cell to a pressure of no more than 1 bar, e.g. no more than 0.7 bar, or no more than 0.5 bar. When the fuel cell is a PEM cell, the pressure-reducing device may be one which limits the pressure to no more than 0.5 bar.

Accordingly, in further embodiments of the invention (Embodiments 1.59 to 1.65) there are also provided:

1.59 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.58 comprising a water- removing device located downstream of the reactor and upstream of the hydrogen fuel cell.

1.60 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.59 wherein the water removing device is a water trap.

1.61 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.60 comprising a pressure reducing device located upstream of the fuel cell (e.g. between the water- removing device (when present) and the fuel cell) for limiting the pressure of hydrogen gas entering the fuel cell.

1.62 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.61 wherein the pressure reducing device limits the pressure of hydrogen entering the fuel cell to a pressure of no more than 1 bar.

1.63 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.62 wherein the pressure reducing device limits the pressure of hydrogen entering the fuel cell to a pressure of no more than 0.7 bar. .64 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.63 wherein the pressure reducing device limits the pressure of hydrogen entering the fuel cell to a pressure of no more than 0.5 bar.

1.65 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.64 wherein the hydrogen fuel cell is a proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell. PEM fuel cells comprise an anode and a cathode, between which are sandwiched a polymeric electrolyte membrane which is capable of conducting hydrogen ions between the anode and cathode. Hydrogen gas is channelled to the anode where it is catalytically split to form hydrogen atoms which then give up an electron to form hydrogen ions. The electrons flow along an electrical connection to the cathode thereby giving rise to an electric current (which provides the power output for the fuel cell) while the hydrogen ions migrate through the membrane to the cathode. At the cathode, oxygen gas is catalytically split to form oxygen atoms which each acquire two electrons (via the electrical connection to the anode) and then combine with two protons to form water as the electrochemical reaction product. The anode and cathode may each be formed from, for example, a carbon support, catalyst (e.g. platinum) particles, an ionomer (e.g. Nafion ionomer) and a binder (e.g. PTFE - Teflon®). The catalyst facilitates the electrochemical reactions at the anode and cathode by splitting the hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (0 ₂ ) molecules. The ionomer provides paths for hydrogen ion conduction. The polymeric electrolyte membrane (also known as a proton- exchange membrane or PEM) is a semipermeable membrane which is typically formed from ionomers and is intended to conduct protons while also acting as an electronic insulator and a barrier to oxygen and hydrogen gas. Thus the PEM serves to separate the reactants hydrogen and oxygen and facilitate the transport of protons while blocking a direct electronic pathway through the membrane.

A feature of some PEM fuel cells is that the PEM cell purges (expels hydrogen) at regular intervals (e.g. every 7 seconds). At each point where purging takes place, the generation of electricity is interrupted for a period which is typically less than a second (for example up to a 150 milliseconds). As a consequence, production of electricity is not continuous. This gives rise to a problem in that, without a continuous supply of electricity, at least some of the electronic components of the apparatus will cease to work thereby resulting in the apparatus shutting down. In addition, the electrical output of the apparatus will also be discontinuous.

The present invention overcomes this problem by using one or more (typically a plurality) of charge storage devices which rapidly release charge at each interruption in the power generation and thereby smooth or reduce the magnitude of fluctuations in the electrical output of the apparatus. The charge storage devices can be rechargeable batteries but, more usually, are capacitors and in particular are supercapacitors (also known as double layer capacitors or ultracapacitors). Supercapacitors have very rapid rates of charge and discharge. Supercapacitors are able to store much greater amounts of charge than conventional capacitors. For example, individual capacitors for use in the apparatus of the invention may each have a capacitance of 250pF or greater, more usually 300pF or greater, for example 350pF or greater. Each individual supercapacitor may operate at a voltage of, for example 2-5 volts. A bank of supercapacitors (for example 8-12

supercapacitors) may therefore be used to increase the total voltage to a level

corresponding to that of the output of the PEM cell, for example to 30 volts. Examples of commercially available supercapacitors that may be used in the apparatus of the present invention are the supercapacitors produced by Maxwell Technologies of San Diego, USA and Eaton Corporation.

Accordingly, in further embodiments (Embodiments 1.66 to 1.74), the invention provides:

1.66 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.65 further comprising one or more charge storage devices which release charge when there is an interruption of power output from the PEM cell.

1.67 An apparatus according to Embodiment .66 wherein the charge storage device is connected in parallel to the fuel cell.

1.68 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.66 or 1.67 wherein the charge storage device is a rechargeable battery.

1.69 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.66 or 1.67 wherein the charge storage device is a capacitor.

1.70 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.69 comprising a plurality of charge storage devices. 1.71 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.70 wherein the plurality of charge storage devices comprises a plurality of supercapacitors.

1.72 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.71 wherein the plurality of charge storage devices comprises at least 5 supercapacitors.

1.73 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.70 to 1.72 wherein the plurality of charge storage devices comprises a plurality of capacitors (e.g.

supercapacitors)) and the total voltage produced by the plurality of capacitors (e.g.

supercapacitors) corresponds (or corresponds substantially) to the voltage output of the PEM cell. 1.74 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.73 wherein the plurality of charge storage devices comprises a plurality of capacitors (e.g. supercapacitors) and the total voltage output of the plurality of capacitors (e.g. supercapacitors) is approximately 30 volts.

The apparatus of the invention is provided with one or more power outlets. The power outlets may take the form of one or more plug sockets. Alternatively, or additionally, the power outlets may take the form of an induction charger outlet.

The power output from the apparatus may be either DC or AC or a combination of DC and AC. Thus the apparatus may be provided with DC and/or AC plug sockets and preferably both DC and AC sockets. One or more DC sockets may take the form of USB sockets. As the power generated by the PEM cell is DC power, the apparatus may comprise an AC/DC power inverter. The output of the PEM cell may be below the levels (e.g. 1 15V in the USA or 240V in the UK) provided by mains electricity and required to run most electrical devices. Therefore, the apparatus may comprise a voltage-boosting device to increase the voltage available from the power outlets to the level of a mains supply. The voltage boosting device may, for example, comprise one or more capacitors.

