CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

[0001] This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/276,915 filed November 8, 2021 entitled "ELECTROLYTE CONTROL SYSTEM AND BATTERY CELL STRUCTURE," the contents of which is hereby incorporated by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD

[0002] This disclosure relates in general to the field of energy storage devices, and more particularly, to a battery for electrical energy storage.

BACKGROUND

[0003] A battery is a collection of one or more cells that store electrical energy and is capable of using the stored electrical energy to supply electric power. The cell is a basic electrochemical unit that handles the actual storage of the energy in the battery. The cell includes three main components; at least two electrodes and an electrolyte. The two electrodes are an anode, the negative electrode, and a cathode, the positive electrode.

[0004] When the anode loses electrons to an external circuit, the anode becomes oxidized. The anode can also be called the fuel electrode or the reducing electrode. Once the cathode accepts electrons from the internal circuit, the cathode gets reduced. The cathode can also be called the oxidizing electrode. The electrolyte acts as the medium for transferring charge in the form of ions between the two electrodes. Generally, the electrolyte is not electrically conductive but is ionic conductive and is often referred to as an ionic conductor. The chemical reactions create the flow of electrons within a circuit. The stored chemical energy is then converted into direct current electric energy.

[0005] There are two main types of batteries, a primary battery and a secondary battery. Primary batteries cannot be recharged and are often a power source for portable electronics and devices. Primary batteries can only be used once and cannot be recharged. Most primary batteries are single cell batteries with one anode and one cathode. Secondary batteries can be recharged and are often used as energy storage devices and where the battery is used as a primary battery, then recharged and used again as a primary battery. Secondary batteries can be a single cell battery with one anode and one cathode or a multiple cell battery with a plurality of anodes and cathodes.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0006] To provide a more complete understanding of the present disclosure and features and advantages thereof, reference is made to the following description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying figures, wherein like reference numerals represent like parts, in which:

[0007] FIGURES 1 is a simplified block diagram of a composite electrode battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0008] FIGURE 2 is simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0009] FIGURE 3 is a simplified block diagram exploded view illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0010] FIGURE 4 is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0011] FIGURE 5 is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0012] FIGURE 6 is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0013] FIGURE 7 is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0014] FIGURE 8 is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0015] FIGURES 9A and 9B are a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; [0016] FIGURES 10A and 10B are a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a manifold for use with a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0017] FIGURE 11 is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a manifold for use with a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0018] FIGURE 12 is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a manifold for use with a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0019] FIGURE 13 is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a manifold for use with a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0020] FIGURE 14 is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0021] FIGURE 15 is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0022] FIGURE 16 is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0023] FIGURE 17 is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0024] FIGURE 19 is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; [0025] FIGURE 20 is a simplified block diagram illustrating example details of a portion of a composite electrode for a battery, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure;

[0026] FIGURE 21 is a simplified flowchart illustrating potential operations that may be associated with the system in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure; and

[0027] FIGURE 22 is a simplified flowchart illustrating potential operations that may be associated with the system in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure

[0028] The FIGURES of the drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale, as their dimensions can be varied considerably without departing from the scope of the present disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0029] The following detailed description sets forth examples of apparatuses, methods, and systems relating to enabling a composite electrode structure in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Features such as structure(s), function(s), and/or characteristic(s), for example, are described with reference to one embodiment as a matter of convenience; various embodiments may be implemented with any suitable one or more of the described features.

Overview

[0030] In an example, a battery can include an electrolyte and a plurality of electrodes. The plurality of electrodes include at least one anode and at least one cathode. At least one of the plurality of electrodes can include an electrode substrate and a current collector frame. In some examples, an electrically conductive adhesive layer is used to secure the electrode substrate to the current collector frame. In addition, at least a portion of the current collector frame can be coated with a protective layer to help protect the current collector frame from the electrolyte 108. The electrode substrate can include a porous material and an active material.

[0031] The active material can react with the electrolyte in the battery. More specifically, if the electrode is an anode, the active material reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction that produces electrons and the electrons accumulate at the anode. If the electrode is a cathode, the active material reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction that that enables that electrode that functions as the cathode to accept electrons. The porous material can provide more surface areas than a conventional planar electrode to help enable more active electrode materials loading and higher areal capacity. The porous structure also allows the electrolyte to diffuse inside the electrode for higher more efficient interactions between electrolyte and active electrode materials and can provide higher ion kinetics as compared to electrodes without a porous structure.

[0032] The current collector frame can be a conductive rigid or semi-rigid material or materials and provide support for the electrode substrate and help transfer electrons to or from the electrode substrate. In some examples, the porous structure also includes a conductive fluid that can help increase the conductivity of the porous electrode substrate and transfer electors to or from the current collector frame. The composite structure of the electrode can help improve both ionic and electrical conductivity upon scaling up and increased battery capacity. For example, the electrode can be sandwiched with another electrode to obtain a higher capacity.

[0033] In the following description, various aspects of the illustrative implementations will be described using terms commonly employed by those skilled in the art to convey the substance of their work to others skilled in the art. However, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the embodiments disclosed herein may be practiced with only some of the described aspects. For purposes of explanation, specific numbers, materials, and configurations are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the illustrative implementations. However, it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that the embodiments disclosed herein may be practiced without the specific details. In other instances, well-known features are omitted or simplified in order not to obscure the illustrative implementations.

[0034] In the following detailed description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings that form a part hereof wherein like numerals designate like parts throughout, and in which is shown, by way of illustration, embodiments that may be practiced. It is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural or logical changes may be made without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. Therefore, the following detailed description is not to be taken in a limiting sense. For the purposes of the present disclosure, the phrase "A and/or B" means (A), (B), or (A and B). For the purposes of the present disclosure, the phrase "A, B, and/or C" means (A), (B), (C), (A and B), (A and C), (B and C), or (A, B, and C). Reference to "one embodiment" or "an embodiment" in the present disclosure means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment. The appearances of the phrase "in one embodiment" or "in an embodiment" are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment. The appearances of the phrase "for example," "in an example," or "in some examples" are not necessarily all referring to the same example. The term "about" includes a plus or minus twenty percent (±20%) variation. For example, about one (1) millimeter (mm) would include one (1) mm and ± 0.2 mm from one (1) mm. Similarly, terms indicating orientation of various elements, for example, "coplanar," "perpendicular," "orthogonal," "parallel," or any other angle between the elements generally refer to being within plus or minus five to twenty percent (+/- 5-20%) of a target value based on the context of a particular value as described herein or as known in the art.

[0035] As used herein, the term "when" may be used to indicate the temporal nature of an event. For example, the phrase "event 'A' occurs when event 'B' occurs" is to be interpreted to mean that event A may occur before, during, or after the occurrence of event B, but is nonetheless associated with the occurrence of event B. For example, event A occurs when event B occurs if event A occurs in response to the occurrence of event B or in response to a signal indicating that event B has occurred, is occurring, or will occur. Reference to "one example" or "an example" in the present disclosure means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one example or embodiment. The appearances of the phrase "in one example" or "in an example" are not necessarily all referring to the same examples or embodiments.

Example battery and electrode

[0036] FIGURE 1 is simplified block diagram of a battery 102a, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. In some examples, the battery 102a is an aqueous rechargeable battery (ARBs). The battery 102a can include an outer casing 104, a plurality of electrodes 106, an electrolyte 108, a positive terminal 110, and a negative terminal 112. The plurality of electrodes 106 include at least one anode 118 and at least one cathode 120. As described in more detail below, the reactive material used to create an electrode determines if the electrode is an anode or a cathode.

[0037] The outer casing 104 defines an interior space 122 inside the battery 102a. The interior space 122 includes the plurality of electrodes 106 and the electrolyte 108 and helps keep the plurality of electrodes 106 and the electrolyte 108 from being exposed to an outside environment 124. The outside environment 124 is the environment around the battery 102a or the environment outside of the outer casing 104. The positive terminal 110 and the negative terminal 112 extend from the outer casing 104 into the outside environment 124. [0038] The at least one anode 118 and/or at least one cathode 120 include at least an electrode substrate and a current collector frame. In some examples, the at least one anode 118 and/or the at least one cathode 120 also include an electrically conductive adhesive layer to secure the electrode substrate to the current collector frame. In addition, at least a portion of the current collector frame can be coated with a protective layer to help protect the current collector frame from the electrolyte 108.

[0039] The composite structure of the electrode 106 can help improve both ionic and electrical conductivity upon scaling up and increased battery capacity. For example, the electrode 106 can be sandwiched with another electrode 106 to obtain a higher capacity. The battery capacity is based on the capacity of each electrode 106 in the battery. Electrode capacities are compared through three different measures, the "specific energy" or "gravimetric capacity" is the capacity per unit of mass, the "volumetric capacity" is the capacity per unit volume, and the "areal capacity" is the area-normalized specific capacity. The areal capacity of the electrode 106 is obtained by dividing the measured cell capacity by the geometric electrode area. More specifically, the areal capacity of the electrode 106 can be determined by the formula QA =QVL = PQS2AM ^L , where QA, is a function of the electrode thickness, L, and volumetric capacity of the electrode, Qv. The active material properties are the specific capacity Qs, the crystal density p and the volume fraction EAM in the electrode 106. A penetration depth larger than the electrode thickness suggests that transport of ions in the electrolyte 108 will not limit the full utilization of the active material in the electrode 106. Electrolyte transport within a porous electrode will become limiting if the penetration depth is on the order of or less than the actual electrode thickness.

