BIOCATALYTIC SYNTHESIS OF STRAINED CARBOCYCLES

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] The present application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Pat. Appl. No. 62/474,435, filed on March 21, 2017, and U.S. Provisional Pat. Appl. No. 62/583,073, filed on November 8, 2017, which applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. STATEMENT AS TO RIGHTS TO INVENTIONS MADE UNDER

FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

[0002] This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. CBET1403077 and MCB1513007 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0003] Carbocycles serve as important structural motifs in different fields. (See, e.g., Chen, et al. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2012, 41, 4631; Williams, et al. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2012, 20, 3710; Triola, et al. J. Org. Chem. 2003, 68, 9924; Ando, et al. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 1999, 7, 571.) The higher ring strain energy of cyclopropenes, methylenecyclopropanes and bicyclobutanes, makes these compounds far more reactive than other ring systems. (See, Wiberg. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 1986, 25, 312; Nakamura, et al. Chem. Rev. 2003, 103, 1295; Trost. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 1986, 25, 1.) In synthetic chemistry, these highly strained rings have been investigated as versatile building blocks with numerous derivatization possibilities; this has led to broad applications of these three-membered carbocycles in pharmaceutical development, chemical biology, material science, etc. (See, e.g., Marek, et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 7364; Rubin, et al. Chem. Rev. 2007, 107, 3117; Fox, et al. Curr. Org. Chem. 2005, 9, 719; Parra, et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 2014, 136, 15833; Elling, et al. Chem. Commun. 2016, 52, 9097.) For instance, difunctionalization of cyclopropenes can introduce various functional groups to the rings, which furnishes practical approaches to highly functionalized three-membered ring structures in pharmaceutical compounds. (See, Tarwade, et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 5382; O'Rourke, et al. Org. Lett. 2016, 18, 1250; Delay e, et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2013, 52, 5333; Zhang, et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2016, 55, 714.) Cyclopropenes can undergo in vivo cycloaddition reactions and function as amenable bioorthogonal fluorescent tags for live cell imaging. (See, Patterson, et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012, 134, 18638; et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013, 135, 13680; et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2012, 51, 7476.) Besides, bicyclo[1.1.0]butane, is also very useful for constructing a multitude of complicated structural scaffolds in synthetic chemistry. (See, Walczak, et al. Acc. Chem. Res. 2015, 48, 1149; Wipf, et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2006, 45, 4172; Gianatassio, et al. Science 2016, 351, 241 ; Wipf, et al. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 14694; Panish, et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2016, 55, 4983.)

[0004] To fully realize the broad applicability of cyclopropenes and bicyclobutanes, it is highly desirable to develop practical and efficient methods for synthesizing these molecules with high selectivity. Transition metal-catalyzed carbene transfer to alkynes stands out as the most commonly used strategy to prepare cyclopropenes enantioselectively. (See, e.g., Doyle, et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 8492;. Lou, et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 8916; Briones, et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2010, 132, 17211 ; Uehara, et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133, 170; Goto, et al. Angew. Chem. int. Ed. 2011, 50, 6803; Cui, et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133, 3304; Briones, et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012, 134, 11916.) Although synthetic chemists have exploited various transition metal catalysts (e.g., rhodium, iridium, cobalt, copper and gold complexes) to achieve alkyne cyclopropenation, there are still many challenges to be addressed: 1) most existing methods are limited to conjugated carbene precursors with phenyl or cyano groups to stabilize the carbenoid intermediates to achieve good enantio-/chemo-selectivity; 2) complicated chiral ligands or catalytic complexes require multiple-step preparation (4-15 steps); 3) the catalytic efficiency is generally very low with <100 turnovers. For bicyclobutane synthesis, a three-step sequence is commonly involved, which relies on the use of excess organolithium reagents, rendering it less practical for broad substrate scope and industrial production. (See, Dueker, et al. Tetrahedron Lett. 1985, 26, 3555; Rehm, et al. Eur. J. Org. Chem. 1999, 2079.)

[0005] Unlike synthetic catalysts, which require elaborate design, multiple-step preparation and optimization, natural enzymes are genetically encoded and assembled in living cells, making them readily accessible and tunable with molecular biology techniques. (See, e.g., Turner, et al. Nat. Chem. Biol. 2013, 9, 285; Kohler, et al. Chem. Commun. 2015, 51, 450.) Beyond this, enzymatic reactions commonly operate with high efficiency and selectivity (chemo-, regio- and/or stereo-) under mild conditions, offering significant advantages in terms of reduced environmental impact and greater cost-effectiveness. (See, Wohlgemuth. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2010, 21, 713; Steen, et al. Nature 2010, 463, 559; Peralta Yahya, et al. Nature 2012, 488, 320; Atsumi, et al. Nature 2008, 451, 86.) Due to the scarcity of cyclopropenes and bicyclobutanes in nature, no native enzymes have been discovered to catalyze the construction of these highly strained three-membered carbocycles to date. (See, Schneider, et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2007, 104, 18941).

[0006] Over the last several years, the Arnold lab has been investigating heme-dependent metalloenzymes for non-natural biocatalytic activities, including alkene cyclopropanation, carbenoid N-H insertion, aziridination, sulfimidation, and nitrenoid C-H insertion. See, e.g., Hernandez, Kan, Arnold, et al. ACS Catalysis 2016, 6, 7810; Renata, Arnold, et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2015, 54, 3351 ; Wang, Arnold, et al. Chem. Sci. 2014, 5, 598; Hyster & Arnold. Isr. J. Chem. 2015, 55, 14; Coelho, Arnold, et al. Nat. Chem. Biol. 2013, 9, 485; Arnold. Rev.Biophys. 2015, 48, 404; Coelho, Arnold, et al. Science 2013, 339, 307; Kan, Chen, Arnold, et al. Science 2016, 354, 1048; Kan, Huang, Chen, Arnold, et al. Nature 2017, 552, 13. Now described herein is an efficient and practical protocol for synthesizing these highly strained carbocycles using hemoproteins engineered via directed evolution that catalyze carbene chemistry.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0007] Provided herein are methods for producing products containing cyclopropene moieties and/or bicyclobutane moieties. The methods include combining an alkyne and a carbene precursor in the presence of a heme protein or a variant thereof under conditions sufficient to form the cyclopropene moiety and or the bicyclobutane moiety.

[0008] In some embodiments, the heme protein is a cytochrome P450, a globin, a protoglobin, or a variant thereof. In some embodiments, the heme protein is Bacillus megaterium cytochrome P450S 3 or a variant thereof. In some embodiments, the carbene precursor is a diazo compound such as an a-diazoester.

[0009] Also provided are reaction mixtures for producing products containing cyclopropenes and bicyclobutanes, as well as whole-cell catalysts comprising heme proteins and variants thereof for forming such products. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0010] FIG. 1 shows the results of P450-catalyzed alkyne cyclopropenation. Left bars = % yield; right bars = total turnover number (TTN).

[0011] FIG. 2 shows that P450 enzymes can be engineered to provide cyclopropenation products enantioselectively.

[0012] FIG. 3 shows the P450-catalyzed bicyclobutanation of phenylacetylene.

[0013] FIG. 4 shows compounds with ring structures and calculated ring strains. The 4- membered carbocycles, bicyclo[1.1.0]but-l(3)-ene and tricyclo[1.1.0.02,4]butane (tetrahedrane) (with calculated strain energy) have never been isolated, although their derivatives with bulky substituents might be synthesized in stable form under certain conditions.

[0014] FIG. 5A shows two major synthetic methods for forming bicyclobutanes.

[0015] FIG. 5B shows other synthetic methods for forming bicyclobutanes, with selected examples. [0016] FIG. 5C. shows the only synthetic examples of asymmetric bicyclobutane construction.

[0017] FIG. 6A shows examples of cyclopropane-containing natural products (ref. 21, 62)

[0018] FIG. 6B shows examples of natural products that have been found to contain cyclopropene fragments. [0019] FIG. 6C shows thee only natural product that has been found to contain a bicyclobutane fragment:

[0020] FIG. 7A shows the reaction of carbene transfer to an alkyne catalyzed by an engineered hemeprotein.

[0021] FIG. 7B shows the proposed catalytic cycle of carbene transfer to phenylacetylene to form cyclopropene and bicyclobutane structures.

[0022] FIG. 7C shows the screening of hemin and hemeprotein catalysts for bicyclobutane formation (BSA = bovine serum albumin). [0023] FIG. 7D shows the X-ray crystal structure of P41 1-El O (PDB ID: 5UCW) (35) and a view of its distal heme region. The P411 heme axial ligand is S400, and amino acid residues V78, L263 and S438 are shown as gray sticks.

[0024] FIG. 7E shows the directed evolution of P411 -E10 for bicyclobutane formation (using phenylacetylene and EDA as substrates; numbers refer to total turnovers to product (TTN) measured). Experiments were performed on analytical scale using suspensions of E. coli expressing P411 -E10 variants (OD600 = 10 - 30), 10 mM phenylacetylene, 10 mM EDA, 5 vol% EtOH, M9-N buffer (pH 7.4) at room temperature under anaerobic conditions for 6 h. Reactions performed in quadruplicate. TTN refers to the total desired product, as quantified by gas chromatography (GC), divided by total hemeprotein. Because bicyclobutane formation requires two carbene transfers, the number of carbene transfers the hemeprotein catalyzes is 2 ^χ TTN in these reactions.

[0025] FIG. 8 shows the time course of furan formation with P41 1-S l I263W variant.

[0026] FIG. 9 shows the evolutionary trajectory of P41 1 variants for bicyclobutane formation.

[0027] FIG. 10 shows alkyne substrates used in protein evolution studies.

[0028] FIG. 11 A shows the scope of P41 1-E10 V78F S438A-catalyzed bicyclobutane formation. Standard conditions of preparative-scale reactions (0.1 - 0.2 mmol scale, unless otherwise indicated): suspension of E. coli (OD6oo=15 - 20) expressing P41 1 E10-V78F S438A, 1.0 equiv aromatic alkyne, 2.0 - 4.0 equiv EDA, 10 - 15 mM D-glucose, 1 - 5 vol% EtOH, M9-N buffer (pH 7.4) at room temperature under anaerobic conditions for 12 hours. Isolated yields. TTN determined based on isolated yields.

[0029] FIG 1 1B shows the derivatization of bicyclobutane products. Top panel: copper- catalyzed click cyclization of 21 with azide substrates. Bottom left panel: esterification of 2m with Mosher's acid. Bottom right panel: reduction of 2k to diol with L1BH4.

[0030] Fig. 12A shows the evolutionary trajectory of P411 -P4 variants for stereodivergent cyclopropenation of aliphatic alkynes.

[0031] FIG. 12B shows the scope of P411 -C6-catalyzed cyclopropene formation. Conditions of preparative-scale reactions (0.08 - 0.4 mmol scale): suspension of E. coli expressing P41 1-C6 or K10 (ODeoo = 10 - 32), 10 - 150 mM alkyne, 1.0 - 4.0 equiv EDA (6.0 equiv for 5m), 10 - 15 mM D-glucose, 1 - 5 vol% EtOH, M9-N buffer (pH 7.4) at room temperature under anaerobic conditions for 12 hours. Isolated yields. TTN determined based on isolated yields and enantiomeric ratio (er) determined by chiral HPLC.

[0032] FIG. 12C shows the enzymatic cyclopropenation at mmol scale and derivatization of corresponding products. Top right: copper-catalyzed addition to cyclopropene 6a for synthesizing a multi-substituted cyclopropane. Bottom right: Diels-Alder reaction of cyclopropene 6h with 2,3-c¾Me-buta-l ,3-diene to form a fused ring system.

[0033] FIG. 13 shows the evolutionary trajectory of P41 1 variants for the formation of cyclopropene (<S)-6a [0034] FIG. 14 shows the evolutionary trajectory of P41 1 variants for the formation of cyclopropene (R)-6a

[0035] FIG. 15 shows the sites targeted in the evolution of P41 1-P4 for (S)-cyclopropene formation (PDB: 4WG2, P41 1-"I263F" (43)).

[0036] FIG. 16 shows the sites targeted in the directed evolution of P41 1-P4 for (R)- cyclopropene formation (PDB: 4WG2, P41 1-"I263F" (43)).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

I. Summary

[0037] Demonstrated herein is a hemoprotein-catalyzed protocol for constructing strained carobcycles such as cyclopropenes and bicyclobutanes. Described herein is the first use of iron-based catalysts for alkyne cyclopropenation and the first example of enantioselective bicyclobutanation through carbene transfer to alkyne. By using directed evolution, it was possible to improve the reactivity of cytochrome P450s for the desired construction of highly strained three-membered carbon rings. With the engineered enzymes, expressed and used in whole bacterial cells, chemoselective and stereodivergent cyclopropenation of aliphatic alkynes was achieved with total turnover numbers (TTNs) up to 3300 and enantiomeric excesses (ee's) up to >99.5%. Also provided herein is a bicyclobutanation transformation sequence starting from aromatic alkynes with TTNs up to 1800. After hydrolysis, the bicyclobutane products can be used to synthesize strained polyesters and other products. The methods described herein can therefore be used to provide a number of useful strained carbocycles. Carbocycles such as cyclopropenes and bicyclobutanes include several classes of compounds including, but not limited to, natural products, pharmaceutical compounds, precursors for industrial products such as polymers, functional materials such as stimuli- responsive materials and self-healing materials, and labeling reagents for biological systems. II. Definitions

[0038] Unless specifically indicated otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by those of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. In addition, any method or material similar or equivalent to a method or material described herein can be used in the practice of the present invention. For purposes of the present invention, the following terms are defined.

[0039] The terms "a," "an," or "the" as used herein not only include aspects with one member, but also include aspects with more than one member. For instance, the singular forms "a," "an," and "the" include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to "a cell" includes a plurality of such cells and reference to "the reagent" includes reference to one or more reagents known to those skilled in the art, and so forth.

[0040] The terms "about" and "approximately" shall generally mean an acceptable degree of error for the quantity measured given the nature or precision of the measurements. Typical, exemplary degrees of error are within 20 percent (%), preferably within 10%, and more preferably within 5% of a given value or range of values. Alternatively, and particularly in biological systems, the terms "about" and "approximately" may mean values that are within an order of magnitude, preferably within 5-fold and more preferably within 2- fold of a given value. Numerical quantities given herein are approximate unless stated otherwise, meaning that the term "about" or "approximately" can be inferred when not expressly stated.

[0041] The terms "heme protein variant" and "heme enzyme variant" include any heme- containing enzyme comprising at least one amino acid mutation with respect to wild-type and also include any chimeric protein comprising recombined sequences or blocks of amino acids from two, three, or more different heme-containing enzymes. [0042] The term "whole cell catalyst" includes cells expressing heme-containing enzymes, wherein the whole cell catalyst displays cyclopropene formation activity or bicyclobutane formation activity.

[0043] The term "carbene precursor" includes molecules that can be decomposed in the presence of metal (or enzyme) catalysts to form structures that contain at least one divalent carbon with two unshared valence shell electrons (i.e., carbenes) and that can be transferred to a carbon-hydrogen bond, a carbon-carbon bond, a carbon-sulfur bond, a carbon-nitrogen bond, a carbon-boron bond, or a carbon-phosphorus bond to form various carbon ligated products. Examples of carbene precursors include, but are not limited to, diazo reagents, diazirene reagents, and epoxide reagents.

[0044] As used herein, the term "anaerobic", when used in reference to a reaction, culture or growth condition, is intended to mean that the concentration of oxygen is less than about 25 μΜ, preferably less than about 5 μΜ, and even more preferably less than 1 μΜ. The term is also intended to include sealed chambers of liquid or solid medium maintained with an atmosphere of less than about 1% oxygen. Preferably, anaerobic conditions are achieved by sparging a reaction mixture with an inert gas such as nitrogen or argon.

[0045] As used herein, the term "alkyl" refers to a straight or branched, saturated, aliphatic radical having the number of carbon atoms indicated. Alkyl can include any number of carbons, such as C1-2, C1-3, C1-4, C1-5, Ci-6, C1-7, Ci-8, C2-3, C2-4, C2-5, C2-6, C3-4, C3-5, C3-6, C4-5, C4-6 and C5-6. For example, Ci-6 alkyl includes, but is not limited to, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, isopentyl, hexyl, etc. Alkyl can refer to alkyl groups having up to 20 carbons atoms, such as, but not limited to heptyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, etc. Alkyl groups can be unsubstituted or substituted. For example, "substituted alkyl" groups can be substituted with one or more moieties selected from halo, hydroxy, amino, alkylamino, alkoxy, haloalkyl, carboxy, amido, nitro, oxo, and cyano.

[0046] As used herein, the term "alkenyl" refers to a straight chain or branched hydrocarbon having at least 2 carbon atoms and at least one double bond. Alkenyl can include any number of carbons, such as C2, C2-3, C2-4, C2-5, C2-6, C2-7, C2-8, C2-9, C2-10, C3, C3-4, C3-5, C3-6, C4, C4-5, C4-6, C5, C5-6, and Ce. Alkenyl groups can have any suitable number of double bonds, including, but not limited to, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or more. Examples of alkenyl groups include, but are not limited to, vinyl (ethenyl), propenyl, isopropenyl, 1-butenyl, 2-butenyl, isobutenyl, butadienyl, 1-pentenyl, 2-pentenyl, isopentenyl, 1,3-pentadienyl, 1.4- pentadienyl, 1-hexenyl, 2-hexenyl, 3-hexenyl, 1,3-hexadienyl, 1 ,4-hexadienyl,

1.5- hexadienyl, 2,4-hexadienyl, or 1,3,5-hexatrienyl. Alkenyl groups can be unsubstituted or substituted. For example, "substituted alkenyl" groups can be substituted with one or more moieties selected from halo, hydroxy, amino, alkylamino, alkoxy, haloalkyl, carboxy, amido, nitro, oxo, and cyano.

[0047] As used herein, the term "alkynyl" refers to either a straight chain or branched hydrocarbon having at least 2 carbon atoms and at least one triple bond. Alkynyl can include any number of carbons, such as C ₂ , C2-3, C2-4, C2-5, C2-6, C2-7, C2-8, C2-9, C2-10, C3, C3-4, C3-5, C3-6, C4, C4-5, C4-6, C5, C5-6, and Ce. Examples of alkynyl groups include, but are not limited to, acetylenyl, propynyl, 1 -butynyl, 2-butynyl, isobutynyl, sec-butynyl, butadiynyl, 1 -pentynyl, 2-pentynyl, isopentynyl, 1,3-pentadiynyl, 1 ,4-pentadiynyl, 1-hexynyl, 2-hexynyl, 3-hexynyl, 1 ,3-hexadiynyl, 1 ,4-hexadiynyl, 1 ,5-hexadiynyl, 2,4-hexadiynyl, or 1 ,3,5-hexatriynyl. Alkynyl groups can be unsubstituted or substituted. For example, "substituted alkynyl" groups can be substituted with one or more moieties selected from halo, hydroxy, amino, alkylamino, alkoxy, haloalkyl, carboxy, amido, nitro, oxo, and cyano.

[0048] As used herein, the term "aryl" refers to an aromatic carbon ring system having any suitable number of ring atoms and any suitable number of rings. Aryl groups can include any suitable number of carbon ring atoms, such as, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1 , 12, 13, 14, 15 or 16 ring atoms, as well as from 6 to 10, 6 to 12, or 6 to 14 ring members. Aryl groups can be monocyclic, fused to form bicyclic or tricyclic groups, or linked by a bond to form a biaryl group. Representative aryl groups include phenyl, naphthyl and biphenyl. Other aryl groups include benzyl, having a methylene linking group. Some aryl groups have from 6 to 12 ring members, such as phenyl, naphthyl or biphenyl. Other aryl groups have from 6 to 10 ring members, such as phenyl or naphthyl. Some other aryl groups have 6 ring members, such as phenyl. Aryl groups can be unsubstituted or substituted. For example, "substituted aryl" groups can be substituted with one or more moieties selected from halo, hydroxy, amino, alkylamino, alkoxy, haloalkyl, carboxy, amido, nitro, oxo, and cyano.

[0049] As used herein, the term "cycloalkyl" refers to a saturated or partially unsaturated, monocyclic, fused bicyclic or bridged polycyclic ring assembly containing from 3 to 12 ring atoms, or the number of atoms indicated. Cycloalkyl can include any number of carbons, such as C3-6, C4-6, C5-6, C3-8, C4-8, C5-8, and Ce-8. Saturated monocyclic cycloalkyl rings include, for example, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, and cyclooctyl. Saturated bicyclic and polycyclic cycloalkyl rings include, for example, norbornane, [2.2.2] bicyclooctane, decahydronaphthalene and adamantane. Cycloalkyl groups can also be partially unsaturated, having one or more double or triple bonds in the ring. Representative cycloalkyl groups that are partially unsaturated include, but are not limited to, cyclobutene, cyclopentene, cyclohexene, cyclohexadiene (1,3- and 1,4-isomers), cycloheptene, cycloheptadiene, cyclooctene, cyclooctadiene (1,3-, 1,4- and 1,5-isomers), norbornene, and norbomadiene. Cycloalkyl groups can be unsubstituted or substituted. For example, "substituted cycloalkyl" groups can be substituted with one or more moieties selected from halo, hydroxy, amino, alkylamino, alkoxy, haloalkyl, carboxy, amido, nitro, oxo, and cyano. [0050] As used herein, the term "heterocyclyl" refers to a saturated ring system having from 3 to 12 ring members and from 1 to 4 heteroatoms selected from N, O and S. Additional heteroatoms including, but not limited to, B, Al, Si and P can also be present in a heterocycloalkyl group. The heteroatoms can be oxidized to form moieties such as, but not limited to, -S(O)- and -S(0)2-. Heterocyclyl groups can include any number of ring atoms, such as, 3 to 6, 4 to 6, 5 to 6, 4 to 6, or 4 to 7 ring members. Any suitable number of heteroatoms can be included in the heterocyclyl groups, such as 1, 2, 3, or 4, or 1 to 2, 1 to 3, 1 to 4, 2 to 3, 2 to 4, or 3 to 4. Examples of heterocyclyl groups include, but are not limited to, aziridine, azetidine, pyrrolidine, piperidine, azepane, azocane, quinuclidine, pyrazolidine, imidazolidine, piperazine (1,2-, 1,3- and 1,4-isomers), oxirane, oxetane, tetrahydrofuran, oxane (tetrahydropyran), oxepane, thiirane, thietane, thiolane (tetrahydrothiophene), thiane (tetrahydrothiopyran), oxazolidine, isoxazolidine, thiazolidine, isothiazolidine, dioxolane, dithiolane, morpholine, thiomorpholine, dioxane, or dithiane. Heterocyclyl groups can be unsubstituted or substituted. For example, "substituted heterocyclyl" groups can be substituted with one or more moieties selected from halo, hydroxy, amino, alkylamino, alkoxy, haloalkyl, carboxy, amido, nitro, oxo, and cyano.

[0051] As used herein, the term "heteroaryl" refers to a monocyclic or fused bicyclic or tricyclic aromatic ring assembly containing 5 to 16 ring atoms, where from 1 to 5 of the ring atoms are a heteroatom such as N, O or S. Additional heteroatoms including, but not limited to, B, Al, Si and P can also be present in a heteroaryl group. The heteroatoms can be oxidized to form moieties such as, but not limited to, -S(O)- and -S(0)2-. Heteroaryl groups can include any number of ring atoms, such as, 3 to 6, 4 to 6, 5 to 6, 3 to 8, 4 to 8, 5 to 8, 6 to 8, 3 to 9, 3 to 10, 3 to 11, or 3 to 12 ring members. Any suitable number of heteroatoms can be included in the heteroaryl groups, such as 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, or 1 to 2, 1 to 3, 1 to 4, 1 to 5, 2 to 3, 2 to 4, 2 to 5, 3 to 4, or 3 to 5. Heteroaryl groups can have from 5 to 8 ring members and from 1 to 4 heteroatoms, or from 5 to 8 ring members and from 1 to 3 heteroatoms, or from 5 to 6 ring members and from 1 to 4 heteroatoms, or from 5 to 6 ring members and from 1 to 3 heteroatoms. Examples of heteroaryl groups include, but are not limited to, pyrrole, pyridine, imidazole, pyrazole, triazole, tetrazole, pyrazine, pyrimidine, pyridazine, triazine (1,2,3-, 1,2,4- and 1,3,5-isomers), thiophene, furan, thiazole, isothiazole, oxazole, and isoxazole. Heteroaryl groups can be unsubstituted or substituted. For example, "substituted heteroaryl" groups can be substituted with one or more moieties selected from halo, hydroxy, amino, alkylamino, alkoxy, haloalkyl, carboxy, amido, nitro, oxo, and cyano. [0052] As used herein, the term "alkoxy" refers to an alkyl group having an oxygen atom that connects the alkyl group to the point of attachment: i.e., alkyl-O. As for alkyl group, alkoxy groups can have any suitable number of carbon atoms, such as Ci-6 or Ci-4. Alkoxy groups include, for example, methoxy, ethoxy, propoxy, iso-propoxy, butoxy, 2-butoxy, iso-butoxy, sec-butoxy, tert-butoxy, pentoxy, hexoxy, etc. Alkoxy groups can be unsubstituted or substituted. For example, "substituted alkoxy" groups can be substituted with one or more moieties selected from halo, hydroxy, amino, alkylamino, alkoxy, haloalkyl, carboxy, amido, nitro, oxo, and cyano.

[0053] As used herein, the term "alkylthio" refers to an alkyl group having a sulfur atom that connects the alkyl group to the point of attachment: i.e., alkyl-S-. As for alkyl groups, alkylthio groups can have any suitable number of carbon atoms, such as Ci-6 or Ci-4. Alkylthio groups include, for example, methoxy, ethoxy, propoxy, iso-propoxy, butoxy, 2-butoxy, iso-butoxy, sec-butoxy, tert-butoxy, pentoxy, hexoxy, etc. groups can be unsubstituted or substituted. For example, "substituted alkylthio" groups can be substituted with one or more moieties selected from halo, hydroxy, amino, alkylamino, alkoxy, haloalkyl, carboxy, amido, nitro, oxo, and cyano.

[0054] As used herein, the term "heteroalkyl" refers to an alkyl group having one or more non-adjacent methylene (i.e., CH2) units that is replaced by O, S, or NH. A carbon atom is the point of attachment for the heteroalkyl group to the remainder of the molecule, but the methylene replacement can occur at any other point along the carbon backbone. In the case of oxygen for example, replacement of CH2 can occur in the middle of an alkyl group (e.g., in the middle of a propyl group, forming methoxymethyl with the formula CH3OCH2-) or at the end of the alkyl group (e.g., at the end of the propyl group, forming hydroxyethyl with the formula HOCH2CH2-).

[0055] As used herein, the terms "halo" and "halogen" refer to fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine. [0056] As used herein, the term "haloalkyl" refers to an alkyl moiety as defined above substituted with at least one halogen atom.

[0057] As used herein, the term "alkylsilyl" refers to a moiety -S1R3, wherein at least one R group is alkyl and the other R groups are H or alkyl. The alkyl groups can be substituted with one more halogen atoms. [0058] As used herein, the term "acyl" refers to a moiety -C(0)R, wherein R is an alkyl group.

[0059] As used herein, the term "oxo" refers to an oxygen atom that is double-bonded to a compound (i.e., 0=).

[0060] As used herein, the term "carboxy" refers to a moiety -C(0)OH. The carboxy moiety can be ionized to form the carboxy late anion. "Alkyl carboxy late" refers to a moiety -C(0)OR, wherein R is an alkyl group as defined herein.

[0061] As used herein, the term "amino" refers to a moiety -NR3, wherein each R group is H or alkyl.

[0062] As used herein, the term "amido" refers to a moiety -NRC(0)R or -C(0)NR ₂ , wherein each R group is H or alkyl.

[0063] As used herein, the term "phosphine" refers to a moiety -PR3, wherein each R group is H, alkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, or heterocyclyl.

[0064] The terms "protein," "peptide," and "polypeptide" are used interchangeably herein to refer to a polymer of amino acid residues, or an assembly of multiple polymers of amino acid residues. The terms apply to amino acid polymers in which one or more amino acid residues are an artificial chemical mimic of a corresponding naturally occurring amino acid, as well as to naturally occurring amino acid polymers and non-naturally occurring amino acid polymers. [0065] The term "amino acid" includes naturally-occurring a-amino acids and their stereoisomers, as well as unnatural (non-naturally occurring) amino acids and their stereoisomers. "Stereoisomers" of amino acids refers to mirror image isomers of the amino acids, such as L-amino acids or D-amino acids. For example, a stereoisomer of a naturally- occurring amino acid refers to the mirror image isomer of the naturally-occurring amino acid, i.e., the D-amino acid.

[0066] Naturally-occurring amino acids are those encoded by the genetic code, as well as those amino acids that are later modified, e.g., hydroxyproline, γ-carboxyglutamate and O- phosphoserine. Naturally-occurring a-amino acids include, without limitation, alanine (Ala), cysteine (Cys), aspartic acid (Asp), glutamic acid (Glu), phenylalanine (Phe), glycine (Gly), histidine (His), isoleucine (He), arginine (Arg), lysine (Lys), leucine (Leu), methionine (Met), asparagine (Asn), proline (Pro), glutamine (Gin), serine (Ser), threonine (Thr), valine (Val), tryptophan (Trp), tyrosine (Tyr), and combinations thereof. Stereoisomers of naturally- occurring a-amino acids include, without limitation, D-alanine (D-Ala), D-cysteine (D-Cys), D-aspartic acid (D-Asp), D-glutamic acid (D-Glu), D-phenylalanine (D-Phe), D-histidine (D- His), D-isoleucine (D-Ile), D-arginine (D-Arg), D-lysine (D-Lys), D-leucine (D-Leu), D- methionine (D-Met), D-asparagine (D-Asn), D-proline (D-Pro), D-glutamine (D-Gln), D- serine (D-Ser), D-threonine (D-Thr), D-valine (D-Val), D-tryptophan (D-Trp), D-tyrosine (D- Tyr), and combinations thereof. [0067] Unnatural (non-naturally occurring) amino acids include, without limitation, amino acid analogs, amino acid mimetics, synthetic amino acids, N-substituted glycines, and N- methyl amino acids in either the L- or D-configuration that function in a manner similar to the naturally-occurring amino acids. For example, "amino acid analogs" are unnatural amino acids that have the same basic chemical structure as naturally-occurring amino acids, i.e., an a carbon that is bound to a hydrogen, a carboxyl group, an amino group, but have modified R (i.e., side-chain) groups or modified peptide backbones, e.g., homoserine, norleucine, methionine sulfoxide, methionine methyl sulfonium. "Amino acid mimetics" refer to chemical compounds that have a structure that is different from the general chemical structure of an amino acid, but that functions in a manner similar to a naturally-occurring amino acid.

[0068] Amino acids may be referred to herein by either their commonly known three letter symbols or by the one-letter symbols recommended by the IUPAC-IUB Biochemical Nomenclature Commission. For example, an L-amino acid may be represented herein by its commonly known three letter symbol (e.g., Arg for L-arginine) or by an upper-case one-letter amino acid symbol (e.g., R for L-arginine). A D-amino acid may be represented herein by its commonly known three letter symbol (e.g., D-Arg for D-arginine) or by a lower-case one- letter amino acid symbol (e.g., r for D-arginine).

[0069] With respect to amino acid sequences, one of skill in the art will recognize that individual substitutions, additions, or deletions to a peptide, polypeptide, or protein sequence which alters, adds, or deletes a single amino acid or a small percentage of amino acids in the encoded sequence is a "conservatively modified variant" where the alteration results in the substitution of an amino acid with a chemically similar amino acid. The chemically similar amino acid includes, without limitation, a naturally-occurring amino acid such as an L-amino acid, a stereoisomer of a naturally occurring amino acid such as a D-amino acid, and an unnatural amino acid such as an amino acid analog, amino acid mimetic, synthetic amino acid, N-substituted glycine, and N-methyl amino acid.

[0070] Conservative substitution tables providing functionally similar amino acids are well known in the art. For example, substitutions may be made wherein an aliphatic amino acid (e.g., G, A, I, L, or V) is substituted with another member of the group. Similarly, an aliphatic polar-uncharged group such as C, S, T, M, Ν, or Q, may be substituted with another member of the group; and basic residues, e.g., K, R, or H, may be substituted for one another. In some embodiments, an amino acid with an acidic side chain, e.g., E or D, may be substituted with its uncharged counterpart, e.g., Q or Ν, respectively; or vice versa. Each of the following eight groups contains other exemplary amino acids that are conservative substitutions for one another:

1) Alanine (A), Glycine (G);

2) Aspartic acid (D), Glutamic acid (E);

3) Asparagine (Ν), Glutamine (Q);

4) Arginine (R), Lysine (K);

5) Isoleucine (I), Leucine (L), Methionine (M), Valine (V);

6) Phenylalanine (F), Tyrosine (Y), Tryptophan (W);

7) Serine (S), Threonine (T); and

8) Cysteine (C), Methionine (M)

(see, e.g., Creighton, Proteins, 1993). [0071] The term "oligonucleotide," "nucleic acid," "nucleotide," or "polynucleotide" refers to deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) or ribonucleic acids (RNA) and polymers thereof in either single-, double- or multi-stranded form. The term includes, but is not limited to, single-, double- or multi-stranded DNA or RNA, genomic DNA, cDNA, DNA-RNA hybrids, or a polymer comprising purine and/or pyrimidine bases or other natural, chemically modified, biochemically modified, non-natural, synthetic or derivatized nucleotide bases. Unless specifically limited, the term encompasses nucleic acids containing known analogs of natural nucleotides that have similar binding properties as the reference nucleic acid and are metabolized in a manner similar to naturally occurring nucleotides. Unless otherwise indicated, a particular nucleic acid sequence also implicitly encompasses conservatively modified variants thereof (e.g., degenerate codon substitutions), orthologs, and complementary sequences as well as the sequence explicitly indicated. Specifically, degenerate codon substitutions may be achieved by generating sequences in which the third position of one or more selected (or all) codons is substituted with mixed-base and/or deoxyinosine residues (Batzer et al , Nucleic Acid Res. 19:5081 (1991), Ohtsuka et al , J. Biol. Chem. 260:2605-2608 (1985), and Rossolini et al. , Mol. Cell. Probes 8:91 -98 (1994)). The term nucleic acid is used interchangeably with gene, cDNA, and mRNA encoded by a gene.

[0072] The term "site-directed mutagenesis" refers to various methods in which specific changes are intentionally made introduced into a nucleotide sequence (i.e., specific nucleotide changes are introduced at pre-determined locations). Known methods of performing site- directed mutagenesis include, but are not limited to, PCR site-directed mutagenesis, cassette mutagenesis, whole plasmid mutagenesis, and Kunkel's method.

[0073] The term "site-saturation mutagenesis," also known as "saturation mutagenesis," refers to a method of introducing random mutations at predetermined locations with a nucleotide sequence, and is a method commonly used in the context of directed evolution (e.g., the optimization of proteins (e.g., in order to enhance activity, stability, and/or stability), metabolic pathways, and genomes). In site-saturation mutagenesis, artificial gene sequences are synthesized using one or more primers that contain degenerate codons; these degenerate codons introduce variability into the position(s) being optimized. Each of the three positions within a degenerate codon encodes a base such as adenine (A), cytosine (C), thymine (T), or guanine (G), or encodes a degenerate position such as K (which can be G or T), M (which can be A or C), R (which can be A or G), S (which can be C or G), W (which can be A or T), Y (which can be C or T), B (which can be C, G, or T), D (which can be A, G, or T), H (which can be A, C, or T), V (which can be A, C, or G), or N (which can be A, C, G, or T). Thus, as a non-limiting example, the degenerate codon NDT encodes an A, C, G, or T at the first position, an A, G, or T at the second position, and a T at the third position. This particular combination of 12 codons represents 12 amino acids (Phe, Leu, He, Val, Tyr, His, Asn, Asp, Cys, Arg, Ser, and Gly). As another non-limiting example, the degenerate codon VHG encodes an A, C, or G at the first position, an A, C, or T at the second position, and G at the third position. This particular combination of 9 codons represents 8 amino acids (Lys, Thr, Met, Glu, Pro, Leu, Ala, and Val). As another non-limiting example, the "fully randomized" degenerate codon N includes all 64 codons and represents all 20 naturally- occurring amino acids.

[0074] In some instances, a mixture of degenerate primers is used. A mixture of degenerate primers can contain any number of different degenerate primers in any ratio. As a non-limiting example, a mixture of primers containing the NDT, VHG, and TGG primers can be used. Such a mixture can contain, for example, an amount of each primer in a 12:9: 1 ratio (e.g., a NDT:VHG:TGG ratio of 12:9: 1). Based on various considerations, non-limiting examples being desired redundancy, the desired presence of stop codons, and/or desired amino acid characteristics (e.g., the presence of nonpolar residues, charged residues, or small side chain residues), different combinations of degenerate primers can be used. Considerations and methods for choosing optimal combinations of degenerate primers will be known to one of skill in the art.

[0075] The term "nucleotide sequence encoding a peptide" means the segment of DNA involved in producing a peptide chain. The term can include regions preceding and following the coding region (leader and trailer) involved in the transcription/translation of a gene product and the regulation of the transcription/translation, as well as intervening sequences (introns) between individual coding segments (exons).

[0076] The term "homolog," as used herein with respect to an original enzyme or gene of a first family or species, refers to distinct enzymes or genes of a second family or species which are determined by functional, structural or genomic analyses to be an enzyme or gene of the second family or species which corresponds to the original enzyme or gene of the first family or species. Homologs most often have functional, structural, or genomic similarities. Techniques are known by which homologs of an enzyme or gene can readily be cloned using genetic probes and PCR. Identity of cloned sequences as homolog can be confirmed using functional assays and/or by genomic mapping of the genes.

[0077] A protein has "homology" or is "homologous" to a second protein if the amino acid sequence encoded by a gene has a similar amino acid sequence to that of the second gene. Alternatively, a protein has homology to a second protein if the two proteins have "similar" amino acid sequences. Thus, the term "homologous proteins" is intended to mean that the two proteins have similar amino acid sequences. In particular embodiments, the homology between two proteins is indicative of its shared ancestry, related by evolution.

