The present invention relates to a composition comprising a blend of fungal and vegetal oligosaccharides, and its use as a food or feed preparation, and/or nutraceutical composition as well as its use for immune system and metabolic function modulation in animal or human.

BACKGROUND OF INVENTION

Aging of the immune system is closely related to immunosenescence and inflamm- aging.

Immunosenescence is globally characterized by the fact that mature lymphocytes show lesser degree of diversity and lower proliferative response to a stimulation. Inflamm-aging is characterized by increased pro-inflammatory cytokines and acute phase proteins production, and by oxidative stress. Organism and cellular senescences are involved in these mechanisms, but the exposure to pathogens during life may play an important role as well. Indeed, the lifelong antigen load, antigen- specific activation and perpetual replication are a hallmark of aging resulting in an induction of senescent cells with exhausted phenotype and impaired functionality.

Immunosenescence and the age-related changes in lymphocyte function have been observed for decades in humans and mice. Indications of immunosenescence have also been described in primates, dogs, cats, and horses. In humans, numerous cross-sectional studies in young versus old humans have identified phenotypic differences in innate and adaptive parameters. The hallmarks of immunosenescence and inflamm-aging based on literature data are: a reduced ability to respond to new antigens (including vaccine response); the accumulation of T memory cells (“memory inflation”) while decreasing numbers of naive B and T cells and proliferative capacity; the loss of CD4+ T cells and the decrease of the CD4+:CD8+ ratio in the gastrointestinal tract leading to persistent activation of innate immunity (Pawelec, 2014) a low-grade inflammation (inflamm-aging). Hormonal, genetic, epigenetic and environmental factors are involved in immunosenescence, a complex process characterized by a remodeling of the immune system with aging and generally defined as immune insufficiency or failure, resulting in higher risk of infectious diseases, cancer and auto-immune diseases.

Thus, there is a need to supply compositions for their use in preventing or treating the age-related phenomena and to limit the age-related gut microbiota modulation.

Age-related changes in immune functions are also being investigated in dogs as large- animal models for comparable human diseases, but limited information is available.

Studies regarding immunosenescence in dogs have reported similar observations as in humans and rodents. Indeed, elderly dogs also demonstrated changes in immune and metabolic homeostasis, and modulation of microbiota similarly to what is reported in humans and mice (Withers et ah, 2018).

30 to 40% of all dogs with complaints presented to the vet today are senior animals with age-related specific needs (Metzger, 2005). Once a dog has reached senior age, a decline in physical condition, organ function and immune response occurs (Mosier, 1989), with an increased chance of developing chronic conditions such as arthrosis and renal failure (Fortney, 2012).

Like in humans, old dogs are subjected to lipid metabolism changes, cognitive disorders. Furthermore, older dogs may less effectively respond to primary immunization (primo vaccination), which would be performed in this age category of dogs such as for example in the case of Lyme disease vaccination. More specifically, the magnitude of making primary humoral responses to novel antigens may be reduced in senior animals relative to titres achieved in younger dogs (Day, 2010). It is understood that immune and metabolic imbalances mentioned above do not only appear in aging subjects (humans or animal), and the need to supply such composition could be also relevant to modulate immune responses so as to increase the inflammatory reactivity of subjects showing a primary or acquired immune deficiency. In the meantime, the administration of such a composition would be also relevant to limit the extent of inflammatory reactions in subjects whose immune system is too active such as for example in the case of allergic reactions or autoimmune diseases.

Therefore, there is a need to supply a composition that would address immune homeostasis imbalances in a subject in need thereof such as for example elderly humans or elderly animals.

SUMMARY

The inventors address the above shortcomings by supplying a composition for use in modulating in a subject in need thereof. The composition for use according to the invention comprises a fmcto-oligosaccharide composition, and an extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species, said extract comprising mannans, mannan-oligosaccharides, beta 1,3 glucans, chitin, beta 1,6 glucans, or mixtures thereof; the weight ratio of fmcto-oligosaccharide composition to the extract of parietal saccharides being at least 2.

In some embodiments, the subject presents an increased immune response and the composition is for use in reducing or attenuating the subject’s immune response; or the subject presents a decreased immune response and the composition is for use in increasing or boosting the subject’s immune response. According to one embodiment, the composition is for use in preventing or treating immunosenescence; or for use in stimulating the immune response of a subject towards a sequential vaccine administration.

According to another embodiment, the composition is for use in preventing or treating chronic inflammation in a subject in need thereof.

In one embodiment, the at least one Saccharomyces species is at least one Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and/or wherein the at least one Cyberlindnera species is at least one Cyberlindnera jadinii species.

In one embodiment, the extract of parietal saccharides comprises parietal saccharides in an amount ranging from 20 to 80 weight percent based on the total weight of the extract.

In one embodiment, the extract of parietal saccharides from the at least one Cyberlindnera species is in an amount ranging from 5 to 15 dry weight percent based on the total weight of the extract.

In one embodiment, the extract of parietal saccharides comprises parietal saccharides from the at least one Cyberlindnera species in an amount ranging from 10 to 50 dry weight percent in weight relative to the dry weight of the total parietal saccharides of the extract.

In one embodiment, the fmcto-oligosaccharides are short-chain fmcto-oligosaccharides having a polymerization degree ranging from 2 to 6. In one particular embodiment, the fmcto-oligosaccharide composition comprises kestose in an amount from 31 to 43 % w/w, nystose in an amount from 41 to 55% w/w and fmctosyl nystose in an amount from 8 to 22% (w/w), in weight of the total weight of the fmcto-oligosaccharide composition.

In some embodiments, the subject is an elderly subject. According to a second aspect, the invention relates to a composition comprising a fmcto- oligosaccharide composition, and an extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species said extract comprising mannans, mannan-oligosaccharides, beta 1,3 glucans, chitin, beta 1,6 glucans, or mixtures thereof; wherein the weight ratio of fructo-oligosaccharide composition to the extract of parietal saccharides is at least 2, wherein the fructo-oligosaccharides are preferably short- chain fructo-oligosaccharides having a polymerization degree ranging from 2 to 6.

According to a third aspect, the invention also relates to a feed preparation, a food preparation, or a nutraceutical composition comprising the composition according to the invention.