[0040] A porous electrode can provide more surface areas than conventional planar electrode to help enable more active electrode materials loading and higher areal capacity. The porous structure also allows the electrolyte to diffuse inside the electrode 106 for higher more efficient interactions between electrolyte and active electrode materials and can provide higher ion kinetics as compared to electrodes without a porous structure. However, the overall battery kinetic performance is hindered by the slow electron kinetics in pure porous electrodes due to the relative lower often poor electrical conductivity. Also, porous electrodes typically have weaker mechanical stability. To overcome the shortcomings of a porous electrode, the composite electrode 106 can leverage the high area benefits of the porous electrode and provide mechanical support and high electrical conductivity by integrating the porous structure with a current collector frame and, in some examples, a conductive adhesive or conductive interface.

[0041] It is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural changes may be made without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. Substantial flexibility is provided by the battery and/or the electrode in that any suitable arrangements and configuration may be provided without departing from the teachings of the present disclosure.

[0042] For purposes of illustrating certain example techniques of the battery 102a, the following foundational information may be viewed as a basis from which the present disclosure may be properly explained. A number of prominent technological trends are currently afoot and these trends are changing the power delivery landscape. The growing energy demands and the increasing environmental concerns drive the transformation of power generation from primarily fossil and nuclear sources to solely renewable energy sources and the search of efficient energy management systems (conversation, storage and delivery), to achieve a secure, reliable and sustainable energy supply. The success is strongly dependent on the achievements in efficient electrochemical power sources that are also safe to operate, economically viable, and environmentally friendly. One type of reliable and sustainable energy supply is a rechargeable battery that can delivery electrical power when needed and then recharge so the battery is available to provide the electrical power the next time it is needed.

[0043] Generally, a battery is a device that stores chemical energy and converts it to electricity. This is known as electrochemistry and the system that underpins a battery is called an electrochemical cell. A battery can be made up of one or several electrochemical cells. Each electrochemical cell consists of two electrodes, an anode and a cathode, separated by an electrolyte.

[0044] The battery includes chemicals that undergo a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction that involves the exchange of electrons. More specifically, two half-reactions occur, and in the case of an electrochemical cell, one half-of the reaction occurs at the anode, the other half of the reaction occurs at the cathode. At the anode, the electrode that functions as the anode reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction that produces electrons and the electrons accumulate at the anode. At the cathode, a simultaneous chemical reaction occurs that enables that electrode that functions as the cathode to accept electrons. The cathode is reduced during the reaction and undergoes a reduction reaction where electrons are gained by the cathode. The anode is oxidized during the reaction and undergoes an oxidation reaction where electrons are lost by the anode.

[0045] Any two conducting materials that have reactions with different standard potentials can form the cathode and anode of an electrochemical cell because the stronger material, the cathode, will be able to take electrons from the weaker material, the anode. A good choice for an anode is a material that produces a reaction with a significantly lower (more negative) standard potential than the material that is chosen for the cathode. This allows electrons to be attracted to the cathode from the anode and when the electrons are provided with a pathway to travel from the anode to the cathode, the flow of the electrons can provide electrical power.

[0046] The electrolyte can be a liquid, gel or a solid substance that allows for the movement of charged ions. Electrons have a negative charge, and because the flow of negative electrons travels through the circuit, the flow or movement of the negative charge needs to be balanced by positive ions. The electrolyte provides a medium through which charge-balancing positive ions can flow. As the chemical reaction at the anode produces electrons, to maintain a neutral charge balance on the electrode, a matching amount of positively charged ions are also produced at the cathode. The positively charged ions do not travel along the pathway that the electrons travel (e.g., a wire connection) but are instead released into the electrolyte. While the pathway (e.g., wire) provides for the flow of negatively charged electrons, the electrolyte provides the pathway for the transfer of positively charged ions to balance the negative flow. This flow of positively charged ions is just as important as the electrons that provide the electric current in the external circuit used to power devices. The charge balancing is necessary to keep the entire reaction in the battery running.

[0047] When a rechargeable battery that does not have a charge or is not fully charged is connected to an external electricity source and energy is sent back in to the battery, the energy in to the battery reverses the chemical reaction that occurred during discharge. This sends the positive ions released from the anode into the electrolyte back to the anode and the electrons that the cathode took in are also sent back to the anode. The return of both the positive ions and electrons back into the anode primes the system and the battery is recharged.

[0048] Rechargeable battery technologies including lead-acid (Pb-acid), nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd), nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH), redox flow-cells (RFCs) and lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have found practical applications in various areas, however, the inherent limitations of these systems impede their applications in large-scale energy storage. For example, operational safety is of prime importance along with other desirable characteristics such as low installed cost, long cycling life, high energy efficiency and sustainability. More specifically, the Pb-acid and Ni-Cd generally suffer from the limited energy density (~30 Wh kg-1), as well as the use of environmentally threatened electrode materials. The nickel-iron battery is challenged by the poor charge/discharge efficiency (ca. 50-60%) and the self-discharge (20-40% per month) related to the corrosion and poisoning of the iron anode. The Ni-MH possesses higher energy density, but delivers poor low-temperature capability, limited high-rate capability, and poor Coulombic efficiency. Redox-flow cells can be easily linked together, however, the relatively low power/energy density and the special heat/temperature control requirements limit their use. Lithium-ion batteries hold great promise, benefiting from higher energy density, lighter weight and longer life time, however, incidents caused by the flammability of the organic electrolyte and the reactivity of the electrode materials with the organic electrolytes in the case of overcharging or short-circuiting raise serious safety concerns. In addition, the lithium-ion battery technologies have a comparatively high cost due to the materials used (organic Li salts and organic electrolytes), the special cell designing and manufacturing processes, and auxiliary systems required for their operation. Another challenge regarding lithium-ion batteries is the limited rate capability and specific power that are restricted by the limited ionic conductivities of the organic electrolyte. What is needed is a battery that is relatively safe to operate, economically viable, and environmentally friendly.

[0049] A system, method, apparatus, means, etc. to help enable a composite electrode structure for a battery can help resolve these issues (and others). In an example, a battery (e.g., battery 102a) can include a plurality of electrodes (e.g., electrodes 106). One or more of the electrodes can include a composite structure for the electrode structure. The composite structure can include a current collector frame and an electrode substrate. In some examples, the electrode substrate can be coupled to the current collector frame using an adhesive. The composite structure of the electrode can help improve both ionic and electrical conductivity upon scaling up and increased battery areal capacity.

[0050] In an illustrative example, the current collector frame comprised of a rigid or semirigid conductive or semi-conductive material. More specifically, the current collector frame can be a metal frame (e.g., stainless steel, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), Zn, or some other type of conductive or semi-conductive metal that is corrosion resistant). If the electrode is an anode, the electrode substrate includes a material that reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction (oxidation) that produces electrons and the electrons accumulate at the anode. More specifically, if the electrode is an anode, the electrode substrate can be comprised of a porous material and an active electrode material such as zinc (Zn), silicon (Si), copper (Cu), Aluminum oxide (AI2O3), zinc oxide (ZnO), lead (Pb), Aluminum (Al), nickel (Ni), bismuth (Bi), tin (Sn), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), Indium (In), and their alloys or composites or some other material that reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction (oxidation) that enables the electrode that functions as an anode to produce electrons. If the electrode is a cathode, the electrode substrate includes a material that reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction (reduction) that enables the electrode that functions as the cathode to accept electrons. More specifically, if the electrode is a cathode, the substrate can be comprised of a porous material an active electrode material such as manganese oxide (Mn02), bismuth oxide (Bi2O3), vanadium oxide (V2O5), lead oxide (PbO), iron oxide (Fe2O3), zinc hexacyanoferrate (ZnHCF), copper hexacyanoferrate (C6CuFeN6), Prussian blue (Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), molybdenum diselenide (MoSe2), tungsten disulfide (WS2), or some other material that that reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction (reduction) that enables that electrode that functions as the cathode to accept electrons. Note that the active electrode material chosen for the anode (or cathode) depends on the material in the cathode (or anode) because any two conducting materials that have reactions with different standard potentials can form the cathode and anode of an electrochemical cell as the stronger material, the cathode, will be able to take electrons from the weaker material, the anode.

[0051] In some examples, the current collector frame and electrode substrate are coupled or bonded together with an electrically conductive adhesive. More specifically, the current collector frame and electrode substrate can be coupled or bonded together with a conductive adhesive. The conductive adhesive can be composed of a binder and a conductive filler. The conductive filler can be comprised of carbon nanotube, graphite, active carbon, carbon black, carbon power, metal power (stainless steel, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), silver (Ag), or zinc (Zn)), conductive polymer, or some other type of conductive filler. The binder can be comprised of epoxy resin, urethane resin, silicone resin, synthetic rubber filled epoxy, or some other type of binder. In a specific illustrative example, the bonding process can include curing the conductive adhesive with appropriate heating (e.g., about 50 °C to about 150 °C and ranges therein) and pressure (e.g., about 1 psi to about 1000 psi and ranges therein) for hours (e.g., about 0.5 hours to about 12 hours and ranges therein). The current collector frame and conductive adhesive help to enable electronic and ionic conductivities during battery cell size scaling (e.g., increasing the size and capacity of the battery.