III. Description of the Embodiments [0078] Provided herein are methods for the formation of cyclopropenes and bicyclobutanes. In certain aspects, the present invention provides a method for producing a cyclopropene product in the presence of an aliphatic alkyne, a diazo substrate, and a cytochrome P450 enzyme according to Equation 1 :

wherein

R ¹⁰ is selected from the group consisting of H and CR ^X R ² ;

each R ¹ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, Ci-ie alkyl, Ci-i8 haloalkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalkyF L ¹ -, (Ce-ιο aryFj-L ¹ -, (5- to 10- membered heteroary -L ¹ -, (5- to 10-membered heterocycly -L ¹ -, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ )2, B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ , and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ ; Ci-18 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl in R ¹ are optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^la ;

each R ^la is independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, cyano, -OH, Ci-6 alkyl, Ci-6 alkoxy, Ci-6 heteroalkyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl;

L ¹ is selected from the group consisting of a bond and Ci-20 alkylene;

when L ¹ is C2-20 alkylene, one or more non-adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with O, S, or NH;

when L ¹ is C3-20 alkylene, one or more pairs of adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with C(0)0 or C(0)NH;

each R ² is independently selected from the group consisting of H, Ci-ie alkyl, Ci-i8 haloalkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalkyl)-L ² -, (Ce-ιο aryl)-L ² -, (5- to 10- membered heteroaryl) -L ² -, (5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl)-L ² -, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ )2, B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ , and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ ;

Ci-18 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl in R ² are optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^2a ;

each R ^2a is independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, cyano, -OH, Ci-6 alkyl, Ci-6 alkoxy, Ci-6 heteroalkyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl;

L ² is selected from the group consisting of a bond and Ci-20 alkylene;

when L ² is C2-20 alkylene, one or more non-adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with O, S, or NH;

when L ² is C3-20 alkylene, one or more pairs of adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with C(0)0 or C(0)NH;

R ³ and R ⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-18 alkyl, optionally substituted Ci-18 alkoxy, Ci-is haloalkyl (e.g., Ci-18 polyfluoroalkyl), C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ ; and each R ⁷ , R ⁸ , and R ⁹ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-is alkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and optionally substituted 5- to 10- membered heterocyclyl. [0079] In some embodiments, R ¹ and R ² are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted C1-18 alkyl, C1-18 polyfluoroalkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 6- to 10-membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 6- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ )2, B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ .

[0080] In some embodiments, R ³ and R ⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted C1-18 alkyl, C1-18 polyfluoroalkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 6- to 10-membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 6- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ )2, B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ .

[0081] In certain aspects, the present invention provides a method for producing a bicyclobutane product in the presence of an alkyne, a diazo substrate, and a hemoprotein according to Equation 2:

wherein

R ¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of H, Ci-is alkyl, Ci-is haloalkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalkyl)-L ⁿ -, (Ce-ιο aryl)-L ⁿ -, (5- to 10-membered heteroaryl)-L ⁿ -, (5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl)-L ⁿ -, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ¹⁸ )2, B(R ¹⁹ )2, Si(R ¹⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ¹⁷ , C(0)SR ¹⁷ , C(0)N(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ¹⁷ , C(0)ON(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ¹⁷ OR ¹⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ¹⁷ , and P(0)(OR ¹⁷ ) ₂ ;

Ci-18 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl in R ¹¹ are optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^{l la} ; each R ^{l la} is independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, cyano, -OH, Ci-6 alkyl, Ci-6 alkoxy, Ci-6 heteroalkyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl;

L ¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of a bond and Ci-20 alkylene;

when L ¹¹ is C2-20 alkylene, one or more non-adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with O, S, or NH;

when L ¹¹ is C3-20 alkylene, one or more pairs of adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with C(0)0 or C(0)NH;

R ¹² is selected from the group consisting of H, Ci-is alkyl, Ci-is haloalkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalkyl)-L ¹² -, (Ce-ιο aryl)-L ¹² -, (5- to 10-membered heteroaryl) -L ¹² -, (5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl)-L ¹² -, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ¹⁸ )2, B(R ¹⁹ )2, Si(R ¹⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ¹⁷ , C(0)SR ¹⁷ , C(0)N(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ¹⁷ , C(0)ON(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ¹⁷ OR ¹⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ¹⁷ , and P(0)(OR ¹⁷ ) ₂ ;

Ci-18 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl in R ¹² are optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^12a ;

each R ^12a is independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, cyano, -OH, Ci-6 alkyl, Ci-6 alkoxy, Ci-6 heteroalkyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl;

L ¹² is selected from the group consisting of a bond and Ci-20 alkylene;

when L ¹² is C2-20 alkylene, one or more non-adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with O, S, or NH;

when L ¹² is C3-20 alkylene, one or more pairs of adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with C(0)0 or C(0)NH;

R ¹³ and R ¹⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted C1-18 alkyl, optionally substituted C1-18 alkoxy, Ci-is haloalkyl (e.g., Ci-i8 polyfluoroalkyl), C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ¹⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ¹⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ¹⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ¹⁷ , C(0)SR ¹⁷ ,

C(0)N(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ¹⁷ , C(0)ON(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ¹⁷ OR ¹⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ¹⁷ and P(0)(OR ¹⁷ ) ₂ ; and each R ¹⁷ , R ¹⁸ , and R ¹⁹ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted C1-18 alkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and optionally substituted 5- to 10- membered heterocyclyl. [0082] In some embodiments, R ¹¹ and R ¹² are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-is alkyl, Ci-is haloalkyl (e.g., Ci-ie polyfluoroalkyl), C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10- membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ¹⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ¹⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ¹⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ¹⁷ , C(0)SR ¹⁷ , C(0)N(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ¹⁷ , C(0)ON(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ¹⁷ OR ¹⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ¹⁷ and P(0)(OR ¹⁷ ) ₂ .

[0083] In some embodiments, R ¹³ and R ¹⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-ie alkyl, optionally substituted Ci-ie alkoxy, Ci-ie haloalkyl (e.g., C1-18 polyfluoroalkyl), C ₂ -i8 alkenyl, C ₂ -i8 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10- membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ¹⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ¹⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ¹⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ¹⁷ , C(0)SR ¹⁷ , C(0)N(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ¹⁷ , C(0)ON(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ¹⁷ OR ¹⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ¹⁷ and P(0)(OR ¹⁷ ) ₂ .

[0084] This method produces products of Formula III and Formula VI, in stereochemically pure form or as a mixture of stereochemically isomeric forms. Exemplary catalysts used in this method include hemoproteins of the sort described in US 2014/0242647 Al .

A. Heme Proteins

[0085] The terms "heme protein" and "heme enzyme" are used herein to include any member of a group of proteins containing heme as a prosthetic group. Non-limiting examples of heme proteins include globins, cytochromes, oxidoreductases, any other protein containing a heme as a prosthetic group, and combinations thereof. Heme-containing globins include, but are not limited to, hemoglobin, myoglobin, and combinations thereof. Heme- containing cytochromes include, but are not limited to, cytochrome P450, cytochrome b, cytochrome cl, cytochrome c, and combinations thereof. Heme-containing oxidoreductases include, but are not limited to, catalases, oxidases, oxygenases, haloperoxidases, peroxidases, and combinations thereof. In some instances, the globin protein is from Methylacidiphilum infernorum. In some other instances, the cytochrome P450 protein is a cytochrome P450 BM3 (CYP102A1) protein. Exemplary catalysts used in this method include, but are not limited to, heme proteins of the sort described in US 20140242647 Al .

[0086] In some embodiments, the heme protein is a member of one of the enzyme classes set forth in Table 1. In other embodiments, the heme protein is a variant or homolog of a member of one of the enzyme classes set forth in Table 1. In yet other embodiments, the heme protein comprises or consists of the heme domain of a member of one of the enzyme classes set forth in Table 1 or a fragment thereof (e.g., a truncated heme domain) that is capable of carrying out the carbene insertion reactions described herein.

Table 1 : Heme enzymes identified by their enzyme classification number (EC number) and classification name

EC Number Name

1.2.3 L-lactate dehydrogenase

1.2.6 polyvinyl alcohol dehydrogenase (cytochrome)

1.2.7 methanol dehydrogenase (cytochrome c)

1.5.5 alcohol dehydrogenase (quinone)

1.5.6 formate dehydrogenase-N:

1.9.1 alcohol dehydrogenase (azurin):

1.99.3 gluconate 2-dehydrogenase (acceptor)

1.99.11 fructose 5 -dehydrogenase

1.99.18 cellobiose dehydrogenase (acceptor)

1.99.20 alkan-l-ol dehydrogenase (acceptor)

2.1.70 glutamyl-f NA reductase

2.3.7 indole-3-acetaldehyde oxidase

2.99.3 aldehyde dehydrogenase (pyrroloquinoline-quinone)

3.1.6 fumarate reductase (NADH):

3.5.1 succinate dehydrogenase (ubiquinone)

3.5.4 fumarate reductase (menaquinone)

3.99.1 succinate dehydrogenase

4.9.1 methylamine dehydrogenase (amicyanin)

4.9.2. aralkylamine dehydrogenase (azurin)

5.1.20 methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase [NAD(P)H]

5.99.6 spermidine dehydrogenase

6.3.1 NAD(P)H oxidase

7.1.1 nitrate reductase (NADH)

7.1.2 Nitrate reductase [NAD(P)H]

7.1.3 nitrate reductase (NADPH)

7.1.4 nitrite reductase [NAD(P)H]

7.1.14 nitric oxide reductase [NAD(P), nitrous oxide-forming]

7.2.1 nitrite reductase (NO-forming)

7.2.2 nitrite reductase (cytochrome; ammonia-forming)

7.2.3 trimethylamine-N-oxide reductase (cytochrome c)

7.2.5 nitric oxide reductase (cytochrome c)

7.2.6 hydroxy lamine dehydrogenase

7.3.6 hydroxylamine oxidase (cytochrome)

7.5.1 nitrate reductase (quinone)

7.5.2 nitric oxide reductase (menaquinol)

7.6.1 nitrite dismutase

7.7.1 ferredoxin-nitrite reductase

7.7.2 ferredoxin-nitrate reductase

7.99.4 nitrate reductase

7.99.8 hydrazine oxidoreductase

8.1.2 sulfite reductase (NADPH)

8.2.1 sulfite dehydrogenase

8.2.2 thiosulfate dehydrogenase

8.2.3 sulfide-cytochrome-c reductase (flavocytochrome c)

8.2.4 dimethyl sulfide cytochrome c2 reductase

8.3.1 sulfite oxidase

8.7.1 sulfite reductase (ferredoxin)

8.98.1 CoB-CoM heterodisulfide reductase

8.99.1 sulfite reductase

8.99.2 adenylyl-sulfate reductase

8.99.3 hydrogensulfite reductase 1.9.3.1 cytochrome-c oxidase

1.9.6.1 nitrate reductase (cytochrome)

1.10.2.2 ubiquinol-cytochrome-c reductase

1.10.3.1 catechol oxidase

1.10.3.B 1 caldariellaquinol oxidase (H+-transporting)

1.10.3.3 L-ascorbate oxidase

1.10.3.9 photosystem II

1.10.3.10 ubiquinol oxidase (H+-transporting)

1.10.3.11 ubiquinol oxidase

1.10.3.12 menaquinol oxidase (H+-transporting)

1.10.9.1 plastoquinol-plastocyanin reductase

1.11.1.5 cytochrome-c peroxidase

1.11.1.6 Catalase

1.11.1.7 Peroxidase

1.11.1.B2 chloride peroxidase (vanadium-containing)

1.11.1.B7 bromide peroxidase (heme-containing)

1.11.1.8 iodide peroxidase

1.11.1.10 chloride peroxidase

1.11.1.11 L-ascorbate peroxidase

1.11.1.13 manganese peroxidase

1.11.1.14 lignin peroxidase

1.11.1.16 versatile peroxidase

1.11.1.19 dye decolorizing peroxidase

1.11.1.21 catalase-peroxidase

1.11.2.1 unspecific peroxygenase

1.11.2.2 Myeloperoxidase

1.11.2.3 plant seed peroxygenase

1.11.2.4 fatty -acid peroxygenase

1.12.2.1 cytochrome-c3 hydrogenase

1.12.5.1 hydrogen: quinone oxidoreductase

1.12.99.6 hydrogenase (acceptor)

1.13.11.9 2,5-dihydroxypyridine 5,6-dioxygenase

1.13.11.11 tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase

1.13.11.49 chlorite 02-lyase

1.13.11.50 acetylacetone-cleaving enzyme

1.13.11.52 indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase

1.13.11.60 linoleate 8R-lipoxygenase

1.13.99.3 tryptophan 2'-dioxygenase

1.14.11.9 flavanone 3-dioxygenase

1.14.12.17 nitric oxide dioxygenase

1.14.13.39 nitric-oxide synthase (NADPH dependent)

1.14.13.17 cholesterol 7alpha-monooxygenase

1.14.13.41 tyrosine N-monooxygenase

1.14.13.70 sterol 14alpha-demethylase

1.14.13.71 N-methylcoclaurine 3'-monooxygenase

1.14.13.81 magnesium-protopoφhyrin IX monomethyl ester

(oxidative) cyclase

1.14.13.86 2-hydroxyisoflavanone synthase

1.14.13.98 cholesterol 24-hydroxylase

1.14.13.119 5-epiaristolochene 1,3-dihydroxylase

1.14.13.126 vitamin D3 24-hydroxylase

1.14.13.129 beta-carotene 3 -hydroxylase

1.14.13.141 cholest-4-en-3 -one 26-monooxygenase

1.14.13.142 3 -ketosteroid 9alplia-monooxygenase

1.14.13.151 linalool 8-monooxygenase

1.14.13.156 1,8-cineole 2-endo-monooxygenase

1.14.13.159 vitamin D 25-hydroxylase

1.14.14.1 unspecific monooxygenase

1.14.15.1 camphor 5-monooxygenase

1.14.15.6 cholesterol monooxygenase (side-chain-cleaving) 1.14.15.8 steroid 15beta-monooxygenase

1.14.15.9 spheroidene monooxygenase

1.14.18.1 Tyrosinase

1.14.19.1 stearoyl-CoA 9-desaturase

1.14.19.3 linoleoyl-CoA desaturase

1.14.21.7 biflaviolin synthase

1.14.99.1 prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase

1.14.99.3 heme oxygenase

1.14.99.9 steroid 17alpha-monooxygenase

1.14.99.10 steroid 21 -monooxygenase

1.14.99.15 4-methoxybenzoate monooxygenase (O-demethylating)

1.14.99.45 carotene epsilon-monooxygenase

1.16.5.1 ascorbate ferrireductase (transmembrane)

1.16.9.1 iron:rusticyanin reductase

1.17.1.4 xanthine dehydrogenase

1.17.2.2 lupanine 17-hydroxylase (cytochrome c)

1.17.99.1 4-methylphenol dehydrogenase (hydroxylating)

1.17.99.2 ethylbenzene hydroxylase

1.97.1.1 chlorate reductase

1.97.1.9 selenate reductase

2.7.7.65 diguanylate cyclase

2.7.13.3 histidine kinase

3.1.4.52 cyclic -guanylate-specific phosphodiesterase

4.2.1.B9 colneleic acid/etheroleic acid synthase

4.2.1.22 Cystathionine beta-synthase

4.2.1.92 hydroperoxide dehydratase

4.2.1.212 colneleate synthase

4.3.1.26 chromopyrrolate synthase

4.6.1.2 guanylate cyclase

4.99.1.3 sirohydrochlorin cobaltochelatase

4.99.1.5 aliphatic aldoxime dehydratase

4.99.1.7 phenylacetaldoxime dehydratase

5.3.99.3 prostaglandin-E synthase

5.3.99.4 prostaglandin-I synthase

5.3.99.5 Thromboxane-A synthase

5.4.4.5 9,12-octadecadienoate 8-hydroperoxide 8R-isomerase

5.4.4.6 9,12-octadecadienoate 8-hydroperoxide 8S-isomerase

6.6.1.2 Cobaltochelatase

[0087] In some embodiments, the heme protein is an engineered variant or a fragment thereof (e.g., a truncated variant containing the heme domain) comprising one or more mutation(s). In some instances, the mutation is a substitution of the native residue with Ala, Asp, Arg, Asn, Cys, Glu, Gin, Gly, His, lie, Lys, Leu, Met, Phe, Pro, Ser, Thr, Trp, Tyr, or Val. In other embodiments, the heme protein variant is a chimeric protein comprising recombined sequences or blocks of amino acids from two, three, or more different heme- containing proteins. As described herein, heme protein catalysts described can be improved through the introduction of mutations which alter the amino acid sequence of the heme protein so as to generate a catalyst that is highly productive and selective for the desired product forming reaction. In particular, there are many examples in the scientific literature that describe processes through which the enantioselectivity and activity of carbene-transfer heme proteins can be optimized to form products that do not contain cyclopropene moieties or bicyclobutane moieties. Specifically, one skilled in the art will know that through a process of random mutagenesis via error-prone PCR, or through a process of site-saturation mutagenesis in which one or more codons are randomized sequentially or simultaneously, or through a process of gene synthesis in which random or directed mutations are introduced, many different mutants of the genes encoding the hemoprotein catalysts described herein can be generated. One skilled in the art will appreciate that heme protein variants can be expressed in a whole cell using an expression vector under the control of an inducible promoter or by means of chromosomal integration under the control of a constitutive promotor. The activity of whole cell catalysts, cell ly sates or purified proteins can be screened by GC or HPLC, using parameters including but not limited to turnovers and selectivities as selection criteria to find beneficial mutations.

[0088] In some embodiments, the heme enzyme comprises a cytochrome. Cytochromes are a class of heme proteins that are found in bacteria, as well as mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic organisms, and are typically associated with membranes. Cytochromes typically function in oxidative phosphorylation as components of electron transport chain systems. Cytochromes can be classified by spectroscopy, or by features such as the structure of the heme group, inhibitor sensitivity, or reduction potential. Three of the cytochromes, cytochromes a, b, and d, are classified by their prosthetic group (the prosthetic groups consisting of heme a, heme b, and tetrapyrrolic chelate of iron, respectively). Unlike the aforementioned cytochromes, cytochrome c is not defined in terms of its heme group. Cytochrome which performs similar functions to cytochrome ci but has a different structure, is sometimes regarded as a type of cytochrome c. Cytochrome P450 proteins form a distinct family of cytochromes. In bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts, various cytochromes form different combinations that perform different functions. Cytochromes a and ci3 combine to form cytochrome c oxidase (also known as Complex IV), which is the last enzyme in the respiratory chain of bacteria and mitochondria. Cytochromes b and ci combine to form coenzyme Q - cytochrome c reductase— the third complex in the electron transport chain. Cytochromes be and f combine to form plastoquinol-plastocyanin reductase, which is found in the chloroplasts of plants, cyanobacteria and green algae and functions in photosynthesis.

[0089] Cytochrome P450 enzymes constitute a large superfamily of heme-thiolate proteins involved in the metabolism of a wide variety of both exogenous and endogenous compounds. Usually, they act as the terminal oxidase in multicomponent electron transfer chains, such as P450-containing monooxygenase systems. Members of the cytochrome P450 enzyme family catalyze myriad oxidative transformations, including, e.g., hydroxylation, epoxidation, oxidative ring coupling, heteroatom release, and heteroatom oxygenation (E. M. Isin et al, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1770, 314 (2007)). P450s typically contain a single polypeptide, ranging from 40 to 55 kDa in molecular weight, and the same general fold has been observed in all P450s with known structures (T.L. Poulous, Chem Rev. , 114, 3919 (2014)). The active site of these enzymes contains an Fe ^m -protoporphyrin IX cofactor (heme) ligated proximally by a conserved cysteine thiolate (M. T. Green, Current Opinion in Chemical Biology 13, 84 (2009)). The remaining axial iron coordination site is occupied by a water molecule in the resting enzyme, but during native catalysis, this site is capable of binding molecular oxygen. P450 structure is also typically characterized by a long "I helix" (typically around 50 angstroms in length) which runs over the surfaces of the heme and interacts with oxygen and the oxidation substrate. In the presence of an electron source, typically provided by NADH or NADPH from an adjacent fused reductase domain or an accessory cytochrome P450 reductase enzyme, the heme center of cytochrome P450 activates molecular oxygen, generating a high valent iron(IV)-oxo porphyrin cation radical species intermediate and a molecule of water.

[0090] Cytochrome P450 BM3 (CYP102A1) proteins are found in the soil bacterium Bacillus megaterium and catalyze the NADPH-dependent hydroxylation of long-chain fatty acids at the co-l through co-3 positions. Unlike most other cytochrome P450 proteins, cytochrome P450 BM3 proteins are a natural fusion between the cytochrome P450 domain and an electron donating cofactor. Thus, cytochrome P450 BM3 proteins are useful in a number of biotechnological applications. [0091] In certain embodiments, the hemoprotein is a cytochrome P450 or a variant thereof. In a particular embodiment, the cytochrome P450 is a P450S 3 (also known as CYP102A1) or a variant thereof. In some embodiments, the P450S 3 hemoprotein is an engineered variant comprising one or more mutation(s). In some instances, the mutation is a substitution of the native residue with Ala, Asp, Arg, Asn, Cys, Glu, Gin, Gly, His, He, Lys, Leu, Met, Phe, Pro, Ser, Thr, Trp, Tyr, or Val. In other embodiments, the hemoprotein variant is a chimeric protein comprising recombined sequences or blocks of amino acids from two, three, or more different heme-containing proteins. [0092] In some embodiments, the P450S 3 protein (CYP102A1) contains mutations of one or more residues selected from V78, F87, P142, T175, A184, S226, H236, E252, 1263, T268, A290, A328, L353, 1366, C400, T438, and E442 (mature peptide numbering convention) to any other amino acid residues that is among the naturally occurring twenty amino acids. In a further embodiment, the P450S 3 protein contains a single mutation of the residue at position A87 to any other amino acid. In a further embodiment, the ¥450BM3 protein contains a single mutation of the residue at position LI 81 to any other amino acid. In a further embodiment, the P450S 3 protein contains a single mutation of the residue at position F261 to any other amino acid. In a further embodiment, the ¥450BM3 protein contains a single mutation of the residue at position T269 to any other amino acid. In a further embodiment, the ¥450BM3 protein contains a single mutation of the residue at position L437 to any other amino acid. In a further embodiment, the ¥450BM3 protein contains a single mutation of the residue at position V328 to any other amino acid. In a further embodiment, the ¥450BM3 protein contains mutations of the residues at positions F261 and T327 to any other amino acid. In a further embodiment, the ¥450BM3 protein contains any combination of mutations of the residues V78, F87, P142, T175, L181, A184, S226, H236, E252, F261 , 1263, T268, T269, A290, T327, A328, L353, 1366, C400, L437, T438, E442 to any other amino acid.

[0093] In some embodiments, the heme protein is a cytochrome ¥450BM3 variant including the heme domain amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 (P41 1-P4), and wherein the amino acid sequence optionally comprises one or more amino acid mutations. In some embodiments, for example, the cytochrome ¥450BM3 variant comprises an amino acid mutation at position A87 (e.g., an A87F mutation, an A87W mutation, an A87Y mutation, or an A87H mutation). In some embodiments, the A87 mutation is an A87F mutation or an A87W mutation. [0094] In some embodiments, a cytochrome ¥450BM3 variant having the heme domain amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 will further contain an amino acid mutation at one or both of positions F261 (e.g., F261G) and T327 (e.g., T327P), and optionally an A87F mutation. In some embodiments, the cytochrome ¥450BM3 variant will further contain an amino acid mutation at one to three of positions S72 (e.g., S72W), T269 (e.g., T269L), and L437 (e.g., L437F); the variant may optionally contain an A87F mutation in such cases.

[0095] The cytochrome ¥450BM3 variant having the heme domain amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 2 can also contain an amino acid mutation at one or both of positions A78 (e.g., A78F) and A330 (e.g., A330V), and optionally an A87F mutation. Such variants may also contain any of the mutations at positions S72, F261, T269, T327, and L437 described above.

[0096] In some embodiments, the cytochrome ¥450BM3 variant comprises mutations at one or both of positions L188 (e.g., L188C) and T436 (e.g., T436M), and optionally an A87F mutation. Such variants may also contain any of the mutations at positions S72, A78, F261, T269, T327, A330, and L437 described above.

[0097] In some embodiments, a cytochrome ¥450BM3 variant having the heme domain amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 will further contain an amino acid mutation at position L437 (e.g., L437G), and optionally an A87W mutation. In some embodiments, the cytochrome ¥450BM3 variant will further contain an amino acid mutation at one or both of positions T327 (e.g., T327V) and V328 (e.g., V328Y); the variant may optionally contain an A87W mutation in such cases.

[0098] The cytochrome ¥450BM3 variant having the heme domain amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 2 can also contain an amino acid mutation at one or both of positions F261 (e.g., F261M) and T436 (e.g., T436H), and optionally an A87W mutation. Such variants may also contain any of the mutations at positions T327, V328, and L437 described above.

[0099] ¥450BM3 variants having a heme domain amino acid sequence according to SEQ ID NO:2, including those having the mutations set forth above, can be particularly useful for forming cyclopropene products. Full-length ¥450BM3 variants comprising the amino acid sequence according to SEQ ID NO:5, and any mutations corresponding to those described above, can also be used in the methods provided herein. The heme-domain polypeptide sequences (e.g., a heme domain amino acid sequence according to SEQ ID NO: 2) and the full-length polypeptide sequences (e.g., a full-length amino acid sequence according to SEQ ID NO:5) may further contain an N-terminal methionine residue directly proceeding the Tl position in certain instances.

[0100] In some embodiments, the heme protein is a cytochrome ¥450BM3 variant comprising the heme domain amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:3 (P411-ElO), and which optionally comprises one or more amino acid mutations. For example, the variant can contain a mutation a position V78 in SEQ ID NO:3 (e.g., a V78F mutation, a V78Y mutation, a V78H mutation, or a V78W mutation). In some embodiments, the V78 mutation is a V78F mutation or a V78Y mutation. In some embodiments, the cytochrome P450S 3 variant comprises an amino acid mutation at position S438 (e.g., an S438 mutation).

[0101] P450S 3 variants having a heme domain amino acid sequence according to SEQ ID NO:3, including those having the mutations set forth above, can be particularly useful for forming bicyclobutane products. Full-length ¥450BM3 variants comprising the amino acid sequence according to SEQ ID NO:6, and any mutations corresponding to those described above, can also be used in the methods provided herein. The heme-domain polypeptide sequences (e.g., a heme domain amino acid sequence according to SEQ ID NO:3) and the full-length polypeptide sequences (e.g., a full-length amino acid sequence according to SEQ ID NO:6) may further contain an N-terminal methionine residue directly proceeding the Tl position in certain instances.

[0102] Other cytochrome P450 enzymes can be used in the methods for forming cyclopropenes and bicyclobutanes. For example, the P450 may be P. putida P450cam having the amino acid structure set forth in SEQ ID NO:7 or a variant thereof having one or more mutations. For example, a P450cam may contain one or more mutations at positions P89, Y96, F98, T101, V247, D251, N255, L294, V295, A296, D297, C357, 1395, and V396 in SEQ ID NO:7. Cytochrome P450 variants with sequences similar to SEQ ID NOS: 4-7 (e.g., sequences with at least 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95% sequence identity to SEQ ID NOS: 4-7), may also contain mutations at the positions corresponding to P89, Y96, F98, T101, V247, D251, N255, L294, V295, A296, D297, C357, 1395, and V396 of SEQ ID NO:7.

[0103] In some embodiments, the heme enzyme comprises a globin enzyme. Globins are a superfamily of globular heme proteins that are typically involved in the transport and binding of oxygen. A characteristic of globins is a three-dimensional fold consisting of eight alpha helices, often labeled A-H, that can fold into a three-over-three sandwich structure. Some globins also additional terminal helix extensions. So-called "truncated hemoglobins" contain four alpha helices arranged in a two-over-two sandwich. Globins can be divided into three groups: single-domain globins, flavohemoglobins (not observed in archaea), and globin- coupled sensors (not observed in eukaryotes). All three groups are observed in bacteria. Globin proteins include hemoglobin, myoglobin, neuroglobin, cytoglobin, erythrocruorin, leghemoglobin, non-symbiotic hemoglobin, flavohemoglobins (one group of chimeric globins), globin E, globin-coupled sensors (another group of chimeric globins), protoglobin, truncated 2/2 globin, HbN, cyanoglobin, HbO, and Glb3.

[0104] In some embodiments, the heme protein used for formation of cyclopropene and/or bicyclobutane products is a globin or a variant thereof. For example, the globin may be sperm whale myoglobin comprising the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 8, or a variant thereof containing one or more mutations. In some embodiments, a sperm whale myoglobin variant may contain a mutation at H64 (e.g., an H64V mutation) or V68 (e.g., a V68A mutation). In some embodiments, the myoglobin variant may further contain mutations at L29 and/or F43. Such mutations may also be made at the corresponding positions of other globins such those containing a three-over-three helix sandwich fold (including but not limited to, C. jejuni globin (SEQ ID NO:9), V. stercoraria hemoglobin (SEQ ID NO: 10), murine neuroglobin (SEQ ID NO: 1 1), human neuroglobin (SEQ ID NO: 12), an M. infernorum hemoglobin (SEQ ID NO: 13), human cytoglobin (SEQ ID NO: 14), &ηά Α. suum hemoglobin (SEQ ID NO: 15). [0105] In some embodiments, the globin is a truncated globin such as B. subtilis truncated hemoglobin comprising the amino sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 16 or a variant thereof having one or more mutations. One or more mutations may reside within the distal binding pocket of B. subtilis truncated hemoglobin, for example at T45 and/or at Q49 with respect to SEQ ID NO: 16, or within the analogous regions of other globins such as those containing a two-over-two helix sandwich fold.

[0106] Protoglobins were the first globins identified in Archaea such as M. acetivorans, A. pernix, and P. ferrireducens. Protoglobin tertiary structure frequently includes the canonical globin fold, as well as a pre-A helix (termed "Z" in certain instances) and an N-terminal extension. In some embodiments, the heme protein used for formation of cyclopropene and/or bicyclobutane products is a protoglobin or a variant thereof. For example, the protoglobin may be an M. acetivorans protoglobin comprising the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 17, or a variant thereof containing one or more mutations; an A. pernix protoglobin comprising the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 18, or a variant thereof containing one or more mutations; or a P. ferrireducens protoglobin comprising the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 19, or a variant thereof containing one or more mutations. For example the protoglobin variant may contain one or mutations at positions W59, Y60, F73, F 145, or F93 in SEQ ID NO: 18, or at analogous positions in other protoglobins (e.g., protoglobins with at least 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 18).

[0107] One skilled in the art will appreciate that the ¥450BM3 catalysts and other enzyme catalysts described herein can be improved through the introduction of additional DNA mutations which alter the resulting amino acid sequence of the hemoprotein so as to generate a catalyst that is highly productive and selective for the desired cyclopropenation and bicyclobutanation reactions. In particular, there are many examples in the scientific literature that describe processes through which the enantioselectivity and activity of carbene-transfer hemoproteins can be optimized to produce products that do not include cyclopropenes and bicyclobutanes. Specifically, one skilled in the art will know that through a process of random mutagenesis via error-prone PCR, or through a process of site-directed mutagenesis in which one or more codons are randomized sequentially or simultaneously, or through a process of gene synthesis in which random or directed mutations are introduced, many different mutants of the genes encoding the P450S 3 enzymes and other enzymes described herein can be generated. One skilled in the art will appreciate that heme protein variants can be expressed in a whole cell using an expression vector under the control of an inducible promoter or by means of chromosomal integration under the control of a constitutive promoter. The cyclopropenation and bicyclobutanation activities of whole cell catalysts, or purified proteins can be screened by GC or HPLC, using parameters including but not limited to turnovers and selectivities as selection criteria to find beneficial mutations.

[0108] One skilled in the art will understand that ¥450BM3 mutants and other enzymes identified as improved in the cyclopropenation and bicyclobutanation can themselves be subjected to additional mutagenesis as described herein, resulting in progressive, cumulative improvements in one or more reaction parameters including but not limited to turnover frequency, total turnover number, yield, chemoselectivity, regioselectivity, diastereoselectivity, enantioselectivity, expression, thermostability, or solvent tolerance.

[0109] In some embodiments, the heme protein, homolog, variant, or fragment thereof has a turnover frequency (TOF) between about 1 min ^"1 and 10 min ^"1 (e.g., about 1 min ^"1 , 1.5 min ^{" 1} , 2 min ^"1 , 2.5 min ^"1 , 3 min ^"1 , 3.5 min ^"1 , 4 min ^"1 , 4.5 min ^"1 , 5 min ^"1 , 5.5 min ^"1 , 6 min ^"1 , 6.5 min ^{" 1} , 7 min ^"1 , 7.5 min ^"1 , 8 min ^"1 , 8.5 min ^"1 , 9 min ^"1 , 9.5 min ^"1 , or 10 min ^"1 ). In other embodiments, the TOF is between about 10 min ^"1 and 100 min ^"1 (e.g., about 10 min ^"1 , 11 min ^" 12 min ^"1 , 13 min ^"1 , 14 min ^"1 , 15 min ^"1 , 16 min ^"1 , 17 min ^"1 , 18 min ^"1 , 19 min ^"1 , 20 min ^"1 , 21 min ^"1 , 22 min ^"1 , 23 min ^"1 , 24 min ^"1 , 25 min ^"1 , 26 min ^"1 , 27 min ^"1 , 28 min ^"1 , 29 min ^"1 , 30 min ^"1 , 31 min ^"1 , 32 min ^"1 , 33 min ^"1 , 34 min ^"1 , 35 min ^"1 , 36 min ^"1 , 37 min ^"1 , 38 min ^"1 , 39 min ^"1 , 40 min ^"1 , 41 min ^"1 , 42 min ^"1 , 43 min ^"1 , 44 min ^"1 , 45 min ^"1 , 46 min ^"1 , 47 min ^"1 , 48 min ^"1 , 49 min ^"1 , 50 min ^"1 , 55 min ^"1 , 60 min ^"1 , 65 min ^"1 , 70 min ^"1 , 75 min ^"1 , 80 min ^"1 , 85 min ^"1 , 90 min ^"1 , 95 min ^"1 , or 100 min ^"1 ). In other instances, the TOF is greater than about 100 min ^"1 to 1,000 min ^{" 1} (e.g., greater than about 100 min ^"1 , 150 min ^"1 , 200 min ^"1 , 250 min ^"1 , 300 min ^"1 , 350 min ^"1 , 400 min ^"1 , 450 min ^"1 , 500 min ^"1 , 550 min ^"1 , 600 min ^"1 , 650 min ^"1 , 700 min ^"1 , 750 min ^"1 , 800 min ^"1 , 850 min ^"1 , 900 min ^"1 , 950 min ^"1 , 1,000 min ^"1 , or more). In some instances, the TOF is greater than about 10 min ^"1 . In other instances, the TOF is greater than about 45 min ^"1 . [0110] In other embodiments, the heme protein, homolog, variant, or fragment thereof has a total turnover number (TTN), which refers to the maximum number of molecules of a substrate that the protein can convert before becoming inactivated, of between about 1 and 100 (e.g., about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, or 100). In some other embodiments, the TTN is between about 100 and 1,000 (e.g., about 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950, or 1,000). In some embodiments, the TTN is between about 1,000 and 2,000 (e.g., about 1,000, 1,050, 1,100, 1,150, 1,200, 1,250, 1,300, 1,350, 1,400, 1,450, 1,500, 1,550, 1,600, 1,650, 1,700, 1,750, 1,800, 1,850, 1,900, 1,950 or 2,000). In other embodiments, the TTN is at least about 2,000 (e.g., at least about 2,000, 2,500, 3,000, 3,500, 4,000, 4,500, 5,000, 5,500, 6,000, 6,500, 7,000, 7,500, 8,000, 8,500, 9,000, 9,500, or 10,000). In some instances, the TTN is greater than about 70. In other instances, the TTN is greater than about 1,800.

[0111] In some embodiments, the heme protein variant or fragment thereof has enhanced activity of at least about 1.5 to 2,000 fold (e.g., at least about 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950, 1,000, 1,050, 1,100, 1,150, 1,200, 1,250, 1,300, 1,350, 1,400, 1,450, 1,500, 1,550, 1,600, 1,650, 1,700, 1,750, 1,800, 1,850, 1,900, 1,950, 2,000, or more) fold compared to the corresponding wild-type heme protein.

[0112] In some embodiments, activity is expressed in terms of turnover frequency (TOF). In particular embodiments, the TOF of the heme protein variant or fragment thereof is at least about 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, 9, 9.5, or 10 fold higher than the corresponding wild-type protein. [0113] In other instances, activity is expressed in terms of total turnover number (TTN). In particular instances, the TTN of the theme protein variant or fragment thereof is about least about 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950, 1,000, 1,050, 1,100, 1,150, 1,200, 1,250, 1,300, 1,350, 1,400, 1,450, 1,500, 1,550, 1,600, 1,650, 1,700, 1,750, 1,800, 1,850, 1,900, 1,950, or 2,000 fold higher than the corresponding wild-type protein.

[0114] In some embodiments, the present invention provides heme proteins, homologs, variants, and fragments thereof that catalyze enantioselective carbene insertion into alkyne carbon-carbon bonds with high enantiomeric excess. In particular embodiments, the heme proteins are variants or fragments thereof that catalyze enantioselective carbene insertion into alkyne bonds with higher enantiomeric excess values than that of the corresponding wild-type protein. In some embodiments, the heme protein, homolog, variants, or fragment thereof catalyzes carbene insertion into alkyne bonds with an enantiomeric excess value of at least about 30% ee (e.g., at least about 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 100% ee). Preferably, the heme protein, homolog, variant, or fragment thereof catalyzes carbene insertion into alkyne bonds with at least about 80% ee (e.g., at least about 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% ee). More preferably, the heme protein, homolog, variant, or fragment thereof catalyzes carbene insertion into alkyne bonds with at least about 95% ee (e.g., at least about 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% ee).

[0115] In certain embodiments, a conserved residue in a heme protein of interest that serves as an heme axial ligand can be identified by locating the segment of the DNA sequence in the corresponding gene which encodes the conserved residue. In some instances, this DNA segment is identified through detailed mutagenesis studies in a conserved region of the protein. In other instances, the conserved residue is identified through crystallographic study.

[0116] In situations where detailed mutagenesis studies and crystallographic data are not available for a heme protein of interest, the axial ligand may be identified through phylogenetic study. Due to the similarities in amino acid sequence within families of heme proteins (e.g., cytochrome c proteins), standard protein alignment algorithms may show a phylogenetic similarity between a heme protein for which crystallographic or mutagenesis data exist and a new heme protein for which such data do not exist. Thus, the polypeptide sequences of the present invention for which the heme axial ligand is known can be used as a "query sequence" to perform a search against a specific new heme protein of interest or a database comprising heme protein sequences to identify the heme axial ligand. Such analyses can be performed using the BLAST programs (see, e.g., Altschul et al, J Mol Biol. 215(3):403-10(1990)). Software for performing BLAST analyses publicly available through the National Center for Biotechnology Information (http://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov). BLASTP is used for amino acid sequences.