In one embodiment, the feed preparation, the food preparation or the nutraceutical composition comprises at least 0.1 % of the fructo-oligosaccharide composition based on the total weight of the feed/food preparation or the nutraceutical composition and at least 0.01% of the extract of parietal saccharides from the at least one Saccharomyces species and parietal saccharides from the at least one Cyberlindnera species based on the total weight of the feed/food preparation or of the nutraceutical composition.

DEFINITIONS

In the present invention, the following terms have the following meanings:

“Fructo-oligosaccharide” refers to an oligosaccharide of D-fmctose residues linked by b(2 1) bonds with a terminal a(l 2) linked D-glucose. Fructo-oligosaccharides can be obtained from the enzymatic or chemical hydrolysis of sucrose or inulin.

Inulin-derived fructo-oligosaccharides are also referred to as Oligofmctoses. Fructo- oligosaccharides are obtained as a mixture of oligosaccharides with the general structure Glu-Fru _n (GF _n ) and Fru _m (F _m ), with n and m ranging from 1 to 7. The main components of commercial products are kestose (GF2), nystose (GF3), fmctosylnystose (GF4), bifurcose (GF3), inulobiose (F2), inulotriose (F3), and inulotetraose (F4). “Fructosylnystose” refers to the short chain fructo- oligosaccharide beta-D-fructofuranosyl(2- )-beta-D-fmctofuranosyl(2- )-beta-D- fmctofuranosyl (2-^ l)-beta-D-fructofuranosyl(2-^ l)-alpha-D-glucopyranoside, having the CAS number 59432-60-9. “Kestose” refers to the short chain fructo- oligo saccharide beta-D-fmctofuranosyl-(2-^ l)-beta-D-fructofuranosyl alpha-D- glucopyranoside, having the CAS number 12505-31-6. “Nystose” refers to the short chain fmcto-oligosaccharide beta-D-fructofuranosyl(2-^ l)-beta-D-fructofuranosyl (2- )-beta-D-fructofuranosyl(2- )-alpha-D-glucopyranoside, having the CAS number 13133-07-8.

“Oligosaccharide” refers to a saccharide compound containing two or more monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds, typically from 2 to 10 monosaccharide units. - “Short chain oligosaccharide” refers to an oligosaccharide having from 2 to 6 monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds. Thus, short chain oligosaccharides are characterized by a polymerization degree ranging from 2 to 6. In embodiments of the present invention, short chain oligosaccharides are short chain fructo- oligosaccharides having a polymerization degree ranging from 2 to 6, preferably from 3 to 5.

“Parietal saccharides”: refers to the saccharides of a yeast cell wall. Typically, a yeast cell wall extract or extract of parietal oligosaccharides refers to mannan- oligosaccharides, beta 1,3 glucans, beta 1,6 glucans and/or chitin, or mixtures thereof that were extracted from yeast cell walls. The concept of paraprobiotics was proposed in the literature in order to indicate the use of inactivated microbial cells or cell fractions that confer health benefit to the host. In one embodiment, the parietal saccharides fraction according to the invention may also be referred to as a “Paraprobiotic composition” or paraprobiotics. Regarding the use of cell components and metabolites of probiotics, further terms have also been proposed, such as “ghost probiotics” “inactivated probiotics” “non-viable microbial cells,”

“metabolic probiotics” and “postbiotics”.

“Beta glucans” refers to beta-D-glucose polysaccharides naturally occurring in the cell wall, typically the cell wall of yeasts, fungi and plant cells. Beta 1,3 glucans refers to glucans presenting beta- 1,3 beta-glycosidic bonds between the beta-D-glucose monomers. Beta 1,6 glucans refers to glucans presenting beta- 1,6 beta- glycosidic bonds between the beta-D-glucose monomers.

“Chitin” refers to a N- acetyl-glucosamine polysaccharide wherein the N- acetyl- glucosamine monomers are linked with beta 1,4 linkages. - “Mannan-oligosaccharides” or “MOS” designates yeast cell wall oligosaccharides that may be attached to the cell wall proteins as part of -O and -N glycosyl groups and also constitute elements of large a-D-mannose polysaccharides (a-D- “Mannans”), which are built of a-(l,2)- and a-(l,3)- D-mannose branches.

“Nutraceutical” refers to a composition comprising an edible ingredient providing a physiological benefit. A nutraceutical composition is for non-therapeutic use, and relates to comfort. The term “comfort” refers to the feeling of ease or well-being. Especially, a nutraceutical composition may be used for promoting, maintaining and/or improving comfort or for alleviating and/or preventing a discomfort. A nutraceutical composition may be in the form of a nutritional product, such as, for example, a functional food or a food or dietary supplement or a feed supplement.

“Stimulating immune response” refers to the effect relative to induction of immune response within an organism for the purpose of defending against foreign invaders. Stimulating immune response may refer to inducing the number or the ratio of immune cells such as neutrophils, macrophages, and monocytes, and soluble factors such as cytokines and complement. Stimulating immune response may also refer to stimulating the adaptive immune response (immunological memory), allowing a rapid, more robust immune response in the case that the organism ever encounters the same antigen again such as for example in the case of vaccination. “Modulating immune response” refers to the balancing of the immune response cells and soluble factors to a healthy steady-state (immune homeostasis). “Modulating immune response” may also refer to the reduction of pro-inflammatory biomarkers (chronic inflammation). “Modulating metabolic homeostasis” refers to the balancing of the metabolic response i.e., energy, lipid, glucose or protein homeostasis, to the modulation of hormonal response and/or to the change in metabolic pathways like mTOR pathway.

“Elderly subject” designates an aging subject past the stage of maturity. The elderly age is species dependent. For human subjects, societal considerations should also be taken in consideration. In one aspect, an elderly human subject is of at least 55, at least 60 or at least 65 years old. Regarding canine elderly subjects, identifiers such as weight, breed and the state of their organs can also help determine if a pet has reached old age. For example, large dogs will typically age faster than smaller dogs. In most cases, however, dogs can be considered elderly from 5 years old for large breeds and from 8 years for small breeds.