[0052] In an illustrative example, the electrode made from the current collector frame, the electrode substrate, and optionally the conductive adhesive can be sandwiched with another electrode to obtain higher areal capacity. For example, an electrode with a frame- electrode substrate-frame sandwich structure can be created with the frames on the outside surface area of the electrode. In another example, an electrode with a multilayered frame- electrode substrate-frame- electrode substrate-...-frame sandwich structure can be created to multiply the areal capacity without sacrificing electrical conductivity. In yet another example, an electrode with an electrode substrate-frame- electrode substrate sandwich structure with the frame inside of the electrode and the electrode substrate on the outside surface area of the electrode can be created. In yet another example, an electrode with a multilayered electrode substrate-frame- electrode substrate-frame-...- electrode substrate sandwich structure can be created to multiply the areal capacity without sacrificing electrical conductivity. In some examples, the bonding between the frame and the electrode substrate is through the electrically conductive adhesive. While specific examples of the order and number of frames and/or electrode substrate are discussed herein, other examples with a different order and/or number of frames and/or electrode substrates would be apparent to one skilled in the art and the order and/or number of frames and electrode substrates is only limited by design constrains and design choice.

[0053] For example, to increase a battery's voltage, there are two options. A first option is to choose different materials for the electrodes that will give the electrode a greater electrochemical potential. The other option is to stack several cells (a cell is a single anode and a single cathode separated by the electrolyte) together. When the cells are combined in series, the combination of the cells in series has an additive effect on the battery's voltage. Essentially, the force at which the electrons move through the battery can be seen as the total force as electrons move from the anode in the first cell of the battery all the way through each cell to the cathode of the final cell. When the cells are combined in parallel, the combination of the cells in parallel increases the battery's possible current, which can be thought of as the total number of electrons flowing through the cells, but not its voltage.

[0054] The current collector frame can be made of metals such as stainless steel, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), zinc (Zn, or some other similar type of material that is corrosive resistance and conductive or semi-conductive. The electrode substrate can be grown on the surface of the current collector frame via disposing methods including brush painting, spin coating, blade coating, dip-coating, hot-dipping, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, sputtering, electrophoretic deposition, or some other means of coating, depositing, growing, etc. the electrode substrate on the current collector frame.

[0055] In some examples, the electrode substrate can be attached directly to the current collector frame without the usage of the conductive adhesive. If the conductive adhesive is not used to coupled the electrode substrate to the current collector frame, an interface layer may be used between the electrode substrate and the current collector frame to enhance bonding properties between the electrode substrate and the current collector frame. The interface layer is electrically conductive and can include metals, conductive polymers, carbon powders, or other electrically conductive material that can help bond the substrate and the current collector frame. The interface layer can be grown through wet-chemical reaction or deposing methods including brush painting, spin coating, blade coating, dip-coating, hot-dipping, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, sputtering, electrophoretic deposition, or some other means of coating, depositing, growing, etc. the interface layer or depositing the interface layer on the current collector frame. In addition, a protection layer can be applied on the current collector frame and/or electrode structure of the electrode. The protection layer serves to help extend the lifetime of the active electrode materials by suppress dendrite formation and acidic electrolyte attack. The protection layer can be ionic conductive and composed of metal oxides, metal nitride, metal carbide, polymers, and carbonaceous materials. The protection layer can be applied to the current collector frame and/or electrode structure with coating methods such as wet-chemical reaction or deposing methods including brush painting, spin coating, blade coating, dip-coating, hot-dipping, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, sputtering, electrophoretic deposition, or some other means of coating, depositing, growing, etc. the protection layer onto the current collector frame and/or the electrode structure . The protection layer can be in-situ grown upon the battery charging/discharging cycling through electrolyte-electrode interface reactions by controlling the electrolyte additive types and concentrations, as well as battery voltage and currents.

[0056] In some examples, a planar flow manifold can be added to provide even flow distribution of the electrolyte in the electrode. The electrolyte can flow in from one or more inlets of the manifold, through the manifold, and flow out from a plurality of outlets. The outlets can be configured to direct the electrolyte towards the electrode substrate to help provide an even flow distribution of the electrolyte on the electrode substrate.

[0057] In some examples, the /can be used in an aqueous rechargeable battery. Aqueous rechargeable batteries (ARBs) are particularly suited for large-scale energy storage in terms of safety, economics, and sustainability. More specifically, aqueous rechargeable batteries are inherently safe because the aqueous electrolyte does not require the usage of flammable organic electrolytes. Also, the ionic conductivities of the aqueous electrolyte is about two orders of magnitude higher than that of nonaqueous electrolytes, ensuring a relatively fast charge and discharge and high round-trip efficiency as compared to nonaqueous electrolytes. Further, the electrolyte salt and solvent in the aqueous electrolyte are typically less expensive as compared to nonaqueous electrolytes and the rigorous manufacturing requirements of nonaqueous electrolytes are avoided. In addition, aqueous electrolytes are generally environmentally benign.

[0058] The first aqueous rechargeable batteries used LiMn2O4 as the positive electrode and P-VO2 as the negative electrode. In the first aqueous rechargeable batteries, metal-ions were intercalated into or extracted from the active materials during charge/discharge processes, similar to that of organic systems. The first aqueous rechargeable batteries are often referred to as "rocking chair" type aqueous rechargeable batteries or "intercalation-chemistry" type aqueous rechargeable batteries. Since the creation of the first aqueous rechargeable batteries, significant progresses have been made as more electrochemical redox couples are identified, more insights into fundamental chemistry are gained, and new battery chemistries are explored. More recently, a hybrid design that involves coupling an intercalation cathode with a metal anode or combining an intercalation anode with a metal oxides/sulphide has been introduced in aqueous rechargeable batteries with the appearance of a new class of aqueous hybrid batteries systems such as LiMn2O4//Zn, Na0.44MnO2//Zn, NaO.61Fel.94(CN)6, Ni(OH)2//TiO2, and CoxNi2-xS2//TiO2, MnO2//Zn. Different from the "rocking chair" type aqueous rechargeable batteries, the new class of aqueous rechargeable batteries operate based on two reversible electrochemical redox processes involving the anode and cathode electrodes separately and the charge/discharge mechanism in one or two electrodes is not guest ion intercalation/de- intercalation. Instead, the reversible electrochemical redox processes can be the reaction of Zn2+ deposition-dissolution and/or proton-induced oxidization/reduction. The electrolyte in the new class of aqueous rechargeable batteries acts as conducting ions and cooperates with the electrodes to store energy, rather than used as the simple supporting media as in "rocking chair" type aqueous rechargeable batteries. [0059] Since electrochemical redox reactions involved in an aqueous rechargeable battery take place in a water environment, the electrochemical stability window is generally limited to be 1.23 V, beyond which H2O is electrolyzed with 02 or H2 gas evolution. Thus, materials with working potentials located between the H2 evolution potential and 02 evolution potential are promising electrode candidates for aqueous rechargeable batteries. In principle, electrodes with a working potential between 3 and 4 V (vs. Li+/Li) can be used as a cathode and electrodes with a working potential between 2 and 3 V (vs. Li+/Li) can be chosen as an anode. It should be noted that the H2 evolution potential and 02 evolution potential are strongly dependent on pH value and special caution should be given for electrode materials selection to avoid water decomposition. The electrochemical stability window limits the achievable energy density as the energy per electron for aqueous batteries is much lower than the energy per electron for non-aqueous battery. For example, a Li ion battery typically has a voltage window above 3.5 V while the voltage window for an aqueous battery is often below 3 V. Therefore, it is critical for aqueous rechargeable battery to obtain high areal capacity to improve the overall energy density.

[0060] Rechargeable batteries based on multivalent metal ions insertion/extraction in an aqueous solution, such as Mg2+, Ca2+, Zn2+, and AI3+, are considered to be one of the most promising aqueous rechargeable battery systems due to the potential two-to-three-fold high energy density as compared to monovalent aqueous rechargeable batteries. The water molecules can effectively shield the electrostatic repulsion of multivalent ions and lower the activation energy for charge transfer at electrode/electrolyte interface as compared to an organic solution. Thus, the multivalent aqueous rechargeable batteries can often deliver better electrochemical properties than organic rechargeable batteries.

[0061] Metallic zinc (Zn) is a promising anode candidate for aqueous batteries because of its low equilibrium potential (-0.762 V vs. SHE), high specific energy density (825 mAh g-1), and abundance and low toxicity. Different from the "rocking chair" type batteries, exchange of Li+ and Zn2+ ions in mild acidic aqueous electrolyte occurs upon charging/discharging. The electrolyte here acts as conducting ions and cooperates with the electrodes to store energy, rather than acting as the simple supporting media in "rocking chair" type batteries. The electrochemical reaction between the LiMn2O4 cathode and zinc (Zn) metal anode can be expressed as follows:

[0063] Zn ²⁺ + 2e" Zn

[0064] In some examples, adding carbon additives into a porous zinc (Zn) anode can help to improve the discharge capacity as well as the cycling stability of the zinc (Zn) anode. The improvement can be attributed to the carbon coating of the zinc (Zn) particle surface that prevents the direct contact of the zinc (Zn) anode with the electrolyte, and thus the corrosion of the active zinc (Zn) particle is restrained. In addition, the pores of activated carbon can accommodate the deposition of zinc (Zn) dendrites and insoluble anodic products, giving an increase in cycling stability. Organic additives can also be added to help suppress the dendrite formation and corrosion of zinc (Zn) anode upon cycling.