Accordingly, in further embodiments (Embodiments 1.75 to 1.81 ) there is provided:

1.75 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.74 wherein the apparatus comprises a DC/AC power inverter.

1.76 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.75 wherein the power outlets comprise one or more AC power outlets providing power at a mains level voltage (for example, 115V

US mains power outlet).

1.77 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.76 wherein the power outlets comprise one or more DC power outlets.

1.78 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.77 wherein the power outlets comprise one or more USB power outlets.

1.79 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.767 wherein a portion of the power output from the PEM cell is converted via a DC/AC power inverter to provide an AC output to one or more of the power outlets and a further portion of the power output from the PEM cell is provided to a DC power outlet.

1.80 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.79 which comprises a voltage increasing device to increase the voltage of the power output from the hydrogen fuel cell to a power output suitable for an AC mains power outlet (e.g. 115V or 240V).

1.81 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.80 wherein the voltage increasing device comprises one or more capacitors.

The apparatus typically comprises one or more electronic controllers that control the operation of the apparatus. The electronic controller is operatively linked to an on-off mechanism that controls the start-up of the apparatus and to the various electronic and electro-mechanical devices (e.g. pumps) and sensors (for example, pressure or temperature sensors) that are required for operation of the apparatus. The electronic controller is programmed to control the flow of the liquid reactant to the chemical reactor so that pressure and/or temperature inside the reactor do not exceed pre-determined values and, more particularly, do not exceed safe limits.

The electronic controller is linked to one or more user input devices that allow the user to control the apparatus. For example, the user input device may allow the user to start or stop pumping of the pumps, and therefore start or stop production of hydrogen/electricity. The user input device may also or instead be used to select a desired hydrogen pressure output or electrical power output of the apparatus. Typically, the user input device takes the form of one or more buttons or switches, and/or a touch screen computer interface.

One or more information output devices may be provided for providing feedback regarding the operation of the apparatus to the user. The information output device can take the form of a display screen and/or can comprise one or more light-emitting devices, such as bulbs or light emitting diodes. One or more sound emitting devices may also be provided as an audible information output device (e.g. an alarm signal).

The apparatus typically comprises one or more on-board (typically rechargeable) power sources such as batteries to provide the electrical power needed to start-up the apparatus, and in particular to power the pumps, the electronic controller, the user input devices, the output devices and the sensors. Once the apparatus has started up and the generation of hydrogen and electricity has commenced, a proportion of the electricity generated is used to recharge the batteries, a proportion is used in the operation of the apparatus and the remainder can be made available to users of the apparatus via the power outlets.

The apparatus of the invention comprises a housing, within which are contained the hydrogen fuel cell, chemical reactor, electronic components and control circuitry and other components that enable the chemical reactor and fuel cell to function and provide a supply of electricity. The housing may comprise a base and one or more panels secured to the base. Within the housing, one or more frames or supporting members may be provided to hold the components of the apparatus in place. The one or more panels are typically formed by moulding from a suitable mouldable plastics material such as polypropylene.

Access to the interior of the housing may be restricted by the use of locks or security screws or bolts to fasten elements of the housing that would otherwise be removable to give access to the housing interior. Alternatively, or additionally, openable or removable elements of the housing may be secured by means of tamper evident fastenings that indicate whether the housing has been opened. For example, the tamper evident fastenings can take the form of fastenings (e.g. frangible clips) that are designed to break when an element of the housing (e.g. a panel) is removed or opened.

Although access to the interior of the housing may be restricted, access to the interior of the reactor is permitted to allow removal and replacement or refilling of the removable liner. The upper body section of the reactor is therefore typically accessible from the exterior of the housing. This can be accomplished, for example, by means of an opening in the housing (e.g. in an upper surface thereof) through which the upper body section of the reactor protrudes.

Other components of the apparatus that are accessible from the housing exterior include control elements such as switches, touch screens, control pads, visual displays and power outlets. The housing may also be provided with a water inlet through which water can be introduced to replenish the water in the water reservoir. The water inlet is typically provided with a cap or stopper that can be removed to fill the reservoir and then replaced.

The operation of the apparatus typically involves the generation of heat and means are therefore provided for removing heat from the interior of the housing and shielding heat- sensitive components of the apparatus from heat. The apparatus may therefore include one or more fans for drawing air through the apparatus and expelling hot air. The housing is therefore typically provided with air vents to allow hot air to be vented to the exterior and cool air drawn into the housing. Accordingly, in further embodiments (Embodiments 1.82 to 1.85), the invention provides:

1.82 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to1 81 wherein the housing comprises a base and one or more panels secured to the base.

1.83 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.82 wherein the one or more panels are formed by moulding from a suitable mouldable plastics material such as polypropylene. 1.84 An apparatus according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.82 wherein the housing comprises one or more elements (e.g. panels) that can be removed to give access to the interior of the housing and wherein one or more of the elements (e.g. panels) is secured by means of tamper evident fastenings to other components of the housing so as to provide an indicator as to whether the housing has been opened. 1.85 An apparatus according to Embodiment 1.84 wherein the tamper evident fastenings take the form of fastenings (e.g. frangible clips) that are designed to break when an element of the housing (e.g. a panel) is removed or opened.

The apparatus of the invention comprises a removable liner which is disposed inside the reaction chamber and is supported within the lower body section. The removable liner is capable of holding liquid and containing one or more reactants that react in the presence of water to form hydrogen gas, and is removable from the reaction chamber when the upper and lower body sections are separated.