[0117] Exemplary parameters for performing amino acid sequence alignments to identify the heme axial ligand in a heme protein of interest using the BLASTP algorithm include E value = 10, word size = 3, Matrix = Blosum62, Gap opening = 1 1, gap extension = 1 , and conditional compositional score matrix adjustment. Those skilled in the art will know what modifications can be made to the above parameters, e.g., to either increase or decrease the stringency of the comparison and/or to determine the relatedness of two or more sequences.

[0118] In some embodiments, the heme protein comprises an amino acid sequence that has about 70% or greater (e.g., about 70%, 71 %, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81 %, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) identity to any of the amino acid sequences described herein (e.g., any of the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOS : l -6). In other embodiments, the heme protein comprises an amino acid sequence that has about 80% or greater (e.g., about 80%, 81 %, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) identity to any of the amino acid sequences described herein. In particular embodiments, the heme protein comprises an amino acid sequence that has about 90% or greater (e.g., about 90%, 91 %, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) identity any of the amino acid sequences described herein. In some instances, the heme protein comprises an amino acid sequence that is about 95%, 96,%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% identical any of the amino acid sequences described herein.

[0119] In some embodiments, the heme protein comprises an amino acid sequence that contains between about 5 and 124 (e.g., about 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 71 , 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91 , 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 11 1 , 112, 1 13, 1 14, 1 15, 1 16, 1 17, 1 18, 1 19, 120, 121, 122, 123, or 124) of the amino acids in SEQ ID NOS : 1-19, or variants thereof as described above. The amino acids may be contiguous, or separated by any number of amino acids. [0120] In certain embodiments, mutations can be introduced into the target gene using standard cloning techniques (e.g., site-directed mutagenesis, site-saturated mutagenesis) or by gene synthesis to produce the heme proteins, fragments thereof, variants thereof, or homologs thereof of the present invention. [0121] In some embodiments, the heme protein, fragment thereof, variant thereof, or homolog thereof is recombinantly expressed and optionally isolated and/or purified for carrying out the in vitro carbene insertion reactions of the present invention. In other embodiments, the heme protein, fragment thereof, variant thereof, or homolog thereof is expressed in whole cells such as bacterial cells, archaeal cells, yeast cells, fungal cells, insect cells, plant cells, or mammalian cells, and these cells are used for carrying out the in vivo carbene insertion reactions of the present invention. The wild-type or mutated gene can be expressed in a whole cell using an expression vector under the control of an inducible promoter or by means of chromosomal integration under the control of a constitutive promoter. Carbene insertion activity can be screened in vivo or in vitro by following product formation by GC or HPLC.

[0122] Suitable bacterial host cells include, but are not limited to, BL21 E. coli, DE3 strain E. coli, E. coli M15, DH5a, ϋΗΙΟβ, HB101 , T7 Express Competent E. coli (NEB), B. subtilis cells, Pseudomonas fluorescens cells, and cyanobacterial cells such as Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cells and Synechococcus elongates cells. Non-limiting examples of archaeal host cells include Pyrococcus furiosus, Metallosphera sedula, Thermococcus litoralis, Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum, Methanococcus jannaschii, Pyrococcus abyssi, Sulfolobus solfataricus, Pyrococcus woesei, Sulfolobus shibatae, and variants thereof. Fungal host cells include, but are not limited to, yeast cells from the genera Saccharomyces (e.g., S. cerevisiae), Pichia (P. Pastoris), Kluyveromyces (e.g., K. lactis), Hansenula and Yarrowia, and filamentous fungal cells from the genera Aspergillus, Trichoderma, and Myceliophthora. Suitable insect host cells include, but are not limited to, Sf9 cells from Spodoptera frugiperda, Sf21 cells from Spodoptera frugiperda, Hi-Five cells, BTI-TN-5B1 -4 Trichophusia ni cells, and Schneider 2 (S2) cells and Schneider 3 (S3) cells from Drosophila melanogaster. Non-limiting examples of mammalian host cells include HEK293 cells, HeLa cells, CHO cells, COS cells, Jurkat cells, NS0 hybridoma cells, baby hamster kidney (BHK) cells, MDCK cells, NIH-3T3 fibroblast cells, and any other immortalized cell line derived from a mammalian cell. Non-limiting examples of plant host cells include those from tobacco, tomato, potato, maize, rice, lettuce, and spinach. In general, cells from plants that have short generation times and/or yield reasonable biomass with standard cultivation techniques are preferable.

[0123] In certain embodiments, the present invention provides the heme proteins, fragments thereof, variants thereof, or homologs thereof, such as the cytochrome c variants described herein that are active carbene insertion catalysts, inside living cells. As a non- limiting example, bacterial cells (e.g., E. coli) can be used as host whole cell catalysts for the in vivo carbene insertion reactions of the present invention, although any number of host whole cells may be used, including but not limited to the host cells described herein. In some embodiments, host whole cell catalysts containing heme proteins, fragments thereof, variants thereof, or homologs thereof are found to significantly enhance the total turnover number (TTN) compared to the in vitro reactions using isolated heme proteins, fragments thereof, variants thereof, or homologs thereof.

[0124] The expression vector comprising a nucleic acid sequence that encodes a heme protein, fragment thereof, variant thereof, or homolog thereof of the invention can be a viral vector, a plasmid, a phage, a phagemid, a cosmid, a fosmid, a bacteriophage (e.g., a bacteriophage PI -derived vector (PAC)), a baculovirus vector, a yeast plasmid, or an artificial chromosome (e.g., bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC), a yeast artificial chromosome (YAC), a mammalian artificial chromosome (MAC), and human artificial chromosome (HAC)). Expression vectors can include chromosomal, non-chromosomal, and synthetic DNA sequences. Equivalent expression vectors to those described herein are known in the art and will be apparent to the ordinarily skilled artisan.

[0125] The expression vector can include a nucleic acid sequence encoding a heme protein, fragment thereof, variant thereof, or homolog thereof that is operably linked to a promoter, wherein the promoter comprises a viral, bacterial, archaeal, fungal, insect, plant, or mammalian promoter. In certain embodiments, the promoter is a constitutive promoter. In some embodiments, the promoter is an inducible promoter. In other embodiments, the promoter is a tissue-specific promoter or an environmentally regulated or a developmentally regulated promoter.

[0126] In some embodiments, the nucleic acid sequence encodes a heme protein that comprises an amino acid sequence that has about 70% or greater (e.g., about 70%, 71%, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) identity to the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOS: l-19. In other embodiments, the nucleic acid sequence encodes a heme protein that comprises an amino acid sequence that has about 80% or greater (e.g., about 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) identity to the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOS: 1-19. In particular embodiments, the nucleic acid sequence encodes a heme protein that comprises an amino acid sequence that has about 90% or greater (e.g., about 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) identity to the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOS: 1-19. In some instances, the nucleic acid sequence encodes a heme protein that comprises an amino acid sequence that is about 95%, 96,%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% identical to the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOS: l-19.

[0127] In other embodiments, the nucleic acid sequence encodes a heme protein that comprises an amino acid sequence that contains between about 5 and 124 (e.g., about 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, or 124) of the amino acids in SEQ ID NOS: 1-19. The amino acids may be contiguous, or separated by any number of amino acids.

[0128] It is understood that affinity tags may be added to the N- and/or C-terminus of a heme protein, fragment thereof, variant thereof, or homolog thereof expressed using an expression vector to facilitate protein purification. Non-limiting examples of affinity tags include metal binding tags such as His6-tags and other tags such as glutathione S -transferase (GST).

[0129] Non-limiting expression vectors for use in bacterial host cells include pCWori, pET vectors such as pET22 (EMD Millipore), pBR322 (ATCC37017), pQE™ vectors (Qiagen), pBluescript™ vectors (Stratagene), pNH vectors, lambda-ZAP vectors (Stratagene); ptrc99a, pKK223-3, pDR540, pRIT2T (Pharmacia), pRSET, pCR-TOPO vectors, pET vectors, pSyn l vectors, pChlamy l vectors (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA), pGEMl (Promega, Madison, WI), and pMAL (New England Biolabs, Ipswich, MA). Non-limiting examples of expression vectors for use in eukaryotic host cells include pXTl, pSG5 (Stratagene), pSVK3, pBPV, pMSG, pSVLSV40 (Pharmacia), pcDNA3.3, pcDNA4/TO, pcDNA6/TR, pLenti6/TR, pMT vectors (Life Technologies), pKLACl vectors, pKLAC2 vectors (New England Biolabs), pQE™ vectors (Qiagen), BacPak baculoviral vectors, pAdeno-X™ adenoviral vectors (Clontech), and pBABE retroviral vectors. Any other vector may be used as long as it is replicable and viable in the host cell.

B. Cyclopropene products [0130] In some embodiments, methods for producing cyclopropene products comprise combining an alkyne, a carbene precursor, and a heme protein, homolog thereof, variant thereof, or fragment thereof as described herein under conditions sufficient to form the cyclopropene.

[0131] In some embodiments, the alkyne is a compound according to Formula I:

wherein

R ¹⁰ is selected from the group consisting of H and CR ^X R ² ;

each R ¹ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, Ci-i8 alkyl, Ci-i8 haloalkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalky^-L ¹ -, (Ce-ιο aryFj-L ¹ -, (5- to 10- membered heteroary -L ¹ -, (5- to 10-membered heterocycly -L ¹ -, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ )2, B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ , and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ ;

Ci-18 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl in R ¹ are optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^la ;

each R ^la is independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, cyano, -OH, Ci-6 alkyl, Ci-6 alkoxy, Ci-6 heteroalkyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl;

L ¹ is selected from the group consisting of a bond and Ci- ₂ o alkylene;

when L ¹ is C ₂ - ₂ o alkylene, one or more non-adjacent CH ₂ groups are optionally and independently replaced with O, S, or NH;

when L ¹ is C3-20 alkylene, one or more pairs of adjacent CH ₂ groups are optionally and independently replaced with C(0)0 or C(0)NH;

each R ² is independently selected from the group consisting of H, C1-18 alkyl, Ci-i8 haloalkyl, C ₂ -i8 alkenyl, C ₂ -i8 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalkyl)-L ² -, (Ce-ιο aryl)-L ² -, (5- to 10- membered heteroaryl) -L ² -, (5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl)-L ² -, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ )2, B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ , and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ ;

Ci-18 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl in R ² are optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^2a ;

each R ^2a is independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, cyano, -OH, Ci-6 alkyl, Ci-6 alkoxy, Ci-6 heteroalkyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl;

L ² is selected from the group consisting of a bond and Ci- ₂ o alkylene;

when L ² is C ₂ - ₂ o alkylene, one or more non-adjacent CH ₂ groups are optionally and independently replaced with O, S, or NH;

when L ² is C3-20 alkylene, one or more pairs of adjacent CH ₂ groups are optionally and independently replaced with C(0)0 or C(0)NH; and

each R ⁷ , R ⁸ , and R ⁹ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted C1-18 alkyl, C ₂ -i8 alkenyl, C ₂ -i8 alkynyl, optionally substituted C6-io aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl.

[0132] In some embodiments, the alkyne is a compound according to Formula la:

[0133] In some embodiments, each R ² in alkynes of Formula I is independently selected from H and Ci-6 alkyl. In some embodiments, R ² in alkynes of Formula la is selected from H and Ci-6 alkyl. R ² can be, for example, H, methyl, ethyl, ^-propyl, isopropyl, w-butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, fert-butyl, w-pentyl, isopentyl, or «-hexyl. In some embodiments, R ² in alkynes according to Formula I or Formula la is H.

[0134] In some embodiments, R ¹ is selected from the group consisting of Ci-ie alkyl, C ₂ -i8 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalky^-L ¹ -, (Ce-ιο ary^-L ¹ -, (5- to 10-membered heteroary^-L ¹ -, and (5- to 10-membered heterocycly^-L ¹ -, each of which is optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^la . In some embodiments, R ¹ is selected from the group consisting of Ci-8 alkyl and C ₂ -8 alkynyl, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more R ^la . R ¹ can be, for example, optionally substituted methyl, optionally substituted ethyl, optionally substituted ^-propyl, optionally substituted isopropyl, optionally substituted w-butyl, optionally substituted isobutyl, optionally substituted sec-butyl, optionally substituted tert- butyl, optionally substituted w-pentyl, optionally substituted isopentyl, optionally substituted ft-hexyl, optionally substituted branched hexyl, optionally substituted w-heptyl, optionally substituted branched heptyl, optionally substituted w-octyl, optionally substituted branched octyl, optionally substituted ethynyl, optionally substituted prop- 1 -yn-l-yl, optionally substituted prop-2-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted but- 1 -yn-l-yl, optionally substituted but-2- yn-l-yl, optionally substituted but-3 -yn-l-yl, optionally substituted pent- 1 -yn-l-yl, optionally substituted pent-2-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted pent-3-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted pent- 4-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hex- 1 -yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hex-2-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hex-3 -yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hex-4-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hex-5-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hept-1 -yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hept- 2-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hept-3 -yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hept-4-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hept-5-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hept-6-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted oct- 1 -yn-l-yl, optionally substituted oct -2-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted oct -3- yn-l-yl, optionally substituted oct -4-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted oct -5-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted oct -6-yn-l-yl, or optionally substituted oct-7-yn-l-yl. Alkynes according to Formula I or Formula la having alkenyl R ¹ groups, cycloalkyl R ¹ groups, and the like can also be employed. [0135] In some embodiments, R ¹ in alkynes according to Formula I is selected from the group consisting of Ci-6 alkyl and C2-6 alkynyl, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more R ^la , and R ¹⁰ is H. In some such embodiments, R ¹ is Ci-6 alkyl and R ^la is selected from halogen (e.g., CI or Br), -OH, Ci-6 alkoxy (e.g., methoxy, ethoxy, w-propoxy, or isopropoxy), and Ci-6 heteroalkyl (e.g., methoxymethyl or ethoxymethyl). [0136] In some embodiments, R ¹ is selected from (C3-10 cycloalkyfj-L ¹ -, (Ce-ιο ary^-L ¹ -, (5- to 10-membered heteroary^-L ¹ -, and (5- to 10-membered heterocycly^-L ¹ -, wherein cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, and heterocyclyl are optionally substituted with one or more R ^la . In some embodiments, L ¹ is a covalent bond. For example, the grouping (C3-10 cycloalkyl)-!. ¹ - can be optionally substituted cyclopropyl, optionally substituted cyclobutyl, optionally substituted cyclopentyl, optionally substituted cyclohexyl, or the like. In some embodiments, L ¹ is Ci-20 alkylene (e.g., Ci-10 alkylene or Ci-6 alkylene). For example, the grouping (C3-10 cycloalky^-L ¹ - can be cyclohexylmethyl, (2-cyclohexyl)eth-l-yl, (3- cyclohexyl)prop-l-yl, or the like. The grouping (Ce-ιο ary^-L ¹ - can be, for example, phenethyl. Cycloalkyl groups, aryl groups, and heterocyclyl groups can be further substituted with R ^la groups as described above. In some embodiments, R ¹ is cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclohexyl, l,3-dioxolan-2-yl, or tetrahydropyran-l-yl; and R ^la is -OH, Ci-6 alkoxy (e.g., methoxy, ethoxy, w-propoxy, or isopropoxy), or Ci-6 heteroalkyl (e.g., methoxymethyl or ethoxymethyl).

[0137] In some embodiments, L ¹ is Ci-20 alkylene where one or more non-adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with O, S, or NH. For example, the L ¹ moiety may have the formula -(CH2)w(L ^la ) _x (CH2) _y (L ^la ) _x (CH2)z-, where each L ^la is independently O, S, or NH; each subscript x is independently 0 or 1; and each of subscripts w, y, and z is a non-zero integer such that the sum of subscript w, subscript x, subscript y, and subscript z is less than or equal to 20. In some such embodiments, each L ^la is O. In some embodiments, the L ¹ moiety is -CH20(CH2)6-.

[0138] In some embodiments, L ¹ is C3-20 alkylene wherein one or more pairs of adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with C(0)0 or C(0)NH. For example, the L ¹ moiety may have the formula -(CH2)q(L ^lb ) _r (CH2)s(L ^lb )t(CH2) _u -, where each L ^lb is independently C(0)0 or C(0)NH; subscript r and subscript t are independently 0 or 1; and each of subscripts q, s, and u is a non-zero integer such that: 1) the sum of subscript q, subscript s, and subscript u is less than or equal to 20 when subscript r and subscript t are 0; 2) the sum of subscript q, subscript s, and subscript u is less than or equal to 18 when the sum of subscript r and subscript t is 1; or 3) the sum of subscript q, subscript s, and subscript u is less than or equal to 16 when the sum of subscript r and subscript t is 2. In some embodiments, the L ¹ moiety is -C(0)0(CH2)6-. L ¹ groups having both one or more L ^la moieties (i.e., O, S, or NH) and one or more L ^lb moieties (i.e., C(0)0 or C(O)NH) can also be employed. [0139] In some embodiments, the alkyne for forming cyclopropene products is selected from

In some embodiments, the alkyne for forming cyclopropene products is selected

[0141] In some embodiments, the alkyne for forming cyclopropene products is selected from:

[0142] A number of carbene precursors can be used in the methods and reaction mixtures of the invention including, but not limited to, amines, azides, hydrazines, hydrazones, epoxides, diazirenes, and diazo reagents. In some embodiments, the carbene precursor is an epoxide (i.e., a compound containing an epoxide moiety). The term "epoxide moiety" refers to a three-membered heterocycle having two carbon atoms and one oxygen atom connected by single bonds. In some embodiments, the carbene precursor is a diazirene (i.e., a compound containing a diazirine moiety). The term "diazirine moiety" refers to a three- membered heterocycle having one carbon atom and two nitrogen atoms, wherein the nitrogen atoms are connected via a double bond. Diazirenes are chemically inert, small hydrophobic carbene precursors described, for example, in US 2009/0211893, by Turro (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1987, 109, 2101-2107), and by Brunner (J. Biol. Chem. 1980, 255, 3313-3318), which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0143] In some embodiments, the carbene precursor is a diazo reagent, e.g., an a- diazoester, an a-diazoamide, an a-diazonitrile, an a-diazoketone, an a-diazoaldehyde, and an a-diazosilane. Diazo reagents can be formed from a number of starting materials using procedures that are known to those of skill in the art. Ketones (including 1,3-diketones), esters (including β-ketones), acyl chlorides, and carboxylic acids can be converted to diazo reagents employing diazo transfer conditions with a suitable transfer reagent (e.g., aromatic and aliphatic sulfonyl azides, such as toluenesulfonyl azide, 4-carboxyphenylsulfonyl azide, 2-naphthalenesulfonyl azide, methylsulfonyl azide, and the like) and a suitable base (e.g., triethylamine, triisopropylamine, diazobicyclo[2.2.2]octane, l,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7- ene, and the like) as described, for example, in U. S. Pat. No. 5, 191 ,069 and by Davies (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1993, 1 15, 9468-9479), which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. The preparation of diazo compounds from azide and hydrazone precursors is described, for example, in U. S. Pat. Nos. 8,350,014 and 8,530,212, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Alkylnitrite reagents (e.g., (3-methylbutyl)nitrite) can be used to convert a-aminoesters to the corresponding diazo compounds in non-aqueous media as described, for example, by Takamura (Tetrahedron, 1975, 31 : 227), which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Alternatively, a diazo compound can be formed from an aliphatic amine, an aniline or other arylamine, or a hydrazine using a nitrosating agent (e.g., sodium nitrite) and an acid (e.g., p-toluenesulfonic acid) as described, for example, by Zollinger (Diazo Chemistry I and II, VCH Weinheim, 1994) and in US 2005/0266579, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0144] In some embodiments, the carbene precursor is a diazo compound such as a compound according to Formula II:

wherein

R ³ and R ⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-is alkyl, optionally substituted Ci-is alkoxy, Ci-is haloalkyl (e.g., Ci-i8 polyfluoroalkyl), C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ ; and

each R ⁷ , R ⁸ , and R ⁹ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-ie alkyl, C ₂ -i8 alkenyl, C ₂ -i8 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and optionally substituted 5- to 10- membered heterocyclyl.

[0145] In some embodiments, R ³ and R ⁴ is are independently selected from the group consisting of H, Ci-6 alkoxy, and Ci-6 alkyl. In some embodiments, R ⁴ is optionally substituted Ci-6 alkoxy (e.g., the carbene precursor is a diazoester). For example, R ⁴ can be optionally substituted methoxy (e.g., benzyloxy), optionally substituted ethoxy, optionally substituted w-propoxy, optionally substituted isopropoxy, optionally substituted w-butoxy, optionally substituted isobutoxy, or optionally substituted /-butoxy. In some embodiments, R ⁴ is Ci-6 alkoxy and R ³ is H or Ci-6 alkyl.

[0146] In some embodiments, R ⁴ is optionally substituted Ci-6 alkyl (e.g., the carbene precursor is a diazoketone). R ⁴ can be, for example, methyl, ethyl, ^-propyl, isopropyl, n- butyl, isobutyl, seobutyl, tert-butyl, w-pentyl, isopentyl, w-hexyl, or branched hexyl. In some embodiments, R ⁴ is Ci-6 alkoxy and R ³ is H or Ci-6 alkyl.

[0147] In some embodiments, R ³ is H and R ⁴ is Ci-6 alkoxy in carbene precursors according to Formula II. In some embodiments, the cyclopropene product is a compound according to Formula III as set forth above. In some embodiments, the cyclopropene is selected from:

° , and ^½

[0148] Cyclopropene products prepared according to the methods described herein can themselves be used as intermediate compounds for further elaboration via one more organic transformations. For example, the methods provided herein can further include polymerizing the cyclopropene product. In some embodiments, the present invention provides a method for ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP), as shown in Equation 3. See also, Elling, et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2015, 137, 9922-9926.

(3)

[0149] In Equation 3, R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , and R ⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-is alkyl, Ci-is haloalkyl (e.g., Ci-ie polyfluoroalkyl), C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10- membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ .

[0150] In some embodiments, the method further comprises converting the cyclopropene product to a cyclopropane. For example, multi-substituted cyclopropanes can be prepared as shown in Equation 4: Cul

wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-is alkyl, Ci-ie haloalkyl (e.g., Ci-ie polyfluoroalkyl), C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ )2, B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ .

[0151] In some embodiments, the method further comprises contacting the cyclopropene product with a diene or a tetrazine under conditions sufficient to form a cycloaddition product. For example, fused ring systems can be built as shown in Equation 5 :

wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-is alkyl, Ci-ie haloalkyl (e.g., Ci-ie polyfluoroalkyl), C ₂ -i8 alkenyl, C ₂ -i8 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ .

[0152] In certain aspects, the present invention provides a method to label molecules via inverse Diels Alder cycloadditions, as shown in Equation 6. See also, Blackman, et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 2008, 730, 13518-13519.

[0153] In Equation 6, R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-i8 alkyl, Ci-is haloalkyl (e.g. , Ci-ie polyfluoroalkyl), C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10- membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ .

C. Bicyclobutane products

[0154] In some embodiments, methods for producing bicyclobutane products comprise combining an alkyne, a carbene precursor, and a heme protein, homolog thereof, variant thereof, or fragment thereof as described herein under conditions sufficient to form the bicyclobutane.

[0155] In some embodiments, the alk ne is a compound according to Formula IV:

wherein

R ¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of H, Ci-is alkyl, Ci-is haloalkyl, C ₂ -i8 alkenyl, C ₂ -i8 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalkyl)-L ⁿ -, (Ce-ιο aryl)-L ⁿ -, (5- to 10-membered heteroaryl)-L ⁿ -, (5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl)-L ⁿ -, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ¹⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ¹⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ¹⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ¹⁷ , C(0)SR ¹⁷ , C(0)N(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ¹⁷ , C(0)ON(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ¹⁷ OR ¹⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ¹⁷ , and P(0)(OR ¹⁷ ) ₂ ;

Ci-18 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl in R ¹¹ are optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^{l la} ;

each R ^{l la} is independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, cyano, -OH, Ci-6 alkyl, Ci-6 alkoxy, Ci-6 heteroalkyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl;

L ¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of a bond and Ci- ₂ o alkylene;

when L ¹¹ is C ₂ - ₂ o alkylene, one or more non-adjacent CH ₂ groups are optionally and independently replaced with O, S, or NH;

when L ¹¹ is C3- ₂ o alkylene, one or more pairs of adjacent CH ₂ groups are optionally and independently replaced with C(0)0 or C(0)NH; R ¹² is selected from the group consisting of H, Ci-is alkyl, Ci-is haloalkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalkyl)-L ¹² -, (Ce-ιο aryl)-L ¹² -, (5- to 10-membered heteroaryl) -L ¹² -, (5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl)-L ¹² -, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ¹⁸ )2, B(R ¹⁹ )2, Si(R ¹⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ¹⁷ , C(0)SR ¹⁷ , C(0)N(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ¹⁷ , C(0)ON(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ¹⁷ OR ¹⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ¹⁷ , and P(0)(OR ¹⁷ ) ₂ ;

Ci-18 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl in R ¹² are optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^12a ;

each R ^12a is independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, cyano, -OH, Ci-6 alkyl, Ci-6 alkoxy, Ci-6 heteroalkyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl;

L ¹² is selected from the group consisting of a bond and Ci-20 alkylene;

when L ¹² is C2-20 alkylene, one or more non-adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with O, S, or NH;

when L ¹² is C3-20 alkylene, one or more pairs of adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with C(0)0 or C(0)NH;

each R ¹⁷ , R ¹⁸ , and R ¹⁹ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-ie alkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and optionally substituted 5- to 10- membered heterocyclyl.

[0156] In some embodiments, R ¹¹ and R ¹² in alkynes of Formula IV are independently selected from H and Ci-6 alkyl. R ¹¹ and R ¹² can be, for example, H, methyl, ethyl, ^-propyl, isopropyl, w-butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, w-pentyl, isopentyl, or «-hexyl. In some embodiments, R ¹² in alkynes according to Formula IV is H. [0157] In some embodiments, R ¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of (Ce-ιο aryl)-L ⁿ -, (5- to 10-membered heteroaryl)-L ⁿ -; Ce-ιο aryl and 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl are optionally substituted with one or more R ^{l la} ; and L ¹¹ is a bond.

[0158] In some embodiments, R ¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of C1-18 alkyl, C2-18 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalkyl)-L ⁿ -, (Ce-ιο aryl)-L ⁿ -, (5- to 10-membered heteroaryl)-L ⁿ -, and (5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl)-L ⁿ -, each of which is optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^{l la} . In some embodiments, R ¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of Ci-8 alkyl and C2-8 alkynyl, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more R ^{l la} . R ¹¹ can be, for example, optionally substituted methyl, optionally substituted ethyl, optionally substituted ^-propyl, optionally substituted isopropyl, optionally substituted ft-butyl, optionally substituted isobutyl, optionally substituted sec-butyl, optionally substituted fert-butyl, optionally substituted w-pentyl, optionally substituted isopentyl, optionally substituted w-hexyl, optionally substituted branched hexyl, optionally substituted ft-heptyl, optionally substituted branched heptyl, optionally substituted w-octyl, optionally substituted branched octyl, optionally substituted ethynyl, optionally substituted prop-l-yn-1- yl, optionally substituted prop-2-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted but-l-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted but-2-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted but-3-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted pent-1- yn-l-yl, optionally substituted pent-2-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted pent-3-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted pent-4-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hex- 1 -yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hex-2-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hex-3-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hex-4- yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hex-5 -yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hept-1 -yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hept-2-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hept-3 -yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hept-4-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hept-5-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted hept-

6- yn-l-yl, optionally substituted oct-1 -yn-l-yl, optionally substituted oct -2-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted oct -3-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted oct -4-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted oct -5-yn-l-yl, optionally substituted oct -6-yn-l-yl, or optionally substituted oct-

7 - yn-l-yl. Alkynes according to Formula IV having alkenyl R ¹¹ groups, cycloalkyl R ¹¹ groups, and the like can also be employed.

[0159] In some embodiments, R ¹¹ in alkynes according to Formula IV is selected from the group consisting of Ci-6 alkyl and C2-6 alkynyl, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more R ^{l la} . In some such embodiments, R ¹¹ is Ci-6 alkyl and R ^lla is selected from halogen (e.g., CI or Br), -OH, Ci-6 alkoxy (e.g., methoxy, ethoxy, w-propoxy, or isopropoxy), and Ci-6 heteroalkyl (e.g., methoxymethyl or ethoxymethyl).

[0160] In some embodiments, R ¹¹ is selected from (C3-10 cycloalkyl)-L ⁿ -, (Ce-ιο aryl)-L ⁿ -, (5- to 10-membered heteroaryl)-L ⁿ -, (5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl)-L ⁿ -, wherein cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, and heterocyclyl are optionally substituted with one or more R ^{l la} . In some embodiments, L ¹¹ is a covalent bond. For example, the grouping (C3-10 cycloalkyl)-L ⁿ - can be optionally substituted cyclopropyl, optionally substituted cyclobutyl, optionally substituted cyclopentyl, optionally substituted cyclohexyl, or the like. In some embodiments, L ¹¹ is Ci-20 alkylene (e.g., Ci-10 alkylene or Ci-6 alkylene). For example, the grouping (C3-10 cycloalkyl)-L ⁿ - can be cyclohexylmethyl, (2-cyclohexyl)eth-l-yl, (3- cyclohexyl)prop-l-yl, or the like. The grouping (Ce-ιο aryl)-L ⁿ - can be, for example, phenethyl. Cycloalkyl groups, aryl groups, and heterocyclyl groups can be further substituted with R ^{l la} groups as described above. In some embodiments, R ¹¹ is cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclohexyl, l,3-dioxolan-2-yl, or tetrahydropyran-l-yl; and R ^{l la} is -OH, Ci-6 alkoxy (e.g., methoxy, ethoxy, w-propoxy, or isopropoxy), or Ci-6 heteroalkyl (e.g., methoxymethyl or ethoxymethyl).

[0161] In some embodiments, L ¹¹ is Ci-20 alkylene where one or more non-adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with O, S, or NH. For example, the L ¹¹ moiety may have the formula -(CH2)w(L ^{l la} ) _x (CH2) _y (L ^{l la} ) _x (CH ₂ )z-, where each L ^{l la} is independently O, S, or NH; each subscript x is independently 0 or 1; and each of subscripts w, y, and z is a non-zero integer such that the sum of subscript w, subscript x, subscript y, and subscript z is less than or equal to 20. In some such embodiments, each L ^lla is O. In some embodiments, the L ¹¹ moiety is -CH20(CH2)6-.

[0162] In some embodiments, L ¹¹ is C3-20 alkylene wherein one or more pairs of adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with C(0)0 or C(0)NH. For example, the L ¹¹ moiety may have the formula -(CH ₂ )q(L ^{l lb} )r(CH2) _s (L ^{l lb} ) _t (CH2)u-, where each L ^llb is C(0)0 or C(0)NH; subscript r and subscript t are independently 0 or 1; and each of subscripts q, s, and u is a non-zero integer such that: 1) the sum of subscript q, subscript s, and subscript u is less than or equal to 20 when subscript r and subscript t are 0; 2) the sum of subscript q, subscript s, and subscript u is less than or equal to 18 when the sum of subscript r and subscript t is 1 ; or 3) the sum of subscript q, subscript s, and subscript u is less than or equal to 16 when the sum of subscript r and subscript t is 2. In some embodiments, the L ¹¹ moiety is -C(0)0(CH2)6-. L ¹¹ groups having both one or more L ^{l la} moieties (i.e., O, S, or NH) and one or more L ^{l lb} moieties (i.e., C(0)0 or C(O)NH) can also be employed. [0163] In some embodiments, each R ^{l la} is independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, -OH, Ci-6 alkyl, Ci-6 alkoxy, Ci-6 heteroalkyl (e.g., hydroxymethyl), and C2-6 alkynyl.

[0164] In some embodiments, the alkyne for forming bicyclobutane products is selected from:

[0165] In some embodiments, the alkyne for forming bicyclobutane products is selected fr

[0166] In some embodiments, the alkyne for forming bicyclobutane products is selected fro

[0167] Any suitable carbene precursor (e.g., an amine, an azide, a hydrazine, a hydrazone, an epoxide, a diazirene, or a diazo compound) can be used in the methods. In some embodiments, the carbene precursor is a diazo compound such as a compound according to Formula V:

wherein

R ¹³ and R ¹⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-is alkyl, optionally substituted C1-18 alkoxy, Ci-is haloalkyl (e.g., Ci-18 polyfluoroalkyl), C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ¹⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ¹⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ¹⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ¹⁷ , C(0)SR ¹⁷ ,

C(0)N(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ¹⁷ , C(0)ON(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ¹⁷ OR ¹⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ¹⁷ and P(0)(OR ¹⁷ ) ₂ ; and each R ¹⁷ , R ¹⁸ , and R ¹⁹ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted C1-18 alkyl, C ₂ -i8 alkenyl, C ₂ -i8 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and optionally substituted 5- to 10- membered heterocyclyl.

[0168] In some embodiments, R ¹³ and R ¹⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, Ci-6 alkoxy, and Ci-6 alkyl. In some embodiments, R ¹⁴ is optionally substituted Ci-6 alkoxy (e.g., the carbene precursor is a diazoester). For example, R ¹⁴ can be optionally substituted methoxy (e.g., benzyloxy), optionally substituted ethoxy, optionally substituted w-propoxy, optionally substituted isopropoxy, optionally substituted w-butoxy, optionally substituted isobutoxy, or optionally substituted /-butoxy. In some embodiments, R ¹⁴ is Ci-6 alkoxy and R ¹³ is H or Ci-6 alkyl. [0169] In some embodiments, R ¹⁴ is optionally substituted Ci-6 alkyl (e.g., the carbene precursor is a diazoketone). R ¹⁴ can be, for example, methyl, ethyl, ^-propyl, isopropyl, n- butyl, isobutyl, seobutyl, tert-butyl, w-pentyl, isopentyl, w-hexyl, or branched hexyl. In some embodiments, R ¹⁴ is Ci-6 alkoxy and R ¹³ is H or Ci-6 alkyl.

[0170] In some embodiments, R ¹³ is H and R ¹⁴ is Ci-6 alkoxy in carbene precursors according to Formula V. In some embodiments, the product is a bicyclobutane according to Formula VI as set forth above. In some embodiments, the bicyclobutane is selected from:

and ^H

[0171] Bicyclobutane products prepared according to the methods described herein can themselves be used as intermediate compounds for further elaboration via one more organic transformations, as described above with respect to cyclopropenes. In certain aspects, the present invention provides a method for producing polyester by using the bicyclobutane product according to Equation 7:

hydrolysis

VI VI VII wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵⁰ , R ⁶⁰ , R ⁷⁰ , and R ⁸⁰ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-is alkyl, Ci-is haloalkyl (e.g., Ci-ie polyfluoroalkyl), C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10- membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ .

[0172] In certain aspects, the present invention provides a method for synthesizing highly functionalized chiral cyclobutane-containing molecules via strain-release amination, as shown in Equation 8. See also, Gianatassio, et al. Science 2016, 351, 241-246.

[0173] In Equation 8, R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-is alkyl, Ci-is haloalkyl (e.g., Ci-ie polyfluoroalkyl), C ₂ -i8 alkenyl, C ₂ -i8 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10- membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ .

[0174] Accordingly, some of the embodiments disclosed herein provide methods which further include hydrolyzing the bicyclobutane to form a dicarboxylate-substituted bicyclobutane. In some embodiments, the method further comprises contacting the dicarboxylate-substituted bicyclobutane with an amine under conditions sufficient to form a diamido-substituted bicyclobutane. In some embodiments, the method further comprises contacting the dicarboxylate-substituted bicyclobutane with a diol under conditions sufficient to form a polyester.

[0175] In certain aspects, the present invention provides a method for producing functionalized polybenzvalenes from bicyclobutane products according to Equation 9. Functionalized polybenzvalenes contains high strain-energies and have potential applications in propulsion technologies. (See, e.g., Agrawal, (2010). High energy materials: propellants, explosives and pyrotechnics. John Wiley & Sons.) Non-conjugated polybenzvalene polymers could also isomerize to conjugated conductive polyacetylenes without extrusion of molecular fragments as shown in Equation 10. (See, Swager, et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 1988, 110(9), 2973-2974.) This feature makes polybenzvalenes highly desirable for producing conductive polymers with highly ordered morphologies. Furthermore, as this isomerization process can be promoted chemically, photochemically, mechanically, thermally, and by transition metals, polybenzvalene polymers have huge potentials as stimuli-responsive materials. (See, Chen, et al. Science, 2017, 357, 475-479.)

functionalized

polybenzvalene

functionalized functionalized

polybenzvalene polyacetylene [0176] In Equation 9 and Equation 10, R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , and R ⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-i8 alkyl, Ci-i8 haloalkyl (e.g., Ci-i8 polyfluoroalkyl), C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ .

[0177] Accordingly, some of the embodiments disclosed herein provide methods which further include reducing the bicyclobutane to form a dihydroxy-substituted bicyclobutane. In some embodiments, the methods further include converting the dihydroxy-substituted bicyclobutane to a polybenzvalene or a polyacetylene. [0178] In certain aspects, the present invention provides a method for incorporating bicyclobutane groups into molecules via click chemistry, as shown in Equation 11.

[0179] In Equation 11, R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-is alkyl, Ci-is haloalkyl (e.g., Ci-i8 polyfluoroalkyl), C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10- membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) _2; and L is a linking moiety (e.g., a linking moiety L ¹ or L ¹¹ as described above).

[0180] Accordingly, some of the embodiments disclosed herein provide methods wherein the bicyclobutane comprises an alkyne moiety and the method further comprises contacting the alkyne moiety with an azide under conditions sufficient to form a triazole moiety.

