TRITIUM RANDOM NUMBER GENERATOR

1.0 TECHNICAL FIELD

[0001] The present disclosure relates generally to true random number generators, specifically random number generator technologies utilizing the spontaneous tritium decay, as well as apparatus, systems, and methods regarding same.

2.0 PRIORITY APPLICATIONS

[0002] This application claims priority as the non-provisional of U.S. Provisional Application SN 62/655172 filed on April 9, 2018 titled“Apparatus, Systems, and Methods Comprising Tritium Random Number Generator”, and also claims priority as the non-provisional of U.S. Provisional Application SN 62/803476 filed on February 9, 2019 titled“Apparatus, Systems, and Methods Comprising Tritium Random Number Generator”, the contents of both of these applications are incorporated herein as if fully set forth herein.

3.0 BACKGROUND

[0003] As opposed to pseudo random number generators based on algorithms, there are true random number generator (TRNG) devices that depend on natural random processes: multiple bipolar switches, thermal noise, light scattering by dichroic mirrors, chaotic systems, decay of radioactive nuclei. Some of these TRNG are listed in the provisional applications to which the present application claims priority, and those references are incorporated herein by reference as if fully set forth herein.

[0004] The decay of radioactive nuclei type is considered to be the most independent on the environmental influences like temperature, pressure or acceleration. However, typical nuclear-based TRNGs require large size detectors to enable registration of particles emitted as a result of radioactive decays. Also, many nuclei used in such devices are highly radioactive and poisonous hence dangerous to humans if device is broken.

[0005] Therefore, a safe and small TRNG that will not expose the user to dangerous levels of radiation would be advantageous. Such a TRNG can then be used in compact personal devices.

4.0 SUMMARY

[0006] The invention disclosed herein is a true random number generator (TRNG). The TRNG includes a cavity filled with tritium and an electronic sensor constructed to detect energy from the decay of the tritium. The sensor produces a signal for the detected energy and an amplifier amplifies the signal, while a filter filters the signal. A processor (a) determines whether the signal represents decay events for tritium; (b) sets a timer to determine the time period between decay events; (c) based on the time period in step (b), assigns a value of a 0 or a 1; (d) stores the value in a memory; (e) repeat steps (b) - (d) resulting in a string of values; and (f) generates a true random number based on the string of values. And the TRNG may be formed on an integrated circuit.

[0007] In step (b), the processor may further determine a first time period Tl between a first pair of decay events and a second time period T2 between a second pair of decay events. And may in step (c), compare Tl to T2 and assign the value based on the comparison. The first pair of decay events and the second pair of decay events may share a common decay event.

[0008] The processor may generate an array of true random numbers. The processor may provide one of the array of true random numbers to a cryptographic client and then delete the delivered true random number from the memory. The one of the array of true random number provided to the cryptographic client may be the oldest one in the array. When the memory is full, the processor may delete the oldest one in the array of true random numbers. The true random numbers generated may be comprised of 256 bits or 512 bits. [0009] The volume of tritium may be less than 0.03 pL, and the maximum radioactivity of the tritium may be less than 3xl0 ⁵ Ci. The amount of tritium may be sufficient to create at least one million decay events per second.

[0010] The amplifier may be a low noise charge-sensitive preamplifier or a pulse shaping amplifier. The timer may have a have a clock frequency of at least 1 GHz.

[0011] A personal electronic device may be constructed from the TRNG. This device may use the true random numbers to encrypt a communication channel, to render computer simulations, or to render computer gaming.

[0012] A method to generate to a true random number using tritium is also disclosed. The method includes: (a) providing a volume of tritium; (b) detecting an energy signal from the decay of the tritium; (c) determining whether the energy signal represents decay events for tritium; (d) setting a timer to determine the time period between decay events; (e) assigning a value of a 0 or a lbased on the time period; (f) storing the value; (g) repeating steps (b) - (f) resulting in a string of values; and (h) generating an array of true random numbers based on the string of values.

[0013] Additional aspects, alternatives and variations as would be apparent to persons of skill in the art are also disclosed herein and are specifically contemplated as included as part of the invention. The invention is set forth only in the claims as allowed by the patent office in this or related applications, and the following summary descriptions of certain examples are not in any way to limit, define or otherwise establish the scope of legal protection.