[0065] Turning to FIGURE 2, FIGURE 2 illustrates example details of an electrode 106a, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in FIGURE 2, the electrode 106a can include an electrode substrate 202, a conductive adhesive 204, and a current collector frame 206. The conductive adhesive 204 is a layer between the electrode substrate 202 and the current collector frame 206 and helps to couple the electrode substrate 202 to the current collector frame 206.

[0066] The electrode substrate 202 includes a porous material and one or more active electrode materials. The porous material of the electrode substrate 202 provides a higher surface area as compared to a conventional planar electrode and the porous material helps to enable high active electrode materials loading for high areal capacity. Moreover, the high surface area allows for relatively efficient electrolyte diffusion into the substrate for effective interactions between the electrolyte and active electrode materials with ion transfer that provides higher ionic kinetics as compared to planar electrodes that include non-porous material. The porous material may be copper foam, nickel foam, stainless steel foam, titanium foam, carbon felt, carbon cloth, carbon paper conductive polymers, or some other type of material that can provide a conductive surface area. [0067] If the electrode is a cathode, the active electrode material can react with the electrolyte in a reduction reaction to gain or attract electrons. If the electrode is an anode, the active electrode material can react with the electrolyte in an oxidation reaction and loose electrons. The active electrode material can be one or more of manganese oxide, nickel oxide, vanadium oxide, titanium oxide, iron oxide, zinc metal, lead oxide, lead, or some other type of material that can be used to react with the electrolyte. Note that the active electrode material chosen for the anode (or cathode) depends on the material in the cathode (or anode) because any two conducting materials that have reactions with different standard potentials can form the cathode and the anode of an electrochemical cell because the stronger material, the cathode, will be able to take electrons from the weaker material, the anode.

[0068] For example, if the electrode 106a is an anode, the active electrode material in the electrode substrate 202 can be a material that reacts with the electrolyte 108 (not shown) in a reaction (oxidation) that produces electrons and the electrons accumulate at the anode. More specifically, if the electrode substrate 202 is an anode, the electrode substrate 202 can be comprised of zinc, silicon, copper, Aluminum oxide (AI2O3), zinc oxide (ZnO), lead (Pb), Aluminum (Al), nickel (Ni), bismuth (Bi), tin (Sn), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), In, and their alloys or composites or some other material that reacts with the electrolyte 108 (not shown) in a reaction (oxidation) that enables the electrode that functions as an anode to produce electrons. If the electrode 106a is a cathode, the active electrode material in the electrode substrate 202 can be a material that reacts with the electrolyte 108 (not shown) in a reaction (reduction) that enables that electrode that functions as the cathode to accept electrons. More specifically, if the electrode is a cathode, the electrode substrate 202 can be comprised of manganese oxide (Mn02), bismuth oxide (Bi2O3), vanadium oxide (V2O5), lead oxide (PbO), iron oxide (Fe2O3), zinc hexacyanoferrate (ZnHCF), copper hexacyanoferrate (C6CuFeN6), prussian blue (Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), molybdenum diselenide (MoSe2), tungsten disulfide (WS2) or some other material that that reacts with the electrolyte 108 (not shown) in a reaction (reduction) that enables that electrode that functions as the cathode to accept electrons. [0069] The current collector frame 206 is comprised of a rigid or semi-rigid corrosive resistant conductive or semi-conductive material. More specifically, the current collector frame 206 can be a metal frame (e.g., stainless steel, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), zinc (Zn), or some other type of corrosive resistant conductive or semi-conductive metal). In some examples, the current collector frame 206 can include one or more materials selected from the group consisting of stainless steel, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), or zinc (Zn). In some examples, the current collector frame 206 can be in a form of paper, cloth, felt, foil, foam, sheet, mesh, or thin film. The current collector frame 206 and the electrode substrate 202 are coupled or bonded together with the conductive adhesive 204. In an example, the conductive adhesive 204 is a conductive resin. The conductive adhesive 204 can be composed of a binder and a conductive filler. The conductive filler can be comprised of carbon nanotube, graphite, active carbon, carbon black, carbon power, metal power (stainless steel, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), silver (Ag), or zinc (Zn)), conductive polymer, or some other type of conductive filler. The binder can be comprised of epoxy resin, urethane resin, silicone resin, synthetic rubber filled epoxy, or some other type of binder. In a specific illustrative example, the bonding process can include curing the conductive adhesive with appropriate heating (e.g., about 50 °C to about 150 °C and ranges therein) and pressure (e.g., about 1 psi to about 1000 psi and ranges therein) for hours (e.g., about 0.5 hours to about 12 hours and ranges therein). The conductive adhesive 204 can be applied to the current collector frame 206 through dry powder painting or wet painting by dissolving the polymer binder and the conductive filler in a solvent, wherein the solvent is water, aliphatic and alicyclic hydrocarbons, xylene, toluene, n-butanol, isopropanol, or ketones. The current collector frame 206 and the conductive adhesive 204 help to enable electronic and ionic conductivities upon battery cell size scaling.

[0070] The electrode substrate 202 interacts with the electrolyte 108 (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. More specifically, if the electrode 106a is an anode, the electrode substrate 202 reacts with the electrolyte 108 (not shown) in an oxidation reaction that produces electrons and the electrons accumulate at the anode. If the electrode 106a is a cathode, the electrode substrate 202 reacts with the electrolyte 108 (not shown) in a reduction reaction that enables the electrode to accept electrons. The current collector frame 206 carries the electrons to the electrode 106a if the electrode is a cathode or away from the electrode 106a if the electrode 106a is an anode. The composite structure of the electrode can help improve both ionic and electrical conductivity upon scaling and provide for increased battery areal capacity. The current collector frame 206 can provide a relatively fast pathway for electron transfer from the electrode substrate 202 through the conductive adhesive 204 that allows efficient electron collection during scaling up and size increases. At the same time, the current collector frame 206 provides relatively high mechanical strength to support the composite electrode that overcomes the mechanical limit of porous electrode substrate 202. This enables the cell dimension scaleup due mechanical strength requirement. More specifically, as illustrated in FIGURE 2, the electrode substrate 202 (has a greater surface area to help facilitate the chemical reaction between the electrode substrate 202 and the electrolyte 108 (not shown)). Due to the composite structure of the electrode 106, the electrode 106 can deliver relatively high ionic conductivity, high electrical conductivity, and high mechanical strength, as compared to some electrodes that do not have a composite structure (e.g., an electrode made from a single type of material).

[0071] Turning to FIGURE 3, FIGURE 3 illustrates example details of an electrode 106b, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in FIGURE 3, the electrode 106b can include the electrode substrate 202, the conductive adhesive 204, the current collector frame 206, and a protective layer 302. The conductive adhesive 204 helps to couple the electrode substrate 202 to the current collector frame 206. The electrode substrate 202 interacts with the electrolyte 108 (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons.

[0072] More specifically, if the electrode 106b is an anode, the electrode substrate 202 reacts with the electrolyte 108 in a reaction that produces electrons and the electrons accumulate at the anode. If the electrode 106b is a cathode, a chemical reaction occurs that enables the cathode to accept electrons. The current collector frame 206 carries the charge or electrons to the electrode 106b if the electrode 106b is a cathode or away from the electrode 106b if the electrode 106b is an anode.

[0073] The protective layer 302 helps to protect the current collector frame 206 from the electrolyte 108 (not shown). The protective layer 302 can be an ionic conductive layer and include metal oxides, metal nitride, metal carbide, polymers, and carbonaceous materials. In some examples, the protective layer 302 can include one or more polymer binders including alkyd resins, acrylic resin, latex, phenolic resins, urethane resins, epoxy resins, polyester resins, chlorinated rubber, triglycidyl isocyanurate and p-hydroxy alkylamide, and water-proof tapes including kapton tape, butyle tape, duct tape, silicone tape, electrical tape, drywall tape, or gaffer tape.

[0074] The protective layer 302 serves to help extend the lifetime of the active electrode materials by suppress dendrite formation and acidic electrolyte attack. The protective layer 302 can be ionic conductive and composed of metal oxides, metal nitride, metal carbide, polymers, and carbonaceous materials. The protective layer 302 can be applied to the the current collector frame and/or the electrode substrate with coating methods such as wet-chemical reaction or deposing methods including brush painting, spin coating, blade coating, dip-coating, hot-dipping, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, sputtering, electrophoretic deposition, or some other means of coating, depositing, growing, etc. the protective layer 302 on the current collector frame and/or the electrode substrate. The protective layer 302 can be in-situ grown upon the battery charging/discharging cycling through electrolyte-electrode interface reactions by controlling the electrolyte additive types and concentrations, as well as battery voltage and currents.

[0075] As illustrated in FIGURE 3, the electrode 106b includes two current collector frames 206 to help facilitate the movement of electrons or charges. Each current collector frame 206 can be configured to collect electrons from the electrode substrate 202 and transfer the collected electrons to an external circuit. With the current collector frame 206 on both side of the electrode substrate 202, the collected electrons can have bidirectional flow from the center of the electrode 106b. This helps improve electrical conductivity of the electrode 106b and doubles the thickness of the electrode substrate 202 for higher areal capacity.