[0181] The alkyne reagents, carbene precursor reagents, and strained carbocycle products described herein can be further substituted. A compound according to Formula I, Formula la, or Formula III may contain, for example, an optionally substituted R ¹ group or an optionally substituted R ² group, while a compound according to Formula II or Formula III may contain an optionally substituted R ³ group, one or more optionally substituted R ⁴ groups. A compound according to Formula IV or Formula VI may contain, for example, an optionally substituted R ¹¹ group or an optionally substituted R ¹² group, while a compound according to Formula V or Formula VI may contain an optionally substituted R ¹³ group, one or more optionally substituted R ¹⁴ groups. In general, the term "substituted," whether preceded by the term "optionally" or not, means that one or more hydrogens of the designated moiety are replaced with a suitable substituent. Unless otherwise indicated, an "optionally substituted" group may have a suitable substituent at each substitutable position of the group, and when more than one position in any given structure is substituted with more than one substituent selected from a specified group, the substituent may be either the same or different at every position. Combinations of substituents are generally those that result in the formation of stable or chemically feasible compounds. The term "stable," as used herein, refers to compounds that are not substantially altered when subjected to conditions to allow for their production, detection, and, in certain embodiments, their recovery, purification, and use for one or more of the purposes disclosed herein. In general, "substituted," as used herein, does not encompass replacement and/or alteration of a key functional group by which a molecule is identified, e.g., such that the "substituted" functional group becomes, through substitution, a different functional group. For example, a "substituted phenyl" group must still comprise the phenyl moiety and cannot be modified by substitution, in this definition, to become, e.g., a cyclohexyl group. [0182] Suitable monovalent substituents on a substitutable carbon atom of an "optionally substituted" group are independently halogen; -(CH ₂ )o-4R ^a ; -(CH ₂ )o-40R ^a ; -0(CH ₂ )o-4R ^a , -0-(CH ₂ )o-4C(0)OR ^a ; -(CH ₂ )o- ₄ CH(OR ^a ) ₂ ; -(CH ₂ )o- ₄ SR ^a ; -(CH ₂ )o- ₄ Ph, wherein Ph is phenyl which may be substituted with R ^a ; -(CH ₂ )o-40(CH ₂ )o-iphenyl, which phenyl may be substituted with R ^a ; -CH=CHPh, wherein Ph is phenyl which may be substituted with R ^a ; -(CH ₂ )o-40(CH ₂ )o-i-Py, wherein Py is pyridyl which may be substituted with R ^a ; -N0 ₂ ; -CN; -Ns; -(CH ₂ )o- ₄ N(R ^a ) ₂ ; -(CH ₂ )o- ₄ N(R ^a )C(0)R ^a ; -N(R ^a )C(S)R ^a ; -(CH ₂ )o- 4N(R ^a )C(0)NR ^a ₂ ; -N(R ^a )C(S)NR ^a ₂ ; -(CH ₂ )o-4N(R ^a )C(0)OR ^a ; -N(R ^a )N(R ^a )C(0)R ^a ; -N(R ^a )N(R ^a )C(0)NR ^a ₂ ; -N(R ^a )N(R ^a )C(0)OR ^a ; -(CH ₂ )o-4C(0)R ^a ; -C(S)R ^a ; -(CH ₂ )o-4C(0)OR ^a ; -(CH ₂ )o- ₄ C(0)SR ^a ; -(CH ₂ )o- ₄ C(0)OSiR ^a ₃ ; -(CH ₂ )o- ₄ OC(0)R ^a ; -OC(0)(CH ₂ )o-4SR-SC(S)SR ^a ; -(CH ₂ )o- ₄ SC(0)R ^a ; -(CH ₂ )o- ₄ C(0)NR ^a ₂ ; -C(S)NR ^a ₂ , -C(S)SR ^a ; -SC(S)SR ^a , -(CH ₂ )o-40C(0)NR¾; -C(0)N(OR ^a )R ^a ; -C(0)C(0)R ^a ; -C(0)CH ₂ C(0)R ^a ; -C(NOR ^a )R ^a ; -(CH ₂ )o- ₄ SSR ^a ; -(CH ₂ )o- ₄ S(0) ₂ R ^a ; -(CH ₂ )o- ₄ S(0) ₂ OR ^a ; -(CH ₂ )o- ₄ OS(0) ₂ R ^a ; -S(0) ₂ NR ^a ₂ ; -(CH ₂ )o- ₄ S(0)R ^a ; -N(R ^a )S(0) ₂ NR ^a ₂ ; -N(R ^a )S(0) ₂ R ^a ; -N(OR ^a )R ^a ; -C(NH)NR ^a ₂ ; -P(0) ₂ R ^a ; -P(0)R ^a ₂ ; -OP(0)R ^a ₂ ; -OP(0)(OR ^a ) ₂ ; SiR ^a ₃ ; -(CM straight or branched)alkylene)- 0-N(R ^a ) ₂ ; or -(CM straight or branched)alkylene)C(0)0-N(R ^a ) ₂ . Each R ^a is independently hydrogen; Ci-e alkyl; -CH ₂ Ph, -0(CH ₂ )o-iPh; -CH ₂ -(5- to 6-membered heteroaryl); C3-8 cycloalkyl; Ce-ιο aryl; 4- to 10-membered heterocyclyl; or 6- to 10-membered heteroaryl; and each R ^a may be further substituted as described below.

[0183] Suitable monovalent substituents on R ^a are independently halogen, -(CH ₂ )o- ₂ R ^|3 ; -(CH ₂ )o- ₂ OH; -(CH ₂ )o- ₂ ORP; -(CH ₂ )O- ₂ CH(ORP) ₂ ;-CN; -N ₃ ; -(CH ₂ )O- ₂ C(0)RP; -(CH ₂ )o- ₂ C(0)OH; -(CH ₂ )o- ₂ C(0)ORP; -(CH ₂ )O- ₂ SRP; -(CH ₂ )o- ₂ SH; -(CH ₂ )o- ₂ NH _2; , -(CH ₂ )o- ₂ NHRP; -(CH ₂ )o- ₂ NRP ₂ ; -N0 ₂ ; SiR ; -OS1RP3; -C(0)SRP; -(CM straight or branched alkylene)-C(0)ORP; or -SSRP; wherein each RP is independently selected from Ci-4 alkyl; -CH ₂ Ph; -0(CH ₂ )o-iPh; C3-8 cycloalkyl; Ce-io aryl; 4- to 10-membered heterocyclyl; or 6- to 10-membered heteroaryl. Suitable divalent substituents on a saturated carbon atom of R ^a include =0 and =S.

[0184] Suitable divalent substituents on a saturated carbon atom of an "optionally substituted" group include the following: =0; =S; =NNR¾ =NNHC(0)PJ; =N HC(0)OPJ; =N HS(0) ₂ PJ; =NPJ; =NOPJ; -0(C(R¾) ₂ - ₃ 0-; or -S(C(R¾) ₂ - ₃ S-; wherein each independent occurrence of R ⁷ is selected from hydrogen; Ci-6 alkyl, which may be substituted as defined below; C3-8 cycloalkyl; Ce-ιο aryl; 4- to 10-membered heterocyclyl; or 6- to 10-membered heteroaryl. Suitable divalent substituents that are bound to vicinal substitutable carbons of an "optionally substituted" group include: -0(CRP ₂ ) ₂ -30-; wherein each independent occurrence of RP is selected from hydrogen; Ci-6 alkyl which may be substituted as defined below; C3-8 cycloalkyl; Ce-ιο aryl; 4- to 10-membered heterocyclyl; or 6- to 10-membered heteroaryl.

[0185] Suitable substituents on the alkyl group of R ⁷ include halogen; -R ⁵ ; -OH; -OR ⁵ ; -CN; -C(0)OH; -C(0)OR ⁵ ; -NH ₂ ; -NHR ⁵ ; -NR¾; or -N0 ₂ ; wherein each R ⁵ is independently Ci-4 alkyl; -CH ₂ Ph; -0(CH ₂ )o-iPh; 4- to 10-membered heterocyclyl; or 6- to 10-membered heteroaryl.

[0186] Suitable substituents on a substitutable nitrogen of an "optionally substituted" group include -R ^e ; -NR¾; -C(0)R ^e ; -C(0)OR ^e ; -C(0)C(0)R ^e ; -C(0)CH ₂ C(0)R ^e ; -S(0) ₂ R ^e ; -S(0) ₂ NR¾; -C(S)NR¾ -C(NH)NR¾; or -N(R ^e )S(0) ₂ R ^e ; wherein each R ^e is independently hydrogen; Ci-6 alkyl which may be substituted as defined below; C3-8 cycloalkyl; Ce-ιο aryl; 4- to 10-membered heterocyclyl; or 6- to 10-membered heteroaryl.

[0187] Suitable substituents on the alkyl group of R ^e are independently halogen; -R ⁵ ; -OH; -OR ⁵ ; -CN; -C(0)OH; -C(0)OR ⁵ ; -NH ₂ ; -NHR ⁵ ; -NR ⁵ ₂ ; or -N0 ₂ ; wherein each R ⁵ is independently C1-4 alkyl; -CH ₂ Ph; -0(CH ₂ )o-iPh; Ce-ιο aryl; 4- to 10-membered heterocyclyl; or 6- to 10-membered heteroaryl.

D. Reaction conditions for enzyme-catalyzed carbocycle formation

[0188] The enzymes of the present invention can be used in purified form, partially purified form, or as whole-cell (e.g., bacterial) catalysts, without purification. Many alkyne substrates and carbene precursors can enter E. coli cells and interact with the enzymes inside the cells, where the reaction takes place. Thus strained rings can be made in a process wherein intact or partially permeabilized cells expressing the enzyme catalyst are suspended in buffer and combined with alkyne and carbene precursor (dissolved in appropriate solvent or in a form of suspension) and allowed to react. The process can also use purified or partially purified protein in place of whole bacterial cells. Other processes can involve changing contacting conditions (e.g., maintaining the catalyst in a compartment such as behind a filter membrane or bag through which reactants and products can pass or immobilizing the catalyst in some other way). One skilled in the art will be able to identify appropriate processing conditions for a given set of substrates and catalysts.

[0189] The methods of the invention include forming reaction mixtures that comprise an alkyne, a carbene precursor, and a heme protein, fragment thereof, homolog thereof, or variant thereof as described above. In some embodiments, the method is carried out in vitro. In other embodiments, the heme protein is localized within a whole cell and the method is carried out in vivo. In some embodiments, the heme protein is expressed in a bacterial, archaeal, yeast or fungal host organism. In some embodiments, the method is carried out under anaerobic conditions. In other embodiments, the process is carried out under aerobic conditions.

[0190] The heme proteins, fragments thereof, homologs thereof, or variants thereof can be, for example, purified prior to addition to a reaction mixture or secreted by a cell present in the reaction mixture. The reaction mixture can contain a cell lysate including the heme protein, fragment thereof, homolog thereof, or variant thereof, as well as other proteins and other cellular materials. Alternatively, a heme protein, fragment thereof, homolog thereof, or variant thereof can catalyze the reaction within a cell expressing the heme protein, fragment thereof, homolog thereof, or variant thereof. Any suitable amount of heme protein, fragment thereof, homolog thereof, or variant thereof can be used in the methods of the invention. In general, the reaction mixtures will contain from about 0.01 mol% to about 10 mol% heme protein with respect to the carbene precursor (e.g., diazo reagent) and/or alkyne. The reaction mixtures can contain, for example, from about 0.01 mol% to about 0.1 mol% heme protein, or from about 0.1 mol% to about 1 mol% heme protein, or from about 1 mol% to about 10 mol% heme protein. The reaction mixtures can contain from about 0.05 mol% to about 5 mol% heme protein, or from about 0.05 mol% to about 0.5 mol% heme protein. The reaction mixtures can contain about 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, or about 1 mol% heme protein. [0191] The concentration of the alkyne and the carbene precursor (e.g., a diazo reagent) are typically in the range of from about 100 μΜ to about 1 M. The concentration can be, for example, from about 100 μΜ to about 1 mM, or about from 1 mM to about 100 mM, or from about 100 mM to about 500 mM, or from about 500 mM to 1 M. The concentration can be from about 500 μΜ to about 500 mM, 500 μΜ to about 50 mM, or from about 1 mM to about 50 mM, or from about 15 mM to about 45 mM, or from about 15 mM to about 30 mM. The concentration of alkyne or carbene precursor can be, for example, about 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, or 900 μΜ. The concentration of alkyne or carbene precursor can be about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, or 500 mM.

[0192] Reaction mixtures can contain additional reagents. As non-limiting examples, the reaction mixtures can contain buffers (e.g., M9-N buffer, 2-(N-morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid (MES), 2-[4-(2-hydroxyethyl)piperazin-l -yl]ethanesulfonic acid (HEPES), 3- morpholinopropane-1 -sulfonic acid (MOPS), 2-amino-2-hydroxymethyl-propane-l ,3-diol (TRIS), potassium phosphate, sodium phosphate, phosphate-buffered saline, sodium citrate, sodium acetate, and sodium borate), cosolvents (e.g., dimethylsulfoxide, dimethylformamide, ethanol, methanol, isopropanol, glycerol, tetrahydrofuran, acetone, acetonitrile, and acetic acid), salts (e.g., NaCl, KC1, CaCh, and salts of Mn ²⁺ and Mg ²⁺ ), denaturants (e.g., urea and guanadinium hydrochloride), detergents (e.g., sodium dodecylsulfate and Triton-X 100), chelators (e.g., ethylene glycol-bis(2-aminoethylether)-N,N,N',N-tetraacetic acid (EGTA), 2- ({2-[Bis(carboxymethyl)amino]ethyl} (carboxymethyl)amino)acetic acid (EDTA), and 1 ,2- bis(o-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N,N-tetraacetic acid (BAPTA)), sugars (e.g., glucose, sucrose, and the like), and reducing agents (e.g., sodium dithionite, NADPH, dithiothreitol (DTT), β-mercaptoethanol (BME), and tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine (TCEP)). Buffers, cosolvents, salts, denaturants, detergents, chelators, sugars, and reducing agents can be used at any suitable concentration, which can be readily determined by one of skill in the art. In general, buffers, cosolvents, salts, denaturants, detergents, chelators, sugars, and reducing agents, if present, are included in reaction mixtures at concentrations ranging from about 1 μΜ to about 1 M. For example, a buffer, a cosolvent, a salt, a denaturant, a detergent, a chelator, a sugar, or a reducing agent can be included in a reaction mixture at a concentration of about 1 μΜ, or about 10 μΜ, or about 100 μΜ, or about 1 mM, or about 10 mM, or about 25 mM, or about 50 mM, or about 100 mM, or about 250 mM, or about 500 mM, or about 1 M. In some embodiments, a reducing agent is used in a sub-stoichiometric amount with respect to the olefin substrate and the diazo reagent. Cosolvents, in particular, can be included in the reaction mixtures in amounts ranging from about 1% v/v to about 75% v/v, or higher. A cosolvent can be included in the reaction mixture, for example, in an amount of about 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, or 50% (v/v). [0193] Reactions are conducted under conditions sufficient to catalyze the formation of a cyclopropene product or a bicyclobutane product. The reactions can be conducted at any suitable temperature. In general, the reactions are conducted at a temperature of from about 4°C to about 40°C. The reactions can be conducted, for example, at about 25°C or about 37°C. The heme proteins or cells expressing or containing the heme proteins can be heat treated. In some embodiments, heat treatment occurs at a temperature of about 75 °C. The reactions can be conducted at any suitable pH. In general, the reactions are conducted at a pH of from about 6 to about 10. The reactions can be conducted, for example, at a pH of from about 6.5 to about 9 (e.g., about 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9, 7.0, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 8.0, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9, or 9.0). The reactions can be conducted for any suitable length of time. In general, the reaction mixtures are incubated under suitable conditions for anywhere between about 1 minute and several hours. The reactions can be conducted, for example, for about 1 minute, or about 5 minutes, or about 10 minutes, or about 30 minutes, or about 1 hour, or about 2 hours, or about 4 hours, or about 8 hours, or about 12 hours, or about 24 hours, or about 48 hours, or about 72 hours. The reactions can be conducted for about 1 to 4 hours (e.g., 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, or 4 hours). Reactions can be conducted under aerobic conditions or anaerobic conditions. Reactions can be conducted under an inert atmosphere, such as a nitrogen atmosphere or argon atmosphere. In some embodiments, a solvent is added to the reaction mixture. In some embodiments, the solvent forms a second phase, and the carbene insertion into carbon- carbon bonds occurs in the aqueous phase. In some embodiments, the heme protein, fragment thereof, variant thereof, or homolog thereof, is located in the aqueous layer whereas the substrates and/or products occur in an organic layer. Other reaction conditions may be employed in the methods of the invention, depending on the identity of a particular heme protein, alkyne, or carbene precursor (e.g., diazo reagent).

[0194] Reactions can be conducted in vivo with intact cells expressing a heme enzyme of the invention. The in vivo reactions can be conducted with any of the host cells used for expression of the heme enzymes, as described herein. A suspension of cells can be formed in a suitable medium supplemented with nutrients (such as mineral micronutrients, glucose and other fuel sources, and the like). Product yields from reactions in vivo can be controlled, in part, by controlling the cell density in the reaction mixtures. Cellular suspensions exhibiting optical densities ranging from about 0.1 to about 50 at 600 nm can be used for the cyclopropene- and bicyclobutane-forming reactions. Other densities can be useful, depending on the cell type, specific heme proteins, or other factors.

[0195] The methods of the invention can be assessed in terms of the diastereoselectivity and/or enantioselectivity of carbene insertion into alkyne carbon-carbon bonds— that is, the extent to which the reaction produces a particular isomer, whether a diastereomer or enantiomer. A perfectly selective reaction produces a single isomer, such that the isomer constitutes 100% of the product. As another non-limiting example, a reaction producing a particular enantiomer constituting 90% of the total product can be said to be 90% enantioselective. A reaction producing a particular diastereomer constituting 30% of the total product, meanwhile, can be said to be 30% diastereoselective. [0196] In general, the methods of the invention include reactions that are from about 1% to about 99% diastereoselective. The reactions are from about 1% to about 99% enantioselective. The reaction can be, for example, from about 10% to about 90% diastereoselective, or from about 20% to about 80% diastereoselective, or from about 40% to about 60% diastereoselective, or from about 1% to about 25% diastereoselective, or from about 25% to about 50% diastereoselective, or from about 50% to about 75% diastereoselective. The reaction can be about 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or about 95% diastereoselective. The reaction can be from about 10% to about 90% enantioselective, from about 20% to about 80% enantioselective, or from about 40% to about 60% enantioselective, or from about 1% to about 25% enantioselective, or from about 25% to about 50% enantioselective, or from about 50% to about 75% enantioselective. The reaction can be about 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or about 95% enantioselective. Accordingly some embodiments of the invention provide methods wherein the reaction is at least 30% to at least 90% diastereoselective. In some embodiments, the reaction is at least 30% to at least 90% enantioselective. Preferably, the reaction is at least 80% (e.g., at least about 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) enantioselective. More preferably, the reaction is at least 90% (e.g., at least about 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) enantioselective.

IV. Examples

[0197] The present invention will be described in greater detail by way of specific examples. The following examples are offered for illustrative purposes, and are not intended to limit the invention in any manner. Those of skill in the art will readily recognize a variety of noncritical parameters which can be changed or modified to yield essentially the same results.

Example 1: Enzymatic cyclopropenation to yield compounds of Formula III using P450B ? variants in vivo

[0198] P450BM3 expression. 45 ml Hyperbroth (100 μg/ml ampicillin) was inoculated with an overnight culture of 5 ml LB (100 μg/ml ampicillin). The overnight culture contained recombinant E. coli BL21-DE3 cells harboring a pET22 plasmid, encoding the P450S 3 variant under the control of the T7 promoter, and the P450S 3 maturation (ccm) operon under the control of a tet promoter, respectively. The cultures were shaken at 220 rpm at 37 °C for approximately 2.5 h. The flask containing the cells was placed on ice for 20 min. The incubator temperature was reduced to 20 °C, maintaining the 130 rpm shake rate. Cultures were induced by adding IPTG and aminolevulinic acid to a final concentration of 0.5 mM and 0.5 mM respectively. The cultures were allowed to continue for another 18-22 hours at this temperature and shake rate. Cells were harvested by centrifugation (4 °C, 6 min, 4,500 ^χ g) to produce a cell pellet.

[0199] Preparation of whole cell catalysts. To prepare whole cells for catalysis, the cell pellet prepared in the previous paragraph was resuspended in M9-N minimal media (M9 media without ammonium chloride) to an optical density (Οϋβοο) of 60. The cell suspension was used as the catalyst.

[0200] Purification of P450BM3. TO prepare purified proteins, the cell pellet prepared as described above was stored at -20 °C or below overnight. Frozen cells were resuspended in buffer A (25 mM tris, 20 mM imidazole, 200 mM NaCl, pH 7.5, 4 ml/g of cell wet weight), loaded with 300 μg/ml hemin, and lysed by sonication. To pellet insoluble material, lysates were centrifuged (20,000 ^χ g, 15 min, 4 °C). Proteins were expressed in a construct containing a 6x-His tag and purified using a nickel NTA column (1 ml HisTrap HP, GE Healthcare, Piscataway, NJ) using an AKTAxpress purifier FPLC system (GE Healthcare). P411 enzymes were eluted on a linear gradient from 100% buffer A/0% buffer B (25 mM tris, 300 mM imidazole, 200 mM NaCl, pH 7.5) to 100% buffer B over 10 column volumes. Fractions containing P411 enzymes were pooled, concentrated, and subjected to three exchanges of phosphate buffer (0.1 M KPi, pH 8.0) to remove excess salt and imidazole. Concentrated proteins were aliquotted, flash-frozen on powdered dry ice, and stored at -20 °C.

[0201] Small-scale cyclopropenation reactions in whole-cell suspension under anaerobic conditions. Small-scale (400 μί) reactions were carried out in 2 ml glass crimp vials (Agilent Technologies, San Diego, CA). Cell suspension (OD600 = 60, 340 was added to an unsealed crimp vial before crimp sealing with a silicone septum. The headspace of the vial was flushed with argon for 10 min (no bubbling). A solution of D-glucose (40 μί, 250 mM) was added, followed by a solution of alkyne of formula I (10 μΐ, 400 mM in EtOH; for example, 4-phenylbutyne) and a solution of diazo reagent of formula II (10 μΐ, 400 mM in EtOH; for example, ethyl diazoethanoate or EDA). The reaction vial was left to shake on a plate shaker at 640 rpm for 8 h at room temperature. To quench the reaction, the vial was uncapped and a 1 : 1 mixture of ethylacetate/cyclohexane (1 ml) was added, followed by 1,2,3-trimethoxybenzene (20 μΐ, 20 mM in toluene) as an internal standard. The mixture was transferred to a 1.5 ml Eppendorf tube and vortexed and centrifuged (14000 ^χ rcf, 5 min). The organic layer was analyzed by gas chromatography (GC), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) or normal-phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).

[0202] The results of the small scale reactions are shown in FIG. 1 and demonstrate that P450S 3 and variants thereof are capable of catalyzing the cyclopropenation to give product of Formula III with high selectivity. Specifically, the best variant P4 found in the initial screen of ¥450BM3 variants encoded the mutations V87A, A328, A268G based on ¥4\ \BM3 "1263F" variant (mutations in P4 relative to wild-type P450S 3: V78A, F87A, P142S, T175I, A184V, S226R, H236Q, E252G, I263F, T268G, A290V, A328V, L353V, I366V, C400S, T438S, E442K; mutations in YAWBMS "1263F" relative to wild-type VA50BM3 V78A, F87V, P142S, T175I, A184V, S226R, H236Q, E252G, 1263F, T268A, A290V, L353V, I366V, C400S, T438S, E442K), which catalyzed the desired reaction with 450 TTN and 91 % ee. This can be improved by further engineering, if desired. [0203] The results of the small-scale reactions are shown in FIG. 2 and demonstrate that P4 (mutations in P4 relative to wild-type VA50BM3 V78A, F87A, P142S, T1751, A184V, S226R, H236Q, E252G, I263F, T268G, A290V, A328V, L353V, 1366V, C400S, T438S, E442K) and variants thereof are capable of catalyzing the cyclopropenation to give product of Formula III with high selectivity. Specifically, the best variant for the synthesis of one cyclopropene enantiomer found in the initial screen of P4 variants encoded the mutations A87W, V328Y, L437G based on P4 variant, which catalyzed the desired reaction with 2990 TTN and 99.6% ee. The best variant for the synthesis of the other cyclopropene enantiomer found in the initial screen of P4 variants encoded the mutations S72W, A87F, F261 G, T327P, L437F based on P4 variant, which catalyzed the desired reaction with 2140 TTN and -96.2% ee. These two variants can be improved by further engineering, if desired.

Example 2: Enzymatic bicyclobutanation to yield compounds of Formula VI using P450B ? variants in vivo

[0204] P450BM3 expression. The procedures for ¥450BM3 expression were identical to those described in Example 1.

[0205] Preparation of whole cell catalysts. The procedures for whole cell catalyst preparation were identical to those described in Example 1, except Οϋβοο = 30.

[0206] Small-scale bicyclobutanation reactions in whole-cell suspension under anaerobic conditions. Small-scale (400 \L) reactions were carried out in 2 ml glass crimp vials (Agilent Technologies, San Diego, CA). Cell suspension (Οϋβοο = 30, 340 μί) was added to an unsealed crimp vial before crimp sealing with a silicone septum. The headspace of the vial was flushed with argon for 10 min (no bubbling). A solution of D-glucose (40 μί, 250 mM) was added, followed by a solution of alkyne of Formula IV (10 μΐ, 400 mM in EtOH; for example, phenylacetylene) and a solution of diazo reagent of Formula V (10 μΐ, 400 mM in EtOH; for example, ethyl diazoethanoate or EDA). The reaction vial was left to shake on a plate shaker at 640 rpm for 8 h at room temperature. To quench the reaction, the vial was uncapped and a 1 : 1 mixture of ethylacetate/cyclohexane (1 ml) was added, followed by 1 ,2,3-trimethoxy benzene (20 μΐ, 20 mM in toluene) as an intemal standard. The mixture was transferred to a 1.5 ml Eppendorf tube and vortexed and centrifuged (14000x ref, 5 min). The organic layer was analyzed by gas chromatography (GC), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) or normal-phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). [0207] The results of the small scale reactions are shown in Table 1A and demonstrate that Ρ450ΰ 3 and variants thereof are capable of catalyzing the bicyclobutanation to give products of Formula VI with high selectivity. Specifically, the best variant ElO found in the initial screen of ¥450BM3 variants encoded the mutations A78V, F263L based on ¥4\ \BM3 "A82L" variant (mutations in ElO relative to wild-type P450S 3: A82L, F87A, P142S, T175I, A184V, S226R, H236Q, E252G, I263L, T268G, A290V, A328V, L353V, I366V, C400S, T438S, E442K; mutations in VAWBMS "A82L" relative to wild-type P450S 3: V78A, A82L, F87A, P142S, T175I, A184V, S226R, H236Q, E252G, I263F, T268G, A290V, A328V, L353V, I366V, C400S, T438S, E442K), which catalyzed the desired reaction with 1380 TTN. This can be improved by further engineering, if desired.

Table 1A

P411BM3 variant Result

"1263F" A328V 3% yield

"1263F" A328V V87A 7% yield

"1263F" A328V V87A A268G 10% yield

"1263F" A328V V87A A268G A82L 34% yield (280 TTN)

"1263F" A328V V87A A268G A82I 8% yield

"A82L" A78V 34% yield (360 TTN)

"A82L" A78V F263L 43% yield (530 TTN)

"A82L" F263Y A78L A74G T327I 9% yield [0208] The results of the small scale reactions are shown in FIG. 3 and demonstrate that E10 (mutations in E10 relative to wild-type P450S 3: A82L, F87A, P142S, T175I, A184V, S226R, H236Q, E252G, I263L, T268G, A290V, A328V, L353V, I366V, C400S, T438S, E442K) and variants thereof are capable of catalyzing the bicyclobutanation to give product of formula IV with high selectivity. Specifically, the best variant for bicyclobutanation found in the initial screen of E10 variants encoded the mutations V78F, S438A based on E10 variant, which catalyzed the desired reaction with 1880 TTN. This can be improved by further engineering, if desired.

Example 3: Preparation of bicyclobutane-dicarboxylic acids and polyester synthesis using diacids and diols [0209] Aliphatic polyesters with enhanced hydrophilicity and less toxicity have captured increasing attention due to their good biocompatibility and biodegradability, which allows their broad biologically relevant applications. (See, e.g., Lecomte, et al. Advances in Polymer Science, Vol. 245; 2012; pp 173-217; Engels, et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2013, 52, 9422; Datta, et al. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2006, 81, 11 19; Ikada, Y. et al. Macromol. Rapid Commun. 2000, 21, 117.) Especially, in biomedical fields, a myriad of polyesters have been investigated with their potential use as drug delivery vesicles, bone screws and scaffolding or suture wire. (See, Chasin & Langer. Biodegradable Polymers as Drug Delivery Systems; Marcel Dekker Inc: New York, 1990.) Employing monomers with (strained) cyclic structures for polyester synthesis would add stiffness to the polymer chain with substantial increase in glass-transition temperature T _g . (See, Van Zee et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2015, 54, 2665; Sanford, et al. Macromolecules 2016, 49, 6394; Lavilla, et al. J. Polym. Sci. A Polym. Chem. 2012, 50, 1591.) The highly strained bicyclobutane-diester products from enzymatic reactions can be utilized as monomers for polyester synthesis. [0210] Preparation of monomer dicarboxylic acids (e.g., bicyclo[2.1.1]hexane- dicarboxylic ester). As described in Equation 12, dicarboxylic ester can be hydrolyzed under basic conditions. Dicarboxylic ester (1.0 equiv.) was treated with sodium hydroxide (5.0 equiv.) in THF/H2O (1 : 1 mixture, 0.1 M). The reaction was heated at 50 °C for 12 hours. The reaction mixture was then acidified with HC1 (1M), and further purified by column chromatography to afford the corresponding dicarboxylic acid. Analogously, the bicyclobutane-dicarboxylic esters can also be hydrolyzed in a similar manner. See, e.g., Wiberg, et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1983, 105, 3638

[0211] Polyester synthesis. Isoidide dicarboxylic acid (IIDCA, 1.0 equiv.) and α,ω-diol (2.0 equiv.) were added into a round-bottom flask inside a Kugelrohr oven. The flask was then charged with nitrogen. The oven was then heated to 130 °C and maintained at this temperature for 5-10 min until the reactants turned into a clear melt. Next, pristine dibutyltin(IV) oxide (DBTO, 1.0 mol % ) was added as the catalyst into the flask. The prepolymerization was carried out at 130 °C under a continuous flow of nitrogen for 3 h for the polymerizations based on IIDCA. Subsequently, the polymerization temperatures were adjusted to the desire range of 130-200 °C. At the same time vacuum (0.01-0.05 mbar) was applied stepwise to the reaction system to remove the excess diol and condensates. After 3 h, the resulting polymer melt was cooled down and dissolved in chloroform and precipitated into methanol, filtered, and dried in vacuo at 30 °C for 24 h. The bicyclobutanedicarboxylic acid-based polyester could also be synthesized in this manner. (See also, Wu, Jet al. Macromolecules 2012, 45, 5069)

(13)

IIDCA

Example 4: Preparation of bicyclobutane-diols for synthesis of functionalized polybenzvalene polymers

(14)

[0212] (li?,2i?)-l-(4-methoxyphenyl)bicyclo[l.1.0]butane-2,4-diyl)d imethanol was prepared as an illustrative example, as shown in Equation 14. Diethyl (2R,4R)-\-(4- methoxyphenyl)bicyclo[1.1.0]-butane-2,4-dicarboxylate (101.3 mg, 0.33 mmol) was dissolved in anhydrous ether (10 ml) in a 50 ml flask. Dry methanol (67 μΐ, 1.67 mmol) was added to the solution, followed by the addition of lithium borohydride (L1BH4, 2M in THF, 0.84 ml, 1.67 mmol). The reaction mixture was then heated up to a refiuxing temperature, 45 °C, for 1 h, before ethyl acetate (0.5 ml) was added and the mixture was stirred at room temperature for 30 min. Then the reaction was quenched with NH4CI (10 ml, sat. aq.) and diluted with water (10 ml). The product was extracted with ethyl acetate (20 ml x 6). The combined organic layer was dried over MgSCn, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. White solid product crashed out during the removal of solvent. Collecting the solid product and recrystallization with acetone/hexane system afforded (\R,2R)-\-(4- methoxyphenyl)bicyclo[1.1.0]butane-2,4-diyl)dimethanol (52.2 mg, 0.237 mmol, 71 % ). Example 5: Preparation of multi-substituted cyclopropanes via derivatization cyclopropenes

[0213] Ethyl (li?,2i?,35)-3-allyl-2-methyl-2-phenethylcyclopropane-l-carb oxylate was prepared as an illustrative example. Ethyl (i?)-2-phenethylcycloprop-2-ene-l-carboxylate (54.0 mg, 0.25 mmol) and Cul (5.0 mg, 0.026 mmol, 10 mol%) were dissolved in anhydrous ether (3 ml) to form a suspension in a 25 ml flask. Then the flask was charged with argon and cooled to -78 °C. Methylmagnesium bromide (0. 75 ml, 1 M in ether, diluted from 3M solution in ether) was added dropwise to the reaction mixture over 10 min. The reaction was slowly warmed to -40 °C over 30 min and held at this temperature for another 1 h. A solution of allyl bromide (43 μΐ, 0.50 mmol) in ether (1 ml) was then added to the reaction dropwise over 5 min. The reaction was stirred at -40 °C for 1 h, before it was quenched with NH4CI/NH3 (2: 1, aq., 5 ml) at -20 °C. The aqueous layer was extracted twice with ether. The combined organic layers were washed with water (10 ml), and brine (10 ml), dried over MgS04, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane/ethyl acetate (1 :0 to 50: 1 gradient) to afford ethyl (li?,2i?,35)-3-allyl-2-methyl-2-phenethylcyclopropane-l-carb oxylate (48.0 mg, 0.176 mmol, 71%) as a single diastereomer.

Example 6: Preparation of multi-substituted fused ring systems via derivatization of cyclopropenes

(16)

[0214] (li?,6i?,7i?)-3,4-Dimethyl-l-(6-((tetrahydro-2H-pyran-4-yl)m ethoxy)hexyl)- bicyclo[4.1.0]hept-3-ene-7-carboxylate was prepared as an illustrative example. Ethyl (R)-2- (cyclohexylmethyl)cycloprop-2-ene-l-carboxylate (65.6 mg, 0.211 mmol) was dissolved in 2,3-dimethylbutadiene (0.5 ml). Then the reaction was heated and stirred at 80 °C in a sealed tube for 23 h. After cooling to room temperature, the resulting mixture was concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane/ethyl acetate (1 :0 to 6: 1 gradient) to afford ethyl (li?,6i?,7i?)-3,4-dimethyl-l-(6- ((tetrahydro-2H-pyran-4-yl)methoxy)hexyl) bicyclo[4.1.0]hept-3-ene-7-carboxylate (81.1 mg, 0.207 mmol, 98%) as a single diastereomer.

Example 7. Click reaction between terminal alkyne-substituted bicyclobutane and azide

[0215] Diethyl (2i?,4i?)-l-(4-(l-((4-acetamidophenyl)sulfonyl)-lH-l,2,3-tri azol-4- yl)phenyl) bicyclo[1.1.0]butane-2,4-dicarboxylate was prepared as an illustrative example). Diethyl (2i?,4i?)-l-(4-ethynylphenyl)bicyclo[1.1.0]butane-2,4-dicarb oxylate (41.6 mg, 0.139 mmol) was dissolved in toluene (3 ml) in a 20 ml vial. Copper(I) thiophene-2-carboxylate (CuTc, 3.2 mg, 12 mol%) was added. The mixture was kept stirring at 0 °C. A suspension of 4-acetamidobenzenesulfonyl azide (40.2 mg, 0.167 mmol) in toluene (5 ml) was added dropwise over 1 h. The resulting mixture was then allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for 15 h. The reaction was diluted with ethyl acetate (15 ml), washed with NH4CI/NH3 (2: 1, 20 ml, aq.), and brine (50 ml), dried over MgS04, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane/ethyl acetate (4: 1 to 1 :3 gradient) to afford diethyl (2i?,4i?)-l-(4-(l-((4-acetamidophenyl)sulfonyl)- lH-l,2,3-triazol-4-yl)phenyl) bicyclo[1.1.0]butane-2,4-dicarboxylate (69.2 mg, 0.129 mmol, 93%).

Example 8. Identification of biocatalysts for strained carbocycle formation

[0216] General materials and methods. Unless otherwise noted, all chemicals and reagents were obtained from commercial suppliers (Sigma-Aldrich, VWR, Alfa Aesar) and used without further purification. Silica gel chromatography was carried out using AMD Silica Gel 60, 230-400 mesh. ¾ and ¹ C NMR spectra were taken using a Bruker Prodigy 400 MHz instrument and are internally referenced to the residual solvent peak (chloroform). Data for ¾ NMR are reported as follows: chemical shift (δ ppm), multiplicity (s = singlet, d = doublet, t = triplet, q = quartet, p = pentet, m = multiplet, dd = doublet of doublets, dt = doublet of triplets, ddd = doublet of doublet of doublets), coupling constant (Hz), integration. Sonication was performed using a Qsonica Q500 sonicator. High-resolution mass spectra were obtained at the California Institute of Technology Mass Spectral Facility. Synthetic reactions were monitored using thin layer chromatography (Merck 60 gel plates) using a UV- lamp for visualization. Substrates were purchased from commercial suppliers.

[0217] Chromatography. Analytical reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was carried out using an Agilent 1200 series instrument and a Kromasil 100 C18 column (4.6 ^χ 50 mm, 5 μπι) with water and acetonitrile as the mobile phase and visualization at 210 nm for library screening. Analytical normal-phase HPLC was carried out using an Agilent 1200 series instrument and chiral columns Chiralpak IC (4.6 mm x 25 cm), IA (4.6 mm x 25 cm), AS-H (4.6 mm x 25 cm) and OJ-H (4.6 mm x 25 cm) with n- hexane and isopropanol as the mobile phase and visualization at 210 nm for chiral separation. Gas chromatography (GC) analyses were carried out using an Agilent 7820A or Shimadzu GC-17A gas chromatograph, FID detector, and a J&W HP-5 column (30 m ^χ 0.32 mm, 0.25 μηι film). Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses were carried out using a Shimadzu GCMS-QP2010SE system and J&W HP-5m column. Semi-preparative HPLC was performed using an Agilent XDB-C18 column (9.4 x 250 mm, 5 μιτι) with water and acetonitrile as the mobile phase.

[0218] Cloning and site-saturation mutagenesis. pET22b(+) containing a C-terminal 6x- His tag was used as a cloning and expression vector for all enzymes described in this study. Site-saturation mutagenesis was performed using a modified QuikChange™ mutagenesis protocol ( ^; )· The PCR products were digested with Dpnl, gel purified, and the gaps were repaired using Gibson Mix™ ( ² ). The ligation mixture was used to directly transform E. coli strain BL21 E. cloni ^® (Lucigen). Cells were grown using Luria-Bertani medium (LB) or Hyperbroth (AthenaES) (HB) with 0.1 mg/mL ampicillin (LB _am p or HB _am p). Primer sequences are available upon request. Electrocompetent E. coli cells were prepared following the protocol of Sambrook et al. ( ³ ). T5 exonuclease, Phusion polymerase, and Taq ligase were purchased from New England Biolabs (NEB, Ipswich, MA). M9-N minimal medium (abbreviated as M9-N buffer; pH 7.4) was used as a buffering system for whole cells, lysates, and purified proteins, unless otherwise specified. M9-N buffer was used without a carbon source; it contains 47.7 mM Na ₂ HP0 ₄ , 22.0 mM KH2PO4, 8.6 mM NaCl, 2.0 mM MgS0 ₄ , and 0.1 mM CaCh.