“Dysbiosis” (also called dysbacteriosis) is a microbial imbalance or maladaptation on or inside the body, in particular disbalanced intestinal microbiota. Beneficial microbial colonies compete with other bacterial species for space and resources at the expense of the growth of the latter. “Balancing the microbiota” refers to inducing the growth of the beneficial microbial strains at the expense of non-beneficial strains. Balancing the microbiota in a healthy subject may enforce the subject’s well-being without exerting a therapeutic effect.

“Therapeutically effective amount” means level or amount of the composition that is aimed at, without causing significant negative or adverse side effects to the subject,

(1) delaying or preventing the onset of a disease, disorder, or condition ; (2) slowing down or stopping the progression, aggravation, or deterioration of one or more symptoms of the disease, disorder, or condition; (3) bringing about ameliorations of the symptoms of the disease, disorder, or condition; (4) reducing the severity or incidence of the disease, disorder, or condition; or (5) curing the disease, disorder, or condition related to pathological neovascularization. A therapeutically effective amount may be administered prior to the onset of the disease, disorder, or condition, for a prophylactic or preventive action. Alternatively or additionally, the therapeutically effective amount may be administered after initiation of the disease, disorder, or condition, for a therapeutic action. “Nutraceutically effective amount” means level or amount of the composition that is aimed at, without causing any negative or adverse side effects to the subject, inducing the feeling of ease or well-being, promoting, maintaining and/or improving comfort or for alleviating and/or preventing a discomfort. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The inventors found that the combination of parietal polysaccharides from at least two, or more, yeast species in association with a composition of fructo-oligosaccharides, leads to a balanced microbiome and an enhanced stimulation of animal or human immune responses, even at low inclusion rate. More specifically, the inventors found that the composition of the invention is particularly advantageous in modulating, such as for example, stimulating the immune responses or preventing or treating chronic inflammation in a subject in need thereof, such as for example in elderly subjects.

According to a first aspect, the invention relates to a composition comprising a fructo- oligosaccharide composition, and a yeast extract that is an extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species.

The yeast extracts used in the present invention comprise a blend of parietal fractions, also called paraprobiotics, having a higher percentage of mannan with longer chain lengths (i.e., greater than 50 nm) compared to other yeast sources found on the market. In one embodiment, the extract of parietal saccharides comprises mannan- oligosaccharides, beta 1,3 glucans, chitin and/or beta 1,6 glucans, or a combination thereof.

In one embodiment, the extract of parietal saccharides comprises mannans, mannan- oligosaccharides, glycoproteins, beta 1,3 glucans, chitin and/or beta 1,6 glucans, or a combination thereof. According to a variant, the mannans are complexed to proteins forming glycoproteins. According to a second variant, the mannans are complexed at least partially to proteins forming glycoproteins. According to a third variant, the mannans are partially complexed to proteins forming glycoproteins and partially in a non-complexed (free) form.

In one embodiment, at least 20%, at least 25%, at least 30%, at least 35%, at least 40%, at least 45% of the glycoproteins in the extract are at least 100 nm long. In one embodiment, at least 35%, at least 40%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55% of the glycoproteins in the extract are at least 50 nm long. In one embodiment, at least 45% of the glycoproteins in the extract are at least 100 nm long and at least 55% of the glycoproteins in the extract are at least 50 nm long. In one embodiment, at least 55% of the glycoproteins in the extract are at least 100 nm long and at least 65% of the glycoproteins in the extract are at least 50 nm long.

Typical lengths of mannans in the present invention are 96 nm and 244 nm, for a percentage higher than 25% while being typically 50 nm and around 20% in typical mannan-oligosaccharide products on the market. Furthermore, the yeast fractions used in the current invention are preferably able to stimulate at the same time several immune receptors, namely dectin 1, TLR2 and mannose binding-receptor leading to higher production of cytokines when tested in vitro.

In one embodiment, the at least one Cyberlindnera species is at least one species of Cyberlindnera jadinii. Cyberlindnera jadinii is a yeast that belongs to the phylum Ascomycota, subphylum Saccharomycotina and was identified in the past as a Candida i _ll ills strain. C. jadinii is known in the art, namely due to its use as a source of single-cell protein and for its ability to synthesize a great variety of valuable compounds for the food and pharmaceutical industries. Cyberlindnera species can assimilate several compounds, namely, sugars and organic acids. The robust fermentation characteristics of C. jadinii allow growth in a diversity of substrates such as glucose, arabinose, sucrose, raffinose, and D-xylose and can be easily cultured such as for example in a bioreactor. The up-to date Cyberlindnera jadinii nomenclature encompasses the following strains commercially available and suitable for consumption (Sousa-Silva et ah, 2021, J. Fungi, 7, 36) - C. jadinii ATCC 9950; CBS 5609; DSM 2361; NBRC 0988; NCYC 707; NRRL Y- 900

- C. jadinii CBS 567; NRRL Y- 1509, and

- C. jadinii CBS 621; NRRL Y-7586; ATCC 22023; PYCC 4182.

In a preferred embodiment, the at least one Cyberlindnera species is Cyberlindnera jadinii NRRL Y-900.

In one typical embodiment, the at least one Saccharomyces species is at least one species of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae, also known as brewer’ s yeast, is commonly known in the art. S. cerevisiae also comprises subspecies such as, but not limited to, Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii.

Parietal saccharides of yeasts can be extracted from yeast cell walls by any means known in the art. Once concentrated from the growth medium, the yeast cells are lysed by any number of methods commonly used in the art. These include autolysis, hydrolysis or mechanical means such as freeze-thaw, extrusion and sonication. After lysis, the cell wall material is collected by centrifugation. Optionally the cell wall material may be subjected to hydrolysis such as for example by enzymatic hydrolysis. The cell wall extract may then be purified by a variety of methods known to those in the art, such as for example centrifugation and filtration of the obtained extract. The obtained extract of parietal saccharides may then be dried by any suitable means such as for example freeze-drying.

In one embodiment, the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species comprises carbohydrates in an amount ranging from 40 to 80 percent in dry weight relative to the total weight of the extract. In one embodiment, the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species comprises carbohydrates in an amount ranging from 45 to 70, or 50 to 60, percent in dry weight relative to the total weight of the extract. In one embodiment, the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species comprises proteins in an amount ranging from 20 to 60 percent in dry weight relative to the total weight of the extract. In one embodiment, the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species comprises carbohydrates in an amount ranging from 20 to 45, or 25 to 35 percent in dry weight relative to the total weight of the extract.