[0076] . Turning to FIGURE 4, FIGURE 4 illustrates example details of an electrode 106c, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in FIGURE 4, the electrode 106c can include the electrode substrate 202, the conductive adhesive 204, the current collector frame 206, and the protective layer 302. The protective layer 302 helps to protect the current collector frame 206 from the electrolyte 108 (not shown).

[0077] The conductive adhesive 204 helps to couple the electrode substrate 202 to the current collector frame 206. The electrode substrate 202 interacts with the electrolyte 108 (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. More specifically, if the electrode 106c is an anode, the electrode substrate 202 reacts with the electrolyte 108 in a reaction that produces electrons and the electrons accumulate at the anode. If the electrode 106a is a cathode, a chemical reaction occurs that enables the electrode to accept electrons. The current collector frame 206 carries the charge or electrons to the electrode 106c if the electrode is a cathode or away from the electrode 106c if the electrode is an anode.

[0078] As illustrated in FIGURE 4, the electrode 106b includes two electrode substrates 202 and three current collector frames 206 to help facilitate the chemical reaction and the movement of electrons or charges and to help obtain higher areal capacity. With the integration of three current collector frames 206 on both sides of the two electrode substrates 202, the electrons in each electrode substrate 202 can have bidirectional flow pathways from the center of the electrode 106b. With the electron collection pathways/efficiency improvement of three current collector frames 206, the overall thickness of the electrode substrate 202 can be effectively improved as compared to just one current collector frame 206 for even higher areal capacity. While FIGURE 4 illustrates a specific example of the order and number of frames and electrode substrate, other examples with a different order and/or number of frames and/or electrode substrates would be apparent to one skilled in the art and the order and/or number of frames and/or electrode substrates is only limited by design constrains and design choice. [0079] Turning to FIGURE 5, FIGURE 5 illustrates example details of the electrode 106a, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in FIGURE 5, the electrode 106a can include two electrode substrates 202, the conductive adhesive 204, and the current collector frame 206. The conductive adhesive 204 helps to couple the electrode substrate 202 to the current collector frame 206. The electrode substrate 202 interacts with the electrolyte 108 (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons.

[0080] As illustrated in FIGURE 5, by having two of the electrode substrates 202 a greater surface area is created to help facilitate the chemical reaction with the electrolyte 108 and the electrode substrate 202. While the electrode substrate 202 can have a relatively poor electrical conductivity, the current collector frame 206, with relatively high electrical conductivity, provides a relatively fast pathway for electron transfer from the electrode substrates 202 through the conductive adhesive 204 that allows relatively efficient electron collection. This way, the composite electrode 106d can meet the requirement of both electronic and ionic conductivity at high areal capacity. Moreover, the current collector frame 206 can provide high mechanical strength to support the electrode 106a and can help overcome the mechanical limit of a bare porous electrode substrate 202 to meet the mechanical strength requirement for cell size scaleup.

[0081] Turning to FIGURE 6, FIGURE 6 illustrates example details of an electrode 106d, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in FIGURE 6, the electrode 106d can include three electrode substrates 202, the conductive adhesive 204, and two current collector frames 206. The conductive adhesive 204 helps to couple the electrode substrates 202 to a corresponding current collector frame 206. The electrode substrates 202 interact with the electrolyte 108 (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reductionoxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons.

[0082] As illustrated in FIGURE 6, one or more electrode substrates 202 and current collector frames 206 can be added to create a larger electrode to help improve both ionic and electrical conductivity for increased battery capacity. The two current collector frames 206 can collect the electron flow from all three electrode substrates 202. This adds to the areal capacity to help improve the battery energy density.

[0083] Turning to FIGURE 7, FIGURE 7 illustrates example details of an electrode 106e, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in FIGURE 7, the electrode 106e can include the electrode substrate 202, the conductive adhesive 204, and two current collector frames 206a. In some examples, the electrode 106e can include the protective layer 302 (illustrated in FIGURES 3 and 4).

[0084] The conductive adhesive 204 helps to couple the electrode substrate 202 to the current collector frame 206. The electrode substrate 202 interacts with the electrolyte 108 (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. The current collector frames 206a carry the charge or electrons to the electrode 106d or away from the electrode 106d. The conductive adhesive 204 plays an important role in both helping to maintain the structural stability of the electrode 106e and allowing for efficient electron transport between the electrode substrate 202 and the current collector frames 206a. In a specific example, to help realize these dual functions, a binder and conductive filler can be mixed together through heating and a pressing treatment to create a conductive adhesive that can be used as the conductive adhesive 204.

[0085] As illustrated in FIGURE 7, the two current collector frames 206a have a support structure to help support the electrode 106d and provide some rigidity to the electrode 106d. More specifically, as illustrated in FIGURE 7, the two current collector frames 206a can have a window pane profile or an array of box like sections to help provide some rigidity to the electrode 106d. Moreover, the window pane structure helps to allow electrolyte penetration and circulation into the porous electrode substrate 202 for efficient ionic diffusion and electrochemical reactions on the substrate surface. The window pane profile also breaks the electron collections into different small sections to help with the collection of electrons as the distance each electron has to travel is reduced as compared to a current collector frame around only the outside edges of the electrode substrate 202. This benefits the electron collection effectiveness as the electrode substrate 202 size scales up by adding more sections. [0086] Turning to FIGURE 8, FIGURE 8 illustrates example details of an electrode 106f, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in FIGURE 8, the electrode 106f can include the electrode substrate 202, the conductive adhesive 204, and two current collector frames 206a. In some examples, the electrode 106f can include the protective layer 302 (illustrated in FIGURES 3 and 4).

[0087] The conductive adhesive 204 helps to couple the electrode substrate 202 to the current collector frame 206. The electrode substrate 202 interacts with the electrolyte 108 (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. The current collector frames 206a carry the charge or electrons to the electrode 106d or away from the electrode 106d.

[0088] As illustrated in FIGURE 8, the two current collector frames 206a have a support structure to help support the electrode 106d and provide some rigidity to the electrode 106d. More specifically, as illustrated in FIGURE 8, the two current collector frames 206a can have a window pane profile or an array of box like sections (to help provide some rigidity to the electrode 106d). Also, one or more of the electrode substrates 202 and the current collector frames 206a can be added to create a larger electrode. When stacking more than one electrode substrate 202, the window pane design allows electrolyte penetration and circulation into all the electrode substrates 202 for efficient ionic diffusion and electrochemical reactions, especially upon tripled or greater surface areas and thickness. Moreover, the current collector frames 206 and the conductive adhesive 204 allow for effective electron collections from the electrode substrate 202. and allow for relatively high kinetic battery performance with increased areal capacity, as compared to some electrodes without a window pane design.

[0089] Turning to FIGURE 9A, FIGURE 9A illustrates example details of the electrode substrate 202, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in FIGURE 9A, the electrode substrate 202 can include a porous material 902 and an active material 904. The active material 904 can be can applied to the porous material 902 using coating methods such as wet-chemical reaction or deposing methods including brush painting, spin coating, blade coating, dip-coating, hot-dipping, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, electrophoretic deposition, sputtering, or some other means of applying the active material 904 to or coating, depositing, growing, etc. the active material 904 on the porous material 902.

[0090] The porous material 902 can include copper foam, nickel foam, stainless steel foam, titanium foam, carbon felt, carbon cloth, carbon paper conductive polymers, or some other type of material that can provide a conductive surface area for the active electrode materials. If the electrode is an anode, the active material 904 can include zinc (Zn), silicon (Si), copper (Cu), aluminum oxide (AI2O3), zinc oxide (ZnO), lead (Pb), Aluminum (Al), nickel (Ni), bismuth (Bi), tin (Sn), MoS2, In, and their alloys or composites or some other material that reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction (oxidation) that enables the electrode that functions as an anode to produce electrons. If the electrode is a cathode, the active material 904 can include manganese oxide (Mn02), bismuth oxide (Bi2O3), vanadium oxide (V2O5), lead oxide (PbO), iron oxide (Fe2O3), zinc hexacyanoferrate (ZnHCF), copper hexacyanoferrate (C6CuFeN6), prussian blue (Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), molybdenum diselenide (MoSe2), tungsten disulfide (WS2) or some other material that that reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction (reduction) that enables that electrode that functions as the cathode to accept electrons. Note that the active electrode material chosen for the anode (or cathode) depends on the material in cathode (or anode) because any two conducting materials that have reactions with different standard potentials can form the cathode and anode of an electrochemical cell as the stronger material, the cathode, will be able to take electrons from the weaker material, the anode.

[0091] Turning to FIGURE 9B, FIGURE 9B illustrates example details of the electrode substrate 202, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in FIGURE 9B, the electrode substrate 202 can include the porous material 902 and the active material 904. The porous material 902 can include a conductive fluid 906. The conductive fluid 906 can be conductive ink or some other type of conductive fluid that can help increase the conductivity of the porous material 902.