[0219] Determination of hemeprotein concentration. A solution of sodium dithionite (10 mg/mL) was prepared in M9-N buffer. Separately, a solution of 1 M NaOH (0.4 mL) was mixed with pyridine (1 mL), followed by centrifugation (10,000 g, 30 s) to separate the excess aqueous layer gave a pyridine-NaOH solution. To a cuvette containing 700 protein solution (purified protein or lysate) in M9-N buffer, 50 of dithionite solution (0.1 M in M9-N) and 250 pyridine-NaOH solution were added. The cuvette was sealed with Parafilm, and the UV-Vis spectrum of the reduced Fe ¹¹ state was recorded immediately. To another cuvette containing 700 protein solution (purified protein or lysate) in M9-N buffer, 50 μί of potassium ferricyanide (0.1 M in M9-N) and 250 μί pyridine-NaOH solution were added. The cuvette was sealed with Parafilm, and the UV-Vis spectrum of the oxidized Fe ^m state was recorded immediately. Hemeprotein concentration was determined using 8557[Re]-540[Ox] = 23.98 mM ^"1 ™ ⁴ ( ⁴ ). Cytochrome c concentration is measured using a different procedure, reported previously (5).

[0220] Expression of P450 and P411 proteins. E. coli BL21 E. cloni ^® cells carrying a plasmid encoding a P450 or P411 variant were grown overnight in 5 mL LB _am p (37 °C, 250 rpm). The pre-culture was used to inoculate 45 mL of HB _am p in a 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask; this culture was incubated at 37 °C, 220 rpm for 2 h and 15 min. Cultures were then cooled on ice (20 min), and expression was induced with 0.5 mM IPTG and 1.0 mM 5-aminolevulinic acid (final concentrations). Expression was conducted at room temperature (23 °C), at 130 rpm, for 18 - 22 h. Cultures were then centrifuged (4,500 g, 5 min, 4 °C), and the pellets were resuspended to an Οϋβοο of 30 in M9-N minimal medium (no nitrogen). Aliquots of the cell suspension (4 mL) were used to determine the P450 and P411 expression level after lysis by sonication. The expression level in Οϋβοο = 30 lysates is typically in the range 8 - 12 μΜ for P450s, 1 - 4 μΜ for P450 H*, and 2 - 7 μΜ for P41 Is.

[0221] The same procedure was used for expression of globin proteins, except using 1 mL LBamp pre-culture to inoculate 49 mL of HBamp. The expression of cytochrome c variants requires an extra maturation plasmid pEC86 in E. coli BL21 E. cloni ^® cells and follows a procedure described previously ( ⁵ ).

[0222] Biotransformations. The cell suspension in M9-N (with a certain Οϋβοο) was degassed by sparging with argon in sealed vials or flasks for 30 min. Separately, a glucose solution (250 mM in M9-N) was degassed by sparging with argon for 30 minutes. All solutions were uncapped and transferred into an anaerobic chamber. Resuspended cells (340 μί) were added to 2 mL vials, followed by glucose (40 μΐ,, 250 mM in M9-N), alkyne (10 of an EtOH stock), and EDA (10 μΐ. of an EtOH stock). Final concentrations were typically 10.0 - 20.0 mM alkyne, 10.0 - 20.0 mM EDA (alkyne: EDA = 1 : 1), and 25 mM glucose; final reaction volume was 400 μΐ.. The vials were sealed, removed from the anaerobic chamber, and shaken at room temperature and 560 rpm for 6 h. After the reaction was completed, internal standard 1,3,5-trimethoxybenzene (20 μΐ. of 20 mM stock solution in toluene) was added to the reaction vial followed by mixed solvent (cyclohexane / ethyl acetate = 1 : 1, 1.0 mL). The mixture was transferred to a 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube, and then subjected to vortex (15 s ^χ 3) and centrifugation (14,000 rpm, 5 min) to completely separate the organic and aqueous layers. A sample of the organic layer (0.8 mL) was transferred to a vial for GC analysis. The procedure for preparative-scale enzymatic reactions is outlined in detail (See Section VIII and IX). [0223] Reaction screening in 96-well plate format. Single-site-saturation libraries were generated employing the "22c-trick" method (7) and screened in one 96-well plate; double- site-saturation libraries were generated using the same method to target two different sites; these were screened in three 96-well plates. E. coli libraries were cultured in LB _am p (300 μίΛνβΙΙ) at 37 °C, 250 rpm and 80% relative humidity overnight. HB _am p (950 μίΛνβΙΙ) was inoculated with the pre-culture (50 μίΛνβΙΙ) and incubated at 37 °C, 250 rpm, 80% humidity for 2.5 h. The plates were cooled on ice for 30 minutes, and expression was induced with 0.5 mM IPTG and 1.0 mM 5 -aminolevulinic acid (final concentrations). Expression was conducted at 20 °C and 200 rpm for 18 - 22 h. The cells were pelleted (4,500 g, 5 min, 4 °C) and resuspended with M9-N buffer (340 μΕΛ βΙΙ) and 7 -glucose solution (40 μΕΛ βΙΙ, in M9-N). The 96-well plate was then transferred to an anaerobic chamber. In the anaerobic chamber, alkyne (10 μίΛνβΙΙ, 400 mM in EtOH) and EDA (10 μΙ,ΛνβΙΙ, 400 mM in EtOH). The plate was sealed with an aluminum foil, removed from the anaerobic chamber, and shaken at 560 rpm. See below for reaction workup protocol:

[0224] Bicyclobutane formation screening. After 16 h, the seal was removed and mixed solvent (cyclohexane / ethyl acetate = 1 : 1, 600 μΕΛ βΙΙ) and internal standard 1,3,5- trimethoxybenzene (20 μΕΛ βΙΙ of a toluene stock) were added. The plate was tightly sealed with a reusable silicone mat, vortexed (15 s ^χ 3) and centrifuged (4,500 g, 5 min) to completely separate the organic and aqueous layers. The organic layers (200 μΕΛ βΙΙ) were transferred to 300 vial inserts, which were then placed in 2 mL vials labeled with corresponding wells in the plate for GC or GC-MS analysis (a 2.5-min/run method was used for screening, see Section IV).

[0225] Cyclopropene formation screening. After 16 h, the seal was removed and acetonitrile (580 μίΛνβΙΙ) and internal standard ethyl phenylacetate (PhEA, 20 mM in acetonitrile, 20 μίΛνβΙΙ) were added. The plate was tightly sealed with a reusable silicone mat, vortexed (15 s ^χ 3) and centrifuged (4,500 g, 5 min). The supernatant (200 μΐ ννβΐΐ) was filtered through an AcroPrep 96-well filter plate (0.2 μπι) into a shallow- well plate for HPLC analysis (a 1.7-min/run method was used for screening, see Section V). [0226] General procedure for testing transition metal catalysts for designed carbene transfer to alkyne. To an 8 mL vial were added phenyl acetylene (0.1 mmol), catalyst (Rh - 1 mol%; Cu - 10 mol%) and DCM or cyclohexane (2 mL). The vial was cooled to -78 °C. EDA (0.2 mmol in 0.5 mL corresponding organic solvent) was added through a syringe pump over 1 h. The reaction was stirred at -78 °C for 6 h and then slowly warmed to room temperature over another 6 h. The reaction mixture (0.5 mL) was filtered through a 2 cm- height silica gel and washed with DCM (1 mL). The filtrate was used for GC-MS analysis.

[0227] The procedure for testing hemeproteins follows that described above using E. coli expressing corresponding hemeprotein variant as whole-cell catalyst (OD600 = 30). For testing heme (± BSA), 0.5 mM stock of heme (± BSA, 0.75 mg/mL) in M9-N (340 L) and Na ₂ S ₂ 04 (40 μΐ., 10 mM in M9-N) was used instead of cell suspension and glucose stock. (BSA = bovine serum albumin).

[0228] 2-Ethoxy-5-phenylfuran (3b). ¾ NMR (400 MHz, Benzene-c e) δ 7.58 (dd, J = 8.3, 1.3 Hz, 2H), 7.14 - 7.09 (m, 2H), 6.97 (tt, J = 7.4, 1.3 Hz, 1H), 6.37 (d, J = 3.3 Hz, 1H), 5.02 (d, J = 3.3 Hz, 1H), 3.59 (q, J = 7.0 Hz, 2H), 0.98 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CeDe) δ 161.79, 145.08, 132.15, 129.52, 127.04, 123.49, 107.28, 83.71, 67.27, 15.07. MS (EI) m/z: 188 (M ⁺ ); calc. for C12H12O2: 188. [0229] Ethyl 2-phenyl-3-(trimethylsilyl)cycloprop-2-ene-l-carboxylate (3c). The synthesis of 3c follows a reported procedure ( ⁶ ). ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 7.61 - 7.52 (m, 2H), 7.48 - 7.36 (m, 3H), 4.25 - 4.06 (m, 2H), 2.40 (s, 1H), 1.25 (t, J= 7.1 Hz, 3H), 0.34 (s, 9H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 176.13, 129.79, 129.52, 128.65, 127.56, 123.95, 108.00, 60.00, 20.60, 14.37, -1.43. MS (EI) m/z: 260 (M ⁺ ); calc. for C15H20O2S1: 260.

[0230] Ethyl 2-phenylcycloprop-2-ene-l-carboxylate (3a). To a 20 mL vial were added 3c (20.8 mg, 0.08 mmol) and THF (2 mL). And then tetrabutylammonium fluoride (TBAF, 1M in THF, 120 μί) was added to the solution. The reaction was stirred at room temperature for 3 min before it was condensed under reduced pressure (3 min). Quick purification (within 5 min) of the crude product by silica column chromatography with hexane / ethyl acetate (10: 1) afforded 3a. 3a was used for qualitative GC-MS analysis. (Note: 3a is highly unstable. It was completely decomposed under deprotection condition after 30 min. Purification step needs to be very quick. After column purification, it is better to leave 3a in the hexane/ ethyl acetate eluent rather than concentrate it under reduced pressure. 3a can stay for hours in a solution form, but for less than 30 min in pure form.) MS (EI) m/z: 188 (M ⁺ ); calc. for

[0231] Protein purification. E. coli BL21 E. cloni ^® cells carrying a plasmid encoding a P411 variant were grown overnight in 105 mL LB _am p (37 °C, 250 rpm). HB _am p (1 L) in a 2.8 L flask was inoculated with 100 mL of the pre-culture and incubated at 37 °C and 240 rpm for 2 h and 15 min. Cultures were then cooled on ice (30 min) and induced with 0.5 mM IPTG and 1.0 mM 5 -aminolevulinic acid (final concentrations). Expression was conducted at 20 °C, 130 rpm, for 20 h. Cultures were then centrifuged (4,500 g, 8 min, 4 °C) and the cell pellets frozen at -20 °C. For purification, frozen cells from two such cultures were resuspended in buffer A (25 mM Tris-HCl buffer, 20 mM imidazole, 100 mM NaCl, pH 7.5, 4 mL/g of cell wet weight), loaded with hemin (1 mg/gram wet cell weight) and powdered DNasel, and lysed by sonication. To pellet cell debris, lysates were centrifuged (20,000 x g, 20 min, 4 °C). Proteins were expressed in a construct containing a 6x-His tag and purified using a nickel NTA column (1 mL HisTrap HP, GE Healthcare, Piscataway, NJ) using an AKTA or AKTAxpress purifier FPLC system (GE healthcare). P411 enzymes were eluted with a linear gradient from 100% buffer A to 100% buffer B (25 mM tris, 300 mM imidazole, 100 mM NaCl, pH 7.5) over 10 column volumes. Proteins were then pooled, concentrated, and subjected to three exchanges of phosphate buffer (0.1 M KPi, pH 8.0) using centrifugal filters (10 kDa molecular weight cut-off, Amicon Ultra, Merck Millipore) to remove excess salt and imidazole. Concentrated proteins were aliquoted, flash frozen on powdered dry ice, and stored at -80 or -20 °C.

[0232] Results and discussion. In cyclic organic molecules, ring strain arises from distortions of bond angle and bond length, steric clashes of non-bonded substituents, and other effects ( ⁷ )· The simplest carbocycles, cyclopropanes and cyclobutanes, possess ring strains of 26-28 kcal/mol ( ^s ). Introducing carbon-carbon multiple bonds or bridges to these small ring systems induces additional strain as well as structural rigidity. For example, cyclopropenes with an endo-cyclic double bond bear a strain of 54 kcal/mol, whereas bicyclo[1.1.0]butanes, folded into puckered structures, distinguish themselves as one of the most strained four-membered systems, with around 66 kcal/mol strain (FIG. 4) (8). These carbocycles are particularly attractive intermediates in chemical and materials synthesis, since they can undergo strain-release transformations to furnish a myriad of useful scaffolds ( ⁹ - ¹² ). The structural rigidity imparted by strained rings in supramolecular materials can lead to interesting physical properties, such as mechanical stability ( ¹³ ) and high glass-transition temperature ( ¹⁴ ). The intrinsic energy of these strained structures can also be relieved in response to exogenous force, which leads to radical changes in physical properties (e.g., conductivity), a feature highly desirable for stimulus-responsive materials ( ¹⁵ , ¹⁶ ).

[0233] High ring strain, however, greatly increases the difficulty of synthesis. A commonly used method for preparing bicyclobutanes starts from dibromo-2- (bromomethyl)cyclopropane substructures and utilizes organolithium reagents for lithium- halogen exchange followed by nucleophilic substitution under rigorously anhydrous and cryogenic conditions (9). An alternative route relies on the double transfer of a carbene to alkynes, but the few examples in the literature are mostly limited to methylene carbene ( ¹⁷ - ¹⁹ ). Asymmetric bicyclobutane construction is particularly challenging, with multiple chiral centers generated at the same time ( ²⁰ , ²¹ ) (FIG. 5). Cyclopropene synthesis through enantioselective single carbene addition to alkynes also requires chiral transition metal catalysts based on rhodium ( ²² , ²³ ), iridium ( ²⁴ ) and cobalt ( ²⁵ ). Development of a sustainable catalytic system that performs with high efficiency and selectivity under ambient conditions would be a significant advance for construction of these useful, highly strained carbocycles. [0234] Enzymes, the catalytic workhorses of biology, are capable of accelerating chemical transformations by orders of magnitude while exhibiting exquisite control over selectivity ( ²⁶ ). Although nature synthesizes various cyclopropane-containing products ( ²⁷ ), cyclopropene or bicyclobutane fragments are extremely rare (FIG. 6) ( ²⁸ , ²⁹ ). This may be attributed to the lack of biological machinery for synthesizing these motifs and/or the instability of these structures under biological or natural product isolation/purification conditions. Nevertheless, the studies disclosed herein were conducted upon envisioning that existing enzymes could be repurposed to forge strained carbocycles by taking advantage of their catalytic promiscuity ( ³⁰ , ³¹ ) in the presence of non-natural substrates and by using directed evolution to optimize the activity and selectivity of these starting enzymes ( ³² ).

[0235] In the past several years, the present inventors and others have engineered natural hemeproteins to catalyze reactions not known in nature ( ³³ - ³⁸ ). The present studies were begun with the hypothesis that carbene transfer to triple bonds with a heme-dependent enzyme might afford highly strained cyclopropene and bicyclobutane structures and do so enantioselectively. Several challenges were expected at the outset, especially in chiral bicyclobutane formation, as it involves two sequential carbene additions to the alkyne substrate: 1) the enzyme would need to bind the alkyne in a specific conformation in order to transfer the carbene enantioselectively; 2) the high-energy cyclopropene intermediate generated by the first carbene addition would need to be accepted and stabilized by the protein; 3) compared to methylene carbene used previously, a substituted carbene (e.g., with an ester group) might hinder access of the cyclopropene to the iron-carbenoid; and 4) the protein would also need to exert precise stereocontrol over the second carbene transfer step regardless of structural differences between the initial alkyne and the cyclopropene intermediate. Despite these challenges, an investigation was initiated to determine whether a starting enzyme with this unusual and non-natural activity could be identified, and whether its active site could be engineered to create a suitable environment for substrate binding, intermediate stabilization, and selective product formation.

[0236] First, free heme (± bovine serum albumin (BSA)), which is known to catalyze styrene cyclopropanation (33), was tested to see if it could transfer carbenes to alkynes. Reactions using ethyl diazoacetate (EDA) and phenylacetylene (la) as substrates in neutral buffer (M9-N minimal medium, pH 7.4) at room temperature, however, gave no cyclopropene or bicyclobutane product. Next, a panel of hemeproteins including cytochromes P450, cytochromes P41 1 (P450 with the axial cysteine ligand replaced by serine), cytochromes c and globins in the form of E. coli whole-cell catalysts were tested for the desired transformation under anaerobic conditions (38), but none were fruitful (FIG. 7 and Table 2).

Table 2. Screening different catalysts for bicyclobutane formation

or other stereoisomers

Ineffective transition metal catalysts (with undefined product mixtures):

Rh ₂ (OAc) ₄ Rh ₂ (OPiv) ₄ Rh ₂ (S-DOSP) ₄ Rh ₂ (esp) ₂ Cul CuOTf · PhH CuCI · NHC Cu(OTf) ₂

Ineffective heme or hemeprotein catalysts (with no product observed):

heme heme + BSA P450-WT P450-CIS

P411-CIS P450-CIS H* Rma cyt c Rma cyt c TDE myoglobin myoglobin VA Rma NOD Q52V Ape pgb Y60G

Effective hemeprotein catalysts (with product detected):

P411-S1 1263W: 210 ± 20 TTN, 3b only

P411-S1 1263F: ~10 TTN, 3b; <5 TTN, 2a

P411-S1 1263F A328V (P2): 23 ± 8 TTN, 2a: 3b ~ 10: 1

P411-S1 V87A I263F A328V (P3): 60 ± 10 TTN, 2a: 3b > 20: 1

P411-S1 V87A I263F A268G A328V (P4): 80 ± 10 TTN, 2a: 3b > 50: 1

P411-P4 A82L: 280 ± 30 TTN, 2a: 3b > 50: 1

P411-P4 A78V A82L F263L (E10): 530 ± 20 TTN, 2a: 3b > 50: 1

(Abbreviations: Piv = pivaloyl, DOSP = N-(/>dodecylphenylsulfonyl)prolinato, esp = a,a,a',a'-tetramethyl-l,3-benzenedipropionic acid, Tf = trifluoromethanesulfonyl, NHC l,3-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)imidazol-2-ylidene.)

Table 3. Information of hemeprotein variants

[0237] Interestingly, a P41 1 variant obtained in a previous cyclopropanation study, P41 1 - Sl I263W (see Supplementary Materials for sources, sequences and mutations), afforded a furan product (3b) with a total turnover number (TTN) of 210. Other furan analogs have been identified as adducts of carbenes and alkynes ( ⁴³ ), which prompted the consideration of how furan 3b was generated. Preliminary kinetic study of the enzymatic reaction suggested that the enzyme first synthesized an unstable cyclopropene (3a), which subsequently rearranged to the furan either spontaneously or with assistance from the enzyme (FIG. 7B and FIG. 8). For the time-course study, reactions were set up in parallel according to the procedure in biotransformations using whole-cell catalyst (OD600 = 30). The reactions were quenched at certain time points and analyzed by GC-MS. Every data point (average of two reaction) in FIG. 8 is the peak area of cyclopropene 3a or furan 3b divided by that of internal standard on GC-MS. Cyene = cyclopropene. These results provided strong evidence that the P41 1 hemeprotein is capable of transferring a carbene to an alkyne, which is an activity not previously reported for any protein or even any iron complex. Example 9. Engineering of biocatalysts for bicyclobutane formation

[0238] To divert the enzymatic reaction to bicyclobutane formation, the enzyme would have to transfer a second carbene to cyclopropene intermediate 3a before the cyclopropene rearranges to the undesired furan product (FIG. 7B). Therefore, P411 variants closely related to P411-Sl I263W were tested. It was reasoned that amino acid residue 263, which resides in the distal pocket, above the heme cofactor, might modulate the rate of this step and that the bulky tryptophan (Trp) side chain at this site may be blocking the second carbene transfer. A P411-S1 variant with phenylalanine (Phe) instead of Trp at this position (I263F) in fact catalyzed bicyclobutane formation at a very low level (< 5 TTN) (Table 2). Variant 'P4' with 3 additional mutations relative to P411-S1 I263F (V87A, A268G and A328V) (34) synthesized the desired bicyclobutane 2a with 80 TTN and with the formation of furan adduct substantially suppressed (2a: 3b > 50: 1, FIG. 7C).

[0239] Another related P411 variant, E10 (= P4 A78V A82L F263L), which was engineered from P4 for nitrene transfer reactions (35), catalyzed the desired transformation with > 6-fold higher activity (530 TTN, FIG. 7E). NMR analysis revealed an exo, endo- configuration of the enzymatically-produced bicyclobutane 2a, which is distinct from the only reported achiral endo, endo-isomer, made using an osmium-porphyrin complex ( ⁴⁴ , ⁴⁵ ). This P411-E10 variant was chosen as the starting template for directed evolution of an even more efficient bicyclobutane-constructing enzyme. [0240] Because the side chain of residue 263 influenced formation of the bicyclobutane product, site-saturation mutagenesis (SSM) of variant E10 was performed at position 263 and screened whole E. coli cells expressing the mutated proteins for improved production of bicyclobutane 2a. The enzyme having leucine at this position (263L) was the most active; other amino acid residues either lowered the reactivity towards bicyclobutane formation and/or delivered more furan product. In parallel, two additional residues in E10, V78 and S438, were also targeted by SSM. Aromatic residues were found to be activating at 78, with a phenylalanine or tyrosine mutation giving 1.5 - 2-fold improvement over E10. This beneficial effect may stem from a π-π stacking interaction between the side chain and the alkyne substrate or the cyclopropene intermediate. A single S438A mutation on a loop residing above the heme also significantly increased the activity, giving >2.5-fold increase in turnover. Finally, recombination of V78F/Y and S438A mutations led to the discovery of even more powerful biocatalysts for bicyclobutane formation (e.g., 1880 TTN with E10 V78F S438A, FIG. 7E and FIG. 9).

[0241] Data in FIG. 9 are also summarized in Table 4. Analytical reactions were set up in quadruplicate according to the procedure for biotransformations described above using whole-cell catalyst and analyzed by GC using the standard calibration curve of 2a. The TTNs were obtained for ODeoo=30 for P4, A82L and E10 variants, ODeoo=15 for E10 V78Y and E10 V78F variants, and ODeoo=10 for E10 S438A, E10 V78Y S438A and E10 V78F S438A variants. TTNs reported are the average of biological duplicates. Each biological set contains four experiments. The errors in all tables are standard deviations.

Table 4. P411-Sl variants for bicyclobutane formation

P411-S1 variants TTN

P4 80 ± 10

"A82L" 280 ± 20

E10 530 ± 20

E10 V78Y 800 ± 30

E10 V78F 1030 ± 60

E10 S438A 1400 ± 50

E10 V78Y S438A 1560 ± 70

E10 V78F S438A 1880 ± 80

Table 5. Mutations in related P411-ElO variants

Example 10. Analysis of alkyne coupling partners

[0242] With the evolved E10 V78F S438A variant in hand, the bacterial catalyst was then assayed against a panel of aromatic alkyne coupling partners. Biotransformations with 10 different substrates were performed on 0.1 - 0.2 mmol scale. These preparative-scale reactions proceeded smoothly to furnish the corresponding bicyclobutanes with up to 1760 TTN and 80% yield (FIG. 11A). Additionally, three alkynes, lk, 11 and lm, were transformed in mmol scale, and bicyclobutanes were isolated in hundred-milligram quantities, demonstrating that the biocatalytic transformation is readily scalable. Among the 13 different substrates, the engineered P411 hemeprotein did not exhibit strong preference toward specific electronic or steric features. Electron-deficient halides (2b-2d), which can be used as pre-functionalities for further transformations as well as electron-rich alkyl or alkoxy groups (2e-2h and 2k) at meta- or /¾zra-position of the phenyl group were accepted by the enzyme. Even heterocyclic substrates such as thiophene (2j) served as suitable alkyne partners, albeit with lower reactivity.

[0243] Free functionalities, including alcohols (2i and 2m) and a second alkyne (21), are well-preserved, providing an additional opportunity for derivatization of these products. A terminal alkyne allows copper-catalyzed click chemistry, through which bicyclobutane 21 can be modified with a simple sulfonyl azide (4a) or even decorated with biologically relevant fragments, such as a phenylalanine derivative (4b). An unprotected hydroxyl group could also offer the possibility of linkage to useful structures. Additionally, in order to probe the enantiopurity of bicyclobutane products, 21 and 2m were derivatized with Z-azido- phenylalanine and (i?)-Mosher's acid, respectively. The diastereomeric excess of these derivatized products would indicate the enantiomeric ratio of the bicyclobutanes. In fact, only single diastereomers of derivatized bicyclobutanes 4b and 4c were observed by NMR. Furthermore, the dicarboxylic esters on the bicyclobutane structure can be reduced easily with a mild reducing reagent, L1BH4, to give diol product 4d with the strained ring structure preserved. The diol product 4d allowed for the unequivocal confirmation of the bicyclobutane structure and determination of the absolute configuration through X-ray crystallography. Example 11. Analytical-scale and preparative-scale enzymatic bicyclobutane formation

[0244] All enzymatic reactions for bicyclobutane formation in analytical scale were conducted following the general procedure described below and analyzed with gas chromatography (GC). All TTNs for the different products were approximated using the GC standard curve of bicyclobutane 2a, assuming substituents on the phenyl ring will not significantly affect the GC signals. These estimated TTNs were only used to help determine the reaction scale required to obtain sufficient bicyclobutane products for isolation, purification and characterization.

[0245] General procedure for analytical-scale reactions. To a 2 mL vial were added degassed suspension of E. coli expressing P411-E10 V78F S438A variant in M9-N buffer (ODeoo = 9, 340 of 200 mM stock solution in EtOH, 5 mM final concentration), EDA (10 \L of 400 mM stock solution in EtOH, 10 mM final concentration, 2.0 equiv.), D-glucose (40 μΐ, of 250 mM stock solution in M9-N buffer, 25 mM final concentration) under anaerobic conditions. The vial was capped and shaken at 560 rpm at room temperature for 6 h. After the reaction was completed, internal standard 1,3,5- trimethoxybenzene (20 of 20 mM stock solution in toluene) was added to the reaction vial followed by mixed solvent (cyclohexane / ethyl acetate = 1 : 1, 1 mL). The mixture was transferred to a 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube, and then vortexed (15 s ^χ 3) and centrifuged (14,000 rpm, 5 min) to completely separate the organic and aqueous layers. 0.8 mL of organic layer was taken for GC analysis. TTN was calculated based on measured protein concentration. Reactions for every substrate were set up in quadruplicate.

[0246] During testing of analytical reactions, electron-withdrawing alkynes In and lo also gave fair amount of products, which were detected by GC-MS. However, problems in isolating these products from preparative-scale reactions were encountered. These results are noteworthy, but they cannot be used for drawing conclusions before further validation.

[0247] The results of the analytical reactions are shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Analysis data for analytical-scale bicyclobutane formation reactions

I 21-(4) I 1656.7 565.1 2.932 1.76 1.66 1063 1113 37.8 | aPdt = product area on GC, ^b Std = internal standard area on GC, ^c [Pdt] = product concentration in reaction mixture, ^d [PC] = protein concentration in initial reaction mixture, Avg. = average. [0248] All enzymatic reactions for bicyclobutane formation in preparative scale were conducted following the general procedure described below and the corresponding bicyclobutane products were isolated. Detailed conditions for the preparative-scale reactions of different substrates are indicated separately.

[0249] General procedure for preparative-scale reactions. To a 40 mL vial or 250 mL flask were added degassed suspension of E. coli expressing P411 E10-V78F S438A variant (ODeoo = 10 - 20), alkyne (0.1 - 0.2 mmol, larger scales for lk-lm), EDA (2.0 - 4.0 equiv.), D-glucose (10 - 15 mM, 250 mM stock in M9-N), 1 - 5 vol% EtOH, M9-N buffer (pH 7.4) under anaerobic conditions. The vial or flask was capped and shaken (420 rpm for vials and 220 rpm for flasks) at room temperature for 12 h. [0250] After the reaction was completed, every 30 mL portion of preparative-scale reaction mixture was transferred to a 50 mL Falcon centrifuge tube. The reaction container was washed with water (2 mL χ 2) followed by mixed organic solvent (cyclohexane / ethyl acetate = 1 : 1, 2 mL χ 3). The washing solution was combined with the reaction mixture in the centrifuge tubes. Additional 12 mL of cyclohexane / ethyl acetate solvent was added to every tube. After the tube (with -45 mL mixture in total) was capped, it was vortexed (1 min x 3), shaken vigorously, and centrifuged (14,000 g, 5 min). The organic layer was separated and the aqueous layer was subjected to three more rounds of extraction. Then organic layers were combined, dried over Na2S04, and concentrated under reduced pressure. Purification by silica column chromatography with hexane / ethyl acetate as eluent afforded the desired bicyclobutanes. TTNs were calculated based on measured protein concentration and the isolated yield of the product.

Diethyl (2i?,4i?)-l-phenylbicyclo[1.1.0]butane-2,4-dicarboxylate (2a)

E. coli suspension in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

20 24.0 4.17 0.100 1.0 -10

alky lie (la) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume^L n 1/mmol stock/M volume/pL n 2/mmol

1.00 180 0.18 2.00 180 0.36

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 10% gradient) 31.3 0.114 63% 1140

[0251] In the tables for compounds 2a-2m, [PC] = protein concentration in original cell suspension, n_pro = amount of protein in the reaction, [Glu] = D-glucose concentration in reaction mixture, n_l = amount of alkyne in the reaction, n_2 = amount of EDA in the reaction, m[Pdt] = mass of product isolated, n[Pdt] = amount of product.

[0252] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 7.34 - 7.22 (m, 5H), 4.14 (qd, J = 7.2, 2.4 Hz, 2H), 4.07 (qd, J = 7.2, 3.7 Hz, 2H), 3.26 (s, 1H), 3.13 (d, J = 3.0 Hz, 1H), 3.10 (d, J = 3.0 Hz, 1H), 1.27 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.13 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 170.36, 167.91, 132.68, 128.50, 128.45, 127.56, 60.99, 60.91, 44.64, 42.55, 28.18, 20.47, 14.37, 14.16. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 275.1271 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for CieHioC : 275.1283. [α] ² ¾ = -124.8 ± 1.1° (c 0.1, ethyl acetate).

Diethyl (2i?,4i?)-l-(4-fluorophenyl)bicyclo[l 1 0]butane-2,4-dicarboxylate (2b)

E. coli suspension in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

20 24.0 4.17 0.100 1.0 -10

alkyne (lb) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume^L n 1/mmol stock/M volume/μL n 2/mmol

1.0 180 0.18 2.0 180 0.36

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 10% gradient) 36.6 0.125 70% 1250

[0253] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 7.32 - 7.26 (m, 2H), 7.05 - 6.94 (m, 2H), 4.21 - 4.11 (m, 2H), 4.11 - 4.00 (m, 2H), 3.23 (d, J = 0.5 Hz, 1H), 3.09 (d, J = 3.0 Hz, 1H), 3.04 (dd, J = 3.0, 0.6 Hz, 1H), 1.27 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.14 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 170.20, 167.80, 163.59 (d, JC-F = 246.4 Hz), 130.55 (d, JC-F = 8.2 Hz), 128.31 , (d, Jc-F = 3.3 Hz), 1 15.63, (d, JC-F = 21.8 Hz), 61.06, 60.98, 44.83, 42.70, 27.50, 19.89, 14.37, 14.20. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 293.1 179 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for CieHisFC : 293.1189. [α] ² ¾ = - 1 10.1 ± 2.0° (c 0.1 , ethyl acetate).

Diethyl (2R,4R)- l-(4-chlorophenyl)bicyclo[ 1 1 0] butane-2,4-dicarboxylate (2c)

[0254] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 7.28 (d, J = 8.9 Hz, 2H), 7.23 (d, J = 8.6 Hz, 2H), 4.14 (qd, J = 7.1 , 2.4 Hz, 2H), 4.08 (qd, J = 7.1 , 2.2 Hz, 2H), 3.24 (d, J = 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.10 (d, J = 3.0 Hz, 1H), 3.08 (dd, J = 3.0, 0.5 Hz, 1H), 1.27 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.16 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 170.06, 167.75, 133.48, 131.27, 129.93, 128.71 , 61.10, 61.06, 44.77, 42.65, 27.47, 20.61, 14.36, 14.21. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 309.0902 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for CieHisCICk 309.0894. [α] ² ¾ = -141.5 ± 2.6° (c 0.1, ethyl acetate).

Diethyl (2R,4R)- l-(4-bromophenyl)bicyclo [1.1.0] butane-2,4-dicarboxylate (2d)

20 36.0 4.17 0.150 1 1.5 -10

alk ne (Id) s tock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume^L n 1/mmol stock/M volume^L n 2/mmol 1.0 150 0.15 2.0 300 0.60

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 10% gradient) 42.5 0.120 80% 800

[0255] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCb) δ 7.43 (d, J = 8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.17 (d, J = 8.7 Hz, 2H), 4.14 (qd, J = 7.1, 2.4 Hz, 2H), 4.08 (qd, J = 7.1, 1.8 Hz, 2H), 3.24 (d, J = 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.10 (d, J = 3.1 Hz, 1H), 3.09 (dd, J = 3.1, 0.5 Hz, 1H), 1.27 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.16 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCb) δ 170.02, 167.73, 131.84, 131.64, 130.22, 121.56, 61.11, 61.07, 44.74, 42.62, 27.53, 20.71, 14.36, 14.21. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 353.0399 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for CieHisBrC : 353.0388 ( ⁷⁹ Br). [α] ² ¾ = -128.4 ± 0.8° (c 0.1, ethyl acetate).

Diethyl (2i?,4i?)-l-(p-tolyl)bicyclo[l 1 0]butane-2,4-dicarboxylate (2e)

E. coli suspension in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μmol volume/mL [Glu]/mM

18 20.0 2.92 0.0584 1.0 -13

alkyne (le) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume^L n 1/mmol stock/M volume^L n 2/mmol

1.0 160 0.16 2.0 160 0.32

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 8% gradient) 29.6 0.103 64% 1760

[0256] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCb) δ 7.19 (d, J = 8.2 Hz, 2H), 7.11 (d, J = 7.9 Hz, 2H), 4.18 - 4.03 (m, 4H), 3.23 (d, J = 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.08 (dd, J = 3.0, 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.06 (d, J = 3.0 Hz, 1H), 2.32 (s, 3H), 1.26 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.15 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCb) δ 170.48, 168.01, 137.37, 129.42, 129.22, 128.41, 60.94, 60.87, 44.62, 42.50, 28.09, 21.34, 20.07, 14.37, 14.20. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 289.1450 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C17H21O4: 289.1440. [α] ² ¾ = -143.6 ± 1.0° (c O. l, ethyl acetate).

Diethyl (2i?,4i?)-l-(4-ethylphenyl)bicyclo[l 1 0]butane-2,4-dicarboxylate (2f)

E. coli suspension in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

18 32.0 2.92 0.0934 1.5 -11

alkyne (If) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume^L n 1/mmol stock/M volume^L n 2/mmol

1.0 100 0.10 2.0 100 0.20

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 8% gradient) 16.8 0.0556 56% 600

[0257] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 7.22 (d, J = 8.3 Hz, 2H), 7.14 (d, J = 8.4 Hz, 2H), 4.20 - 4.01 (m, 4H), 3.23 (d, J = 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.09 (dd, J = 3.0, 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.07 (d, J = 3.0 Hz, 1H), 2.62 (q, J = 7.6 Hz, 2H), 1.26 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.21 (t, J = 7.6 Hz, 3H), 1.14 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 170.49, 168.02, 143.73, 129.69, 128.46, 128.04, 60.93, 60.87, 44.57, 42.50, 28.72, 28.13, 20.14, 15.67, 14.38, 14.19. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 303.1588 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C18H23O4: 303.1596. [α] ² ¾ = -133.7 ± 1.8° (c 0.1, ethyl acetate). Diethyl (2i?,4i?)-l-(3-methoxyphenyl)bicyclo[1.1.0]butane-2,4-dicarb oxylate (2g)

E. coli suspension in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

18 20.0 2.92 0.0584 1.0 -13

alkyne (lg) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume^L n 1/mmol stock/M volume^L n 2/mmol

1.0 160 0.16 2.0 160 0.32

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 12% gradient) 27.2 0.0894 56% 1530

[0258] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 7.24 - 7.19 (m, 1H), 6.88 (ddd, J = 7.6, 1.6, 1.0 Hz, 1H), 6.85 - 6.82 (m, 1H), 6.80 (ddd, J = 8.2, 2.6, 1.0 Hz, 1H), 4.20 - 4.01 (m, 4H), 3.78 (s, 3H), 3.25 (d, J = 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.13 (dd, J = 3.0, 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.09 (d, J= 3.0 Hz, 1H), 1.26 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.15 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 170.31, 167.90, 159.67, 134.22, 129.54, 120.75, 114.01, 113.20, 61.01, 60.95, 55.35, 44.69, 42.58, 28.18, 20.69, 14.37, 14.20. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 305.1383 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C17H21O5: 305.1389. [α] ² ¾ = -122.6 ± 1.5° (c 0.1, ethyl acetate).

Diethyl (2R,4R)- l-(3,5-dimethoxyphenyl)bicyclo[ 1.1.0] butane-2,4-dicarboxylate (2h)

E. coli suspension in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

16 45.0 2.54 0.114 3.0 -16

alkyne (lh) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume^L n 1/mmol stock/M volume^L n 2/mmol

1.0 150 0.15 2.0 225 0.45

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 15% gradient) 19.8 0.0592 40% 520

[0259] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 6.44 (d, J = 2.2 Hz, 2H), 6.36 (t, J = 2.3 Hz, 1H), 4.15 (qd, J = 7.1, 2.5 Hz, 2H), 4.09 (qd, J = 7.1, 3.9 Hz, 2H),3.76 (s, 6H), 3.24 (s, 1H), 3.12 (d, J = 3.0 Hz, 1H), 3.09 (d, J= 3.0 Hz, 1H), 1.26 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.17 (t, J= 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 170.14, 167.76, 160.71, 134.80, 106.29, 99.71, 60.88, 60.84, 55.33, 44.56, 42.45, 28.23, 20.67, 14.23, 14.11. HRMS (FAB) m z: 335.1480 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for Ci8H ₂ 30 ₆ : 335.1495. [α] ² ¾ = -144.6 ± 3.5° (c O. l, ethyl acetate). Diethyl (2i?,4i?)-l-(3-hydroxyphenyl)bicyclo[1.1.0]butane-2,4-dicarb oxylate (2i)

1.0 1 120 0.12 1 2.0 180 0.36

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 20% gradient) 10.4 0.0358 30% 370

[0260] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 7.15 (td, J = 8.1, 1.7 Hz, 1H), 6.87 - 6.83 (m, 1H), 6.78 - 6.74 (m, 1H), 6.73 - 6.68 (m, 1H), 5.06 (s, 1H), 4.21 - 4.02 (m, 4H), 3.23 (d, J = 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.11 (dd, J = 3.1, 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.09 (d, J = 3.0 Hz, 1H), 1.27 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.15 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 170.22, 167.87, 155.59, 134.27, 129.62, 120.76, 115.15, 114.58, 60.94, 60.92, 44.54, 42.43, 27.86, 20.58, 14.23, 14.04. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 291.1237 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for CieHioOs: 291.1232.