In one embodiment, the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species comprises parietal saccharides in an amount ranging from 20 to 80 %, from 20 to 70%, from 30 to 60%, preferably from 30 to 50% weight percent based on the total weight of the extract. In one embodiment, the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species comprises parietal saccharides in an amount ranging from 30 to 35 %, from 35 to 45%, from 40 to 50%, from 45 to 50% in weight percent based on the total weight of the extract. Typically, the parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species are in an amount ranging from 1 to 30 % in dry weight based on the total weight of the extract. In one embodiment, the parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species are in an amount ranging from 5 to 30 % in dry weight based on the total weight of the extract.

In one embodiment, the parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species are in an amount ranging from 5 to 20 % in dry weight based on the total weight of the extract.

In one embodiment, the parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species are in an amount ranging from 5 to 15 % in dry weight based on the total weight of the extract.

Alternatively, the percentage of the parietal saccharides for the at least one Cyberlindnera species can be expressed based on the dry weight of the parietal saccharides that are present in the extract.

In one embodiment, the parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species are in an amount ranging from 3 to 70 %, from 5 to 70 %, from 10 to 70 %, in dry weight percent based on the dry weight of the total parietal saccharides in the extract. In one embodiment, the parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species are in an amount ranging from 3 to 60 %, from 5 to 60 %, from 10 to 60 %, in dry weight percent based on the dry weight of the total parietal saccharides in the extract. In one embodiment, the parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species are in an amount ranging from 10 to 50 %, in dry weight percent based on the dry weight of the total parietal saccharides in the extract.

In one embodiment, the parietal polysaccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species are in an amount ranging from 10 to 50% dry weight percent based on the total weight of parietal polysaccharides in the extract; and the parietal polysaccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and parietal polysaccharides from at least one Saccharomyces species are in an amount ranging from 30 to 60 weight percent based on the total weight of the extract.

Fructo-oligosaccharides naturally occur in a number of edible plants such as onions, garlic and asparagus. They are produced commercially in one of two ways, either from sucrose, using fungal fructosyltransferase, or the partial hydrolysis of inulin. Described simply, fructo-oligosaccharides of inulin-type oligosaccharides, consist of b- (2-1) linkages of -fructose, with a terminal D-glucosyl. On the contrary, fructo- oligosaccharides derived from sucrose, typically represented by GF _n , with n= 2-6 in short- chain fructo-oligosaccharides (scFOS), are linear fructose oligomers polymers (G representing a glucopyranosyl moiety and F _n representing n fructofuranosyl moieties). In one preferred embodiment, the fructo-oligosaccharides according to the invention are sucrose derived. In a further preferred embodiment, the fructo-oligosaccharides are short- chain fructo-oligosaccharides (ScFOS). ScFOS are generally produced from sucrose by an enzymatic or fermentation process (JP-A-56- 154967 JP-B-59-53834 and JP 61- 268190). ScFOS are notably commercialized under the trademark Actilight®, Profeed®, Meioligo® or Nutraflora®.

Short chain fructo-oligosaccharides according to the present invention comprise fructo- oligosaccharides with a polymerization degree ranging from 2 to 6. According to one embodiment, short chain fructo-oligosaccharides according to the present invention comprise fructo-oligosaccharides with a polymerization degree ranging from 3 to 5. In one embodiment, the fructo-oligosaccharides are selected from a group consisting of kestose, nystose, fmctosylnystose and mixtures thereof. In one embodiment, fructo- oligo saccharide composition comprises kestose, nystose and fmctosyl-nystose. In one embodiment, fructo-oligosaccharide composition consists of kestose, nystose and fmctosylnystose.

In one embodiment, the fructo-oligosaccharide composition comprises at least 60 %, at least 70 %, at least 80% or at least 90% of fructo-oligosaccharides, in weight of the fructo- oligosaccharide composition. In one embodiment, the fructo-oligosaccharide composition comprises at least 97 %, at least 98 %, at least 99% or 100% of fructo- oligosaccharides, in weight of the fructo-oligosaccharide composition.

In one embodiment, the fructo-oligosaccharide composition comprises:

- kestose in an amount from 31 to 43 % w/w,

- nystose in an amount from 41 to 55% w/w and

- fmctosyl-nystose in an amount from 8 to 22% (w/w), in weight of the fructo- oligosaccharide composition.

In one embodiment, the fructo-oligosaccharide composition comprises a mixture of kestose, nystose and fmctosyl-nystose in 37 % (w/w), 53% (w/w) and 10% (w/w) respectively, in weight of the fructo-oligosaccharide composition.

In one embodiment the fructo-oligosaccharide composition is the composition marketed under the tradename Profeed® (Beghin-Meiji).

The composition according to the invention may be obtained by any means suitable for mixing a composition comprising fructo-oligosaccharides (or fructo-oligosaccharide composition), according to any of the above embodiments, with an extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species, according to any of the above embodiments.