The removable liner prevents or minimises the likelihood of reactants coming into contact with the interior surfaces of the reaction chamber. The reactants are introduced into the removable liner, either before or after the liner has been placed inside the reactor, and the reaction takes place in the liner. Once reaction between the reactants has been completed, the upper body section (e.g. lid) of the reactor can be removed or opened and the removable liner removed. The liner can then either be discarded, or cleaned for subsequent re-use. The removable liner may be pre-filled with one or more reactants (typically solid reactants) before placing inside the reaction chamber. The solid reactants may be provided in a sealed cartridge comprising a removable liner and a lid. The lid is wholly or partly removed, or the cartridge (liner wall or lid) is punctured before inserting the cartridge into the reactor. The lid provides a water-tight seal which prevents the ingress of moisture into the cartridge. The lid may be take the form of a cap, e.g. formed from a plastics or metal material, which can be secured to the liner by means of a screw thread, friction fit or snap fit. Alternatively, the lid can take the form of a covering foil top or polymeric membrane which can be glued or heat sealed in place. The lid can therefore be easily fully or partly removed by the user before use of the cartridge.

The invention therefore also provides a cartridge comprising a removable liner as described herein, one or more reactants which react to form hydrogen when contacted with an aqueous liquid disposed within the removable liner and a lid.

Accordingly, in a further aspect (Embodiment 2.1) of the invention, there is provided a cartridge comprising a removable liner according to any one of Embodiments 1.1 and 1.28 to 1.58 and a lid, the removable liner containing one or more reactants which react with a liquid reactant or in the presence of a liquid reaction medium, to form hydrogen.

In further embodiments (Embodiments 2.2 to 2.8, the invention provides:

2.2 A cartridge according to Embodiment 2.1 wherein the reactants contained within the removable liner are solid reactants.

2.3 A cartridge according to Embodiment 2.2 wherein the solid reactants are capable of reacting with water to form hydrogen.

2.4 A cartridge according to any one of Embodiments 2.1 to 2.4 which comprises a lid that can be wholly or partially removed before the cartridge is inserted into a reactor. 2.5 A cartridge according to Embodiment 2.4 wherein the lid is capable of being wholly removed before the cartridge is inserted into the reactor.

2.6 A cartridge according to Embodiment 2.4 the lid takes the form of a cap which, prior to use, is secured to the liner by means of a screw thread, friction fit or snap fit. 2.7 A cartridge according to Embodiment 2.4 wherein the lid takes the form of a covering foil top or polymeric membrane which is glued or heat sealed in place.

2.8 A cartridge according to any one of Embodiments 2.1 to 2.7 wherein the removable liner is annular in shape, and comprises a ring-shaped base portion and concentric inner and outer walls, the space between the inner and outer walls serving to hold the reactants during reaction to form hydrogen.

In use, where the cartridge has a lid, this is wholly or partially removed before the removable liner is placed inside the reaction chamber. Alternatively, an intact sealed cartridge may be introduced into the reaction chamber in such a way that the cartridge is punctured, or an opening in the cartridge is created, as the cartridge is placed in the reaction chamber or as the upper and lower body sections are connected together. Once the cartridge or removable liner has been placed in the reaction chamber, the reactor is sealed by connecting the upper and lower body section together. The apparatus can then be switched on and started up with the result that the liquid reactant or liquid reaction medium is introduced into the removable liner. The reactants react together to generate hydrogen gas. The hydrogen generated exits the reaction chamber through the gas outlet and passes on to a hydrogen fuel cell (PEM cell) which generates electricity from the hydrogen.

In a further aspect of the invention (Embodiment 3.1), there is provided a removable liner per se, wherein the removable liner is as defined in any one of Embodiments .28 to 1.58.

The apparatuses of the present invention produce hydrogen at low pressures, and in particular pressures of up to about 12 bar. More particularly, the apparatuses of the invention can generate hydrogen at pressures in the range (i) 0.5 Bar to 12 Bar; or (ii) 0.5 bar to 10 Bar; or (iii) 0.5 Bar to 8 Bar; or (iv) 0.5 Bar to 7 Bar; or (v) 0.5 Bar to 6 Bar; or (vi) 0.5 Bar to 5 Bar; or (vii) 0.5 Bar to 3 Bar. The pressures of hydrogen generated by the apparatus of the can be controlled by, inter alia, the amounts of reactants used in a given reaction and, the manner in which they are presented.

The apparatus of the invention is generally portable.

The term "portable" as used herein refers to an apparatus having a weight and dimensions that enable it to be moved (e.g. lifted and carried) comfortably by one or two people of average strength. Thus, for example, a portable apparatus of the invention can weigh up to about 25 kg when empty of reactants. More typically, the portable apparatus will have an empty weight of up to 20 kg, for example up to 15 kg. In one embodiment, the apparatus has an empty weight of 5 kg to 20kg. The dimensions of portable apparatuses of the invention may be such that it has a maximum width of up to 1 metre, a maximum length of up to 1 metres and a maximum height of up to 1 metres. More usually, the dimensions of the portable apparatus of the invention may be such that it has a maximum width of up to 0.75 metre, a maximum length of up to 0.75 metres and a maximum height of up to 0.75 metre. In a further aspect of the invention (Embodiment 4.1), there is provided a chemical reactor for producing hydrogen, the chemical reactor comprising:

upper and lower body sections connected together so as to enclose a reaction chamber, the upper and lower body sections being separable to allow the introduction of one or more chemical reactants and reconnectable to form a gas-tight seal therebetween; a liquid inlet tube extending inwardly from an inner wall of the reactor;

a gas outlet through which hydrogen gas can exit the reactor;

an upwardly extending gas outlet conduit located centrally within the lower body section, the upwardly extending gas outlet conduit serving to connect the reaction chamber to the gas outlet;

wherein an annular space is present in the lower body section between a radially inner wall of the lower body section and a radially outer wall of the upwardly extending gas outlet conduit, in which annular space, a removable liner, for example a removable liner described herein, can be accommodated.

In particular embodiments (collectively referred to for convenience as Embodiment 4.2), the chemical reactor is as defined in any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.20.