5.0 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

[0014] The invention can be better understood with reference to the following figures. The components within the figures are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed on clearly illustrating example aspects of the invention. In the figures, like reference numerals designate corresponding parts throughout the different views and/or embodiments. Furthermore, various features of different disclosed embodiments can be combined to form additional embodiments, which are part of this disclosure. It will be understood that certain components and details may not appear in the figures to assist in more clearly describing the invention.

[0015] FIG. 1 A is a cross sectional view of a PIN diode detector.

[0016] FIG. 1B is a cross sectional view of a CCD detector.

[0017] FIG. 2 is a flow diagram of the various components that may be place on the integrated circuit.

[0018] FIG. 3 A illustrates the four pulse per random bit schema.

[0019] FIG. 3B illustrates the two pulse per random bit schema.

6.0 DETATT/FJ) DESCRIPTION OF EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS

[0020] Reference is made herein to some specific examples of the present invention, including any best modes contemplated by the inventor for carrying out the invention. Examples of these specific embodiments are illustrated in the accompanying figures. While the invention is described in conjunction with these specific embodiments, it will be understood that it is not intended to limit the invention to the described or illustrated embodiments. To the contrary, it is intended to cover alternatives, modifications, and equivalents as may be included within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims.

[0021] In the following description, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. Particular example embodiments of the present invention may be implemented without some or all of these specific details. In other instances, process operations well known to persons of skill in the art have not been described in detail in order not to obscure unnecessarily the present invention. Various techniques and mechanisms of the present invention will sometimes be described in singular form for clarity. However, it should be noted that some embodiments include multiple iterations of a technique or multiple mechanisms unless noted otherwise. Similarly, various steps of the methods shown and described herein are not necessarily performed in the order indicated, or performed at all in certain embodiments. Accordingly, some implementations of the methods discussed herein may include more or fewer steps than those shown or described. Further, the techniques and mechanisms of the present invention will sometimes describe a connection, relationship or communication between two or more entities. It should be noted that a connection or relationship between entities does not necessarily mean a direct, unimpeded connection, as a variety of other entities or processes may reside or occur between any two entities. Consequently, an indicated connection does not necessarily mean a direct, unimpeded connection unless otherwise noted.

[0022] The following list of example features corresponds with FIGS. 1 - 4 and is provided for ease of reference, where like reference numerals designate corresponding features throughout the specification and figures:

[0023] Cavity 10

[0024] Filler Tubes 15

[0025] PIN Diode 18

[0026] N-type silicon 20

[0027] P-type silicon 25

[0028] CCD 28

[0029] Silicon Substrate 30

[0030] Electrodes 35

[0031] Insulation 40

[0032] Upper casing 45

[0033] Lower casing 50

[0034] IC 200

[0035] Detector 205

[0036] Amplifier 210

[0037] Filter 215

[0038] Processor 220

[0039] Signal Processor 225

[0040] Timer 230 [0041] Memory 235

[0042] Cryptographical Client 240

[0043] As opposed to pseudo random number generators based on algorithms, there are many true random number generator (TRNG) devices that depend on natural random processes: multiple bipolar switches, thermal noise, light scattering by dichroic mirrors, chaotic systems, decay of radioactive nuclei. The latter group is considered to be the most independent on the environmental influences like temperature, pressure or acceleration. However, typical nuclear- based TRNGs require large size detectors to enable registration of particles emitted as a result of radioactive decays. Also, many nuclei used in such devices are highly radioactive and poisonous hence dangerous to humans if device is broken. Various example embodiments of the present apparatus, systems, and methods demonstrate that by using gaseous tritium paired with suitable solid-state detector one is able to make a very compact device that can be incorporated into integrated circuit (IC) chip. Because of small amounts of radioactive material deployed, such an IC can be used inside consumer products like cell phones without endangering people even if the device is destroyed and radioactive material is released. Analog and digital circuits that need to be incorporated into proposed design of TRNG on IC chip can be easily manufactured with standard epitaxial, implantation and laser annealing procedures used throughout industry that makes solid state devices. Various example embodiments of the present apparatus, systems, and methods demonstrate, ICs can be filled with suitable gas after they are manufactured and already packaged; see, e.g., Fig. 1. Even with a very small amount of radioactive tritium each such chip can generate many thousands of random bits per second. Then these bits can be stored for later use in solid state memory incorporated inside ICs. Thus, such standalone TRNG on chip can easily provide on demand thousands of multi-byte random numbers needed for encryption of communication channels (like voice or text messages) or for processes requiring plenty of random numbers (like simulations or gaming).