In another embodiment, the weight ratio of the fructo-oligosaccharide composition, to the extract of parietal saccharides is at least 2, at least 3, at least 4, at least 5, at least 6, at least 7, at least 8, at least 9, at least 10. According to one embodiment, the weight ratio of the fructo-oligosaccharide composition, according to any of the above embodiments, to the extract of parietal saccharides, according to any of the above embodiments, is from 2 to 30. In one embodiment, the weight ratio of the fructo-oligosaccharide composition, to the extract of parietal saccharides is from 2 to 29, from 2 to 28, from 2 to 27, from 2 to 26, from 2 to 25, from 2 to 24, from 2 to 23, from 2 to 22, from 2 to 21, from 2 to 20, from 2 to 19, from 2 to 18, from 2 to 17, from 2 to 16, from 2 to 15, from 2 to 14, from 2 to 13, from 2 to 12, from 2 to 11, from 3 to 30, from 3 to 29, from 3 to 28, from 3 to 27, from 3 to 26, from 3 to 25, from 3 to 24, from 3 to 23, from 3 to 22, from 3 to 21, from 3 to 20, from 3 to 19, from 3 to 18, from 3 to 17, from 3 to 16, from 3 to 15, from 3 to 14, from 3 to 13, from 3 to 12, from 3 to 11, from 4 to 30, from 4 to 29, from 4 to 28, from 4 to 27, from 4 to 26, from 4 to 25, from 4 to 24, from 4 to 23, from 4 to 22, from 4 to 21, from 4 to 20, from 4 to 19, from 4 to 18, from 4 to 17, from 4 to 16, from 4 to 15, from 4 to 14, from 4 to 13, from 4 to 12, from 4 to 11, from 5 to 30, from 5 to 29, from 5 to 28, from 5 to 27, from 5 to 26, from 5 to 25, from 5 to 24, from 5 to 23, from 5 to 22, from 5 to 21, from 5 to 20, from 5 to 19, from 5 to 18, from 5 to 17, from 5 to 16, from 5 to 15, from 5 to 14, from 5 to 13, from 5 to 12, from 5 to 11, from 6 to 30, from 6 to 29, from 6 to 28, from 6 to 27, from 6 to 26, from 6 to 25, from 6 to 24, from 6 to 23, from 6 to 22, from 6 to 21, from 6 to 20, from 6 to 19, from 6 to 18, from 6 to 17, from 6 to 16, from 6 to 15, from 6 to 14, from 6 to 13, from 6 to 12, from 6 to 11, from 7 to 30, from 7 to 29, from 7 to 28, from 7 to 27, from 7 to 26, from 7 to 25, from 7 to 24, from 7 to 23, from 7 to 22, from 7 to 21, from 7 to 20, from 7 to 19, from 7 to 18, from 7 to 17, from 7 to 16, from 7 to 15, from 7 to 14, from 7 to 13, from 7 to 12, from 7 to 11, from 8 to 30, from 8 to 29, from 8 to 28, from 8 to 27, from 8 to 26, from 8 to 25, from 8 to 24, from 8 to 23, from 8 to 22, from 8 to 21, from 8 to 20, from 8 to 19, from 8 to 18, from 8 to 17, from 8 to 16, from 8 to 15, from 8 to 14, from 8 to 13, from 8 to 12, from 8 to 11, from 9 to 30, from 9 to 29, from 9 to 28, from 9 to 27, from 9 to 26, from 9 to 25, from 9 to 24, from 9 to 23, from 9 to 22, from 9 to 21, from 9 to 20, from 9 to 19, from 9 to 18, from 9 to 17, from 9 to 16, from 9 to 15, from 9 to 14, from 9 to 13, from 9 to 12, from 9 to 11.

In one embodiment, the weight ratio of the fructo-oligosaccharide composition, to the extract of parietal saccharides is from 5 to 30, from 5 to 25, from 5 to 20. In one embodiment, the weight ratio of the fructo-oligosaccharide composition, to the extract of parietal saccharides is from 5 to 15, from 8 to 12, from 9 to 11. In one specific embodiment, the weight ratio of the fmcto-oligosaccharide composition, to the extract of parietal saccharides is about 10.

The composition according to the invention can be, without being limited to, a feed or food preparation, a food or feed supplement, a nutraceutical composition, and the like.

In one embodiment, the composition comprises: at least 0.05 % of the fructo-oligosaccharides composition, as described above, and at least 0.005 % of the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species, as described above, in weight relative to the total weight of the composition.

In one embodiment, the composition comprises: at least 0.05 % of the fructo-oligosaccharides composition, as described above, and at least 0.005 % of the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species, as described above, in weight relative to the total weight of the composition, wherein the extract of parietal saccharides comprises mannans, mannan-oligosaccharides, beta 1,3 glucans, chitin, beta 1,6 glucans, or mixtures thereof; wherein the weight ratio of fmcto-oligosaccharide composition to the extract of parietal saccharides is at least 2.

In one embodiment, the composition comprises: - at least 0.1 %, at least 0.2 %, or at least 0.3 %; of the fructo-oligosaccharides composition, as described above, and at least 0.01 %, at least 0.02 %, or at least 0.03 %, of the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species, as described above, in weight relative to the total weight of the composition. In one embodiment, the composition comprises: at least 0.5 % of the fructo-oligosaccharides composition, as described above, and at least 0.05 %, of the extract of parietal saccharides at least one Cyberlindnera species from and at least one Saccharomyces species, as described above, in weight relative to the total weight of the composition. In one embodiment, the composition comprises: at least 0.5 % of the fructo-oligosaccharides composition, as described above, and at least 0.05 % of the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera jadinii species and at least one Saccharomyces, typically Saccharomyces cerevisiae species, as described above, in weight relative to the total weight of the composition.

In one embodiment, the composition comprises: at least 0.8 % of the fructo-oligosaccharides composition, as described above, and at least 0.08 % of the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera jadinii species and at least one Saccharomyces, typically Saccharomyces cerevisiae species, as described above, in weight relative to the total weight of the composition.

In one embodiment, the composition comprises: from 0.8 % to 1.5 % of the fructo-oligosaccharides composition, as described above, and about 0.08 % to 0.15% of the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species, as described above, in weight relative to the total weight of the composition.

In one embodiment, the composition comprises: from 0.8 % to 1.5 % of the fructo-oligosaccharides composition, as described above, preferably the fructo-oligosaccharides being short-chain fructo-oligosaccharides, and - from about 0.08 % to about 0.15% of the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species, as described above, preferably from at least one Cyberlindnera jadinii species and at least one Saccharomyces cerevisiae species, in weight relative to the total weight of the composition, wherein the extract of parietal saccharides comprises mannans, mannan- oligosaccharides, beta 1,3 glucans, chitin, beta 1,6 glucans, or mixtures thereof; wherein the weight ratio of fructo-oligosaccharide composition to the extract of parietal saccharides is at least 2.

In one embodiment, the composition comprises: from 0.9 % to 1.2 % of the fructo-oligosaccharides composition, as described above, and about 0.09 % to 0.12% of the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera jadinii species and at least one Saccharomyces cerevisiae species, as described above, in weight relative to the total weight of the composition.