In a further aspect (Embodiment 5.1), the invention provides a combination of a (i) chemical reactor as described herein and as defined in Embodiment 4.1 or Embodiment 4.2 and (ii) a removable liner as described herein and as defined in any one of Embodiments 1.1 and 1.28 to 1.58, or a cartridge as defined in any one of Embodiments 2.1 to 2.8. The invention also provides (as Embodiment 6.1) a method of producing hydrogen gas using an apparatus as described herein and as defined in any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.85, which method comprises introducing one or more reactants and a liquid reactant or a liquid reaction medium into the chemical reactor to bring about a reaction to generate hydrogen, and drawing off hydrogen thus generated through the hydrogen gas outlet.

The invention also provides (as Embodiment 7.1), a method of generating hydrogen gas , the method comprising:

(i) providing a cartridge (optionally as described herein in any of Embodiments 2.1 to 2.8) containing one or more reactants which react in the presence of water to form hydrogen gas;

(ii) placing the cartridge into a chemical reactor comprising:

upper and lower body sections connected together so as to enclose a reaction chamber, the upper and lower body sections being separable to allow the introduction of one or more chemical reactants and reconnectable to form a gas-tight seal therebetween;

a liquid inlet tube extending inwardly from an inner wall of the reactor;

a gas outlet through which hydrogen gas can exit the reactor;

an upwardly extending gas outlet conduit located centrally within the lower body section, the upwardly extending gas outlet conduit serving to connect the reaction chamber to the gas outlet;

the cartridge being placed in the reactor so that it resides into the lower body section of the reactor;

(iii) connecting the upper and lower body portions to form a gas-tight seal therebetween;

(v) introducing an aqueous liquid through the liquid inlet tube so that it falls into the opened cartridge, thereby to react with the one or more reactants in the cartridge to generate hydrogen gas.

In further embodiments (Embodiments 7.2 to 7.4), the invention provides:

7.2 A method as defined in Embodiment 7.1 , wherein the cartridge is provided as a sealed cartridge which is opened prior to placing it into the reactor. 7.3 A method as defined in Embodiment 7.2, wherein the cartridge comprises a removable liner and a lid, which lid is fully or partly removed prior to placing the removable liner in the reactor and wherein the removable liner is formed so as to be able to contain the reactants and the aqueous liquid and accommodate a reaction between the reactants and aqueous liquid, and be removable after completion of the reaction.

7.4 A method as defined in Embodiment 7.3 wherein the cartridge is as defined in anyone of Embodiments 2.1 to 2.8.

In a further aspect of the invention (Embodiment 8.1), there is a provided an apparatus for generating electricity, the apparatus comprising:

a housing and, mounted in the housing, a PEM hydrogen fuel cell and a chemical reactor for producing hydrogen to supply the fuel cell to enable the fuel cell to generate electricity, the PEM fuel cell being of a type that operates a hydrogen purge at

predetermined (e.g. regular) intervals; and

a power outlet to which an electrical power-consuming device can be attached; wherein the chemical reactor comprises:

upper and lower body sections connected together so as to enclose a reaction chamber, the upper and lower body sections being separable to allow the introduction of one or more chemical reactants into the reaction chamber and being reconnectable to form a gas-tight seal therebetween;

a liquid inlet for introducing a liquid which serves as a liquid reactant and/or liquid reaction medium into the removable liner such that a chemical reaction can take place between chemical reactants in the chemical reactor to produce hydrogen; and a gas outlet through which hydrogen gas can exit the reaction chamber for onward flow to the hydrogen fuel cell; and

one or more charge storage devices (e.g. as defined in any one of Embodiments 1.66 to 1.74) which release charge when there is an interruption of power output from the PEM cell as a result of the hydrogen purge;

the apparatus being programmed to provide a continuous supply of electricity to the power outlet by a combination of electricity supplied by the PEM fuel cell and charge released from the one or more charge storage devices. In a further aspect of the invention (Embodiment 9.1), there is a provided an apparatus for generating electricity, the apparatus comprising:

a housing and, mounted in the housing, a PEM hydrogen fuel cell and a chemical reactor for producing hydrogen to supply the fuel cell to enable the fuel cell to generate electricity, the PEM fuel cell of a type that operates a hydrogen purge at predetermined (e.g. regular) intervals; and

a power outlet to which an electrical power-consuming device can be attached; wherein the apparatus comprises one or more charge storage devices (e.g. as defined in any one of Embodiments 1.66 to .74) which release charge when there is an interruption of power output from the PEM cell as a result of the hydrogen purge;

the apparatus being programmed to provide a continuous supply of electricity to the power outlet by a combination of electricity supplied by the PEM fuel cell and charge released from the one or more charge storage devices.

Our earlier International patent application (PCT/EP2017/066839) discloses a hydrogen generating apparatus comprising a reactor vessel and a docking base unit upon which the reactor base is supported. The reactor vessel disclosed in PCT/EP2017/066839 may be provided with a gas-permeable (and optionally water permeable) liner, for example in the general form of a sock, may be located inside the lower reactor body portion so that when the reactants drop into the lower reactor body portion, the reaction to produce hydrogen takes place within the liner. It is further disclosed in PCT/EP2017/066839 that the liner can be constructed such that before upper and lower reactor body portions are secured together, the liner or sock can be loosely positioned in and around the inside of the lower reactor body portion and over a central exit tube in the lower reactor body portion.

The combination of reactor vessel, docking base and a liner disclosed in

PCT/EP2017/066839 is not intended to be within the scope of the present invention.

Accordingly, in a further embodiment (Embodiment 10.1), the invention provides an apparatus as defined in any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.85 or a reactor as defined in Embodiment 4.1 wherein the apparatus (or reactor) is other than one comprising: (a) a reactor vessel within which a reaction between two or more chemical reactants can take place to generate hydrogen, the reactor vessel having a valved outlet through which hydrogen can be drawn off; and

(b) a docking base unit upon which the reactor vessel is supported and to which the reactor vessel is removably attached, the docking base unit having a valve-engaging element which engages the valved outlet of the reactor vessel so as to open the valved outlet to allow hydrogen to be drawn off when the reactor vessel is placed on the docking base unit.