[0092] In some examples, the conductive fluid 906 is a mixture of a binder, electrically conductive material, and a solvent. The binder can include binder Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), Polyvinyl butyral (PVB), Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), polyvinylpyrrolidone, ethyl cellulose, Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR), Polyethylene oxide) (PEO) or some other similar type binder. The electrically conductive material can include carbon black, conductive graphite, carbon nanotube, activated carbon, amorphous carbon, electrically conductive polymer, metal particle such as zinc, nickel, chromium, copper, aluminum, stainless steel or some other similar type of conductive material, preferably a non-corrosive type of conductive material. The solvent can include N-Methyl-2-Pyrrolidone (NMP), ethanol, acetone, Isopropyl alcohol, 4-hydroxy-4-methyl-2-pentanone, ethyl alcohol, water, or some other similar type of solvent. The conductive fluid 906 may be applied to the porous material 902 using brush painting, spin coating, soak coating, blade coating, dip-coating, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, sputtering, electrophoretic deposition, or some other means of applying the conductive fluid 906 to the porous material 902.

[0093] Turning to FIGURES 10A and 10B, FIGURES 10A and 10B illustrate example details of different current collector frames 206, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. More specifically, FIGURE 10A shows a current collector frame 206b, a current collector frame 206c, a current collector frame 206d, a current collector frame 206e, a current collector frame 206f, and FIGURE 10B shows a current collector frame 206g and a current collector frame 206h. Note that the collector frames 206b-206h are illustrated as examples only and the shape and profile of the current collector frame 206 depends on design choice and design constraints.

[0094] As illustrated in FIGURE 10A, the current collector frame 206b has circular holes that allow for electrolyte penetration and circulation through the porous material. The solid frame region provides an area to apply the conductive adhesive layer to help ensure good electron transfer between the collector frame and the electrode substrate. The current collector frame 206c with square holes for open spaces for electrolyte penetration and circulation through the electrode substrate and help to improve the ionic conductivity. The current collector frame 206d is a solid frame format without holes. The format of the current collector frame 206h without holes can maximize the area for the conductive adhesive layer and can help provide a large surface area for electron collection from the electrode substrate to the current collector frame 206h. The current collector frame 206e is hexagonal shaped that can fit a battery configuration of a hexagonal prism. The circular holes on the current collector frame 206e help to enable electrolyte penetration and circulation inside the electrode substrate. The current collector frame 206f is triangle shaped that can fit a triangular prism battery configuration. The circular holes on the current collector frame 206f help to enable electrolyte penetration and circulation inside the electrode substrate.

[0095] As illustrated in FIGURE 10B, the current collector frame 206g can be folded from a middle portion of the current collector frame 206g to cover both sides of an electrode substrate such that electrons can be collected on both sides of the electrode substrate for higher battery kinetic performance. More specifically, as illustrated in FIGURE 10B, the current collector frame 206g can include a first side 1002a and an opposite second side 1004a. From a relatively flat configuration (e.g., see the current collector frame 206g-l) the second side 1004a of the current collector frame 206g can be folded or bent towards the first side 1002a of the current collector frame 206g (e.g., see the current collector frame 206g-2) to form a sandwich type structure with an electrode substrate (not shown) between the first side 1002a and the second side 1004a of the current collector frame 206g and create an electrode 106 similar to the electrode 106e illustrated in FIGURE 7.

[0096] The current collector frame 206e can have a profile that uses a double diagonal frame shape that can facilitate electron collection at the top of the current collector frame 206e for a relatively short travel distance to a battery terminal. Similar to the current collector frame 206g, the current collector frame 206h can be folded from a middle portion of the current collector frame 206h to cover both sides of an electrode substrate such that electrons can be collected on both sides of the electrode substrate for higher battery kinetic performance. More specifically, as illustrated in FIGURE 10B, the current collector frame 206h can include a first side 1002b and an opposite second side 1004b. From a relatively flat configuration (e.g., see the current collector frame 206h-l) the second side 1004b of the current collector frame 206h can be folded or bent towards the first side 1002b of the current collector frame 206h (e.g., see the current collector frame 206h-2) to form a sandwich type structure with an electrode substrate (not shown) between the first side 1002n and the second side 1004n of the current collector frame 206h and create an electrode 106 similar to the electrode 106e illustrated in FIGURE 7.

[0097] Turning to FIGURE 11, FIGURE 11 illustrates example details of an electrolyte manifold 1102, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. The electrolyte manifold 1102 can be comprised of hollow tubing 1104 and include one or more inlets 1106 and one or more outlets 1108. In an example, the electrolyte manifold 1102 can be comprised plastic including Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA), Nylon (polyamide), Polycarbonate, Polyethylene (PE) Low & High-Density Polyethylene (LDPE & HDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polyurethane (PU), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), or some other similar material.

[0098] The electrolyte (e.g., electrolyte 108) can enter the electrolyte manifold 1102 through the inlet 1106, travel through the hollow tubing 1104 of the electrolyte manifold 1102, and exit through the one or more outlets 1108. The one or more outlets 1108 can be configured to control the direction of flow of the electrolyte as it exits each of the one or more outlets 1108. As illustrated in FIGURE 11, the electrolyte manifold 1102 can have a relatively square shaped profile, however, the electrolyte manifold 1102 can have any profile depending on design choice and design constraints. The hollow tubing 1104 can have a thickness greater than about 0.2 mm. In some examples, the thickness of the hollow tubing 1104 is between about 0.2m and about five (5) mm and ranges therein (e.g., about one (1) mm to about four (4) mm, about two (2) mm to about five (5) mm, about 0.7 mm to about 2.4 mm, etc.). The thickness of the hollow tubing 1104 is at least a thickness that will allow the electrolyte to flow through the electrolyte manifold 1102 and depends on design choice and design constraints.

[0099] Turning to FIGURE 12, FIGURE 12 illustrates the electrolyte manifold 1102 being coupled to the electrode 106e, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. The electrolyte manifold 1102 can be comprised of the hollow tubing 1104 and includes the one or more inlets 1106 and the one or more outlets 1108. As illustrated in FIGURE 12, the electrolyte manifold 1102 is being coupled to the electrode 106e (described with reference to FIGURE 7). The electrode 106e includes the electrode substrate 202, the conductive adhesive 204, and the current collector frames 206a. The electrolyte manifold 1102 can have a profile that matches the profile of the electrode 106e. Note that the electrolyte manifold 1102 can have a profile that matches the profile of other electrodes 106 than what is shown in FIGURE 11, depending on design choice and design configuration.

[00100] Turning to FIGURE 13, FIGURE 13 illustrates the electrolyte manifold 1102 coupled to the electrode 106e, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. The electrolyte manifold 1102 can be comprised of the hollow tubing 1104 and includes the one or more inlets 1106 and the one or more outlets 1108. The electrode 106e includes the electrode substrate 202, the conductive adhesive 204, and the current collector frames 206a. The electrolyte manifold 1102 can have a profile that matches the profile of the electrode 106e. The electrolyte manifold 1102 can be coupled to the electrode 106 using water-proof glue, or some other means of securing the electrolyte manifold 1102 to the electrode 106.

[00101] The electrolyte (e.g., electrolyte 108) can enter the electrolyte manifold 1102 through the inlet 1106, travel through the hollow tubing 1104 of the electrolyte manifold 1102, and exit through the one or more outlets 1108. The one or more outlets 1108 can be configured to control the direction of flow of the electrolyte as it exits each of the one or more outlets 1108 so that the electrolyte is distributed across the electrode substrate 202.

[00102] Turning to FIGURE 14, FIGURE 14 illustrates the electrolyte manifold 1102 coupled to the electrode 106g, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. The electrode 106g can have a profile that is similar to the electrode 108f illustrated in FIGURE 8 except with the electrolyte manifold 1102 located in a middle portion of the electrode. More specifically, a first electrode 106e-l can be on a first side of the electrolyte manifold 1102 and a second electrode 106e-2 can be on a second side of the electrolyte manifold 1102, where the second side of the electrolyte manifold 1102 is opposite the first side of the electrolyte manifold 1102.

[00103] The electrolyte manifold 1102 can be comprised of the hollow tubing 1104 and includes the one or more inlets 1106 and the one or more outlets 1108. The electrode 106e includes include the electrode substrate 202, the conductive adhesive 204, and the current collector frames 206a. The electrolyte manifold 1102 can have a profile that matches the profile of the electrode 106e. The electrode 106e-l includes the electrode substrate 202, the conductive adhesive 204, and the current collector frames 206a. The electrode 106e-2 includes include the electrode substrate 202, the conductive adhesive 204, and the current collector frames 206a. The electrolyte manifold 1102 can have a profile that matches the profile of the electrode 106e-

1 and 106e-2. The electrolyte manifold 1102 can be coupled to the electrodes 106e-l and 106e-

2 using water-proof glue, or some other means of securing the electrolyte manifold 1102 to the electrodes 106e-l and 106e-2.

[00104] The electrolyte (e.g., electrolyte 108) can enter the electrolyte manifold 1102 through the inlet 1106, travel through the hollow tubing 1104 (not referenced) of the electrolyte manifold 1102, and exit through the one or more outlets 1108 (not shown). The one or more outlets 1108 can be configured to control the direction of flow of the electrolyte as it exits each of the one or more outlets 1108 so that the electrolyte is distributed across the electrode substrate 202 of the electrodes 106e-l and 106e-2.

[00105] Turning to FIGURE 15, FIGURE 15 illustrates example details of an electrode 106h, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in FIGURE 15, the electrode 106h can include an electrode substrate 202a and a current collector frame 206b. The electrode substrate 202a interacts with the electrolyte 108 (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. The current collector frame 206b carries the charge or electrons to the electrode 106h or away from the electrode 106h.