[0044] Radioactive tritium is simply an isotope of hydrogen that like hydrogen contains in each nucleus one proton with additional two neutrons as well. These two neutrons make tritium an unstable isotope with half-life time of about 12.3 years. Because of that short half-life time, natural abundance of tritium on Earth is only barely traceable. However, tritium can be easily produced inside nuclear reactors by neutron activation of lithium-6 or boron-lO and their subsequent, fast decay to tritium. In heavy-water moderated reactors, deuterium nucleus that captured a neutron is also converted into tritium. Because of the use of tritium in the construction of nuclear weapons, production of that material is being continued all the time, excess of the obtained gas being stored and also available for commercial applications. Recently there’s a whole cottage industry that produces devices that are self-illuminating like gun sights, flash lights and jewelry. All these devices are based on the fluorescence of various fluorophores excited by electrons emitted by decaying tritium. Natural decay of tritium into helium produces electrons with the average energy of about 5.7 keV that is sufficient to excite many fluorophores and thus to help emit visible light with different colors depending on fluorophore. Such devices use only minute amounts of tritium and hence are allowed to be sold and used by general public, cf. RoHs list of restricted materials for electronic components that does not contain tritium.

[0045] Using tritium to generate plenty of random numbers (bits or bytes) corresponding to the detection of emitted electrons allows for estimation of the amount of tritium gas needed. Let’s assume that one wants to detect on average 1 million spontaneous decays of tritium per second. With density of tritium being 6 grams per mole and half-life time of tritium being about 12.3 years or about 400 million seconds, one can estimate that to have on average 1 million decays per second one will need an amount of about 8x10 ¹⁴ tritium atoms. Since one mole of any substance contains about 6xl0 ²³ atoms (Avogadro’s number) and one mole of any gas in normal conditions has the volume of about 22.4 liters, the number of tritium atoms needed for 1 million decays per second will have the volume of about 2.9xl0 ⁸ liters or 0.029 pL, which is equal to 0.029 mm ³ . The latter number means that rectangular volume restricted by dimensions of 0.3 mm x 0.3 mm x 0.3 mm will contain desired amount of tritium gas that can emit about 1 million electrons every second for at least 12 years. With the market cost of 1 gram of tritium gas being about $30,000.00, the amount of gas needed for the above calculated decays will cost less than 1 cent. The dose of radiation received by a human person (if all that amount of tritium is digested or otherwise swallowed) is equal to about 7 percent of US natural background dose (about 0.23 mSv/year vs. 3.1 mSv/year). This makes TRNG based on tritium made as per this patent application very safe indeed. These numbers are presented in the Appendix.

[0046] Electrons emitted in the spontaneous decay of tritium that have on average the energy of 5.7 keV can be easily detected by PIN diode (P and N regions being heavily doped semiconductors with intrinsic semiconductor region sandwiched between them) or by typical CCD circuit; both these devices can be easily incorporated in a design of specialized IC with TRNG. Such a detector 205 is shown in FIG. 1A. The cavity 10 is filled with tritium through the filling tubes 15. The PIN diode 18 is formed by the N-type silicon 20 and P-type silicon 25 formed on a silicon substrate 30. Electrodes 35 carry the detected signal. Insulation 40 may be used to better insulate the tritium from both escaping the cavity 10 and to contain the energy emitted by the decay so that the PIN diode can more robustly detect the decay. To further protect the tritium from escape the entire detector (indeed the entire IC) may have and upper and lower casing 45, 50. FIG. 1B illustrates a CCD 28 used as the electronic sensor. Other types of electronic sensors may be used, including as a non-limiting example a CMOS electronic sensor.