Diethyl (2R,4R)- l-(thiophen-2-yl)bicyclo [1 1 0] butane-2,4-dicarboxylate (2j)

E. coli suspension in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

20 54.0 4.30 0.232 3.2 -14

alky lie (lj) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume^L n 1/mmol stock/M volume^L n 2/mmol

1.0 100 0.10 2.0 200 0.40

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 8% gradient) 11.4 0.0407 41% 160

[0261] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 7.20 (dd, J = 5.2, 1.2 Hz, 1H), 7.05 (dd, J = 3.5, 1.3 Hz, 1H), 6.94 (dd, J= 5.2, 3.5 Hz, 1H), 4.19 - 4.10 (m, 4H), 3.27 (s, 1H), 3.10 (d, J = 3.1 Hz, 1H), 3.06 (dd, J = 3.1, 0.6 Hz, 1H), 1.28 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.20 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 169.92, 167.46, 135.29, 128.55, 126.97, 125.42, 61.14, 61.12, 45.87, 44.10, 23.88, 21.23, 14.37, 14.22. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 281.0839 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for

Diethyl (2i?,4i?)-l-(4-methoxyphenyl)bicyclo[l.1.0]butane-2,4-dicarb oxylate (2k)

E. coli suspension in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

15 24.0 2.43 0.0583 1.0 -10

alkyne (lk) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume^L n 1/mmol stock/M volume^L n 2/mmol

1.0 160 0.16 2.0 160 0.32

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 8% gradient) 32.4 0.107 67% 1830

E. coli suspension in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

16 600 2.96 1.77 30 -12

alkyne (lk) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume/mL n 1/mmol stock/mM volume/mL n 2/mmol

2.0 2.40 4.80 2.0 7.20 14.40

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 12% gradient) 680.4 2.34 47% 1260

Note: in 4.8 mmol scale reaction, the EDA stock solution was added in three portions (2.4 mL each portion) every 1 hour.

[0262] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 7.25 (d, J = 8.7 Hz, 2H), 6.84 (d, J = 8.7 Hz, 2H), 4.20 - 3.99 (m, 4H), 3.79 (s, 3H), 3.21 (s, 1H), 3.04 (d, J = 2.9 Hz, 1H), 3.01 (d, J = 2.9 Hz, 1H), 1.27 (t, J= 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.14 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 170.53, 168.01, 159.21, 130.03, 124.27, 113.99, 60.93, 60.85, 55.43, 44.68, 42.63, 27.90, 19.35, 14.38, 14.22. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 305.1375 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C17H21O5: 305.1389. [α] ² ¾ = -138.2 ± 1.6° (c 0.1, ethyl acetate).

Diethyl (2i?,4i?)-l-(4-ethynylxyphenyl)bicyclo[l 1 0]butane-2,4-dicarboxylate (21)

[0263] The title compound was synthesized as summarized below. In the 2.8 mmol scale- reaction, EDA stock solution was added in three portions (1.4 mL each portion) every 1 hour.

E. coli suspension in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

16 36.0 3.44 0.124 2.0 -13

alkyne (11) st ock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume^L n 1/mmol stock/M volume^L n 2/mmol 1.0 150 0.15 2.0 225 0.45

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 8% gradient) 28.7 0.0962 64% 780

E. coli suspension in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

18 600 3.03 1.82 30 -12

alkyne (11) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume/mL n 1/mmol stock/M volume/mL n 2/mmol

2.0 1.40 2.80 2.0 4.20 8.40

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 10% gradient) 393.7 1.32 47% 730

[0264] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 7.45 (d, J = 8.5 Hz, 2H), 7.26 (d, J = 8.6 Hz, 2H), 4.17 (qd, J = 7.2, 2.9 Hz, 2H), 4.11 (qd, J = 7.1, 0.6 Hz, 2H), 3.29 (d, J = 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.18 (dd, J = 3.1, 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.15 (d, J = 3.1 Hz, 1H), 3.11 (s, 1H), 1.29 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.17 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 170.04, 167.73, 133.79, 132.24, 128.28, 121.22, 83.47, 77.86, 61.12, 61.07, 44.73, 42.67, 27.88, 21.40, 14.36, 14.19. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 299.1282 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for CisHioC : 299.1283. [α] ² ¾ = -152.6 ± 3.1° (c 0.1, ethyl acetate).

Diethyl (2i?,4i?)-l-(4-(hydroxymethyl)phenyl)bicyclo[1.1.0]butane-2, 4-dicarboxylate (2m)

[0265] The title compound was prepared as summarized below. In the 1.0 mmol-scale reaction, EDA stock solution was added in four portions (0.5 mL each portion) every 1 hour.

E. coli suspension in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

20 75.0 3.72 0.279 4.0 -13

alky lie (lm) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume^L n 1/mmol stock/M volume^L n 2/mmol

1.0 360 0.36 2.0 540 1.08

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 25% gradient) 52.8 0.174 48% 630

E. coli suspension in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

16 160 2.68 0.428 10 -15

alk ne (lm) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume/mL n 1/mmol stock/M volume/mL n 2/mmol

1.0 1.00 1.00 2.0 2.00 4.00

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 25% gradient) 152.1 0.500 50% 580 [0266] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 7.30 (d, J = 2.5 Hz, 4H), 4.68 (d, J = 5.0 Hz, 2H), 4.14 (qd, J = 7.1, 2.3 Hz, 2H), 4.08 (qd, J = 7.1, 0.9 Hz, 2H), 3.26 (d, J = 0.5 Hz, 1H), 3.13 (dd, J = 3.1, 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.10 (d, J = 3.0 Hz, 1H), 1.62 (t, J = 5.7 Hz, 1H), 1.27 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.16 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 170.30, 167.93, 140.24, 132.11, 128.68, 127.15, 65.20, 61.02, 60.96, 44.72, 42.54, 27.96, 20.58, 14.37, 14.22. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 303.1230 ((M + H ⁺ ) - H ₂ ); calc. for C17H19O5: 303.1232. [α] ² ¾ = -130.8 ± 1.2° (c 0.1, ethyl acetate).

[0267] The enantioselectivities of bicyclobutane products are difficult to determine, as there is no method in the literature to prepare the racemic standards. Determination of the enantiopurities of the bicyclobutane products by chiral HPLC was attempted. Purified bicyclobutanes 2a-2c, 2e, 2k and 21 (with >98% purity by ¾ NMR) were tested under various analytical chiral HPLC separation conditions using with Chiralpak IA, IC, AS-H, and OJ-H columns. In all cases, only one major peak was detected for each product (with >98% peak area at 254 nm). In order to determine whether any of the minor peaks (with 0.5-1% peak area at 254 nm) detected corresponds to an enantiomer of the desired product, those fractions were collected and concentrated for further UV testing (210-280 nm) and GC-MS testing; none turned out to be the enantiomers of the bicyclobutanes. Though there is some possibility that the enantiomers might not be resolved under any of the chiral HPLC condition tested, it is very likely that the bicyclobutanes have high enantiopurity.

Example 12. Engineering of biocatalysts for cyclopropene formation

[0268] The next investigation focused on whether the enzyme could stop at the cyclopropene product if less reactive aliphatic alkynes are used. To this end, enzyme variants from the P411-S1 lineage were examined for cyclopropene formation, using phenylbutyne (5a) and EDA as starting reagents. It was encouraging to see that P4 catalyzed the desired transformation with 260 TTN and 95.5: 4.5 er. Further evolution was performed on P4 to improve its catalytic efficiency. Position 87 was targeted first, known for its importance to substrate recognition in P450-catalyzed oxidations ( ⁴⁶ ). A87F (290 TTN, 3.0: 97.0 er) and A87W (240 TTN, 97.1 : 2.9 er) were found to exert the opposite enantio-preference, suggesting that residue 87 also controls substrate orientation for non-native carbene chemistry. Single- and double-site-saturation mutagenesis conducted sequentially on P4 A87F and P4 A87W improved both reactivity and selectivity (FIG. 12A, FIG. 13 and FIG. 14). The final K10 and C6 variants performed with >10-fold higher activity compared to the initial P4 variant and with excellent stereocontrol (99.55: 0.45 er and 99.95: 0.05 er, respectively).

[0269] Data from FIG. 13 and FIG. 14 are summarized in Table 7 and Table 8, and FIG. 15 and FIG. 16 depict the site targeted for mutation. Analytical reactions were set up in quadruplicate according to the procedure in biotransformations described above and using whole-cell catalyst and analyzed by GC using the standard calibration curve of 6a. The TTNs were obtained using OD6oo=60 for P4 and Kl variants, OD6oo=30 for K3, K5 and K6 variants, and OD6oo=15 for K8 and K10 variants. TTNs reported are the average of biological duplicates. The TTNs were obtained using OD6oo=60 for P4 and CI variants, OD6oo=30 for C2, C3 and C4 variants, and OD6oo=15 for C6 variant. TTNs reported are the average of four experiments. TTNs reported are the average of biological duplicates. Each biological set contains four experiments. The errors in all tables are standard deviations.

Table 7. P411-P4 variants for the formation of cyclopropene (<S)-6a P411-P4 variant TTN er

P4 260 ± 30 95.5: 4.5

P4 A87F (Kl) 290 ± 20 3.0: 97.0

Kl F261G T327P (K3) 660 ± 40 2.6: 97.4

K3 S72W L437F (K5) 1100 ± 120 2.1 : 97.9

K5 T269L (K6) 1280 ± 80 1.9: 98.1

K6 A78S A330V (K8) 1900 ± 200 0.55 : 99.45

K8 L188C T436M (K10) 3300 ± 180 0.45 : 99.55

Table 8. P41 1-P4 variants for the formation of cyclopropene (R)-6a

P411-P4 variant TTN er

P4 260 ± 30 95.5: 4.5

P4 A87W (CI) 240 ± 40 97.1 : 2.9

Kl L437G (C2) 1400 ± 100 99.35: 0.65

C2 V328Y (C3) 1600 ± 120 99.80: 0.20

C3 T327V (C4) 1700 ± 100 99.90: 0.10

C4 F261M T436H (C6) 2500 ± 140 99.95: 0.05

Table 9. Mutations in related P41 1-P4 variants

K8 P41 CIS K8 variant _Α184 ^ _E252Q

Table 10. Mutations in related P411-P4 variants

Example 13. Preparation of alkyne substrates [0270] Commercially available substrates were used as received: all aromatic alkynes (la- lm) (Sigma-Aldrich, Alfa-Aesar and Ark Pharm), aliphatic alkynes (5a-5c, 5g, 5j, 5k, 5m, and 5n) (Sigma-Aldrich, Alfa-Aesar and Ark Pharm), ethyl 2-diazoacetate (Sigma-Aldrich).

[0271] Oct-7-yn-l-yl cyclobutanecarboxylate (5d). In a 100 mL round-bottom flask, oct- 7-yn-l-ol (0.631 g, 5.0 mmol), triethylamine (0.9 mL, 1.3 equiv.) and N,N-dimethylpyridin-4- amine (DMAP, 61 mg, 10 mol%) in dry DCM (20 mL) was cooled to 0 °C. A solution of cyclobutanecarbonyl chloride (0.711 g, 6.0 mmol) in dry DCM (5 mL) was added dropwise slowly over 5 min. The reaction was allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for 8 hours. The reaction mixture was diluted with DCM (20 mL) and washed with water (20 mL) and brine (20 mL), dried over MgS04, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane / ethyl acetate (20: 1) to afford 5d (1.02 g, 98%). ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 4.06 (t, J = 6.7 Hz, 2H), 3.12 (pd, J = 8.5, 1.0 Hz, 1H), 2.34 - 2.13 (m, 6H), 2.04 - 1.83 (m, 3H), 1.69 - 1.59 (m, 2H), 1.57 - 1.48 (m, 2H), 1.47 - 1.32 (m, 4H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 175.62, 84.51, 68.25, 64.28, 38.17, 28.54, 28.34, 28.32, 25.45, 25.28, 18.43, 18.33. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 209.1548 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C13H21O2: 209.1542.

[0272] 2-(Hept-6-yn-l-yl)-l,3-dioxolane (5e). In a 250 mL round-bottom flask, DMSO (1.95 g, 25.0 mmol) was dissolved in dry DCM (40 mL) and then cooled to -78 °C under argon. A solution of oxalyl dichloride (2.6 mL, 30.0 mmol) in dry DCM (10 mL) was added dropwise slowly over 10 min. After the mixture was stirred at -78 °C for 1 h, a solution of oct-7-yn-l-ol (0.631 g, 5.0 mmol) in dry DCM (10 mL) was added dropwise slowly over 10 min. The resulting mixture was maintained at -78 °C for another 2 h before the dropwise addition of triethylamine (7.0 mL, 50.0 mmol) in dry DCM (10 mL). The reaction was then allowed to warm to room temperature over 1 h and stirred for another 2 h. The reaction mixture was diluted with DCM (30 mL) and washed with HC1 (10%, 50 mL), NaHC0 ₃ (50 mL, sat. aq.), and brine (50 mL), dried over MgSO, and then concentrated under reduced pressure (100 torr). The crude product mixture was used for the next step without further purification. The crude product was dissolved in benzene (50 mL) in a 100 mL round-bottom flask. Ethylene glycol (0.465 g, 7.5 mmol) and TsOH (130 mg, 0.075 mmol) were added. The solution was heated up to a refluxing temperature, 90 °C, and maintained for 2 h. After removal of benzene under reduced pressure, the crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane / ether (20: 1 to 15: 1) to afford 5e (0.675 g, 80%). ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 4.85 (t, J = 4.8 Hz, 1H), 4.01 - 3.91 (m, 2H), 3.90 - 3.79 (m, 2H), 2.19 (td, J = 7.0, 2.6 Hz, 2H), 1.93 (t, J = 2.7 Hz, 1H), 1.70 - 1.61 (m, 2H), 1.59 - 1.51 (m, 2H), 1.49 - 1.39 (m, 4H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 104.66, 84.73, 68.32, 64.99, 33.89, 28.78, 28.53, 23.69, 18.45. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 167.1067 ((M + H ⁺ ) - H ₂ ); calc. for C10H15O2: 167.1072.

[0273] 5-Isopropoxypent-l-yne (5f). In a 100 mL round-bottom flask, pent-4-yn-l-ol (0.841 g, 10.0 mmol), triethylamine (1.8 mL, 1.3 equiv.) and DMAP (122 mg, 10 mol%) in dry DCM (50 mL) was cooled to 0 °C. 4-Methylbenzenesulfonyl chloride (TsCl, 2.10 g, 11.0 mmol) was added portion-wise. The reaction was allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for 6 hours. The reaction mixture was diluted with DCM (30 mL) and washed with water (20 mL) and brine (20 mL), dried over MgSCn, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane: ethyl acetate (4: 1) to afford pent-4-yn-l-yl 4-methylbenzenesulfonate (2.35 g, 99%). [0274] Isopropanol (0.361 g, 6.0 mmol) and tetrabutylammonium bromide (161 mg, 0.5 mmol) were dissolved in anhydrous DMF (50 mL) and then cooled to 0 °C. NaH (60%, 240 mg, 6.0 mmol) was added portion-wise to the solution. The resulting mixture was stirred at 0 °C for 1 h before the dropwise addition of pent-4-yn-l-yl 4-methylbenzenesulfonate (1.19 g, 5.0 mmol) in anhydrous DMF (10 mL). The reaction was allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for 4 hours. The reaction mixture was quenched with NH4CI (20 mL, sat. aq.) and the product was extracted with Et20 (30 mL ^χ 3). The combined organic layer was washed with water (20 mL), brine (20 mL), dried over MgS04, and then concentrated under reduced pressure (200 torr). The crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with pentane / ether (10: 1) to afford 5f (0.597 g, 95%).

[0275] 4-((Oct-7-yn-l-yloxy)methyl)tetrahydro-2H-pyran (5h) In a 500 mL round- bottom flask, oct-7-yn-l-ol (6.31 g, 50.0 mmol), triethylamine (9.1 mL, 1.3 equiv.) and DMAP (609 mg, 10 mol%) in dry DCM (200 mL) was cooled to 0 °C. TsCl (10.50 g, 55.0 mmol) was added portion-wise. The reaction was allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for 6 hours. The reaction mixture was diluted with DCM (100 mL) and washed with water (200 mL) and brine (200 mL), dried over MgS04, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane: ethyl acetate (10: 1) to afford oct-7-yn-l-yl 4-methylbenzenesulfonate (13.29 g, 95%). [0276] In a 100 mL round-bottom flask, (tetrahydro-2H-pyran-4-yl)methanol (0.697 g, 6.0 mmol) and tetrabutylammonium bromide (161 mg, 0.5 mmol) were dissolved in anhydrous DMF (50 mL) and then cooled to 0 °C. NaH (60%, 240 mg, 6.0 mmol) was added portion- wise to the solution. The resulting mixture was stirred at 0 °C for 1 h before the dropwise addition of oct-7-yn-l-yl 4-methylbenzenesulfonate (1.40 g, 5.0 mmol) in anhydrous DMF (10 mL). Then reaction was allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for 4 hours. The reaction mixture was quenched with NH4CI (20 mL, sat. aq.) and the product was extracted with Et^O (50 mL ^χ 3). The combined organic layer was washed with water (20 mL), brine (20 mL), dried over MgSCn, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane / ethyl acetate (10: 1) to afford 5h (1.10 g, 98%). ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 3.96 (ddt, J = 11.5, 4.6, 1.1 Hz, 2H), 3.43 - 3.34 (m, 4H), 3.24 (d, J = 6.6 Hz, 2H), 2.18 (td, J = 7.0, 2.7 Hz, 2H), 1.93 (t, J = 2.7 Hz, 1H), 1.89 - 1.77 (m, 1H), 1.68 - 1.61 (m, 2H), 1.60 - 1.49 (m, 4H), 1.46 - 1.34 (m, 4H), 1.33 - 1.25 (m, 2H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 84.80, 76.11, 71.24, 68.28, 67.90, 35.60, 30.19, 29.70, 28.70, 28.56, 25.83, 18.49. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 225.1855 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C14H25O2: 225.1855.

[0277] ((Oct-7-yn-l-yloxy)methyl)cyclopropane (5i). In a 100 mL round-bottom flask, cyclopropylmethanol (0.433 g, 6.0 mmol) and tetrabutylammonium bromide (161 mg, 0.5 mmol) were dissolved in anhydrous DMF (50 mL) and then cooled to 0 °C. NaH (60%, 240 mg, 6.0 mmol) was added portion-wise to the solution. The resulting mixture was stirred at 0 °C for 1 h before the dropwise addition of oct-7-yn-l-yl 4-methylbenzenesulfonate (1.40 g, 5.0 mmol) in anhydrous DMF (10 mL). The reaction was allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for 4 hours. The reaction mixture was quenched with NH4CI (20 mL, sat. aq.) and the product was extracted with Et^O (50 mL ^χ 3). The combined organic layer was washed with water (20 mL), brine (20 mL), dried over MgS04, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane / ether (50: 1) to afford 5i (840 mg, 93%). ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 3.42 (t, J = 6.7 Hz, 2H), 3.24 (d, J = 6.9 Hz, 2H), 2.18 (td, J = 7.0, 2.6 Hz, 2H), 1.93 (t, J = 2.6 Hz,

1H), 1.64 - 1.57 (m, 2H), 1.56 - 1.49 (m, 2H), 1.47 - 1.30 (m, 4H), 1.12 - 0.97 (m, 1H), 0.58 - 0.45 (m, 2H), 0.19 (dt, J = 6.0, 4.5 Hz, 2H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 84.82, 75.73, 70.77, 68.26, 29.78, 28.72, 28.57, 25.85, 18.49, 10.82, 3.13. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 181.1590 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for Ci ₂ H ₂ iO: 181.1592.

[0278] 7 fl«s-l-(methoxymethyl)-4-((oct-7-yn-l-yloxy)methyl)cyclohex ane (51). In a

100 mL round-bottom flask, (fra«s-cyclohexane-l,4-diyl)dimethanol (2.88 g, 20.0 mmol) and tetrabutylammonium bromide (32 mg, 0.1 mmol) were dissolved in anhydrous DMF (50 mL) and then cooled to 0 °C. NaH (60%, 960 mg, 24.0 mmol) was added portion-wise to the solution. The resulting mixture was stirred at 0 °C for 1 h before the dropwise addition of methyl iodide (Mel, 1.5 mL, 24.0 mmol) in anhydrous DMF (10 mL). The reaction was allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for 4 hours. The reaction mixture was quenched with NH4CI (20 mL, sat. aq.) and the product was extracted with Et20 (50 mL ^χ 4). The combined organic layer was washed with water (50 mL), brine (50 mL), dried over MgS04, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane / ethyl acetate (1 : 1) to afford (trans-4- (methoxymethyl)cyclohexyl)methanol (2.02 g, 64%).

[0279] In a 100 mL round-bottom flask, (fra«s-4-(methoxymethyl)cyclohexyl)methanol (0.949 g, 6.0 mmol) and tetrabutylammonium bromide (161 mg, 0.5 mmol) were dissolved in anhydrous DMF (50 mL) and then cooled to 0 °C. NaH (60%, 240 mg, 6.0 mmol) was added portion-wise to the solution. The resulting mixture was stirred at 0 °C for 1 h before the dropwise addition of oct-7-yn-l-yl 4-methylbenzenesulfonate (1.40 g, 5.0 mmol) in anhydrous DMF (10 mL). Then reaction was allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for 4 hours. The reaction mixture was quenched with NH4CI (20 mL, sat. aq.) and the product was extracted with Et^O (50 mL χ 3). The combined organic layer was washed with water (20 mL), brine (20 mL), dried over MgS04, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane / ethyl acetate (10: 1) to afford 51 (743 mg, 56%). ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 3.38 (t, J =

6.6 Hz, 2H), 3.32 (s, 3H), 3.20 (d, J = 6.5 Hz, 2H), 3.18 (d, J = 6.4 Hz, 2H), 2.18 (td, J = 7.0,

2.7 Hz, 2H), 1.93 (t, J = 2.7 Hz, 1H), 1.86 - 1.74 (m, 4H), 1.58 - 1.49 (m, 6H), 1.46 - 1.30 (m, 4H), 1.01 - 0.86 (m, 4H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 84.84, 78.93, 76.90, 71.17, 68.26, 58.98, 38.37 (2 carbons), 29.73, 29.65, 29.55, 28.73, 28.58, 25.85, 18.50. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 267.2325 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C17H31O2: 267.2324.

Example 14. Analytical-scale and preparative-scale enzymatic cyclopropene formation

[0280] To evaluate the substrate range of the evolved P411 variants for cyclopropene construction, P411-C6 activity was examined using structurally diverse aliphatic alkynes. Enzymatic reactions with 12 alkynes in preparative scale (up to 5.0 mmol scale) afforded the desired cyclopropenes with TTNs ranging from hundreds to thousands and good to excellent stereoselectivities (Fig. 3B and 3C). Alkynes with a linear carbon chain (5b) or cyclic fragments (5g, 5h and 5j) all served as good substrates. Different functional groups, including ether (5f, 5i and 51), ester (5d), acetal (5e), chloride (5k), and free hydroxyl (5m), were well- tolerated. Further optimization of reaction conditions with slow addition of EDA, for example, would likely improve the isolated yields, as was demonstrated for cyclopropene 6h (66% yield, Fig. 3B; and 94% yield, Fig. 3C).

[0281] All enzymatic reactions for cyclopropene formation in analytical scale were conducted following the general procedure described below and analyzed with gas chromatography (GC). All TTNs for the different products were determined using the GC standard curve of the corresponding racemic standard product made with RJi2(OAc)4 (see Section VII). These TTNs were used to guide set-up of preparative-scale reactions.

[0282] General procedure for analytical-scale reactions: To a 2 mL vial were added degassed suspension of E. coli expressing P411-C6 or K10 variant in M9-N buffer (OD600 = 15, 340 nL), alkyne (10 \L of 400 or 800 mM stock solution in EtOH, 10 or 20 mM), EDA (10 of 400 or 800 mM stock solution in EtOH, 10 or 20 mM, 1.0 equiv.), D-glucose (40\L of 250 mM stock solution in M9-N buffer, 25 mM) under anaerobic conditions. The vial was capped and shaken at 560 rpm at room temperature for 6 h. After the reaction was completed, internal standard 1,3,5-trimethoxybenzene (20 of 20 mM stock solution in toluene) was added to the reaction vial followed by mixed solvent (cyclohexane / ethyl acetate = 1 : 1 , 1 mL). The mixture was transferred to a 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube, and then vortexed (15 seconds ^χ 3) and centrifuged (14,000 rpm, 5 min) to completely separate the organic and aqueous layers. 0.8 mL of organic layer was taken for GC analysis. TTN was calculated based on measured protein concentration. Enantioselectivity was measured by chiral HPLC. Reactions for every substrate were set up in triplicate or quadruplicate.

[0283] GC standard curve: All data points represent the average of duplicate runs. The standard curves plot product concentration in mM (y-axis) against the ratio of product area to internal standard area on the GC (x-axis).

[0284] All enzymatic reactions for cyclopropene formation in preparative scale were conducted following the general procedure described below and the corresponding cyclopropene products were isolated. Detailed conditions for preparative-scale reactions of different substrates are indicated separately.

[0285] General procedure for preparative-scale reactions. To a 40 mL vial or 250 mL flask were added degassed suspension of E. coli expressing P41 1-C6 or K10 variant (OD600 = 10 - 60), alkyne (0.08 - 0.4 mmol, larger scales for 5a and 5h), EDA (1.0 - 4.0 equiv.), D- glucose (10 - 15 mM, 250 mM stock in M9-N), 1 - 5 vol% EtOH, M9-N buffer (pH 7.4) under anaerobic conditions. The vial or flask was capped and shaken (420 rpm for vials and 220 rpm for flasks) at room temperature for 12 h.

[0286] After the reaction was completed, every 30 mL portion of preparative-scale reaction mixture was transferred to a 50 mL Falcon centrifuge tube. The reaction container was washed with water (2 mL ^χ 2) followed by mixed organic solvent (cyclohexane / ethyl acetate = 1 : 1 , 2 mL χ 3). The washing solution was combined to reaction mixture in centrifuge tubes. An additional 12 mL of cyclohexane / ethyl acetate solvent was added to every tube. After the tube (with -45 mL mixture in total) was capped, it was vortex (1 min χ 3) and shaken vigorously, and centrifuged (14,000 g, 5 min). The organic layer was separated and the aqueous layer was subjected to three more rounds of extraction. The organic layers were combined, dried over Na2S04 and concentrated under reduced pressure. Purification by silica column chromatography with hexane / ethyl acetate as eluent afforded the desired cyclopropenes. Enantioselectivity was measured by chiral HPLC. TTNs were calculated based on measured protein concentration and isolated product yield.

Ethyl (S)-2-phenethylcycloprop-2-ene-l-carboxylate (S-6a)

Analysis data (10 mM 5a, P411-K10)

Pdt- Avg. Avg.

Pdt Std Pdt/Std [Pdfj/mM [PC]/ M TTN

entries TTN yield

6a-(l) 4637.1 590.6 7.852 6.24 1.93 3242

6a-(2) 4639.5 592.1 7.836 6.23 1.93 3236

6a-(3) 4797.4 582.9 8.230 6.54 1.93 3399

6a-(4) 4674.5 588.0 7.950 6.32 1.93 3283 3290 63.3%

Preparative-scale reaction

E. coli suspension expressing P411-K10 in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

20 28.0 3.12 0.0874 1.5 -13

alky lie (5a) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume^L n 1/mmol stock/M volume/μL n 2/mmol

0.80 500 0.40 0.80 500 0.40

purification eluent product

ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 5% gradient) 37.8 0.175 44% 2000

[0287] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 7.33 - 7.27 (m, 2H), 7.24 - 7.18 (m, 3H), 6.36 (dt, J = 1.4 Hz, 1H), 4.21 - 4.05 (m, 2H), 2.96 - 2.79 (m, 4H), 2.14 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 1.25 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 176.61, 140.81, 128.58, 128.45, 126.36, 115.01, 95.03, 60.39, 33.00, 26.90, 20.00, 14.52. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 217.1221 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C14H17O2: 217.1229. [α] ² ¾ = - 64.7 ± 3.6° (c 0.1, cyclohexane). HPLC Chiralpak IC column (ft-hexane/isopropanol = 95:5, 1.0 mL/min), tr = 8.89 min (minor), 9.20 min (major), 99.55:0.45 er.

Ethyl (i?)-2-phenethylcycloprop-2-ene-l-carboxylate (R-6a)

Analysis data (10 mM 5a, P411-C6):

Pdt- Avg. Avg.

Pdt Std Pdt/Std [Pdfj/mM [PCj/μΜ TTN

entries TTN yield 6a-(l) 4577.9 511.2 8.955 7.12 2.83 2518

6a-(2) 4659.1 515.1 9.045 7.19 2.83 2543

6a-(3) 4647.7 518.4 8.965 7.13 2.83 2521

6a-(4) 4608.7 518.6 8.887 7.07 2.83 2499 2520 71.3%

Preparative-scale reaction:

E. coli suspension expressing P411-C6 in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

20 28.0 4.04 0.113 1.5 -13

alky lie (5a) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume^L n 1/mmol stock/M volume^L n 2/mmol

0.80 500 0.40 0.80 500 0.40

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 5% gradient) 46.8 0.216 54% 1910

E. coli suspension expressing P411-C6 in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

24 800 5.35 4.28 50 -15

alk ne (5a) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume/mL n 1/mmol stock/M volume/mL n 2/mmol

2.0 2.50 5.0 2.0 7.50 15.0

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 5% gradient) 824.1 3.81 76% 1780

[0288] In the 5.0-mmol scale reaction, EDA stock solution was added in three portions (2.5 mL each portion) every 1 hour. [α] ² ¾ = + 62.2 ± 2.5° (c 0.1, cyclohexane). HPLC Chiralpak IC column (w-hexane/isopropanol = 95:5, 1.0 mL/min), tr = 9.05 min (major), 9.42 min (minor), 99.95:0.05 er.

Ethyl (i?)-2-octylcycloprop-2-ene-l-carboxylate (6b)

Analysis data (10 mM 5b, P411-C6):

Pdt- Avg. Avg.

Pdt Std Pdt/Std [Pdt]/mM [PC]/ M TTN

entries TTN yield

6b-(l) 1195.2 523.7 2.282 1.49 1.82 815

6b-(2) 1128.3 528.7 2.134 1.39 1.82 763

6b-(3) 1023.1 521.4 1.962 1.28 1.82 701 760 13.9%

Preparative-scale reaction:

I E. coli suspension expressing P411-C6 in M9-N | D-glucose in M9-N ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

20 60.0 3.83 0.230 1.5 -12

alkyne (5b) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume/ ^' μί n 1/mmol stock/M volume/ ^' μί n 2/mmol

0.80 250 0.20 0.80 250 0.20

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 5% gradient) 27.2 0.121 61% 530

[0289] The cell suspension (Οϋβοο = 20) was added in three portions (20 mL each portion) every 2 hours.

[0290] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 6.31 (dt, J = 1.4 Hz, 1H), 4.12 (qd, J = 7.1 , 5.0 Hz, 2H), 2.48 (td, J = 7.3, 1.4 Hz, 2H), 2.12 (d, J = 1.6 Hz, 1H), 1.61 - 1.52 (m, 2H), 1.35 - 1.22 (m, 13H), 0.91 - 0.83 (m, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 176.80, 115.77, 94.01, 60.28, 31.97, 29.39, 29.32, 29.27, 26.80, 25.10, 22.79, 19.86, 14.52, 14.24. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 225.1862 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C14H25O2: 225.1855. [α] ² ¾ = + 32.6 ± 1.8° (c 0.1 , cyclohexane) [Note: (S)-5b (87% ee) was reported with [α] ² ¾ = - 30° (c 1.55, CHCh) ( ²² )] . HPLC Chiralpak IC column (w-hexane/isopropanol = 95:5, 1.0 mL/min), tr = 6.59 min (major), 7.10 min (minor), 98.0:2.0 er.

Ethyl (i?)-2-(hex-5-yn-l-yl)cycloprop-2-ene-l-carboxylate (6c)

Analysis data (20 mM 5c, P41 1-C6):

Pdt- Avg. Avg.

Pdt Std Pdt/Std [Pdfj/mM [PC]/ M TTN

entries TTN yield

6c-(l) 1084.2 344.6 3.146 2.39 1.67 1434

6c-(2) 1164.4 407.1 2.860 2.17 1.67 1304

6c-(3) 1079.9 385.7 2.800 2.13 1.67 1276

6c-(4) 985.5 350.1 2.815 2.14 1.67 1283 1324 11.1 %

Pre arative-scale reaction:

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 6% gradient) 46.2 0.240 60% 1260

[0291] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCb) δ 6.35 (dt, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.20 - 4.04 (m, 2H), 2.52 (td, J = 7.2, 1.4 Hz, 2H), 2.21 (td, J = 6.9, 2.6 Hz, 2H), 2.13 (d, J = 1.6 Hz, 1H), 1.94 (t, J = 2.6 Hz, 1H), 1.71 (dtd, J = 8.7, 7.1, 5.4 Hz, 2H), 1.60 (dtd, J= 9.1, 6.9, 4.9 Hz, 2H), 1.24 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCb) δ 176.63, 115.25, 94.60, 84.14, 68.69, 60.33, 27.89, 25.84, 24.63, 19.85, 18.23, 14.51. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 193.1220 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C12H17O2: 193.1229. [α] ² ¾ = + 52.2 ± 1.8° (c 0.1, cyclohexane). HPLC Chiralpak IC column (ft-hexane/isopropanol = 95:5, 1.0 mL/min), tr = 10.37 min (major), 11.55 min (minor), 98.0:2.0 er. (i?)-6-(3-(Ethoxycarbonyl)cycloprop-l-en-l-yl)hexyl cyclobutanecarboxylate (6d)

Analysis data (10 mM 5d, P411-C6):

Pdt- Avg. Avg.

Pdt Std Pdt/Std [Pdfj/mM [PC]/ M TTN

entries TTN yield

6d-(l) 24642 4192 5.878 3.88 2.01 1930

6d-(2) 22575 4190 5.388 3.56 2.01 1769

6d-(3) 22572 4242 5.321 3.51 2.01 1747

6d-(4) 24260 4249 5.710 3.77 2.01 1875 1831 36.8%

Pre arative-scale reaction:

[0292] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCb) δ 6.33 (dt, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.17 - 4.08 (m, 2H), 4.05 (t, J = 6.7 Hz, 2H), 3.12 (p, J = 8.5 Hz, 1H), 2.49 (td, J = 7.3, 1.1 Hz, 2H), 2.33 - 2.13 (m, 4H), 2.12 (d, J = 1.6 Hz, 1H), 2.05 - 1.82 (m, 2H), 1.66 - 1.55 (m, 4H), 1.43 - 1.32 (m, 4H), 1.25 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCb) δ 176.74, 175.74, 115.55, 94.26, 64.38, 60.33, 38.29, 28.87, 28.68, 26.68, 25.74, 25.42, 25.03, 19.85, 18.56, 14.54. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 295.1910 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C17H27O4: 295.1909. [α] ² ¾ = + 31.7 ± 1.7° (c 0.1, cyclohexane). HPLC Chiralpak IC column (ft-hexane/isopropanol = 91 :9, 1.0 mL/min), tr = 17.06 min (major), 19.06 min (minor), 95.3:4.7 er.

Ethyl (i?)-2-(5-(l,3-dioxolan-2-yl)pentyl)cycloprop-2-ene-l-carbox ylate (6e)

Analysis data (10 mM 5e, P411-C6)

Pdt- Avg. Avg.

Pdt Std Pdt/Std [Pdfj/mM [PC]/ M TTN

entries TTN yield

6e-(l) 7788 4377 1.779 1.48 1.77 838

6e-(2) 7579 4283 1.770 1.47 1.77 834

6e-(3) 7654 4377 1.749 1.46 1.77 824

6e-(4) 7263 4296 1.691 1.41 1.77 797 823 14.6%

Pre arative-scale reaction

[0293] The cell suspension (Οϋβοο = 24) was added in two portions (25 mL each portion) every 2 hours.

[0294] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, Acetone-fife) δ 6.61 (dt, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.81 (t, J = 4.8 Hz, 1H), 4.09 (qd, J = 7.1, 2.3 Hz, 2H), 3.98 - 3.88 (m, 2H), 3.87 - 3.76 (m, 2H), 2.54 (tdd, J = 7.1, 2.2, 1.4 Hz, 2H), 2.07 (d, J = 1.6 Hz, 1H), 1.67 - 1.57 (m, 4H), 1.52 - 1.41 (m, 4H), 1.23 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, Acetone-fife) δ 175.78, 115.81, 104.67, 94.74, 65.05, 59.93, 34.29, 27.09, 25.03, 24.19, 19.69, 14.44 (one carbon peak may be overlapping with the solvent peaks). HRMS (FAB) m/z: 255.1593 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C14H23O4: 255.1596. [α] ² ¾ = + 29.8 ± 1.3° (c 0.1, cyclohexane). HPLC Chiralpak IC column (w-hexane/isopropanol = 95:5, 1.0 mL/min), tr = 15.03 min (major), 16.92 min (minor), 96.8:3.2 er. Ethyl (i?)-2-(3-isopropoxypropyl)cycloprop-2-ene-l-carboxylate (6f)

Analysis data (10 mM 5f, P411-C6)

Pdt- Avg. Avg.