[00106] In some examples, the electrode substrate 202a can be coupled to the current collector frame 206b without the conductive adhesive 204. For example, the electrode substrate 202a can be grown or deposited onto the current collector frame 206b. More specifically, the electrode substrate 202a can applied to the current collector frame 206b using coating methods such as wet-chemical reaction or deposing methods including brush painting, spin coating, blade coating, dip-coating, hot-dipping, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, electrophoretic deposition, sputtering, or some other means of applying the electrode substrate 202a to the current collector frame 206b.

[00107] Turning to FIGURE 16, FIGURE 16 illustrates example details of an electrode 106i, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in FIGURE 16, the electrode 1061 can include the electrode substrate 202a, the current collector frame 206b, and a protective layer 1602. The electrode substrate 202a interacts with the electrolyte 108 (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. The current collector frame 206b carries the charge or electrons to the electrode 106i or away from the electrode 106i. The protective layer 1602 can help protect the electrode substrate 202a and/or the current collector frame 206b from the electrolyte 108. The protective layer 1602 can be an ionic conductive layer and include metal oxides, metal nitride, metal carbide, polymers, and carbonaceous materials. The protection layer 1602 can be applied to the electrode substrate 202a with coating methods such as wet-chemical reaction or deposing methods including brush painting, spin coating, blade coating, dip-coating, hot-dipping, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, electrophoretic deposition, sputtering, or some other means of applying the protection layer 1602 to electrode substrate 202a. In some examples, the protective layer 1602 can include one or more polymer binders including alkyd resins, acrylic resin, latex, phenolic resins, urethane resins, epoxy resins, polyester resins, chlorinated rubber, triglycidyl isocyanurate and p-hydroxy alkylamide, and water-proof tapes including kapton tape, butyle tape, duct tape, silicone tape, electrical tape, drywall tape, or gaffer tape.

[00108] Turning to FIGURE 17, FIGURE 17 illustrates example details of an electrode 106j, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in FIGURE 17, the electrode 106j can include an electrode substrate 202b, the current collector frame 206b, and a substrate-electrode interface layer 1702. The electrode substrate 202b interacts with the electrolyte 108 (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. The current collector frame 206b carries the charge or electrons to the electrode 106j or away from the electrode 106j. The substrate-electrode interface layer 1702 provides increased electronic conductivity and conduction surface areas between the substrate and the electrode for higher kinetics as compared to some electrodes without the substrate-electrode interface layer 1702. The substrate-electrode interface layer 1702 can be graphene, amorphous carbon, activated carbon, carbon fiber, carbon nanotubes, metal oxides, electrically conductive oxides, carbides, metal powders, metal fibers, and conductive or non-conductive polymers, or some other material that can increase both surface area and electrical conductivity.

[00109] The substrate-electrode interface layer 1702 can be coupled to the current collector frame 206b using methods including brush painting, spin coating, blade coating, dipcoating, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, electrophoretic deposition, atomic layer deposition, chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, pulsed laser deposition, thermal evaporation, electrodeposition, chemical deposition, sputtering, or some other means of coupling the substrate-electrode interface layer 1702 to the current collector frame 206b. The electrode substrate 202b can be coupled to the substrate-electrode interface layer 1702 using methods brush painting, spin coating, blade coating, dip-coating, electroplating, pulse electroplating, electrodeposition, constant voltage electrodeposition, constant current electrodeposition, pulse electrodeposition, cyclic voltammetric deposition, electrophoretic deposition, atomic layer deposition, chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, pulsed laser deposition, thermal evaporation, electrodeposition, chemical deposition, sputtering, or some other means of coupling the electrode substrate 202b to the substrate-electrode interface layer 1702.

[00110] Turning to FIGURE 18, FIGURE 18 illustrates example details of an electrode 106k, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. As illustrated in FIGURE 18, the electrode 106k can include the electrode substrate 202a, the current collector frame 206b, the protective layer 1602, and the substrate-electrode interface layer 1702. The electrode substrate 202a interacts with the electrolyte 108 (not shown) to undergo a chemical reaction, a reduction-oxidation reaction or more commonly a redox reaction, that involves the exchange of electrons. The current collector frame 206b carries the charge or electrons to the electrode 106k or away from the electrode 106k. The substrate-electrode interface layer 1702 helps to provide improved electronic conductivity and conduction surface areas between the electrode substrate 202a and the current collector frame 206b for higher kinetics as compared to some electrodes without the substrate-electrode interface layer 1702. The protective layer 1602 can help protect the electrode substrate 202a and/or the current collector frame 206b from the electrolyte 108.

[00111] Turning to FIGURE 19, FIGURE 19 illustrates example details of a battery 102b, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. In some examples, the battery 102b is a dry cell battery. The battery 102b can include an outer casing 104a, a plurality of electrodes 1061, an electrolyte 108a, a positive terminal 110a, and a negative terminal 112a. The plurality of electrodes 1061 include at least one anode 118a and at least one cathode 120a. The electrodes 1061 can be similar to the electrodes 106a-106f and 106h-106k described above.

[00112] Turning to FIGURE 20, FIGURE 20 illustrates example details of a battery 102C, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. In some examples, the battery 102c is a button type battery. The battery 102c can include an outer casing 104b, a plurality of electrodes 106m, a positive terminal 110a, a negative terminal 112b, and a separator 1902. The plurality of electrodes 106m include at least one anode 118b and at least one cathode 120b. The separator 1902 is between the cathode and the anode of the battery 102c to avoid an electrical short circuit yet still allow for ion diffusion for charge transfer. The electrolyte is filled in-between the electrodes 106m and soaked in the separator. The electrodes 106m can be similar to the electrodes 106a-106f and 106h-106k described above.

[00113] Turning to FIGURE 21, FIGURE 21 is an example flowchart illustrating possible operations of a flow 2100 that may be associated with enabling a composite electrode structure, in accordance with an embodiment. At 2102, a porous material is dipped into a conductive fluid or coated with a conductive fluid. For example, the porous material 902 can be dipped or coated with the conductive fluid 906. At 2104, the porous material is coupled to a current collector frame. For example, the porous material 902 can be coupled to the current collector frame 206. At 2106, active electrode material is added to the porous material. For example, the active material 904 can be added to the porous material 902.

[00114] Turning to FIGURE 22, FIGURE 22 is an example flowchart illustrating possible operations of a flow 2200 that may be associated with enabling a composite electrode structure, in accordance with an embodiment. At 2202, an electrically conductive adhesive layer is added to a current collector frame. For example, the conductive adhesive 204 can be added to the current collector frame 206. At 2204, porous material is coupled to the electrically conductive adhesive layer on the current collector frame. For example, the porous material 902 can be coupled to the conductive adhesive 204 on the current collector frame 206. At 2206, active electrode material is added to the porous material. For example, the active material 904 can be added to the porous material 902. Note that in some examples the flows 2100 and 2200 can be combined such that the porous material is dipped into a conductive fluid or coated with a conductive fluid, as in 2102 and the porous material that is coated with the conductive fluid is coupled to the electrically conductive adhesive layer on the current collector frame.

[00115] Substantial flexibility is provided by the batteries 102a-102c in that any suitable arrangements, chronologies, configurations, and timing mechanisms may be provided without departing from the teachings of the present disclosure.

[00116] Note that with the examples provided herein, interaction may be described in terms of one, two, three, or more elements. However, this has been done for purposes of clarity and example only. In certain cases, it may be easier to describe one or more of the functionalities by only referencing a limited number of elements. It should be appreciated that the batteries 102a-102c and their teachings are readily scalable and can accommodate a large number of components, as well as more complicated/sophisticated arrangements and configurations. Accordingly, the examples provided should not limit the scope or inhibit the broad teachings of the batteries 102a-102c and as potentially applied to a myriad of other architectures.

[00117] It is also important to note that the operations in the preceding flow diagrams (i.e., FIGURES 21 and 22) illustrate only some of the possible correlating scenarios and patterns that may be executed, some of these operations may be deleted or removed where appropriate, or these operations may be modified or changed considerably without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. In addition, the timing of these operations may be altered considerably. The preceding operational flows have been offered for purposes of example and discussion. Substantial flexibility is provided in that any suitable arrangements, chronologies, configurations, and timing mechanisms may be provided without departing from the teachings of the present disclosure. [00118] Note that with the examples provided herein, interaction may be described in terms of one, two, three, or more elements. However, this has been done for purposes of clarity and example only. In certain cases, it may be easier to describe one or more of the functionalities by only referencing a limited number of elements. It should be appreciated that the batteries 102a-102c and their teachings are readily scalable and can accommodate a large number of components, as well as more complicated/sophisticated arrangements and configurations. Accordingly, the examples provided should not limit the scope or inhibit the broad teachings of batteries 102a-102c and as potentially applied to a myriad of other architectures.

[00119] Although the present disclosure has been described in detail with reference to particular arrangements and configurations, these example configurations and arrangements may be changed significantly without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. Moreover, certain components may be combined, separated, eliminated, or added based on particular needs and implementations. Additionally, although the batteries 102a-102c have been illustrated with reference to particular elements and operations, these elements and operations may be replaced by any suitable architecture, protocols, and/or processes that achieve the intended functionality of the batteries 102a-102c.