[0047] The detector 205 may be included on an IC 200, which may further include an amplifier 210 (such as a low noise charge-sensitive preamplifier and pulse shaping amplifier), a filter 215, and processor 220, as shown in FIG. 2. A cryptographic client 240 may optionally also be on the IC.

[0048] The following is a method for converting random tritium decays resulting in emission of electrons that are being sensed by PIN diode or CCD-type build-in on-chip detector 205 discussed above:

1. After each decay of a tritium nuclei, one electron with energy of about 5.7 keV is being emitted. Each such electron creates a pulse of electrons in the detector 205 with a very typical time profile that enables detection of just that event and not the other possible types of energetic ionizing particles hitting detector.

The analog pulse from the detector 205 is amplified by the amplifier 210. The amplifier may have a pre-amplifier.

The amplified signal from the amplifier 210 is filtered by digital filter 215. The filtered signal is processed by processor 220 to determine if the signal corresponds to the electron emitted in a decay of tritium and not by other energetic ionizing particle(s). The processor 220 may include a signal processor 225 that performs this function.

If the signal is indeed an electron emitted in a decay or tritium, then the processor 220 starts a timer 230, which may also be part of the processor 220. The time may optimally be at a clock frequency of the order of several GHz (several times 10 ⁹ per second). Because electron pulses will be detected on average every microsecond (10 ⁶ seconds or between average number of clock ticks of several thousands), one would have enough accuracy to detect differences of randomness of appearances of pulses in time.

Steps 1 - 6 are repeated to detect a second pulse from subsequent decay, which triggers the processor 220 to stop the timer.

The value of the timer is stored in the memory 235. This is shown as Tl in FIG. 3 A.

The next two pulses result in another timer value (T2; FIG. 3 A) to be stored in the memory 235. To generate Tl and T2, four pulses are used in FIG. 3A. 10. Two numbers (Tl and T2) stored in memories are compared - if first is larger, then the system creates bit with value 1, in the other case the value is zero. (This schema can be inverted as well). These bit values are stored in the memory 235. In the very rare situation that two numbers are exactly same, the whole sequence may be discarded. So for each random bit, four pulses are used.

11. Steps 1 - 10 are repeated, typically several hundred thousand times per

second.

12. The system generates multibyte numbers, typically 256 bits or 512 bits long, and these are stored in the memory bank for further use by the cryptographic client 240 of the chip, providing long (large) random numbers needed for the encryption of communication channels.

13. After a number is used by the cryptographic client 240, the FILO system (first in, last out) moves to the other number while the process described above adds more numbers to the memory until it is filled. In such case of filling the whole memory bank, numbers kept longest in the memory are expunged to make space for new numbers generated by the system. This capability makes the system much more resistant against hacking etc.

[0049] It should be noted that the system may not use four pulses per random bit. Instead, the system may be constructed as shown in FIG. 3B, where the timer resets at each pulse detection and is always counting. The benefit to this system is it only requires two pulses per random bit. But the two time periods are somewhat dependent on each other because they are linked by a pulse event, so the resulting string of bits may not be as random as the schema provided in FIG. 3 A. [0050] The memory can supply necessary number of bytes (bits) on demand for e.g. secure random encryption of communication channels (i.e., cryptographic client 240) of the device in which this specialized IC is mounted or for random processes required by simulations, modelling and gaming. Additional software testing of random number sequences built into IC chip allows for real time quality control of random character of bits generated - if parts of the sequence do not pass test(s), such a sequence would be removed and never used as an output. This type of proofing further improves random character of sequences that are being generated by the chip.

[0051] Various example embodiments of the present apparatus, systems, and methods provide the ability to manufacture TRNG IC on the standard semiconductor production line, the only difference being that the packaging should leave as calculated above the void of the size of about 0.03 mm ³ with suitable openings that can be connected to the source of gaseous tritium to fill this void and after that being sealed by thermal and pressure means (like heat sealer). Otherwise, the produced IC will be very similar in shape and other characteristics to other ICs typically used in the manufacturing of consumer goods because electrons emitted during decay of tritium won’t be able to penetrate packaging material (plastic) of IC. The range of 5.7 keV electrons in a material like plastic is less than 1 micrometer. The same packaging also will be shielding embedded detector from any external radiation of comparable or even much higher energies. Even if such high energy particles will pass through packaging plastic, they will generate different type of pulses and these can be differentiated by filtering from 5.7 keV pulses that are being used to generate random numbers.