The liner (e.g. sock) disclosed in PCT/EP2017/066839 is disclosed as being formed so that it can be loosely positioned in and around the inside of the lower reactor body portion and over a central exit tube in the lower reactor body portion.

The liner of the present application is distinguished from the liner in PCT/EP2017/066839 in that the liner of the invention typically has walls that are sufficiently rigid or stiff that they are self-supporting and maintain the shape of the liner. The liners may therefore be formed from moulded, formed, 3d-printed or machined plastics materials or from a metal (typically one which does not react with the reactants).

Accordingly, in further embodiments, the invention provides:

10.2 An apparatus as defined in any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.85 wherein the removable liner has walls that are sufficiently rigid or stiff that they are self-supporting and maintain the shape of the liner.

10.3 An apparatus as defined in any one of Embodiments 1.1 to 1.85 wherein the removable liner is formed from moulded, formed, 3d-printed or machined plastics materials or from a metal.

10.4 An apparatus according to Embodiment 10.3 wherein the removable liner is formed from a mouldable plastics material.

Further aspects and embodiments of the invention will be apparent from the specific description below and the drawings.

Brief Description of the Drawings Figure 1 is a perspective view of an apparatus for generating electricity according to a first embodiment of the invention.

Figure 2 is a front view of the apparatus shown in Figure 1.

Figure 3 is a side view of the apparatus shown in Figure 1. Figure 4 is a top-down view of the apparatus shown in Figure 1 with the reactor removed from the apparatus.

Figure 5 shows a reactor suitable for use in the apparatus shown in Figures 1 to 4.

Figure 6 is a side view of the reactor shown in Figure 5.

Figure 7 is a bottom-up view of the reactor shown in Figure 5. Figure 8 is a cross-sectional view of the reactor shown in Figure 5 through section A-A.

Figure 9A is a perspective view of one type of cartridge for use with the apparatus of the invention.

Figure 9B is a top-down view of the cartridge shown in Figure 9A.

Figure 10 is a perspective view of a further type of cartridge for use with the apparatus of the invention.

Figure 1 is a top right view of the apparatus with the casing and the reactor removed showing the interior components of the apparatus.

Figure 2 is a front view of the apparatus with the casing and the reactor removed showing the interior components of the apparatus. Figure 13 is a side view of the apparatus with the casing and the reactor removed showing the interior components of the apparatus.

Figure 14 is a bottom left view of the apparatus with the casing and the reactor removed showing the interior components of the apparatus.

Detailed Description of the Invention The invention will now be illustrated but not limited by reference to the specific

embodiments shown in the drawings Figures 1 to 14.

The apparatus of the invention comprises an outer casing within which is contained a reactor for generating hydrogen and a PEM fuel cell that consumes the hydrogen to produce electricity. Also contained within the outer casing are a water reservoir and an associated pump for conveying water to the reactor, a water trap for removing water from the hydrogen gas produced by the reactor before the hydrogen enters the fuel cell, a number of fans for cooling the interior of the casing, and various printed circuit boards and associated electronic components and devices that control the operation of the apparatus. Figures 1 to 4 are external views of the apparatus, Figures 5 to 8 show the reactor, Figures 9A, 9B and 0 show removable cartridges for containing reactants that react in water to form hydrogen, and Figures 11 to 14 show the internal components of the apparatus.

As shown in Figures 1 to 4, the apparatus has an outer casing (12) of substantially spherical shape comprising front panel (12A), rear panel (12B), side panels (12C) and (12D) and base (12E), each of which is formed from a moulded plastics material. The base (12E) has the shape of an upturned dish. The side panels (12C) and (12D) are secured to the front (12A) and rear (12B) panels by frangible clips that are designed to break when the panels are separated. This is a tamper-evident feature that makes it possible to determine whether or not the casing has been opened up. Set into the front panel (12A) are switch buttons, an on-off button (14A) and a "start" button (14B), for controlling the operation of the apparatus. Also set into the front panel are power outlet sockets to which electricity-consuming devices can be connected. The power outlet sockets can be "mains-type" outlet sockets (16A) for connecting larger devices or USB sockets (16B) for connecting smaller, portable devices (e.g. mobile phones). In Figure 1 , both "mains-type" and USB sockets are shown.

At the top of the casing there is an opening in panel (12A) through which the lid (114) of a reactor (100) protrudes. The lid (114) is provided with an elongate knob (114A) which is non-rotatably connected to the lid and can be gripped and twisted to unscrew and remove the lid to give access to the reactor interior. An opening for a water inlet (18) is set into the rear panel (12B), as can best be seen from Figure 4. The opening is also accessible from the exterior of the apparatus. The water inlet is linked via tubing to a water reservoir (302) within the casing (see Figures 11 and 12 below) as discussed in more detail in the paragraphs below. The water inlet is closed by a removable plug which can be, for example, a simple push fit plug provided with a number (e.g. two or three) annular sealing ribs around its circumference.

The rear panel (12B) of the casing is shaped to form a handle (20) to facilitate carrying of the apparatus and is also provided with ventilation holes (22) to aid cooling of the components inside the casing. Located inside the casing (12) is a reactor (100) in which a chemical reaction can take place to generate hydrogen gas. One such type of reactor is shown in Figures 5 to 8.

Referring to Figures 5 to 8, the reactor comprises a generally cylindrical body ( 12) which has a base (112A) at its lower end and a removable lid (114), formed from a suitable metal such as stainless steel, attached to its upper end. The body (112) can be formed, for example, by welding a stainless steel cylinder (which can be cut from a length of stainless steel tubing) to a machined stainless steel base. Alternatively, the reactor can be machined from a block of stainless steel. In a further alternative, the body (11) can be formed by deep drawing from a blank of stainless steel sheet. As an alternative to steel, the body (1 2) can be formed from a suitably tough and chemically resistant (to the reactants) plastics material, for example by injection moulding.