In one specific embodiment, the composition is suitable for small animals such as rodents and small carnivorous mammals, and comprises: from 8 % to 12 % of the fructo-oligosaccharides composition, as described above, and about 0.8 % to 1.2 % of the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera jadinii species and at least one Saccharomyces cerevisiae species, as described above, in weight relative to the total weight of the composition.

The composition according to the invention can be formulated in the form of a food preparation, a feed preparation, a nutraceutical or a pharmaceutical formulation.

Thus, according to a second aspect, the invention relates to a feed or food preparation comprising the composition as described in any one of the above embodiments. Any embodiments disclosed above in relation to the composition apply similarly to the feed or food preparation according to the invention.

The feed or food preparation comprises the composition of fructo-oligosaccharides, as described above, and the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species, as described above. The feed or food preparation may further comprise a feed or food base respectively that ensures the nutritive elements for the subject that ingest such feed or food composition. The feed or food base typically comprises proteins of plant or animal source, carbohydrates, lipids, fibers, vitamins and/or minerals. “Feed” or “fodder” refers to solid or semi-solid dietetic compositions for animal (other than human) consumption, which do not require additional nutrient intake (complete diet). In one indicative embodiment, the feed composition is for fish, shrimp, calf or piglet and domestic animals such as dogs and cats. In one embodiment the feed composition is a pet food composition. In one typical embodiment the feed composition of the invention is for dogs.

In one embodiment, the feed preparation are feed kibbles.

In one typical embodiment, the feed preparation further comprises proteins, carbohydrates, fat, minerals, optionally fibers and/or vitamins. Typically, any protein- source known in the art can be used such as for example dehydrated chicken or dried eggs. Typically, any carbohydrate source known in the art can be used, such as for example rice, rice flour, wheat and/or wheat flour, corn and com/flour. In one embodiment, the fat is animal fat and/or plant-oil fat. In one embodiment, the feed preparation further comprises probiotics such as live brewer’s yeast.

In one embodiment, the feed preparation further comprises fibers such as cellulose. In one embodiment, the feed composition further comprises emulsifying agents such as lecithin.

“Food” refers to liquid (i.e. drink), solid or semi-solid dietetic preparations for human consumption, especially total food compositions, which do not require additional nutrient intake or food supplement compositions.

The present composition may be incorporated in any of the food or feed base preparations above with methods commonly known in the art such as mixing of the food/feed ingredients with the composition of the present invention in order to obtain the food/feed composition according to the invention.

In one embodiment, the feed or food preparation comprises: at least 0.05 % of the fructo-oligosaccharides composition, as described above, and at least 0.005 % of the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species, as described above, in weight relative to the total weight of the feed or food composition.

In one embodiment, the feed or food preparation comprises: at least 0.1 %, at least 0.2 %, or at least 0.3 % of the fructo-oligosaccharides composition, as described above, and at least 0.01%, at least 0.02%, or at least 0.03%, of the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species, as described above, in weight relative to the total weight of the feed or food composition.

In one embodiment, the feed or food composition comprises: - at least 0.5 % of the fructo-oligosaccharides composition, as described above, and at least 0.05% of the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species, as described above, in weight relative to the total weight of the feed or food composition.

In one embodiment, the feed or food composition comprises: - at least 0.1 %, at least 0.2 %, or at least 0.3 %; of the fructo-oligosaccharides composition, as described above, and at least 0.01%, at least 0.02%, or at least 0.03%, of the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species, as described above, in weight relative to the total weight of the feed or food composition, the weight ratio of the fructo-oligosaccharide composition to the extract of parietal saccharides ranging from 5 to 15, from 8 to 12, from 9 to 11.

In one embodiment, the feed or food composition comprises: at least 0.5 % of the fructo-oligosaccharides composition, as described above, and at least 0.05% of the extract of parietal saccharides from Cyberlindnera jadinii and at least one Saccharomyces species, as described above, in weight relative to the total weight of the feed or food composition, and the weight ratio of the fructo-oligosaccharide composition to the extract of parietal saccharides is from 5 to 15, from 8 to 12, from 9 to 11, preferably about 10.

Alternatively, the invention refers to a food or feed supplement comprising the fructo- oligosaccharides composition, as described above, and the extract of parietal saccharides from at least one Cyberlindnera species and at least one Saccharomyces species, as described above.

By “food supplement” or “feed supplement”, is meant a foodstuff having the purpose of completing normal food or feed diet and exert a nutritional or physiological effect, when they are taken alone or as a combination in small amounts. Food or feed supplement compositions do not completely replace nutrient intake by other means.

By “nutraceutical” or “functional” food, is meant a foodstuff which contains ingredients having beneficial effects for health or capable of improving physiological functions without exerting a therapeutic effect. Thus, the use of such “nutritional food” should be understood as a non-therapeutic use.

Food or feed supplement compositions may be fiber-based and/or plant extract and/or vitamin-based products enriched with the composition of the invention.

The food supplement may be in the form of tablets, gels, powders, capsules, drinks or energy bars. For example, the composition may be in the form of a powder packed in a sachet which can be dissolved in water, fruit juice, milk or another beverage.

In one embodiment, the food supplement comprises the composition according to the invention in association with at least one nutraceutically acceptable excipient. By "nutraceutically acceptable" is meant that the ingredients of a food supplement composition are compatible with each other and not deleterious to the subject to which it is administered. Indicative nutraceutically acceptable excipients are selected from binders, bulking agents, film forming agents, encapsulating agents/materials, wall/shell materials, matrix compounds, coatings, emulsifiers, surface active agents, solubilizing agents (oils, fats, waxes, lecithins etc.), adsorbents, carriers, fillers, dispersing agents, wetting agents, processing aids (solvents), flowing agents, taste masking agents, weighting agents, jellifying agents, gel forming agents, antioxidants and antimicrobials.

The feed supplement may be in the form of tablets, powders or capsules. For example, the feed supplement composition may be in the form of a powder to be dispersed in the every-day use feed composition. According to a third aspect, the invention relates to the composition described according to any one of the above embodiments, for its use in balancing the microbiota of a healthy subject, typically as a prophylactic measure. More and more evidence suggest that gut microbiota evolves with age and is a crossroad for immune, inflammation and metabolic homeostasis of the host (Badal et ah, 2020; Pellanda et ah, 2021). Gut microbes can communicate with the brain and modulate behavior via the gut-brain axis through neural, immune and hormonal mediators. As an example, translocation of microbiome-derived lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to the bloodstream (metabolic endotoxemia) is associated with a significantly increased risk of cardiovascular diseases and with modulation of glucose homeostasis.