Pdt Std Pdt/Std [Pdfj/mM [Pq/μΜ TTN

entries TTN yield

6f-(l) 212.9 504.7 0.422 0.38 1.82 207

6f-(2) 289.9 514.0 0.564 0.50 1.82 276

6f-(3) 252.4 511.2 0.494 0.44 1.82 242 242 4.4%

Preparative-scale reaction

[0295] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 6.34 (dt, J = 1.4 Hz, 1H), 4.12 (qd, J = 7.1, 4.2 Hz, 2H), 3.53 (hept, J = 6.2 Hz, 1H), 3.45 (td, J = 6.3, 1.9 Hz, 2H), 2.58 (td, J = 7.3, 1.4 Hz, 2H), 2.13 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 1.88 - 1.78 (m, 2H), 1.24 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.13 (d, J = 6.1 Hz, 6H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 176.69, 115.36, 94.47, 71.61, 66.92, 60.31, 27.43, 22.24, 22.02, 19.89, 14.51. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 213.1485 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C12H21O3: 213.1491. HPLC Chiralpak IC column (ft-hexane/isopropanol = 95:5, 1.0 mL/min), tr = 9.42 min (major), 10.92 min (minor), 97.3:2.7 er.

Ethyl (i?)-2-(cyclohexylmethyl)cycloprop-2-ene-l-carboxylate (6g)

Analysis data (20 mM 5g, P411-C6)

Pdt- Avg. Avg.

Pdt Std Pdt/Std [Pdfj/mM [PCj/μΜ TTN

entries TTN yield

6g-(l) 1044.5 704.1 1.483 0.97 1.67 585

6g-(2) 903.7 654.8 1.380 0.91 1.67 544

6g-(3) 1102.7 701.6 1.572 1.03 1.67 620

6g-(4) 1105.0 726.7 1.521 1.00 1.67 600 587 4.9% Pre arative-scale reaction:

[0296] The cell suspension (Οϋβοο = 20) was added in three portions (20 mL each portion) every 2 hours.

[0297] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCb) δ 6.33 (d, J = 1.4 Hz, 1H), 4.12 (qd, J = 7.1, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 2.38 (d, J = 7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.10 (d, J = 1.6 Hz, 1H), 1.82 - 1.52 (m, 6H), 1.27 - 1.07 (m, 6H), 0.98 (qt, J = 13.6, 3.7 Hz, 2H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCb) δ 176.76, 1 14.74, 94.58, 60.28, 36.22, 33.18, 33.17, 32.68, 26.41, 26.27, 26.25, 19.93, 14.53. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 209.1537 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C13H21O2: 209.1542. [α] ² ¾ = + 53.4 ± 1.5° (c 0.1 , cyclohexane). HPLC Chiralpak IC column (ft-hexane/isopropanol = 95:5, 1.0 mL/min), tr = 7.59 min (major), 8.16 min (minor), 93.1 :6.1 er.

Ethyl (i?)-2-(6-((tetrahydro-2H-pyran-4-yl)methoxy)hexyl)cycloprop -2-ene-l- carboxylate (6h)

Analysis data (10 mM 5h, P41 1-C6)

Pdt- Avg. Avg.

Pdt Std Pdt/Std [Pdfj/mM [PC]/nM TTN

entries TTN yield

6h-(l) 40106 4085 9.818 7.31 1.77 4137

6h-(2) 40775 4175 9.766 7.28 1.77 41 15

6h-(3) 39655 4125 9.613 7.16 1.77 4051

6h-(4) 38780 4188 9.260 6.90 1.77 3902 4051 71.6%

Pre arative-scale reaction

1.0 1 400 0.40 h.o 1.20 1.20

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 12% gradient) 81.3 0.262 66% 2960

E. coli suspension expressing P411-C6 in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

20 200 4.84 0.968 12.0 -11

alkyne (5h) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume/mL n 1/mmol stock/M volume/mL n 2/mmol

2.0 1.50 3.0 2.0 4.50 9.0

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 12% gradient) 872.4 2.81 94% 2900

[0298] In the 3.0-mmol scale reaction, EDA stock solution was added in three portions (1.5 mL each portion) every 1 hour. [0299] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 6.32 (dt, J = 1.4 Hz, 1H), 4.13 (qd, J = 7.1, 5.5 Hz, 2H), 4.00 - 3.91 (m, 2H), 3.44 - 3.34 (m, 4H), 3.24 (d, J = 6.6 Hz, 2H), 2.49 (td, J = 7.3, 1.4 Hz, 2H), 2.12 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 1.83 (ttt, J = 10.5, 6.7, 3.8 Hz, 1H), 1.67 - 1.62 (m, 2H), 1.60 - 1.52 (m, 4H), 1.43 - 1.34 (m, 4H), 1.34 - 1.28 (m, 2H), 1.25 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 176.78, 115.66, 94.15, 76.12, 71.25, 67.90, 60.32, 35.61, 30.19, 29.73, 29.11, 26.77, 26.02, 25.06, 19.86, 14.54. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 311.2210 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C18H31O4: 311.2222. [α] ² ¾ = + 74.9 ± 1.8° (c 0.1, cyclohexane). HPLC Chiralpak IC column (ft-hexane/isopropanol = 88: 12, 1.0 mL/min), tr = 17.27 min (major), 20.55 min (minor), 99.0: 1.0 er.

Ethyl (i?)-2-(6-(cyclopropylmethoxy)hexyl)cycloprop-2-ene-l-carbox ylate (6i)

Analysis data (10 mM 5i, P411-C6):

Pdt- Avg. Avg.

Pdt Std Pdt/Std [Pdfj/mM [PC]/ M TTN

entries TTN yield

6i-(l) 26575 4144 6.413 4.44 2.01 2207

6i-(2) 26599 4150 6.409 4.43 2.01 2206

6i-(3) 26021 4086 6.368 4.40 2.01 2191

6i-(4) 26300 4154 6.331 4.38 2.01 2179 2196 44.1% Preparative-scale reaction:

E. coli suspension expressing P411-C6 in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

32 25.0 6.48 0.162 1.5 -1 1

alkyiie (5i) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/M volume^L n 1/mmol stock/M volume^L n 2/mmol

1.0 360 0.36 1.0 900 0.90

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 10% gradient) 61.8 0.232 64% 1430

[0300] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 6.32 (dt, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.12 (qd, J = 7.1 , 5.2 Hz, 2H), 3.42 (t, J = 6.7 Hz, 2H), 3.24 (d, J = 6.9 Hz, 2H), 2.49 (td, J = 7.3, 1.4 Hz, 2H), 2.12 (d, J = 1.6 Hz, 1H), 1.62 - 1.54 (m, 4H), 1.41 - 1.34 (m, 4H), 1.25 (t, J = 7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.12 - 0.97 (m, 1H), 0.59 - 0.42 (m, 2H), 0.28 - 0.09 (m, 2H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 176.78, 115.68, 94.13, 75.74, 70.78, 60.31, 29.79, 29.11 , 26.76, 26.04, 25.05, 19.86, 14.54, 10.82, 3.13. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 267.1955 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C16H27O3: 267.1960. [α] ² ¾ = + 43.1 ± 1.5° (c 0.1 , cyclohexane). HPLC Chiralpak IC column (ft-hexane/isopropanol = 95: 5, 1.0 mL/min), tr = 14.19 min (major), 15.27 min (minor), 95.8:4.2 er.

Ethyl (R or S)-2-([l,l'-bi(cyclopropan)])-2-ene-l-carboxylate (R or S-6})

Preparative-scale reaction:

Ether in pentane m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 20% gradient) 11.2 0.0736 74% 960

[0301] ¾ NMR (600 MHz, Acetone-fife) δ 6.47 (d, J = 1.6 Hz, 1H), 4.13 - 4.03 (m, 2H), 1.99 (d, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 1.91 (tt, J = 7.9, 4.6 Hz, 1H), 1.22 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.01 - 0.94 (m, 2H), 0.84 - 0.80 (m, 1H), 0.61 - 0.58 (m, 1H). ¹³ C NMR (151 MHz, acetone) δ 175.54, 117.94, 92.45, 59.99, 18.65, 14.46, 6.79, 6.05, 5.78. HRMS (EI) m/z: 152.0865 (M ⁺ ); calc. for C9H12O2: 152.0837. P411-C6: HPLC Chiralpak IC column («-hexane/isopropanol = 95:5,

I .0 mL/min), tr = 11.33 min (major), 11.79 min (minor), 93.4:6.6 er. P411-K10: HPLC Chiralpak IC column (w-hexane/isopropanol = 95:5, 1.0 mL/min), tr = 11.33 min (minor),

I I.74 min (major), 66.7:33.3 er. Ethyl (i?)-2-(4-chlorobutyl)cycloprop-2-ene-l-carboxylate (6k)

Analysis data (10 mM 5k, P411-C6):

Pdt- Avg. Avg.

Pdt Std Pdt/Std [Pdfj/mM [PC]/ M TTN

entries TTN yield

6k-(l) 322.4 517.1 0.623 0.56 1.82 308

6k-(2) 363.5 517.4 0.703 0.63 1.82 347

6k-(3) 342.8 523.4 0.655 0.59 1.82 324 326 6.0%

Preparative-scale reaction:

E. coli suspension expressing P411-C6 in M9-N Z>-glucose in M9-N

ODeoo volume/mL [PCl/μΜ n pro/μιηοΐ volume/mL [Glu]/mM

30 40.0 6.27 0.251 2.0 -12

alkyne (5k) stock in EtOH EDA stock in EtOH

stock/mM volume^L n 1/mmol stock/mM volume/μL n 2/mmol

800 125 0.10 800 375 0.30

purification eluent product

Ethyl acetate in hexanes m[Pdt]/mg n[Pdt]/mmol yield TTN

(0% to 8% gradient) 17.6 0.0868 87% 340

[0302] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 6.37 (s, 1H), 4.12 (dd, J = 7.1, 4.2 Hz, 2H), 3.54 (t, J = 6.5 Hz, 2H), 2.54 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 2H), 2.13 (s, 1H), 1.91 - 1.80 (m, 2H), 1.80 - 1.70 (m, 2H), 1.24 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 176.54, 114.98, 94.94, 60.37, 44.67, 31.89, 24.39, 24.12, 19.83, 14.49. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 203.0846 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for CioHieClC : 203.0839. [α] ² ¾ = + 25.7 ± 1.6° (c 0.1, cyclohexane). HPLC Chiralpak IC column (ft-hexane/isopropanol = 95:5, 1.0 mL/min), tr = 11.00 min (major), 12.62 min (minor), 94.2:5.8 er.

Ethyl (i?)-2-(6-((ira«s-4-(methoxymethyl)cyclohexyl)methoxy)hexyl )cycloprop-2-ene-l- carboxylate (61)

Analysis data (10 mM 51, P411-C6):

Pdt- Avg. Avg.

Pdt Std Pdt/Std [Pdfj/mM [Pq/μΜ TTN

entries TTN yield

61-(1) 14861 4259 3.489 2.41 1.93 1252

61-(2) 13735 4274 3.214 2.22 1.93 1153

61-(3) 16271 4222 3.854 2.66 1.93 1383

61-(4) 13204 4323 3.054 2.11 1.93 1096 1221 23.5%

Pre arative-scale reaction:

[0303] The cell suspension (Οϋβοο = 10) was added in two portions (35 mL each portion) every 2 hours.

[0304] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 6.32 {At, J = 1.4 Hz, 1H), 4.12 (qd, J = 7.1, 5.4 Hz, 2H), 3.37 (t, J= 6.6 Hz, 2H), 3.32 (s, 3H), 3.21 - 3.17 (m, 4H), 2.49 (td, J = 7.3, 1.4 Hz, 2H), 2.12 (d, J = 1.6 Hz, 1H), 1.87 - 1.74 (m, 4H), 1.63 - 1.52 (m, 6H), 1.37 (tt, J = 6.3, 3.3 Hz, 4H), 1.25 (t, J = 1.1 Hz, 3H), 0.99 - 0.86 (m, 4H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 176.79, 115.69, 94.12, 78.93, 76.90, 71.17, 60.31, 58.98, 38.37 (two carbons), 29.74, 29.65, 29.55, 29.11, 26.77, 26.03, 25.06, 19.86, 14.54. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 353.2699 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C21H37O4: 353.2692. [α] ² ¾ = + 62.6 ± 2.7° (c 0.1, cyclohexane). HPLC Chiralpak IC column (ft-hexane/isopropanol = 93:7, 1.0 mL/min), tr = 10.07 min (major), 11.44 min (minor), 96.4:3.6 er.

Ethyl (i?)-2-(6-hydroxyhexyl)cycloprop-2-ene-l-carboxylate (6m)

Pre arative-scale reaction:

[0305] ¾ NMR (400 MHz, Acetone-fife) δ 6.56 (dt, J = 1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.05 (qd, J = 7.1, 2.5 Hz, 2H), 3.52 (t, J = 6.2 Hz, 2H), 2.50 (tt, J = 7.1, 1.6 Hz, 2H), 2.03 (d, J = 1.6 Hz, 1H), 1.63 - 1.56 (m, 2H), 1.55 - 1.49 (m, 2H), 1.48 - 1.40 (m, 2H), 1.19 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H) (O-H proton is not resolved). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, Acetone-c e) δ 176.12, 116.11, 94.99, 62.12, 60.23, 33.34, 27.33, 26.16, 25.47, 19.98, 14.72. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 199.1342 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C11H19O3: 199.1334. [α] ² ¾ = + 80.1 ± 3.4° (c 0.1, ethyl acetate). HPLC Chiralpak IC column (w-hexane/isopropanol = 88: 12, 1.0 mL/min), tr = 15.76 min (major), 16.86 min (minor), 96.0:4.0 er.

[0306] During the test of analytical reactions, aliphatic alkynes 5n-5q also gave a fair amount of cyclopropene products, which were detected by GC-MS. Making the racemic standards with Rh2(OAc)4 was problematic, resulting in no product formation or products with other impurities.

Example 15. Chemical elaboration of cyclopropene products

[0307] Cyclopropenes are used as synthetic building blocks {10, ⁴⁷ \ bio-orthogonal imaging precursors ( ⁴⁸ ), and monomers in polymer synthesis ( ⁴⁹ ). The ability to construct these motifs using bacteria at scale allows for the further exploration of their potential utility in diverse fields. Two simple transformations of cyclopropenes were carried out to build a multi-substituted cyclopropane 7a and a fused ring system, bicyclo[4.1.0]heptene 7b (Fig. 3C), both of which are substructures common in pharmaceutical candidates and bioactive natural products (27).

Diethyl (2i?,4i?)-l-(4-(l-((4-acetamidophenyl)sulfonyl)-lH-l,2,3-tri azol-4-yl)phenyl) bicyclo[l.1.0]butane-2,4-dicarboxylate (4a)

[0308] Bicyclobutane 21 (41.6 mg, 0.139 mmol) was dissolved in toluene (3 mL) in a 20 mL vial. Copper(I) thiophene-2-carboxylate (CuTc, 3.2 mg, 12 mol%) was added. The mixture was kept stirring at 0 °C. A suspension of 4-acetamidobenzenesulfonyl azide (40.2 mg, 0.167 mmol) in toluene (5 mL) was added dropwise over 1 h. The resulting mixture was then allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for 15 h. The reaction was diluted with ethyl acetate (15 mL), washed with NH4CI/NH3 (2: 1, 20 mL, aq.), and brine (50 mL), dried over MgS04, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane / ethyl acetate (4: 1 to 1 :3 gradient) to afford 4a (69.2 mg, 0.129 mmol, 93%). ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 8.32 (s, 1H), 8.10 (s, 1H), 8.00 (d, J = 9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.74 (dd, J = 12.8, 8.7 Hz, 4H), 7.34 (d, J = 8.6 Hz, 2H), 4.15 (dq, J = 7.1, 3.5 Hz, 2H), 4.08 (q, J = 7.1 Hz, 2H), 3.28 (d, J = 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.19 (dd, J = 3.1, 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.14 (d, J = 3.1 Hz, 1H), 2.20 (s, 3H), 1.27 (t, J = 7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.15 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 170.14, 169.15, 167.88, 147.11, 145.13, 134.03, 130.40, 129.53, 128.96, 127.92, 126.19, 119.62, 119.22, 61.17, 61.13, 44.75, 42.63, 27.84, 24.93, 21.39, 14.35, 14.21. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 539.1605 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C26H27O7SN4: 539.1600. [α] ² ¾ = -81.5 ± 2.1° (c 0.1, ethyl acetate). Diethyl (2i?,4i?)-l-(4-(l-((.S ^r )-l-methoxy-l-oxo-3-phenylpropan-2-yl)-lH-l,2,3-triazo l-4- yl)phenyl)bicyclo[l.1.0]butane-2,4-dicarboxylate (4b)

[0309] Sodium azide (7.02 g, 108 mmol) was dissolved in a mixture of water (30 mL) and DCM (15 mL) at 0 °C. Triflic anhydride (Tf20, 3 mL, 18 mmol) was added dropwise over 10 min. The reaction was then stirred for 2 h. The reaction was diluted with DCM (15 mL), washed by NaHCCb (50 mL, sat. aq.), and brine (50 mL), and dried over Na2S04. A solution of triflic azide (TfN3, -15 mmol) in DCM was used for the next step.

[0310] Methyl -phenylalaninate hydrochloride (1.73 g, 8.0 mmol), was dissolved in MeOH (16 mL). A aqueous solution of CuS0 ₄ (1.28 mL, 10 g/L, 1 mol%) and N,N- diisopropylethylamine (DIPEA, 2.09 mL, 12.0 mmol) were added. The resulting solution was stirred for 30 min before the dropwise addition of triflic azide (TfN3, -15 mmol in DCM) over 20 min. The reaction was stirred for 15 h. The reaction mixture was diluted with DCM (40 mL), washed by water (50 mL), HC1 (50 mL, 5%, aq.), NaHCC (50 mL, sat. aq.), and brine (50 mL), and dried over Na2S04. After evaporation of solvent under reduced pressure, the product mixture was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane / ethyl acetate (1 :0 to 12: 1 gradient) to afford methyl (5 -2-azido-3-phenylpropanoate (1.65 g, 8.0 mmol, quantitative).

[0311] Bicyclobutane 21 (49.5 mg, 0.166 mmol) was dissolved in THF/H2O (1 : 1, 1.6 mL) in a 20 mL vial. A aqueous solution of CUSCH (17 μί, IN, 10 mol%) and Cu powder (10.6 mg, 0.166 mmol) were added. The mixture was kept stirring at 0 °C. A solution of methyl (<S)-2-azido-3-phenylpropanoate (50.1 mg, 0.249 mmol) in THF (0.5 mL) was added dropwise over 5 min. The resulting mixture was then allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for 24 h. The reaction was diluted with DCM (15 mL), washed with NH4CI (10 mL, aq. sat.), and brine (30 mL), dried over MgSCn, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane / ethyl acetate (8: 1 to 2: 1 gradient) to afford 4b (82.5 mg, 0.164 mmol, 99%) as one major diastereomer determined by ¾ NMR. ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 7.80 (s, 1H), 7.78 - 7.69 (m, 2H), 7.37 - 7.30 (m, 2H), 7.28 - 7.20 (m, 3H), 7.08 - 7.03 (m, 2H), 5.63 (dd, J = 8.1, 6.7 Hz, 1H), 4.15 (qd, J = 7.1, 2.6 Hz, 2H), 4.08 (q, J = 7.1 Hz, 2H), 3.77 (s, 3H), 3.52 (dd, J = 7.4, 3.2 Hz, 2H), 3.28 (d, J = 0.5 Hz, 1H), 3.17 (dd, J = 3.1, 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.13 (d, J = 3.1 Hz, 1H), 1.27 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.15 (t, J= 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 170.24, 168.84, 167.87, 147.40, 134.77, 132.77, 129.67, 129.08, 128.98, 128.84, 127.77, 125.80, 119.75, 64.17, 61.05, 61.01, 53.26, 44.71, 42.64, 39.12, 27.99, 20.89, 14.36, 14.22. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 504.2148 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C28H30O6N3: 504.2135. [α] ² ¾ = -278.7 ± 4.0° (c 0.0625, ethyl acetate). [0312] A diastereomer of 4b was prepared through the same procedure using D-azido- phenylalanine. It was confirmed that the pair of diastereomers can be resolved on ¾ NMR at the a-C-H position of phenylalanine (splitting peaks: /^-phenylalanine: 5.6410, 5.6242, 5.6208, 5.6041 ; -phenylalanine: 5.6462, 5.6296, 5.6261, 5.6093; FWHM (full width at half maxima) = 0.0030 ppm; Afl = 0.0053 ppm, close to baseline separation).

Diethyl (2i?,4i?)-l-(4-((((i?)-3,3,3-Trifluoro-2-methoxy-2-phenylpro panoyl)oxy) methyl)phenyl)bicyclo[ 1.1.0] butane-2,4-dicarboxylate (4c)

[0313] Bicyclobutane 2m (16.1 mg, 0.053 mmol) and (i?)-3,3,3-trifluoro-2-methoxy-2- phenylpropanoic acid (i?-Mosher's acid, 30.4 mg, 0.13 mmol) were dissolved in dry DCM (2 mL) in a 10 mL vial. l -Ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiirnide hydrochloride (EDCI, 24.9 mg, 0.13 mmol), triethylamine (TEA, 18 μί, 0.13 mmol) and 4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP, 2.0 mg, 0.015 mmol) were added to the solution. The reaction mixture was then stirred at room temperature for 16 h. The reaction was diluted with DCM (5 mL), washed with water (10 mL), and brine (10 mL), dried over MgSCn, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane / ethyl acetate (1 :0 to 4: 1 gradient) to afford 4c (25.2 mg, 0.048 mmol, 91 %) as one major diastereomer determined by ¾ NMR. ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 7.48 - 7.41 (m, 2H), 7.41 - 7.32 (m, 3H), 7.27 (s, 4H), 5.33 (d, J = 12.3 Hz, 1H), 5.29 (d, J = 12.2 Hz, 1H), 4.15 (qd, J = 7.2, 2.6 Hz, 2H), 4.07 (qd, J = 7.2, 2.0 Hz, 2H), 3.51 (q, JH-F = 1.2 Hz, 3H), 3.26 (d, J = 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.14 (dd, J = 3.1 , 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.11 (d, J = 3.1 Hz, 1H), 1.27 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.13 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 170.01 , 167.67, 166.43, 133.67, 133.32, 132.1 1, 129.64, 128.54, 128.53, 128.42, 127.54, 127.28, 127.27, 124.68, 121.81 , 118.94, 84.75, 67.60, 60.96, 60.88, 55.54, 44.61 , 42.44, 27.66, 20.85, 14.23, 14.03 (CF ₃ , 127.54, 124.68, 121.81 , 118.94, JC-F = 288.8 Hz; ). HRMS (FAB) m/z: 519.1651 ((M + H ⁺ ) - H ₂ ); calc. for C27H26O7F3: 519.1631. [α] ² ¾ = -43.2 ± 2.4° (c 0.1, ethyl acetate). [0314] A diastereomer of 4c was prepared through the same procedure using S-Mosher's acid. It was confirmed that the pair of diastereomers can be resolved on ¾ NMR at one benzylic C-H position and ¹⁹ F NMR, albeit not perfectly (splitting peaks on ¾ NMR: R- Mosher's acid: 5.3027, 5.2721 ; S-Mosher's acid: 5.3044, 5.2737; FWHM = 0.0024-0.0029 ppm ; ΔΩ = 0.0017 ppm; chemical shift on ¹⁹ F NMR: i?-Mosher's acid: -71.665; S-Mosher's acid: -71.654; FWHM = 0.015 ppm ; Afl = 0.011 ppm).

((1R,2R)- l-(4-methoxyphenyl)bicyclo [1 1 0] butane-2,4-diyl)dimethanol (4d)

[0315] Bicyclobutane 2k (101.3 mg, 0.33 mmol) was dissolved in anhydrous ether (10 mL) in a 50 mL flask. Dry methanol (67 μί, 1.67 mmol) was added to the solution, followed by the addition of lithium borohydride (L1BH4, 2M in THF, 0.84 mL, 1.67 mmol). The reaction mixture was then heated up to a refluxing temperature, 45 °C, for 1 h, before ethyl acetate (0.5 mL) was added and the mixture was stirred at room temperature for 30 min. Then the reaction was quenched with NH4CI (10 mL, sat. aq.) and diluted with water (10 mL). The product was extracted with ethyl acetate (20 mL ^χ 6). The combined organic layer was dried over MgS04, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. White solid product crashed out during the removal of solvent. Collecting the solid product and recrystallization with acetone/hexane system afforded the diol 4d (52.2 mg, 0.237 mmol, 71%). ¾ NMR (400 MHz, Acetone-c e) δ 7.31 (d, J = 8.9 Hz, 2H), 6.85 (d, J = 8.8 Hz, 2H), 3.78 (s, 3H), 3.71 - 3.65 (m, 1H), 3.65 - 3.61 (m, 1H), 3.57 - 3.51 (m, 1H), 3.49 - 3.43 (m, 2H), 2.28 (t, J = 5.8 Hz, 1H), 1.92 (dd, J = 3.6, 1.0 Hz, 1H) (O-H protons are not resolved). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, Acetone) δ 158.07, 129.14, 129.08, 113.58, 60.27, 60.14 (splitting), 55.88, 55.75 (splitting), 54.56, 49.65, 49.61 (splitting), 46.08, 46.04 (splitting), 21.53, 16.55. (Note: the diol product might have two rotating conformations, resulting in splitting of 4 carbon peaks.) HRMS (FAB) m/z: 221.1168 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C13H17O3: 221.1178. [α] ² ¾ = -50.8 ± 1.2° (c 0.1, acetone).

Identification code pl 7505

Empirical formula C 13 H16 03

Formula weight 220.26

Temperature 175 K

Wavelength 1.54178 A

Crystal system Monoclinic

Space group P 1 21 1

Unit cell dimensions a = 5.3738(7) A a= 90°

b = 7.6719(8) A b= 98.413(9)° c = 13.7357(19) A g = 90°

Volume 560.19(12) A ³

Z 2

Density (calculated) 1.306 Mg/m ³

Absorption coefficient 0.747 mm ^"1

F(000) 236

Crystal size 0.22 x 0.18 x 0.06 mm ³

Theta range for data collection 3.252 to 79.483°.

Index ranges -6<=h<=6, -9<=k<=9, -16<=1<=17

Reflections collected 17841

Independent reflections 2338 [R(int) = 0.0437]

Completeness to theta = 67.679° 99.9 %

Absorption correction Semi-empirical from equivalents

Max. and min. transmission 1.0000 and 0.8812

Refinement method Full-matrix least-squares on F ²

Data / restraints / parameters 2338 / 1 / 148

Goodness-of-fit on 1.11 1

Final R indices [I>2sigma(I)] Rl = 0.0471, wR2 = 0.1225

R indices (all data) Rl = 0.0482, wR2 = 0.1232

Absolute structure parameter 0.15(7)

Extinction coefficient n/a

Largest diff. peak and hole 0.337 and -0.270 e.A ^~3

Ethyl (LR,2i?)-4-(hydroxymethyl)-l -methoxyphenyl)bicyclo [1.1.0] butane-2- carboxylate (4e)

[0316] Mono-alcohol 4e was obtained from the reduction of bicyclobutane 2k. Collecting the mother liquor after recrystallization, evaporation of organic solvent followed by purification by silica column chromatography with hexane / ethyl acetate (5: 1 to 3: 1 gradient) afforded 4e (14.6 mg, 0.056 mmol, 17%) with -7: 1 r.r. determined by ¾ NMR. ¾ NMR (400 MHz, Acetonitrile-ώ) δ 7.20 (d, J = 8.8 Hz, 2H), 6.88 (d, J = 8.8 Hz, 2H), 4.05 (qd, J = 7.1, 0.5 Hz, 2H), 3.78 (s, 3H), 3.43 (t, J = 6.3 Hz, 2H), 2.75 (tdd, J = 7.0, 3.3, 0.7 Hz, 1H), 2.70 (t, J = 5.9 Hz, 1H), 2.68 (s, 1H), 2.64 (d, J = 3.3 Hz, 1H), 1.14 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CD ₃ CN) δ 168.54, 159.04, 129.70, 127.38, 114.20, 60.92, 56.42, 55.44, 47.23, 42.52, 24.86, 18.43, 13.99. MS (EI) m/z: 262 (M ⁺ ); calc. for CisHisC : 262.

(2-(4-Methoxyphenyl)cyclobut-l-ene-l,3-diyl)dimethanol (4f)

[0317] Bicyclobutane 2k (54.7 mg, 0.18 mmol) was dissolved in anhydrous ether (5 mL) in a 20 mL vial and then cooled down to -78 °C. Lithium aluminum hydride (LAH, 13.7 mg, 0.36 mmol) was slowly added to the solution in portions. The reaction mixture was slowly warmed up to -20 °C over 2 h, before ethyl acetate (0.5 mL) was added and the mixture was stirred at -20 °C for another 30 min. Then the reaction was quenched with NH4CI (10 mL, sat. aq.) and diluted with water (10 mL). The product was extracted with ethyl acetate (20 mL x 3). The combined organic layer was dried over MgSCn, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane / ethyl acetate (2: 1 to 1 :2 gradient) to afford 4f (18.1 mg, 0.082 mmol, 46%). ¾ NMR (400 MHz, Acetonitrile-Λ) δ 7.34 (d, J = 8.8 Hz, 2H), 6.92 (d, J= 8.9 Hz, 2H), 4.30 (d, J = 3.1 Hz, 2H), 3.80 (s, 5H), 3.57 (ddd, J = 11.2, 7.2, 4.3 Hz, 1H), 3.21 - 3.12 (m, 1H), 2.95 (t, J = 5.7 Hz, 1H), 2.70 (t, J = 5.5 Hz, 1H), 2.59 (dd, J = 13.7, 4.6 Hz, 1H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CD3CN) δ 159.59, 140.27, 140.19, 128.91, 128.55, 114.63, 65.02, 59.23, 55.79, 42.11, 31.40. MS (EI) m/z: 220 (M ⁺ ); calc. for C13H16O3: 220. Diethyl (2i?,4i?)-l-(4-(((4-(4,5,6,7-Tetrachloro-l,3-dioxoisoindolin -2-yl)benzoyl)oxy) methyl)phenyl)bicyclo[ 1.1.0] butane-2,4-dicarboxylate (4g)

[0318] Tetrachlorophthalic anhydride (14.30 g, 50.0 mmol) and 4-aminobenzoic acid (6.86 g, 50.0 mmol) were dissolved in PhMe (100 mL) to form a suspension. The mixture was heated up to 110 °C and stirred vigorously, before the addition of TEA (0.35 mL, 5 mol%). The reaction turned clear and then white product started to crash out. The reaction was stirred at the refluxing temperature for 1 h, and then slowly cooled to room temperature. The product 4-(4,5,6,7-tetrachloro-l,3-dioxoisoindolin-2-yl)benzoic acid (20.05 g, 49.5 mmol, 99%) was collected by filtration.

[0319] 4-(4,5,6,7-Tetrachloro-l,3-dioxoisoindolin-2-yl)benzoic acid (40.5 mg, 0.1 mmol) and DMF (3 drops, cat.) was dissolved in dry DCM (8 mL) and SOCh (2 mL). The mixture was heated and stirred at a refluxing temperature, 48 °C for 4 h. After completely removing organic solvent and excess SOCh under reduced pressure, the resulting crude product 4- (4,5,6,7-tetrachloro-l,3-dioxoisoindolin-2-yl)benzoyl chloride was dissolved in dry DCM (3 mL) and used directly for next step.

[0320] Bicyclobutane 2m (15.2 mg, 0.050 mmol) and TEA (14 μί, 0.10 mmol) were dissolved in dry DCM (2 mL) in a 10 mL vial. The solution of prepared benzoyl chloride in DCM was added to the solution. The reaction mixture was then stirred at room temperature for 12 h. The reaction was diluted with DCM (5 mL), washed with water (10 mL), and brine (10 mL), dried over MgSCn, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane / ethyl acetate (1 :0 to 4: 1 gradient) to afford 4g (30.0 mg, 0.0434 mmol, 87%) as a white solid. ¾ NMR (400 MHz, Acetonitrile-Λ) δ 8.21 (d, J = 8.6 Hz, 2H), 7.60 (d, J = 8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.47 (d, J = 8.3 Hz, 2H), 7.34 (d, J = 8.2 Hz, 2H), 5.38 (s, 2H), 4.09 (dq, J = 14.2, 7.1 Hz, 4H), 3.30 (dd, J = 3.1 , 0.6 Hz, 1H), 3.16 (d, J = 3.1 Hz, 1H), 3.07 (d, J = 0.5 Hz, 1H), 1.23 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.15 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CD3CN) δ 170.14, 167.93, 165.82, 163.12 (two carbons), 140.42, 136.05, 135.95, 133.64, 130.76, 130.67, 130.00, 128.81, 128.72, 128.55, 127.57, 66.99, 61.30, 61.25, 45.10, 42.39, 27.43, 21.38, 14.04, 13.92. HRMS (ESI) m/z: 712.0082 (M + Na ⁺ ); calc. for C32H ₂ 3Cl4N0 ₈ Na: 712.0075. [α] ² ¾ = -48.5 ± 1.6° (c 0.1, acetone).

Ethyl (LK^ii^^-S-aUyl-l-methyl-l-phenethylcyclopropane-l-carboxyla te (7a)

[0321] Cyclopropene (R)-6a (54.0 mg, 0.25 mmol) and Cul (5.0 mg, 0.026 mmol, 10 mol%) were dissolved in anhydrous ether (3 mL) to form a suspension in a 25 mL flask. Then the flask was charged with argon and cooled to -78 °C. Methylmagnesium bromide (0.75 mL, 1M in ether, diluted from 3M solution in ether) was added dropwise to the reaction mixture over 10 min. The reaction was slowly warmed to -40 °C over 30 min and held at this temperature for another 1 h. A solution of allyl bromide (43 μί, 0.50 mmol) in ether (1 mL) was then added to the reaction dropwise over 5 min. The reaction was stirred at -40 °C for 1 h, before it was quenched with NH4CI/NH3 (2: 1, aq., 5 mL) at -20 °C. The aqueous layer was extracted twice with ether. The combined organic layers were washed with water (10 mL), and brine (10 mL), dried over MgS04, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane / ethyl acetate (1 :0 to 50: 1 gradient) to afford 7a (48.0 mg, 0.176 mmol, 71 %) as a single diastereomer. ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 7.23 - 7.17 (m, 2H), 7.13 - 7.07 (m, 3H), 5.73 (ddt, J = 17.3, 10.2, 6.2 Hz, 1H), 4.97 (dq, J = 17.2, 1.7 Hz, 1H), 4.89 (ddt, J = 10.2, 2.0, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 4.07 - 3.96 (m, 2H), 2.68 - 2.60 (m, 2H), 2.33 (ddt, J = 7.6, 6.2, 1.5 Hz, 2H), 1.57 - 1.51 (m, 2H), 1.40 (d, J = 8.9 Hz, 1H), 1.23 (s, 3H), 1.18 (t, J = 7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.09 (dt, J = 8.8, 7.4 Hz, 1H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 171.68, 142.04, 137.72, 128.38, 128.33, 125.81 , 1 14.58, 59.80, 45.06, 32.87, 31.77, 29.13, 27.89, 27.34, 14.39, 1 1.53. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 273.1849 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C18H25O2: 273.1855. [α] ² ¾ = -61.3 ± 1.7° (c 0.1 , ethyl acetate). Ethyl (LR,6i?,7i?)-3,4-dimethyl-l-(6-((tetrahydro-2H-pyran-4-yl)me thoxy)hexyl) bicyclo[4.1.0]hept-3-ene-7-carboxylate (7b)

[0322] Cyclopropene (R)-6g (65.6 mg, 0.21 1 mmol) was dissolved 2,3-dimethylbutadiene (0.5 mL). Then the reaction was heated and stirred at 80 °C in a sealed tube for 23 h. After cooling to room temperature, the resulting mixture was concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was purified by silica column chromatography with hexane / ethyl acetate (1 :0 to 6: 1 gradient) to afford 7b (81.1 mg, 0.207 mmol, 98%) as a single diastereomer. ¾ NMR (400 MHz, CDCh) δ 4.09 (qd, J = 7.1 , 0.4 Hz, 2H), 4.01 - 3.90 (m, 2H), 3.45 - 3.32 (m, 4H), 3.24 (d, J = 6.6 Hz, 2H), 2.43 - 2.29 (m, 1H), 2.30 - 2.09 (m, 3H), 1.90 - 1.75 (m, 1H), 1.67 - 1.60 (m, 4H), 1.58 - 1.50 (m, 10H), 1.46 - 1.38 (m, 1H), 1.36 - 1.26 (m, 5H), 1.26 - 1.15 (m, 5H). ¹³ C NMR (101 MHz, CDCh) δ 173.76, 122.00, 121.77, 76.09, 71.37, 67.91, 60.21 , 35.85, 35.60, 32.93, 32.16, 30.85, 30.20, 29.80, 29.69, 27.92, 26.89, 26.86, 26.33, 19.30, 19.09, 14.55. HRMS (FAB) m/z: 393.2992 (M + H ⁺ ); calc. for C24H41O4: 393.3005. [α] ² ¾ = -48.2 ± 1.1° (c 0.1 , ethyl acetate). [0323] A biocatalytic platform has been developed for the construction of highly strained bicyclobutanes and cyclopropenes through directed evolution of a serine-ligated cytochrome P450 (P41 1) enzyme. That the protein could be quickly adapted to produce these highly strained structures (2-6 mutational steps) highlights the evolvability of the P41 1 scaffold and its potential to direct the construction of complex motifs. The protein enabled the desired transformations through activation of iron-carbenoid for carbene addition to alkynes, stabilization of the reactive cyclopropene intermediate (in bicyclobutane formation), and precise stereocontrol of the carbene transfer processes. Biotransformations with the evolved enzymes have a surprisingly broad substrate scope with high reactivity and selectivity, providing a route to more than 25 products in preparative scale. This biocatalytic system grants facile access to versatile molecular architectures rarely seen in nature, expanding the set of chemical structures available to biological systems. V. References

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68. Z. J. Wang, H. Renata, N. E. Peck, C. C. Farwell, P. S. Coelho, F. H. Arnold, Improved Cyclopropanation Activity of Histidine-Ligated Cytochrome P450 Enables the Enantioselective Formal Synthesis of Levomilnacipran. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 126, 6810-6813 (2014).

69. T. K. Hyster, C. C. Farwell, A. R. Buller, J. A. Mcintosh, F. H. Arnold, Enzyme-Controlled Nitrogen-Atom Transfer Enables Regiodivergent C-H Amination. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136,

15505-15508 (2014).

70. M. Bordeaux, V. Tyagi, R. Fasan, Highly Diastereoselective and Enantioselective Olefin Cyclopropanation Using Engineered Myoglobin-Based Catalysts. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 54, 1744-1748 (2015).