The reactor body (112) has a cylindrical wall with an upper edge which can engage an annular groove (114B) in the lower surface of the lid (114). A gasket formed from a suitable gas-tight sealing material (e.g. an elastomeric seal) is disposed within the groove (114B). Extending from top to bottom through the centre of the interior of the reactor is a gas outlet conduit tube (116) which can be formed, for example, from stainless steel. The gas outlet conduit tube is provided with lateral openings (118) to permit gas flow from the reactor interior into the interior of the outlet tube. The gas outlet conduit tube is connected at its lower end (e.g. by welding) to the base (112A) and is connected at its upper end to the lid (114) by virtue of an external thread on the gas outlet tube (116) which engages a correspondingly internally threaded portion at the centre of the lid (114). The elongate knob (114A) facilitates the screwing and unscrewing of the lid. By screwing the lid (114) down on to the top of the outlet tube (116), the elastomeric seal is compressed between the upper edge of the cylindrical wall and the groove (114B) so that a gas-tight seal is formed between the lid (114) and the reactor body (1 12).

The base (112A) of the reactor body (112) has a central threaded opening which is aligned with the lower end of the gas outlet tube (1 16). An elbow connector (120) is screwed into the threaded opening and is connected or connectable to a hose (e.g. by means of a nut (121 )) to deliver hydrogen produced inside the reactor (100) to other parts of the apparatus (e.g. a hydrogen fuel cell - see below).

The reactor (100) is also provided with a water inlet pipe (122) and a circular opening (124) which communicates with an internally threaded boss (125) mounted or formed on the exterior of the reactor body. A pressure sensor (126) (see Figure 11 ), which detects the gas pressure inside the reactor, is connected to the threaded boss (125).

In use, the lid (114) is removed by unscrewing from the reactor body (112) and a reactant- containing cartridge (200) is placed inside the reactor. Figure 8 shows the reactor (100) with a cartridge (200) therein. The cartridge (200) is located inside the reactor (100) by placing it over the gas outlet tube (116) so that the gas outlet tube (1 16) extends upwardly through and is surrounded by a central tubular section of the cartridge. The structure of the cartridge is described in more detail below.

Figures 11 to 14 show the layout of internal components in the apparatus (with the casing and reactor removed).

The apparatus comprises a water reservoir (302) which is connected to the water inlet (18) via tubing (304) so that the water reservoir can be replenished. The water inlet (18) is provided with a removable closure such as a plug to seal the inlet once the water reservoir has been filed with water. As an alternative to a plug, a screw cap could be used instead. The water reservoir (302) has an outlet spigot (303) which is connected to an air-bleed tube (not shown) which equalises the pressure in the water reservoir (302) as it is being filled with water. A further outlet (not shown in the drawings) is connected via a length of tubing to a pump (306) which can be, for example, a peristaltic or diaphragm pump).

Water from the water reservoir (302) is pumped to the water inlet pipe (122) of the reactor by the pump (306). Before entering the pipe (122), the water passes through a one-way pressure valve (not shown) mounted on the outer surface of the reactor body. The one-way valve allows water to enter the reactor (100) but prevents hydrogen gas generated in the reactor from exiting the reactor via this route.

The pump is powered by an on-board power supply (320), which may take the form of or comprise one or more rechargeable batteries within the casing. The on-board power supply is used to start the pump (306) and the electronic equipment of the apparatus before hydrogen generation and production of electricity has commenced. Control of the pump (306) in response to pressure sensor (126) is provided by electronic components mounted on printed circuit board (PCB) (326e). Once the apparatus has started producing electricity, a proportion of the electricity is used to power the pump (306) and other electrical equipment, another proportion is used to recharge the on-board power supply (320) and a further proportion is provided to one or more power outlet sockets (16A/16B).

Water pumped into the reactor (100) through the water inlet pipe (122) reacts with reactants in the cartridge (200) to generate hydrogen gas. Hydrogen gas then exits through lateral openings (1 18) in the gas outlet conduit tube (1 16), down through the tube, out through the elbow connector (120 secured to the base of the reactor and along another length of tubing to a water trap (310), which removes moisture from the hydrogen gas generated in the reactor (100). From the water trap (310), the hydrogen gas passes along tubing to a pressure reducer (not labelled) which limits the pressure of hydrogen to approximately 0.5 - 7 psi (0.035 bar to 0.5 bar).

The reduced pressure gas enters a proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell (314) through a solenoid valve. The PEM cell consumes the hydrogen gas and uses it to generate electricity. The PEM fuel cell purges every 7 seconds and any hydrogen purged is vented to the atmosphere via openings in the casing (22). As the pressure of hydrogen in the PEM cell is low, hydrogen gas can be vented to the atmosphere without risk of combustion. When the fuel cell purges, this leads to an interruption of the electrical output of the PEM cell. Therefore, the apparatus also comprises a series of high-capacity capacitors (316) mounted on a PCB (326a) which stores electricity produced by the PEM cell to provide electricity to the power outlet sockets when the fuel cell is purging. The capacitors are able to discharge 05W for a period of 1.5 milliseconds. This prevents/reduces fluctuations in electricity supplied to the power outlet sockets as a result of the purge cycle of the PE cell.

A further PCB (326c) is provided for control of the PEM cell and is located underneath the PEM fuel cell. The current produced by the PEM cell is DC current. An AC-DC power inverter (318)

(mounted on inverter PCB (326b)) is therefore provided to convert DC current produced by the fuel cell to provide an AC current output which is delivered to the mains power outlet socket (16A). The USB power outlets (16B) can use DC current generated by the fuel cell without the need for conversion to AC. A USB outlet PCB (326d) is also provided to control the electrical output of the USB power outlets (16B).