Age-related changes in pro-inflammatory status resulting in inflamm-aging increases the propensity for chronic diseases, metabolic disorders, diabetes, cardio-vascular diseases, neuro-degenerative diseases, cognitive decline, and/or frailty.

Thus, the composition as described above may be a nutraceutical, feed or food composition for non-therapeutic use, and relates to comfort in association with the aged- related pro-inflammatory status.

In one embodiment, balancing the microbiota refers to increasing the ratio of the beneficial microbial strains’ population to the population of non-beneficial-microbial strains. It should be understood that increasing the ratio refers to the effect of the use according to the invention compared to said ratio in a control subject, typically following a standard diet that does not comprise the composition according to the invention.

In one embodiment, balancing microbiota refers to a greater presence of genes related to B -vitamins metabolism and to short-chain fatty acid production, mainly propionate production in the gut.

In one embodiment, modulating metabolic homeostasis refers to the modulation of the serum metabolome of elderly subjects and to the modulation of energy metabolism notably through the mTOR pathway. In one embodiment, the subject is a human subject. In one embodiment, the subject is a non-human animal. In one embodiment, the subject is a dog, a cat or a rodent. In one embodiment, the subject is a rodent such as a mouse, a rat, a hamster or a small carnivorous mammal such as a ferret. In one embodiment, the subject is a dog or a cat. In one embodiment, when the subject is a dog, the beneficial microbial strains and taxa thereof are selected from the group consisting of Faecaliacterium prausnitzii, Clostridium hiranonis, Bifidobacteria, Lactobacilli, Megamonas sp., Fusobacteria, Bacteroidetes, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, when the subject is a dog, the beneficial microbial strains are selected from the Veillonellaceae and/or Fusobacteriaceae families. In one embodiment, when the subject is a dog, the beneficial microbial strains are selected from the genera of Fusobacterium, Phascolarctobacterium and/or Megamonas. In one embodiment, when the subject is a dog, the beneficial microbial strains are selected from the genus Megamonas. In one embodiment, when the subject is a dog, the non-beneficial microbial strains are selected from the group consisting of Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli, Salmonella sp., bacteria of the Enterobacteriaceae family or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, when the subject is dog, the non-beneficial microbial strains are selected from the Enterobacteriaceae family. In one embodiment, when the subject is a human, the beneficial microbial strains and taxa thereof are selected from the group consisting of Faecaliacterium prausnitzii, Bifidobacteria, Lactobacilli, Prevotella sp., Bacteroides sp., Blautia sp., Akkermansia sp., Eubacterium rectale, butyrate-producing bacteria, Clostridium cluster IV, Clostridium cluster XIV or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, when the subject is a huma^ the non-beneficial microbial strains are selected from the group consisting of Clostridium difficile, Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus thermophilus, Staphylococcus aureus or a combination thereof.

In one embodiment, when the subject is a cat, the beneficial microbial strains and taxa thereof are selected from the group consisting of Bifidobacteria, Lactobacilli, Bacteroides sp., butyrate-producing bacteria or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, when the subject is a cat, the non-beneficial microbial strains are selected from the group consisting of Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli or a combination thereof.

In one embodiment, when the subject is a mouse, the beneficial microbial strains and taxa thereof are selected from the group consisting of Bacteroidetes sp., Bacteroides sp., Muribaculaceae, Alistipes (family Rikenellaceae), Duncaniella sp., Bifidobacteria, Lactobacilli, Akkermansia sp., Prevotella sp. or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, when the subject is a mouse, the non-beneficial microbial strains and taxa thereof are selected from the group consisting of Firmicutes, Anaerotruncus sp., Oscillibacter sp., Flelicobacter sp., Escherichia coli, or a combination thereof sp. In some embodiments, the composition is for decreasing the relative abundance of Firmicutes in the gut microbiota of mice compared to non- supplemented mice. In some another embodiment, the composition is for increasing the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria in the gut microbiota of mice compared to non- supplemented mice. In some another embodiment, the composition is for increasing the relative abundance of Bacteroides and Bifidobacteriaceae in the gut microbiota of mice compared to non-supplemented mice. It is understood that non-supplemented mice designate mice that do not having ingested the composition or the feed composition according to the invention.

In some embodiments, the subject is a healthy subject, typically an elderly subject. In one embodiment, the subject is an elderly subject. According to one embodiment, the subject is an elderly human of at least 55, at least 60 or at least 65 years old.

In one embodiment, the subject is an elderly dog of at least 5, at least 6, or at least 7 years old. In one embodiment, the subject is an elderly dog aged between 5 and 10 years old. In one embodiment, the subject is an elderly dog of at least 5 years old for large breeds and at least 8 years old for small breeds (Fortney et al., 2012).

According to a fourth aspect, the invention relates the composition described according to any one of the above embodiments, for use as a drug.

As previously discussed, the immune and metabolic imbalances do not appear only in the case of aging subjects (humans or animal), but also in subjects presenting a primary or acquired immune deficiency as well as in subjects whose immune system is too active.

Thus, in one embodiment, the composition is for use in modulating immune responses in a subject in need thereof. The term "modulating" when used herein will be understood to refer to any measurable increase or reduction of the immune response. As set forth, depending on the subject’s immune status: - according to a first embodiment, modulating the immune responses of a subject in need thereof, refers to stimulating, increasing or boosting the immune responses of the subject, and/or increasing the biological markers relative to an attenuated immune response of the subject, such as for example in the case of immunosuppressed subjects, immunosenescent subjects or in the case of vaccine immune response stimulation.

- according to a second embodiment, modulating the immune responses of a subject refers to attenuating or reducing the immune responses of the subject, and/or attenuating or reducing the biological markers relative to an increased immune response or overreaction of the subject, such as for example in the case of allergies; chronic inflammation, bacterial, viral or parasitic infections; or autoimmune immune overreactions.