[0052] RoHS specifies maximum levels for the following 10 restricted materials. The first six applied to the original RoHS while the last four were added under RoHS 3. Following is the RoHs list of restricted materials from http://www.rohsguide.corn/rohs-substances.htm:

• Lead (Pb): < 1000 ppm • Lead is commonly used in the electrical and electronics industry in solder, lead-acid batteries, electronic components, cable sheathing and in the glass of cathode-ray tubes.

• Mercury (Hg): < 100 ppm

• Mercury is widely used metals in the production of electrical and electronic appliances and is concentrated in batteries, switches and thermostats, and fluorescent lamps.

• Cadmium (Cd): < 100 ppm

• Cadmium is used in electronic equipment, car batteries, and pigments.

• Hexavalent Chromium (Cr VI) < 1000 ppm

• While some forms of chromium are non-toxic, Chromium VI can produce toxic effects.

• Polybrominated Biphenyls (PBB): 1000 ppm

• These are flame retardants found in electronic and electrical appliances. They have been found in indoor dust and air through evaporation from plastics.

• Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDE): < 1000 ppm

• These are also flame retardants found in electronic and electrical appliances.

Combustion of printed wiring boards release toxic emissions.

• Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP): < 1000 ppm

• These are used to soften PVC and vinyl insulation on electrical wires.

• Benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP): < 1000 ppm

• These are used to soften PVC and vinyl insulation on electrical wires.

• Dibutyl phthalate (DBP): < 1000 ppm

• These are used to soften PVC and vinyl insulation on electrical wires.

• Diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP): < 1000 ppm

• These are used to soften PVC and vinyl insulation on electrical wires. [0053] Any of the suitable technologies, materials, and designs set forth and incorporated herein may be used to implement various example aspects of the invention as would be apparent to one of skill in the art.

[0054] TRNGs are crucial for secure communications between personal devices (like cell phones and other personal computers), between such devices and internet banking services as well as between any devices that require encrypted channels like police, fire fighters or military ones. True random numbers are also necessary for all types of gaming: computer games, network games as well as all types of casino playing machines (the so called slot machines). Also all types of lotteries that sell tickets with random drawing options need TRNGs. These applications of random numbers are important despite the fact that most playing machines and lotteries use specially skewed number generators to increase odds of winning to attract customers but they have to start with good randomizers to prevent too easy winnings. The methods, systems and devices disclosed herein may be use in all of these applications.

[0055] Although exemplary embodiments and applications of the invention have been described herein including as described above and shown in the included example Figures, there is no intention that the invention be limited to these exemplary embodiments and applications or to the manner in which the exemplary embodiments and applications operate or are described herein. Indeed, many variations and modifications to the exemplary embodiments are possible as would be apparent to a person of ordinary skill in the art. The invention may include any device, structure, method, or functionality, as long as the resulting device, system or method falls within the scope of one of the claims that are allowed by the patent office based on this or any related patent application. .0 APPENDIX

Density of T ₂ : 6 g/mol

Volume of T ₂ : 22.4 L/mol

Half-life of T ₂ 12.32 years

388,523,520 seconds

Needed Decay 1,000,000 decays/second

1 decay/psec

Radioactivity 1,000,000 Bq

2.70xl0 ⁵ Ci (with e energy 5.7 keV per decay; 1 rad = 1 rem = 0.01 Sv; 1 rad = 0.01 J/kg)

Dose per body 7.30xl0 ^u J/(kg-s) or Gy/s

2.30x10 ³ Gy/year

0.23 mSv/year

Natural background Eus 3.1 mSv/year % of US yearly from T ₂ 7% (if fully absorbed in lungs) T ₂ needed 7.77xl0 ¹⁴ atoms T ₂ volume needed 2.89xl0 ⁸ L

2.89xl0 ² pL (mm ³ )

T ₂ mass needed 7.74xl0 ⁹ g

7.74xl0 ³ pg

T ₂ cost $30, 000.00/gram

Cost of T ₂ needed $0.00023 Cell size [mm ³ ] 2.70xl0 ²