Further capacitors (322) are provided on PCB (326a) which boost the power output of the PEM cell from 30V to 15V as required for a US mains power outlet, or to any other nationally prescribed voltage level (for example 240 volts in the UK).

In order to prevent the fuel cell from overheating, several cooling fans are provided. A first fan (324a) is positioned to direct air flow towards the inverter (318), second and third cooling fans (324b, 324c) provide air flow in the centre of the apparatus and a fourth fan (324d) is mounted near the bottom of the apparatus and is able to draw air through ventilation holes (22) in the casing. Cooling fan 324c is positioned above cooling fan 324b and is positioned to change the direction of air flow from fan 324c and direct it towards the centre of the apparatus. The fourth fan (324d) is mounted beneath the fuel cell and is also able to draw air through ventilation holes (22) in the casing to cool the fuel cell. The fuel cell may also be provided with a cowling for directing airflow out of the apparatus to prevent or minimise recirculation of warm air back into the casing.

The hydrogen for the PEM fuel cell is generated by reaction of reactants in the cartridge (200) with or in water entering the reactor through water inlet pipe (122). Cartridges for use with the apparatus of the invention can be seen in Figures 9A and 9B and Figure 10. In general, the cartridges have a cylindrical outer wall and a tubular structure extending upwardly through the centre of the cartridge to define an annular space between the outer wall and tubular structure for containing reactants. The diameter of the internal bore of the central tubular structure is such that it can fit over and about the gas outlet conduit tube 116 in the reactor.

The cartridge shown in Figures 9A and 9B (210) has a cylindrical outer wall (211 ) and a concentric inner tubular structure (212), both of which are connected (e.g. by virtue of being integrally moulded with) a circular base piece. Together, the upper surface of the base piece, the radially outer surface of the tubular structure (212) and the radially inner surface of the outer wall (211) form an annular reactant-containing space.

The cartridge (210) has a groove or channel (213) down its side extending from the bottom of the cartridge up the majority of the height of the cartridge. The channel can engage with a formation in the reactor body, for example the inwardly protruding end of the water inlet pipe ( 22), to act as a locating means to ensure that the cartridge (200) can only be placed in the reactor body (12) in a single rotational orientation. A portion of the outer wall (21 1) is of a lesser thickness than the rest of the wall and constitutes a frangible panel which can be broken out to form a horizontal opening (21 ). The horizontal opening (214) intersects the groove/channel (312) at its top.

The cartridge (210) is typically formed (e.g. moulded) from a plastics material, for example a biodegradable plastic (e.g. a nylon/polylactic acid mix).

In this embodiment, the cartridges are filled with a mixed of powdered aluminium and powdered sodium hydroxide. In the presence of water, the aluminium reacts with the water to produce hydrogen gas and aluminium hydroxide, with the sodium hydroxide acting as a catalyst.

The cartridge is provided to the user as a sealed container containing the reactants. The frangible panel is therefore intact and a lid (not shown) is removably attached (e.g. by a simple friction fit) to the top of the cartridge. In order to provide further protection against moisture ingress into the cartridge, a removable protective membrane may be heat sealed over the mouth of the cartridge before application of the lid.

When the lid (and the protective membrane if present) have been removed and the cartridge (210) is placed in the reactor vessel ( 00), the water inlet pipe (122) aligns with groove/channel (213) to ensure the cartridge can only be placed in the reactor in a single orientation. The cartridge can then be rotated to break the seal covering the horizontal opening (214). The water inlet pipe (122) then protrudes through the horizontal opening (214) so that water can be pumped into the reactant-containing cartridge to initiate the chemical reaction to form hydrogen.

A further channel/groove (215) is provided at the top of the cartridge and also intersects the horizontal openings (214) and facilitates removal of the cartridge once the reactants in the cartridge have reacted.

A cartridge (220) according to a further embodiment of the invention is shown in Figure 10. In this embodiment, the cartridge (220 has a cylindrical outer wall (221), an inner wall defined by a concentric central tubular structure (222) and a base (not shown). The central tubular structure is hollow and is open at both upper and lower ends, the open lower end being aligned with an opening in the base of the cartridge. The inner diameter of the central tubular structure is such that it can fit over and about the gas outlet tube (116) in the reactor.

In contrast to the cartridge shown in Figures 9A and 9B, the cartridge (220) has a plurality of partition walls (223) radiating outwardly from the inner wall (222) to the outer wall (221) of the cartridge. The partition walls (223) partition the annular space between the inner wall (222) and the outer wall (221) into a number of discrete reaction compartments, each compartment containing a dose of the solid reactants. When placed in the reactor (100), one of the reaction compartments (the "first compartment") is situated below water inlet pipe (122). When water enters the reactor, it falls into the first compartment and, as further water enters the cartridge, the first compartment fills and the water can overflow into an adjacent compartment. This allows for a controlled reaction between the solid reactants in the cartridge and the water in a series of steps, as each compartment in turn fills with water and reaction is initiated. In this way, immediate reaction of water with all of the contents of the cartridge is avoided.

As can be seen in Figure 10, one of the partition walls, namely the wall labelled (224), is of a greater height that the others. Thus, partition wall (224) has a height equal to the height of the inner (222) and outer (221) walls, whereas the other partition walls (223) have a reduced height. The water inlet pipe (122) is typically positioned so that it is situated above one of the two compartments that are defined by the higher wall. This means that when the first compartment fills, the water can only overflow in a single direction and therefore the compartments fill one at a time starting from a compartment adjacent the highest wall in either a clockwise or anticlockwise direction.

As with the cartridge shown in Figures 9A and 9B, the cartridge of Figure 10 is typically formed (e.g. by moulding) from a plastics material such as a biodegradable plastics material (e.g. a nylon/polylactic acid mix), and is filled with a suitable reactant or mixture of reactants, such as a mixture of powdered aluminium and powdered sodium hydroxide. In the presence of water, the aluminium reacts with the water to produce hydrogen gas and aluminium hydroxide, with the sodium hydroxide acting as a catalyst. The cartridge is typically provided with a lid to prevent the ingress of moisture prior to use. A polymeric film membrane may also be heat-sealed over the mouth of the cartridge to provide further protection against moisture penetration.