71. T. J. Thomas, B. A. Merritt, B. E. Lemma, A. M. McKoy, T. Nguyen, A. K. Swenson, J. L. Mills, M. G. Coleman, Cyclopropenation of Internal Alkynylsilanes and Diazoacetates Catalyzed by Copper(I) N-Heterocyclic Carbene Complexes. Org. Biomol. Chem. 14, 1742-1747 (2016). VI. Exemplary Embodiments.

[0324] Exemplary embodiments provided in accordance with the presently disclosed subject matter include, but are not limited to, the claims and the following embodiments:

1. A method for preparing a product containing a cyclopropene moiety or a bicyclobutane moiety, the method comprising combining an alkyne and a carbene precursor in the presence of a heme protein or a variant thereof under conditions sufficient to form the product containing the cyclopropene moiety or the bicyclobutane moiety.

2. The method of embodiment 1, wherein the heme protein variant comprises a mutation at an axial heme coordination residue.

3. The method of embodiment 1 or embodiment 2, wherein the heme protein is a cytochrome P450.

4. The method of embodiment 3, wherein the cytochrome P450 is Bacillus megaterium cytochrome P450S 3 or a variant thereof.

5. The method of embodiment 4, wherein the P450S 3 comprises one or more amino acid mutations at positions V78, F87, P142, T175, A184, S226, H236, E252, 1263, T268, A290, A328, L353, 1366, C400, T438, and E442 relative to the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: l .

6. The method of any one of embodiments 1 -4, wherein the heme protein is a cytochrome P450S 3 variant comprising the heme domain amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, and wherein the amino acid sequence optionally comprises one or more amino acid mutations.

7. The method of embodiment 6, wherein the cytochrome ¥450BM3 variant comprises an amino acid mutation at position A87.

8. The method of embodiment 7, wherein the A87 mutation is an A87F mutation, an A87W mutation, an A87Y mutation, or an A87H mutation. 9. The method of embodiment 7 or embodiment 8, wherein the A87 mutation is an A87F mutation or an A87W mutation.

10. The method of any one of embodiments 7-9, wherein the A87 mutation is an A87F mutation. 11. The method of any one of embodiments 7-10, wherein the cytochrome

P450S 3 variant further comprises an amino acid mutation at one or both of positions F261 and T327.

12. The method of embodiment 1 1, wherein the cytochrome P450S 3 variant comprises one or two mutations selected from the group consisting of F261G and T327P.

13. The method of any one of embodiments 7-12, wherein the cytochrome P450S 3 variant further comprises an amino acid mutation at one, two, or three of positions S72, T269, and L437.

14. The method of embodiment 13, wherein the cytochrome P450S 3 variant comprises one, two, or three mutations selected from the group consisting of S72W, T269L, and L437F.

15. The method of any one of embodiments 7-14, wherein the cytochrome P450S 3 variant further comprises an amino acid mutation at one or both of positions A78 and A330. 16. The method of embodiment 15, wherein the cytochrome P450S 3 variant comprises one or two mutations selected from the group consisting of A78S and A330V.

17. The method of any one of embodiments 7-16, wherein the cytochrome P450S 3 variant further comprises an amino acid mutation at one or both of positions L188 and T436.

18. The method of embodiment 18, wherein the cytochrome P450S 3 variant comprises one or two mutations selected from the group consisting of L188C and T436M. 19. The method of any one of embodiments 7-9, wherein the A87 mutation is an A87W mutation.

20. The method of any one of embodiments 7-9 and 19, wherein the cytochrome P450S 3 variant further comprises an amino acid mutation at position L437.

21. The method of embodiment 20, wherein the cytochrome P450S 3 variant comprises an L437G mutation

22. The method of any one of embodiments 7-9 and 19-21 , wherein the cytochrome ¥450BM3 variant further comprises an amino acid mutation at one or both of positions T327 and V328.

23. The method of embodiment 22, wherein the cytochrome P450S 3 variant comprises one or two mutations selected from the group consisting of T327V and V328Y

24. The method of any one of embodiments 7-9 and 19-23, wherein the cytochrome ¥450BM3 variant further comprises an amino acid mutation at one or both of positions F261 and T436.

25. The method of embodiment 24, wherein the cytochrome P450S 3 variant comprises one or two mutations selected from the group consisting of F261M and T436H.

26. The method of any one of embodiments 1 -25, wherein the product comprises a cyclopropene.

27. The method of embodiment 26, wherein the alkyne is a compound according to Formula I: (I),

wherein

R ¹⁰ is selected from the group consisting of H and CR ^X R ² ;

each R ¹ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, Ci-ie alkyl, Ci-i8 haloalkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalky^-L ¹ -, (Ce-ιο aryFj-L ¹ -, (5- to 10- membered heteroary^-L ¹ -, (5- to 10-membered heterocycly^-L ¹ -, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ )2, B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ , and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ ;

Ci-18 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl in R ¹ are optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^la ;

each R ^la is independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, cyano, -OH, Ci-6 alkyl, Ci-6 alkoxy, Ci-6 heteroalkyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl;

L ¹ is selected from the group consisting of a bond and Ci- ₂ o alkylene;

when L ¹ is C ₂ - ₂ o alkylene, one or more non-adjacent CH ₂ groups are optionally and independently replaced with O, S, or NH;

when L ¹ is C3-20 alkylene, one or more pairs of adjacent CH ₂ groups are optionally and independently replaced with C(0)0 or C(0)NH;

each R ² is independently selected from the group consisting of H, Ci-ie alkyl, Ci-i8 haloalkyl, C ₂ -i8 alkenyl, C ₂ -i8 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalkyl)-L ² -, (Ce-ιο aryl)-L ² -, (5- to 10- membered heteroaryl) -L ² -, (5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl)-L ² -, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ , and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ ;

Ci-18 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl in R ² are optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^2a ;

each R ^2a is independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, cyano, -OH, Ci-6 alkyl, Ci-6 alkoxy, Ci-6 heteroalkyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl;

L ² is selected from the group consisting of a bond and Ci- ₂ o alkylene;

when L ² is C ₂ - ₂ o alkylene, one or more non-adjacent CH ₂ groups are optionally and independently replaced with O, S, or NH;

when L ² is C3- ₂ o alkylene, one or more pairs of adjacent CH ₂ groups are optionally and independently replaced with C(0)0 or C(0)NH; and

each R ⁷ , R ⁸ , and R ⁹ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-18 alkyl, C ₂ -i8 alkenyl, C ₂ -i8 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and optionally substituted 5- to 10- membered heterocyclyl. 28. The method of embodiment 27, wherein the alkyne is a compound according to Formula la:

R ² (la).

29. The method of embodiment 27 or embodiment 28, wherein R ² is H. 30. The method of any one of embodiments 27-29, wherein R ¹ is selected from the group consisting of Ci-ie alkyl, C2-18 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalky^-L ¹ -, (Ce-ιο ary^-L ¹ -, and (5- to 10-membered heterocycly^-L ¹ -, each of which is optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^la .

31. The method of embodiment 30, wherein R ^la is selected from the group consisting of halogen, -OH, Ci-6 alkoxy, and Ci-6 heteroalkyl.

32. The method of any one of embodiments 26-31 , wherein the carbene precursor is a diazo compound.

33. The method of embodiment 32, wherein the carbene precursor is a diazo compound according to Formula II:

O N2 (II)

wherein

R ³ and R ⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted C1-18 alkyl, optionally substituted C1-18 alkoxy, Ci-is haloalkyl (e.g., Ci-i8 polyfluoroalkyl), C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ ; and

each R ⁷ , R ⁸ , and R ⁹ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted C1-18 alkyl, C ₂ -i8 alkenyl, C ₂ -i8 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and optionally substituted 5- to 10- membered heterocyclyl.

34. The method of embodiment 33, wherein R ³ is H and R ⁴ is Ci-6 alkoxy.

wherein

R ¹⁰ is selected from the group consisting of H and CR ^X R ² ;

each R ¹ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, Ci

Ci-i8 haloalkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalky^-L ¹ -, (Ce-ιο aryFj-L ¹ -, (5- to 10- membered heteroary^-L ¹ -, (5- to 10-membered heterocycly^-L ¹ -, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ )2, B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ , and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ ;

Ci-18 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl in R ¹ are optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^la ;

each R ^la is independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, cyano, -OH, Ci-6 alkyl, Ci-6 alkoxy, Ci-6 heteroalkyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl;

L ¹ is selected from the group consisting of a bond and Ci- ₂ o alkylene;

when L ¹ is C ₂ - ₂ o alkylene, one or more non-adjacent CH ₂ groups are optionally and independently replaced with O, S, or NH;

when L ¹ is C3-20 alkylene, one or more pairs of adjacent CH ₂ groups are optionally and independently replaced with C(0)0 or C(0)NH;

each R ² is independently selected from the group consisting of H, C1-18 alkyl,

Ci-i8 haloalkyl, C ₂ -i8 alkenyl, C ₂ -i8 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalkyl)-L ² -, (Ce-ιο aryl)-L ² -, (5- to 10- membered heteroaryl) -L ² -, (5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl)-L ² -, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ , and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ ;

Ci-18 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl in R ² are optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^2a ; each R ^2a is independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, cyano, -OH, Ci-6 alkyl, Ci-6 alkoxy, Ci-6 heteroalkyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl;

L ² is selected from the group consisting of a bond and Ci-20 alkylene;

when L ² is C2-20 alkylene, one or more non-adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with O, S, or NH;

when L ² is C3-20 alkylene, one or more pairs of adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with C(0)0 or C(0)NH; and

R ³ and R ⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-ie alkyl, optionally substituted Ci-ie alkoxy, Ci-is haloalkyl (e.g.,

Ci-i8 polyfluoroalkyl), C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ⁷ , C(0)SR ⁷ , C(0)N(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ⁷ , C(0)ON(R ⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ⁷ OR ⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ⁷ and P(0)(OR ⁷ ) ₂ ; and

each R ⁷ , R ⁸ , and R ⁹ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-is alkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and optionally substituted 5- to 10- membered heterocyclyl.

36. The method of embodiment 35, wherein R ¹⁰ is H. 37. The method of any one of embodiments 26-36, further comprising polymerizing the cyclopropene product.

38. The method of any one of embodiments 26-36, further comprising converting the cyclopropene product to a cyclopropane.

39. The method of any one of embodiments 26-36, further comprising contacting the cyclopropene product with a diene or a tetrazine under conditions sufficient to form a cycloaddition product.

40. The method of any one of embodiments 1-4, wherein the heme protein is a cytochrome P450S 3 variant comprising the heme domain amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 3, and wherein the amino acid sequence optionally comprises one or more amino acid mutations. 41. The method of embodiment 40, wherein the cytochrome ¥450BM3 variant comprises an amino acid mutation at position V78.

42. The method of embodiment 41, wherein the V78 mutation is a V78F mutation, a V78Y mutation, a V78H mutation, or a V78W mutation.

43. The method of embodiment 41 or embodiment 42, wherein the V78 mutation is a V78F mutation or a V78Y mutation.

44. The method of any one of embodiments 41 -43, wherein the cytochrome ¥450BM3 variant comprises an amino acid mutation at position S438.

45. The method of embodiment 44, wherein the S438 mutation is an S438A mutation.

46. The method of any one of embodiments 1-5 and 40-45, wherein the product comprises a bicyclobutane.

47. The method of embodiment 46, wherein the alkyne is a compound according to Formula IV:

wherein

R ¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of H, Ci-is alkyl, Ci-is haloalkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalkyl)-L ⁿ -, (Ce-ιο aryl)-L ⁿ -, (5- to 10-membered heteroaryl)-L ⁿ -, (5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl)-L ⁿ -, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ¹⁸ )2, B(R ¹⁹ )2, Si(R ¹⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ¹⁷ , C(0)SR ¹⁷ , C(0)N(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ¹⁷ , C(0)ON(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ¹⁷ OR ¹⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ¹⁷ , and P(0)(OR ¹⁷ ) ₂ ;

Ci-18 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl in R ¹¹ are optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^{l la} ;

each R ^{l la} is independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, cyano, -OH, Ci-6 alkyl, Ci-6 alkoxy, Ci-6 heteroalkyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl;

L ¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of a bond and Ci-20 alkylene; when L ¹¹ is C2-20 alkylene, one or more non-adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with O, S, or NH;

when L ¹¹ is C3-20 alkylene, one or more pairs of adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with C(0)0 or C(0)NH;

R ¹² is selected from the group consisting of H, Ci-is alkyl, Ci-is haloalkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalkyl)-L ¹² -, (Ce-ιο aryl)-L ¹² -, (5- to 10-membered heteroaryl) -L ¹² -, (5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl)-L ¹² -, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ¹⁸ )2, B(R ¹⁹ )2, Si(R ¹⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ¹⁷ , C(0)SR ¹⁷ , C(0)N(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ¹⁷ , C(0)ON(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ¹⁷ OR ¹⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ¹⁷ , and P(0)(OR ¹⁷ ) ₂ ;

Ci-18 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl in R ¹² are optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^12a ;

each R ^12a is independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, cyano, -OH, Ci-6 alkyl, Ci-6 alkoxy, Ci-6 heteroalkyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl;

L ¹² is selected from the group consisting of a bond and Ci-20 alkylene;

when L ¹² is C2-20 alkylene, one or more non-adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with O, S, or NH;

when L ¹² is C3-20 alkylene, one or more pairs of adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with C(0)0 or C(0)NH;

each R ¹⁷ , R ¹⁸ , and R ¹⁹ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-ie alkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and optionally substituted 5- to 10- membered heterocyclyl. 48. The method of embodiment 47, wherein R ¹² is H.

49. The method of embodiment 47 or embodiment 48, wherein R ¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of (Ce-ιο aryl)-L ⁿ -, (5- to 10-membered heteroaryl)-L ⁿ -; Ce-ιο aryl and 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl are optionally substituted with one or more R ^{l la} ; and L ¹¹ is a bond. 50. The method of embodiment 49, wherein each R ^{l la} is independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, -OH, Ci-6 alkyl, Ci-6 alkoxy, Ci-6 heteroalkyl, and C2-6 alkynyl. 51. The method of any one of embodiments 46-50, wherein the carbene precursor is a diazo compound.

52. The method of embodiment 51, wherein the carbene precursor is a diazo compound according to Formula V:

Wherein

R ¹³ and R ¹⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-is alkyl, optionally substituted Ci-is alkoxy, Ci-is haloalkyl (e.g., Ci-i8 polyfluoroalkyl), C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ¹⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ¹⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ¹⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ¹⁷ , C(0)SR ¹⁷ ,

C(0)N(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ¹⁷ , C(0)ON(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ¹⁷ OR ¹⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ¹⁷ and P(0)(OR ¹⁷ ) ₂ ; and each R ¹⁷ , R ¹⁸ , and R ¹⁹ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-is alkyl, C ₂ -i8 alkenyl, C ₂ -i8 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and optionally substituted 5- to 10- membered heterocyclyl.

53 The method of embodiment 52, wherein R ¹³ is H and R ¹³ is

Ci-6 alkoxy.

54. The method of any one of embodiments 46, 47, 51, and 52, wherein the product is a bicyclobutane according to Formula VI:

wherein

R ¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of H, Ci-is alkyl, Ci-is haloalkyl, C ₂ -i8 alkenyl, C ₂ -i8 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalkyl)-L ⁿ -, (Ce-ιο aryl)-L ⁿ -, (5- to 10-membered heteroaryl)-L ⁿ -, (5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl)-L ⁿ -, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ¹⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ¹⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ¹⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ¹⁷ , C(0)SR ¹⁷ , C(0)N(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ¹⁷ , C(0)ON(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ¹⁷ OR ¹⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ¹⁷ , and P(0)(OR ¹⁷ ) ₂ ; Ci-18 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl in R ¹¹ are optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^{l la} ;

each R ^{l la} is independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, cyano, -OH, Ci-6 alkyl, Ci-6 alkoxy, Ci-6 heteroalkyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl;

L ¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of a bond and Ci-20 alkylene;

when L ¹¹ is C2-20 alkylene, one or more non-adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with O, S, or NH;

when L ¹¹ is C3-20 alkylene, one or more pairs of adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with C(0)0 or C(0)NH;

R ¹² is selected from the group consisting of H, Ci-is alkyl, Ci-is haloalkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, (C3-10 cycloalkyl)-L ¹² -, (Ce-ιο aryl)-L ¹² -, (5- to 10-membered heteroaryl) -L ¹² -, (5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl)-L ¹² -, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ¹⁸ )2, B(R ¹⁹ )2, Si(R ¹⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ¹⁷ , C(0)SR ¹⁷ , C(0)N(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ¹⁷ , C(0)ON(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ¹⁷ OR ¹⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ¹⁷ , and P(0)(OR ¹⁷ ) ₂ ;

Ci-18 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl in R ¹² are optionally and independently substituted with one or more R ^12a ;

each R ^12a is independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, cyano, -OH, Ci-6 alkyl, Ci-6 alkoxy, Ci-6 heteroalkyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, Ce-ιο aryl, and 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl;

L ¹² is selected from the group consisting of a bond and Ci-20 alkylene;

when L ¹² is C2-20 alkylene, one or more non-adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with O, S, or NH;

when L ¹² is C3-20 alkylene, one or more pairs of adjacent CH2 groups are optionally and independently replaced with C(0)0 or C(0)NH;

R ¹³ and R ¹⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-is alkyl, optionally substituted Ci-18 alkoxy, Ci-is haloalkyl (e.g., Ci-18 polyfluoroalkyl), C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heterocyclyl, cyano, halo, nitro, N(R ¹⁸ ) ₂ , B(R ¹⁹ ) ₂ , Si(R ¹⁹ ) ₃ , C(0)OR ¹⁷ , C(0)SR ¹⁷ ,

C(0)N(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)R ¹⁷ , C(0)ON(R ¹⁷ ) ₂ , C(0)NR ¹⁷ OR ¹⁸ , C(0)C(0)OR ¹⁷ and P(0)(OR ¹⁷ ) ₂ ; and each R ¹⁷ , R ¹⁸ , and R ¹⁹ is independently selected from the group consisting of H, optionally substituted Ci-is alkyl, C2-18 alkenyl, C2-18 alkynyl, optionally substituted Ce-ιο aryl, optionally substituted 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl, and optionally substituted 5- to 10- membered heterocyclyl. 55. The method of any one of embodiments 46-54, further comprising hydrolyzing the bicyclobutane to form a dicarboxylate-substituted bicyclobutane.

56. The method of embodiment 55, further comprising contacting the dicarboxylate-substituted bicyclobutane with a diol under conditions sufficient to form a polyester. 57. The method of embodiment 55, further comprising contacting the dicarboxylate-substituted bicyclobutane with an amine under conditions sufficient to form a diamido-substituted bicyclobutane.

58. The method of any one of embodiments 46-54, further comprising reducing the bicyclobutane to form a dihydroxy-substituted bicyclobutane. 59. The method of embodiment 58, further comprising converting the dihydroxy-substituted bicyclobutane to a polybenzvalene or a polyacetylene.

60. The method of any one of embodiments 46-54, wherein the bicyclobutane comprises an alkyne moiety and the method further comprises contacting the alkyne moiety with an azide under conditions sufficient to form a triazole moiety. 61. A reaction mixture for preparing a product containing a cyclopropene moiety or a bicyclobutane moiety, the reaction mixture comprising:

(a) an alkyne,

(b) a carbene precursor, and

(c) a heme protein or a variant thereof. 62. The reaction mixture of embodiment 61, wherein the heme protein is a cytochrome P450S 3 variant comprising the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:3, and wherein the amino acid sequence optionally comprises one or more amino acid mutations. 63. The reaction mixture of embodiment 61, wherein the heme protein is a cytochrome P450S 3 variant comprising the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, and wherein the amino acid sequence optionally comprises one or more amino acid mutations. 64. A cytochrome ¥450BM3 variant comprising the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:3 and further comprising: i) a V78F mutation, and ii) and S438 mutation.

65. The cytochrome P450S 3 variant of embodiment 64, wherein the S438 mutation is an S438A mutation.

66. A cytochrome P450S 3 variant comprising the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:3 and further comprising a V78Y mutation.

67. The cytochrome P450S 3 variant of embodiment 66, further comprising an S438 mutation.

68. The cytochrome P450S 3 variant of embodiment 67, wherein the S438 mutation is an S438A mutation. 69. A cytochrome P450S 3 variant comprising the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 and further comprising: i) an A87F mutation, and ii) an F261 mutation or T327 mutation.

70. The cytochrome P450S 3 variant of embodiment 69, further comprising one or more mutations selected from the group consisting of an S72 mutation, an A78 mutation, a an LI 88 mutation, a T269 mutation, an A330 mutation, a T436 mutation, and an L437 mutation.

71. A cytochrome P450S 3 variant comprising the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 and further comprising an A87W mutation.

72. The cytochrome ¥450BM3 variant of embodiment 71, further comprising one or mutations selected from the group consisting of an F261 mutation, a T327 mutation, a V328 mutation, a T436 mutation, and an L437 mutation. [0325] Although the foregoing has been described in some detail by way of illustration and example for purposes of clarity and understanding, one of skill in the art will appreciate that certain changes and modifications can be practiced within the scope of the appended claims. In addition, each reference provided herein is incorporated by reference in its entirety to the same extent as if each reference was individually incorporated by reference.

INFORMAL SEQUENCE LISTING

SEQ ID NO: l

B. megaterium (strain ATCC) cytochrome P450 heme domain- UniProt P14779

TIKEMPQPKTFGELKNLPLLNTDKPVQALMKIADELGEIFKFEAPGRVTR YLSSQRLIKEACDESRFDKNLSQALKFVRDFAGDGLFTSWTHEKNWKKAH NILLPSFSQQAMKGYHAMMVDIAVQLVQKWERLNADEHIEVPEDMTRLTL DTIGLCGFNYRFNSFYRDQPHPFITSMVRALDEAMNKLQRANPDDPAYDE NKRQFQEDIKVMNDLVDKIIADRKASGEQSDDLLTHMLNGKDPETGEPLD DENIRYQIITFLIAGHETTSGLLSFALYFLVKNPHVLQKAAEEAARVLVD PVPSYKQVKQLKYVGMVLNEALRLWPTAPAFSLYAKEDTVLGGEYPLEKG DELMVLI PQLHRDKTIWGDDVEEFRPERFENPSAIPQHAFKPFGNGQRAC IGQQFALHEATLVLGMMLKHFDFEDHTNYELDIKETLTLKPEGFWKAKS KKIPLGGIPSPSTEQSAKKVR

SEQ ID NO:2

P411 -P4 variant of B. megaterium P450S 3 heme domain

IKEMPQPK FGELKNLPLLN DKPVQALMKIADELGEI FKFEAPGRV R YLSSQRLIKEACDESRFDKNLSQALKFARDFAGDGLATSWTHEKNWKKAH NILLPSFSQQAMKGYHAMMVDIAVQLVQKWERLNADEHIEVSEDM RLTL DTIGLCGFNYRFNSFYRDQPHPFIISMVRALDEVMNKLQRANPDDPAYDE NKRQFQEDIKVMNDLVDKIIADRKARGEQSDDLLTQMLNGKDPETGEPLD DGNIRYQIITFLFAGHEGTSGLLSFALYFLVKNPHVLQKVAEEAARVLVD PVPSYKQVKQLKYVGMVLNEALRLWPTVPAFSLYAKEDTVLGGEYPLEKG DEVMVLI PQLHRDKTVWGDDVEEFRPERFENPSAIPQHAFKPFGNGQRAS IGQQFALHEATLVLGMMLKHFDFEDHTNYELDIKETLSLKPKGFWKAKS KKIPLGGIPSPSTEQSAKKVR

SEQ ID NO:3

P411 -E10 variant of B. megaterium ¥450BM3 heme domain

TIKEMPQPKTFGELKNLPLLNTDKPVQALMKIADELGEI FKFEAPGRVTR YLSSQRLIKEACDESRFDKNLSQALKFVRDFLGDGLATSWTHEKNWKKAH NILLPSFSQQAMKGYHAMMVDIAVQLVQKWERLNADEHIEVSEDM RLTL DTIGLCGFNYRFNSFYRDQPHPFIISMVRALDEVMNKLQRANPDDPAYDE NKRQFQEDIKVMNDLVDKIIADRKARGEQSDDLLTQMLNGKDPETGEPLD DGNIRYQIITFLLAGHEGTSGLLSFALYFLVKNPHVLQKVAEEAARVLVD PVPSYKQVKQLKYVGMVLNEALRLWPTVPAFSLYAKEDTVLGGEYPLEKG DEVMVLI PQLHRDKTVWGDDVEEFRPERFENPSAIPQHAFKPFGNGQRAS IGQQFALHEATLVLGMMLKHFDFEDHTNYELDIKETLSLKPKGFWKAKS KKIPLGGIPSPSTEQSAKKVR

SEQ ID N0:4

Full-length B. megaterium (strain ATCC) cytochrome P450 - UniProt P14779 IKEMPQPK FGELKNLPLLN DKPVQALMKIADELGEI FKFEAPGRV R YLSSQRLIKEACDESRFDKNLSQALKFVRDFAGDGLFTSWTHEKNWKKAH NILLPSFSQQAMKGYHAMMVDIAVQLVQKWERLNADEHIEVPEDM RL L DTIGLCGFNYRFNSFYRDQPHPFITSMVRALDEAMNKLQRANPDDPAYDE NKRQFQEDIKVMNDLVDKIIADRKASGEQSDDLLTHMLNGKDPETGEPLD DENIRYQIITFLIAGHETTSGLLSFALYFLVKNPHVLQKAAEEAARVLVD PVPSYKQVKQLKYVGMVLNEALRLWPTAPAFSLYAKEDTVLGGEYPLEKG DELMVLI PQLHRDK IWGDDVEEFRPERFENPSAIPQHAFKPFGNGQRAC IGQQFALHEATLVLGMMLKHFDFEDHTNYELDIKETLTLKPEGFWKAKS KKIPLGGIPSPSTEQSAKKVRKKAENAHNTPLLVLYGSNMGTAEGTARDL ADIAMSKGFAPQVATLDSHAGNLPREGAVLIVTASYNGHPPDNAKQFVDW LDQASADEVKGVRYSVFGCGDKNWATTYQKVPAFIDETLAAKGAENIADR GEADASDDFEGTYEEWREHMWSDVAAYFNLDIENSEDNKSTLSLQFVDSA ADMPLAKMHGAFSTNWASKELQQPGSARSTRHLEIELPKEASYQEGDHL GVIPRNYEGIVNRVTARFGLDASQQIRLEAEEEKLAHLPLAKTVSVEELL QYVELQDPVTRTQLRAMAAKTVCPPHKVELEALLEKQAYKEQVLAKRLTM LELLEKYPACEMKFSEFIALLPSIRPRYYS ISSS PRVDEKQAS ITVSWS GEAWSGYGEYKGIASNYLAELQEGDTITCFISTPQSEFTLPKDPETPLIM VGPGTGVAPFRGFVQARKQLKEQGQSLGEAHLYFGCRSPHEDYLYQEELE NAQSEGI ITLHTAFSRMPNQPKTYVQHVMEQDGKKLIELLDQGAHFYICG DGSQMAPAVEATLMKSYADVHQVSEADARLWLQQLEEKGRYAKDVWAG SEQ ID NO: 5

Full-length P41 1-P4 variant of B. megaterium P450S 3

IKEMPQPK FGELKNLPLLN DKPVQALMKIADELGEI FKFEAPGRV R YLSSQRLIKEACDESRFDKNLSQALKFARDFAGDGLATSWTHEKNWKKAH NILLPSFSQQAMKGYHAMMVDIAVQLVQKWERLNADEHIEVSEDM RLTL DTIGLCGFNYRFNSFYRDQPHPFIISMVRALDEVMNKLQRANPDDPAYDE NKRQFQEDIKVMNDLVDKIIADRKARGEQSDDLLTQMLNGKDPETGEPLD DGNIRYQIITFLFAGHEGTSGLLSFALYFLVKNPHVLQKVAEEAARVLVD PVPSYKQVKQLKYVGMVLNEALRLWPTVPAFSLYAKEDTVLGGEYPLEKG DEVMVLI PQLHRDKTVWGDDVEEFRPERFENPSAIPQHAFKPFGNGQRAS IGQQFALHEATLVLGMMLKHFDFEDHTNYELDIKETLSLKPKGFWKAKS KKIPLGGIPSPSTEQSAKKVRKKAENAHNTPLLVLYGSNMGTAEGTARDL ADIAMSKGFAPQVATLDSHAGNLPREGAVLIVTASYNGHPPDNAKQFVDW LDQASADEVKGVRYSVFGCGDKNWATTYQKVPAFIDETLAAKGAENIADR GEADASDDFEGTYEEWREHMWSDVAAYFNLDIENSEDNKSTLSLQFVDSA ADMPLAKMHGAFSTNWASKELQQPGSARS RHLEIELPKEASYQEGDHL GVIPRNYEGIVNRVTARFGLDASQQIRLEAEEEKLAHLPLAKTVSVEELL QYVELQDPVTRTQLRAMAAK VCPPHKVELEALLEKQAYKEQVLAKRLTM LELLEKYPACEMKFSEFIALLPSIRPRYYS ISSS PRVDEKQAS ITVSWS GEAWSGYGEYKGIASNYLAELQEGDTITCFISTPQSEFTLPKDPETPLIM VGPGTGVAPFRGFVQARKQLKEQGQSLGEAHLYFGCRSPHEDYLYQEELE NAQSEGI ITLHTAFSRMPNQPKTYVQHVMEQDGKKLIELLDQGAHFYICG DGSQMAPAVEATLMKSYADVHQVSEADARLWLQQLEEKGRYAKDVWAG

SEQ ID NO: 6

Full-length P41 1-ElO variant of B. megaterium P450S 3

IKEMPQPK FGELKNLPLLN DKPVQALMKIADELGEI FKFEAPGRV R YLSSQRLIKEACDESRFDKNLSQALKFVRDFLGDGLATSWTHEKNWKKAH NILLPSFSQQAMKGYHAMMVDIAVQLVQKWERLNADEHIEVSEDM RLTL DTIGLCGFNYRFNSFYRDQPHPFIISMVRALDEVMNKLQRANPDDPAYDE NKRQFQEDIKVMNDLVDKIIADRKARGEQSDDLLTQMLNGKDPETGEPLD DGNIRYQIITFLLAGHEGTSGLLSFALYFLVKNPHVLQKVAEEAARVLVD PVPSYKQVKQLKYVGMVLNEALRLWPTVPAFSLYAKEDTVLGGEYPLEKG DEVMVLI PQLHRDKTVWGDDVEEFRPERFENPSAIPQHAFKPFGNGQRAS IGQQFALHEATLVLGMMLKHFDFEDHTNYELDIKETLSLKPKGFWKAKS KKIPLGGIPSPSTEQSAKKVRKKAENAHNTPLLVLYGSNMGTAEGTARDL ADIAMSKGFAPQVATLDSHAGNLPREGAVLIVTASYNGHPPDNAKQFVDW LDQASADEVKGVRYSVFGCGDKNWATTYQKVPAFIDETLAAKGAENIADR GEADASDDFEGTYEEWREHMWSDVAAYFNLDIENSEDNKSTLSLQFVDSA ADMPLAKMHGAFSTNWASKELQQPGSARS RHLEIELPKEASYQEGDHL GVIPRNYEGIVNRVTARFGLDASQQIRLEAEEEKLAHLPLAKTVSVEELL QYVELQDPVTRTQLRAMAAK VCPPHKVELEALLEKQAYKEQVLAKRLTM LELLEKYPACEMKFSEFIALLPSIRPRYYS ISSS PRVDEKQAS ITVSWS GEAWSGYGEYKGIASNYLAELQEGDTITCFISTPQSEFTLPKDPETPLIM VGPGTGVAPFRGFVQARKQLKEQGQSLGEAHLYFGCRSPHEDYLYQEELE NAQSEGI I LHTAFSRMPNQPK YVQHVMEQDGKKLIELLDQGAHFYICG DGSQMAPAVEATLMKSYADVHQVSEADARLWLQQLEEKGRYAKDVWAG

SEQ ID N0:7

P. putida cytochrome P450cam - UniProt POO 183

TTETIQSNANLAPLPPHVPEHLVFDFDMYNPSNLSAGVQEAWAVLQESNV PDLVWTRCNGGHWIATRGQLIREAYEDYRHFSSECPFIPREAGEAYDFIP TSMDPPEQRQFRALANQWGMPWDKLENRIQELACSLIESLRPQGQCNF TEDYAEPFPIRIFMLLAGLPEEDIPHLKYL DQMTRPDGSM FAEAKEAL YDYLIPI IEQRRQKPGTDAISIVANGQVNGRPI SDEAKRMCGLLLVGGL DTWNFLSFSMEFLAKSPEHRQELIERPERIPAACEELLRRFSLVADGRI L SDYEFHGVQLKKGDQILLPQMLSGLDERENACPMHVDFSRQKVSHTTF GHGSHLCLGQHLARREIIVTLKEWLTRIPDFSIAPGAQIQHKSGIVSGVQ ALPLVWDPA KAV

SEQ ID NO: 8

P. catodon myoglobin - UniProt P02185

VLSEGEWQLVLHVWAKVEADVAGHGQDILIRLFKSHPE LEKFDRFKHLK TEAEMKASEDLKKHGVTVLTALGAILKKKGHHEAELKPLAQSHATKHKIP IKYLEFISEAI IHVLHSRHPGDFGADAQGAMNKALELFRKDIAAKYKELG YQG SEQ ID NO:9

C. jejuni globin - UniProt Q0P842

MTKEQIQIIKDCVPILQKNGEDLTNEFYKIMFNDYPEVKPMFNMEKQISG EQPKALAMAILMAAKNIENLENMRSFVDKVAITHVNLGVKEEHYPIVGAC LLKAIKNLLNPDEATLKAWEVAYGKIAKFYIDIEKKLYDK

SEQ ID NO: 10

V. stercoraria hemoglobin - UniProt P04252

MLDQQTINIIKATVPVLKEHGVTITTTFYKNLFAKHPEVRPLFDMGRQES LEQPKALAM VLAAAQNIENLPAILPAVKKIAVKHCQAGVAAAHYPIVGQ ELLGAIKEVLGDAA DDILDAWGKAYGVIADVFIQVEADLYAQAVE

SEQ ID NO: 11

M. musculus neuroglobin - UniProt Q9ER97

MERPESELIRQSWRWSRSPLEHGTVLFARLFALEPSLLPLFQYNGRQFS SPEDCLSSPEFLDHIRKVMLVIDAAVTNVEDLSSLEEYLTSLGRKHRAVG VRLSSFS VGESLLYMLEKCLGPDFTPA RTAWSRLYGAWQAMSRGWDG E

SEQ ID NO: 12

H. sapiens neuroglobin - UniProt Q9NPG2

MERPEPELIRQSWRAVSRSPLEHGTVLFARLFALEPDLLPLFQYNCRQFS SPEDCLSSPEFLDHIRKVMLVIDAAVTNVEDLSSLEEYLASLGRKHRAVG VKLSSFSTVGESLLYMLEKCLGPAFTPATRAAWSQLYGAWQAMSRGWDG E SEQ ID NO: 13

M. infernorum Hell's Gate globin - UniProt B3DUZ7

MIDQKEKELIKESWKRIEPNKNEIGLLFYANLFKEEPTVSVLFQNPISSQ SRKLMQVLGILVQGIDNLEGLIPTLQDLGRRHKQYGWDSHYPLVGDCLL KS IQEYLGQGFTEEAKAAW KVYGIAAQVMTAE

SEQ ID NO: 14

H. sapiens cytoglobin - UniProt Q8WWM9

MEKVPGEMEIERRERSEELSEAERKAVQAMWARLYANCEDVGVAILVRFF VNFPSAKQYFSQFKHMEDPLEMERSPQLRKHACRVMGALNTWENLHDPD KVSSVLALVGKAHALKHKVEPVYFKILSGVILEWAEEFASDFPPETQRA WAKLRGLIYSHV AAYKEVGWVQQVPNATTPPATLPSSGP

SEQ ID NO: 15

A. suum hemoglobin - UniProt P28316

MRSLLLLSIVFFWTVSANKTRELCMKSLEHAKVDTSNEARQDGIDLYKH MFENYPPLRKYFKNREEYTAEDVQNDPFFAKQGQKILLACHVLCATYDDR ETFNAYTRELLDRHARDHVHMPPEVWTDFWKLFEEYLGKKTTLDEPTKQA WHEIGREFAKEINKHGRHAVRHQCMRSLQHIDIGHSETAKQNGIDLYKHM FENYPSMREAFKDRENYTAEDVQKDPFFVKQGQRILLACHLLCASYDDEE TFHMYVHELMERHERLGVQLPDQHWTDFWKLFEEFLEKKSHLCEHTKHAW AVIGKEFAYEATRHGKEHHEHKEEHKEEHKEEHKEEQH

SEQ ID NO: 16

B. subtilis group 2 truncated hemoglobin - UniProt 031607

MGQSFNAPYEAIGEELLSQLVDTFYERVASHPLLKPIFPSDLTETARKQK QFLTQYLGGPPLYTEEHGHPMLRARHLPFPITNERADAWLSCMKDAMDHV GLEGEIREFLFGRLELTARHMVNQTEAEDRSS SEQ ID NO: 17

M. acetivorans protoglobin (strain ATCC 35395) - UniProt Q8TLY9

MSVEKIPGYTYGETENRAPFNLEDLKLLKEAVMFTAEDEEYIQKAGEVLE DQVEEILDTWYGFVGSHPHLLYYF S PDG PNEKYLAAVRKRFSRWILDT CNRSYDQAWLDYQYEIGLRHHRTKKNQTDNVESVPNIGYRYLVAFIYPIT ATMKPFLARKGH PEEVEKMYQAWFKATTLQVALWSYPYVKYGDF

SEQ ID NO: 18

A. pernix protoglobin - UniProt Q9YFF4

MTPSDIPGYDYGRVEKSPITDLEFDLLKKTVMLGEKDVMYLKKACDVLKD QVDEILDLWYGWVASNEHLIYYFSNPDTGEPIKEYLERVRARFGAWILDT TCRDYNREWLDYQYEVGLRHHRSKKGVTDGVRTVPHIPLRYLIAFIYPIT A IKPFLAKKGGSPEDIEGMYNAWFKSWLQVAIWSHPYTKENDW

SEQ ID NO: 19

P. ferrireducens protoglobin -UniProt G7VHJ7

MREIPGYEFGKVPDAPISDEEFELLKKSVMWTEEDEKYRKLACEVLKGQV EQILDLWYGWVGSNPHLVYYFGDRSGRPIPQYLEAVRKRFGQWILDTVCR SYDRQWLNYVYEIGLRHHRTKKGKTDGVETVEHI PLRYMVAFIAPIGL I KPFLEKGGHPPDWEKMWAAWIKSWLQVAIWSHPYAKPGEW