[00120] Numerous other changes, substitutions, variations, alterations, and modifications may be ascertained to one skilled in the art and it is intended that the present disclosure encompass all such changes, substitutions, variations, alterations, and modifications as falling within the scope of the appended claims. In order to assist the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) and, additionally, any readers of any patent issued on this application in interpreting the claims appended hereto, Applicant wishes to note that the Applicant: (a) does not intend any of the appended claims to invoke paragraph six (6) of 35 U.S.C. section 112 as it exists on the date of the filing hereof unless the words "means for" or "step for" are specifically used in the particular claims; and (b) does not intend, by any statement in the specification, to limit this disclosure in any way that is not otherwise reflected in the appended claims. OTHER NOTES AND EXAMPLES

[00121] In Example Al, an electrode for a battery can include a current collector frame, an electrode substrate coupled to the current collector frame, where the electrode substrate includes a porous material and active electrode material on the porous material, and an electrically conductive adhesive layer between the current collector frame and the electrode substrate, where the electrically conductive adhesive layer comprises a polymer binder and a conductive filler.

[00122] In Example A2, the subject matter of Example Al can optionally include where the porous material is copper foam, nickel foam, stainless steel foam, titanium foam, carbon felt, carbon cloth, or a carbon paper conductive polymer.

[00123] In Example A3, the subject matter of Example Al can optionally include where the active electrode material comprises one or more of manganese oxide, nickel oxide, vanadium oxide, titanium oxide, iron oxide, zinc metal, lead oxide, or lead.

[00124] In Example A4, the subject matter of Example Al can optionally include where the current collector frame includes one or more materials selected from the group consisting of stainless steel, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), or zinc (Zn).

[00125] In Example A5, the subject matter of Example Al can optionally include where the polymer binder includes epoxy resin, urethane resin, silicone resin, and/or synthetic rubber filled epoxy and the conductive filler includes carbon nanotube, graphite, active carbon, carbon black, carbon power, metal powder, and/or conductive polymer.

[00126] In Example A6, the subject matter of Example Al can optionally include a protective layer to protect the current collector frame and/or the electrode substrate from an electrolyte in a battery.

[00127] In Example A7, the subject matter of Example A6 can optionally include where the protective layer comprises polymer binders including alkyd resins, acrylic resin, latex, phenolic resins, urethane resins, epoxy resins, polyester resins, chlorinated rubber, triglycidyl isocyanurate and p-hydroxy alkylamide, and/or water-proof tapes including kapton tape, butyle tape, duct tape, silicone tape, electrical tape, drywall tape, or gaffer tape. [00128] In Example A8, the subject matter of Example Al can optionally include where the electrically conductive adhesive layer is applied to the current collector frame through dry powder painting or wet painting by dissolving the polymer binder and the conductive filler in a solvent, where the solvent is water, aliphatic and alicyclic hydrocarbons, xylene, toluene, n- butanol, isopropanol, or ketones.

[00129] In Example A9, the subject matter of Example Al can optionally include a conductive fluid, where the conductive fluid includes a binder, electrically conductive material, and a solvent.

[00130] In Example A10, the subject matter of Example Al can optionally include a planar flow manifold, where the manifold is composed of plastic including Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA), Nylon (polyamide), Polycarbonate, Polyethylene (PE) Low & High-Density Polyethylene (LDPE & HDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polyurethane (PU), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC).

[00131] In Example All, the subject matter of any one of Examples A1-A2 can optionally include where the active electrode material comprises one or more of manganese oxide, nickel oxide, vanadium oxide, titanium oxide, iron oxide, zinc metal, lead oxide, or lead.

[00132] In Example A12, the subject matter of any one of Examples A1-A3 can optionally include where the current collector frame includes one or more materials selected from the group consisting of stainless steel, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), or zinc (Zn).

[00133] In Example A13, the subject matter of any one of Examples A1-A4 can optionally include where the polymer binder includes epoxy resin, urethane resin, silicone resin, and/or synthetic rubber fil led epoxy and the conductive filler includes carbon nanotube, graphite, active carbon, carbon black, carbon power, metal powder, and/or conductive polymer.

[00134] In Example A14, the subject matter of any one of Examples A1-A5 can optionally include a protective layer to protect the current collector frame and/or the electrode substrate from an electrolyte in a battery.

[00135] In Example A15, the subject matter of any one of Examples A1-A6 can optionally include where the protective layer comprises polymer binders including alkyd resins, acrylic resin, latex, phenolic resins, urethane resins, epoxy resins, polyester resins, chlorinated rubber, triglycidyl isocyanurate and p-hydroxy alkylamide, and/or water-proof tapes including kapton tape, butyle tape, duct tape, silicone tape, electrical tape, drywall tape, or gaffer tape.

[00136] In Example A16, the subject matter of any one of Examples A1-A7 can optionally include where the electrically conductive adhesive layer is applied to the current collector frame through dry powder painting or wet painting by dissolving the polymer binder and the conductive filler in a solvent, where the solvent is water, aliphatic and alicyclic hydrocarbons, xylene, toluene, n-butanol, isopropanol, or ketones.

[00137] In Example A17, the subject matter of any one of Examples A1-A8 can optionally include a conductive fluid, where the conductive fluid includes a binder, electrically conductive material, and a solvent.

[00138] In Example A18, the subject matter of any one of Examples A1-A9 can optionally include a planar flow manifold, where the manifold is composed of plastic including Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA), Nylon (polyamide), Polycarbonate, Polyethylene (PE) Low & High-Density Polyethylene (LDPE & HDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polyurethane (PU), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC).

[00139] Example AA1 is a battery including a cathode having a first current collector frame and a first electrode substrate coupled to the first current collector frame using an electrically conductive adhesive, where the first electrode substrate includes a porous material and a first active electrode material within the porous material and an anode.

[00140] In Example AA2, the subject matterof Example AA1 can optionally include where the electrically conductive adhesive comprises a polymer binder and a conductive filler.

[00141] In Example AA3, the subject matter of Example AA1 can optionally include the polymer binder includes epoxy resin, urethane resin, silicone resin, and/or synthetic rubber filled epoxy and the conductive filler includes carbon nanotube, graphite, active carbon, carbon black, carbon power, metal powder, and/or conductive polymer.

[00142] In Example AA4, the subject matterof Example AA1 can optionally include where the anode includes a second current collector frame and a second electrode substrate coupled to the second current collector frame, where the second electrode substrate includes a porous material and a second active electrode material within the porous material.

[00143] In Example AA5, the subject matterof Example AA1 can optionally include where the porous material is copper foam, nickel foam, stainless steel foam, titanium foam, carbon felt, carbon cloth, or a carbon paper conductive polymer and the second active electrode material comprises one or more of manganese oxide, nickel oxide, vanadium oxide, titanium oxide, iron oxide, zinc metal, lead oxide, or lead.

[00144] In Example AA6, the subject matter of any one of Examples AA1-AA2 can optionally include where the polymer binder includes epoxy resin, urethane resin, silicone resin, and/or synthetic rubber filled epoxy and the conductive filler includes carbon nanotube, graphite, active carbon, carbon black, carbon power, metal powder, and/or conductive polymer.

[00145] In Example AA7, the subject matter of any one of Examples AA1-AA3 can optionally include where the anode includes a second current collector frame and a second electrode substrate coupled to the second current collector frame, where the second electrode substrate includes a porous material and a second active electrode material within the porous material.

[00146] In Example AA8, the subject matter of any one of Examples AA1-AA4 can optionally include where the porous material is copper foam, nickel foam, stainless steel foam, titanium foam, carbon felt, carbon cloth, or a carbon paper conductive polymer and the second active electrode material comprises one or more of manganese oxide, nickel oxide, vanadium oxide, titanium oxide, iron oxide, zinc metal, lead oxide, or lead.

[00147] Example AAAI is an apparatus including at least one cathode having a plurality of current collector frames and a plurality of electrode substrates, where each of the plurality of the electrode substrates are coupled to at least one current collector frame from the plurality of current collector frames, where each of the plurality of the electrode substrates includes a porous material and an active electrode material within the porous material, at least one anode, and an electrolyte.

[00148] In Example AAA2, the subject matter of Example AAAI can optionally include where the porous material is copper foam, nickel foam, stainless steel foam, titanium foam, carbon felt, carbon cloth, or a carbon paper conductive polymer and the active electrode material comprises one or more of manganese oxide, nickel oxide, vanadium oxide, titanium oxide, iron oxide, zinc metal, lead oxide, or lead.

[00149] In Example AAA3, the subject matter of Example AAAI can optionally include where the battery is an aqueous rechargeable battery.

[00150] In Example AAA4, the subject matter of Example AAAI can optionally include where the battery includes a plurality of cells.

[00151] In Example AAA5, the subject matter of Example AAAI can optionally include an electrically conductive adhesive layer to couple each of the plurality of the electrode substrates to the at least one current collector frame from the plurality of current collector frames.

[00152] In Example AAA6, the subject matter of any one of Examples AAA1-AAA2 can optionally include where the battery is an aqueous rechargeable battery.

[00153] In Example AAA7, the subject matter of any one of Examples AAA1-AAA3 can optionally include where the battery includes a plurality of cells.

[00154] In Example AAA8, the subject matter of any one of Examples AAA1-AAA4 can optionally include an electrically conductive adhesive layer to couple each of the plurality of the electrode substrates to the at least one current collector frame from the plurality of current collector frames.