Although in the embodiment described herein, water is used as a liquid reagent to react with the solid reactants in the cartridge, it should be understood that other liquids (typically aqueous liquids) can be used provided that they are selected such that they react with the solid reactants to form hydrogen gas.

In addition, the reactants can be any of a number of different pairs of reactants that react (with a liquid reaction medium, e.g. water) to form hydrogen as described above but, in a particular embodiment, the reactants are aluminium powder and sodium hydroxide.

In addition, although the cartridges are typically provided sealed and pre-filled with reactants, the reactants can instead be provided in the form of sachets that can be opened and the contents poured into an empty cartridge prior to use. In a further alternative, water- soluble pouches or sachets or other water soluble or disintegratabie containment forms containing reactants may be provided for addition to an empty cartridge prior to use.

The operation of the apparatus will now be described. In use, a cartridge is prepared by removing the lid and any protective membrane to expose the reactants inside. Alternatively, an empty cartridge may be loaded with one or more chemical reactants suitable for generating hydrogen. The chemical reactant may be powdered and may be loaded into the cartridge neat as a powder or in sachets or pouches that degrade when contacted with water. The lid (1 14) is then unscrewed and removed so that the cartridge can be placed in the reactor Once the cartridge (200) has been loaded into the reactor (100), the reactor lid (114) is screwed back on so that the sealing gasket in the annular groove (1 4) on the underside of the lid is compressed between the lid (1 14) and the upper rim of the reactor body, thereby giving rise to a sealed reactor vessel in which the only exit for hydrogen gas is through the lateral openings (118) in the upstanding central gas outlet conduit tube ( 16). No other outlets are provided through which hydrogen can leave the reactor vessel.

When the reactant-containing cartridge has been placed in the reactor and the reactor sealed, and the water reservoir (302) has been filled with water, the pump (306) can then be turned on using switch buttons (14) and (16). The pump (306) will then pump water from the water reservoir (302) to the reactor ( 00) and the reaction between the reactants and the water will begin to generate hydrogen . The pressure inside the reactor is monitored using pressure sensor (126) and, if the pressure fails to reach a predetermined level (e.g. 35 psi - approximately 2.41 bar), the apparatus shuts down. This may occur when the user has failed to fill the water tank or place a cartridge containing reactants into the reactor. It is then necessary to restart the apparatus.

Once the start-up phase has been successfully accomplished, and hydrogen generation and electricity production have commenced, the pump is programmed to continue to pump water slowly until the pressure inside the reactor reaches 60psi (approximately 4.14 bar); and it then stops. As the hydrogen gas is drawn into the PE to create electricity, the pressure in the reactor reduces. When the pressure drops to 35psi, the peristaltic pump restarts and pumps water until the pressure within the reactor reaches 65psi (approximately 4.48 bar). This runs as a cycle until the end of reaction. The pressure is continuously measured by the pressure sensor (126) within the reactor, and results are sent to the electronic controller (124) so that the operation of the pumps can be controlled as required. The hydrogen gas generated in the reactor vessel passes through the elbow connector (120) and via gas-tight tubing to the water trap (310) and thence to a pressure reducer (not labelled) which is attached via a solenoid valve to the PEM fuel cell (314), where it is consumed to generate electricity. The output from the PEM fuel cell is DC current, and therefore the AC-DC power inverter (318) converts the DC power generated by the fuel cell to AC power which can then be used as the power source. Otherwise it is converted into a 12v supply and/or USB electrical supply. As stated above, a proportion of the electricity produced by the PEM cell can be used to recharge the batteries (although in some embodiments this is not done), and a further proportion of the electricity can be used to power the electricity-consuming devices such as the peristaltic pumps and the PCB. The remainder of the electricity generated can be carried by cable (not shown) to a connector (e.g. a plug socket (16) or 12v socket or USB ports) for connection to external electrical devices. The electronic controller that controls the operation of the apparatus is able to regulate the power supply by means of a bank of super capacitors. Because PEM fuel cells typically expel (purge) a small amount of hydrogen to atmosphere every 7-30 seconds and, while doing so, the electrical power output from the PEM is interrupted for a very brief period (e.g. 100 milliseconds, this has the effect of interrupting the electricity supply for the end user with the result that the apparatus would shut down before being reset manually. To provide continuity of supply of electricity to run the apparatus and prevent shutting down at each purge, super capacitors are provided to bridge the drop in electrical power for the 0Omilliseconds when the PEM cell is in purge mode.

During operation of the apparatus, solid waste products typically accumulate in the cartridge. At intervals, the lid (1 4) can be disconnected (e.g. unscrewed) so that the cartridge can be replaced with a new cartridge containing new reactants.

In a variation of the apparatus shown in Figures 11 to 14, the apparatus (10) may be provided with a recycling system for recycling hydrogen gas released by the PEM cell during purging. For example, purged hydrogen can be passed through a pressure multiplier and filter (to capture the water contained within the purged hydrogen) and then reintroduced into the gas flow immediately after the pressure reducer. In one embodiment, the purged hydrogen exits the PEM every few seconds at a pressure which is usually in the range from about 1 psi to about 15 psi (the value can vary from one PEM cell to another) for a purge period of 100 milliseconds, and the pressure multiplier holds the purged hydrogen in a storage chamber until the pressure has reached a predetermined value (e.g. 14psi) at which point it directs a pulse of hydrogen (e.g. 7psi of hydrogen) into the gas flow immediately after the pressure reducer. The cycle is typically continuous and results in more efficient use of hydrogen generated by the apparatus.

Equivalents It will readily be apparent that numerous modifications and alterations may be made to the specific embodiments of the invention described above without departing from the principles underlying the invention. All such modifications and alterations are intended to be embraced by this application.