Thus, according to the first embodiment, the subject presents an increased immune response and the composition is for use in modulating immune response by reducing or attenuating the subject’s immune response. In some embodiments, subjects presenting increased immune response can be selected from subjects suffering from chronic inflammation, sarcopenia and/or bone loss, dementia, Parkinson’s disease, pregnancy inflammation, autoimmune diseases such as ulcerative colitis or atopic dermatitis, chronic pulmonary diseases such as asthma or chronic pulmonary disease, cancer and/or metabolic disorders such as metabolic syndrome, type II diabetes or atherosclerosis.

According to the second embodiment, the subject presents a decreased immune response and the composition is for use in modulating immune response by increasing or boosting the subject’s immune response.

In some embodiments, stimulating or attenuating the immune responses and/or the corresponding biological markers of a subject are expressed relative to the immune response and/or the corresponding biological markets of the subject before the administration of the composition according to the invention. In some embodiments, the immune responses and/or the corresponding biological markers of a subject are stimulated or the attenuated by at least 2%, at least 5%, at least 10%, or at least 20% compared to the immune response and/or the corresponding biological markets of the subject before the administration of the composition according to the invention. In some embodiments, the immune responses and/or the corresponding biological markers of a subject are measured by Elisa or flow cytometry.

According to some embodiments, modulating immune response with the composition of the invention makes the composition suitable for use in preventing or treating conditions relating to decreased immune response such as immunosenescence; in stimulating the immune response of a subject towards a sequential vaccine administration, or suitable for use in preventing or treating medical conditions relative to increased immune response such as chronic inflammation, or an inflammatory overreaction relative to an infection an allergy or an autoimmune disease.

Thus, in some embodiments, the subject suffers from allergic reactions. In some embodiments, the subject suffers from an autoimmune disease, typically an autoimmune disease presenting an immune system overreaction. In some embodiments, the subject suffers from an autoimmune disease selected from psoriasis, ulcerative colitis or atopic dermatitis. In some embodiments, the subject suffers from a bacterial, a viral, or a parasitic infection, typically a bacterial infection such as for example Mycobacterium turberculosis. In some embodiments, the subject suffers from a cancer. In some embodiments, the composition of the invention is for treating the symptom of the immune system dysregulation and not the underlying cause of the disease such as the allergy, the infection, or the autoimmune disease.

In one embodiment, modulating, typically stimulating immune responses concerns the prevention and/or the treatment of immunosenescence in a subject in need thereof, typically an elderly subject. In one embodiment, modulating and/or stimulating immune responses concerns the prevention and/or the treatment of inflammation related to the age of an elderly subject (inflamm- aging).

In one embodiment, the composition is for use in preventing and/or treating chronic inflammation in a subject in need thereof.

In an embodiment, the composition is for increasing the stimulation of the inflammatory response in a subject in need thereof compared to a non-supplemented subject. In some embodiment, the composition is for increasing the serum concentration of 1122 in a subject in need thereof compared to a non-supplemented subject. In some another embodiment, the composition is for increasing the serum concentration of I117A in a subject in need thereof compared to a non-supplemented subject. In another embodiment, the composition is for decreasing the stimulation of the inflammatory response in a subject in need thereof compared to a non-supplemented subject. In some embodiment, the composition is for decreasing the 116:1110 ratio measured in the serum of a subject in need thereof compared to a non-supplemented subject. In some embodiment, the composition is for increasing the 1110:116 ratio measured in the serum of a subject in need thereof compared to a non-supplemented subject. In some another embodiment, the composition is for decreasing the 116:1110 ratio and/or for increasing the 1110:116 ratio measured in the serum of a subject in need thereof compared to a non-supplemented subject by diminishing the 116 serum concentration and/or increasing the 1110 serum concentration. In some embodiment, the composition is for decreasing the I117A:I122 ratio measured in the serum of a subject in need thereof compared to a non-supplemented subject. In some embodiment, the composition is for increasing the I122:I117A ratio measured in the serum of a subject in need thereof compared to a non-supplemented subject. In some another embodiment, the composition is for decreasing the I117A:I122 ratio and/or for increasing the I122:I117A ratio measured in the serum of a subject in need thereof compared to a non-supplemented subject by diminishing the I117A serum concentration and/or increasing the 1122 serum concentration. In another embodiment, the composition is for decreasing the Thl7/Treg blood lymphocytes ratio of a subject in need thereof compared to a non-supplemented subject. In another embodiment, the composition is for increasing the Treg/Thl7 blood lymphocytes ratio of a subject in need thereof compared to a non- supplemented subject. In some another embodiment, the composition is for decreasing the Thl7/Treg blood lymphocytes or increasing the Treg/Thl7 blood lymphocytes ratio of a subject in need thereof compared to a non-supplemented subject by diminishing the Thl7 lymphocytes concentration and/or increasing the Treg lymphocytes concentration. It is understood that a non-supplemented subject designates a subject to whom the composition according to the invention has not been administered. In one embodiment, the non-supplemented subject refers to the same subject before the administration of the composition according to the invention. In one embodiment, the composition is for decreasing total serum IgA. In one embodiment, the composition is for decreasing total serum IgA without decreasing IgG.

In one embodiment, the composition is for preventing or/treating immunosenescence. In one embodiment, the composition is for raising the CD4+:CD8+ T-lymphocytes ratio in a subject in need thereof.

In one embodiment, the composition is for increasing the adaptative immune response of a subject in need thereof compared to a non-supplemented subject. In another embodiment, the composition is for raising the proportion of TLR4 immune-positive T4 lymphocytes in a subject in need thereof compared to a non-supplemented subject. In another embodiment, the composition is for raising the proportion of TLR2 immune positive T8 lymphocytes in a subject in need thereof compared to a non-supplemented subject. It is understood that a non-supplemented subject designates a subject to whom the composition according to the invention has not been administered. In one embodiment, the non-supplemented subject refers to the same subject before the administration of the composition according to the invention.

In another embodiment, the composition as defined in the preceding embodiments can be used in improving animal or human health and/or resistance to infections such as for example Candida albicans, Leishmania donovani, Salmonella spp, or Citrobacter spp infections. In yet another embodiment, the composition as defined in the preceding embodiments can be used in improving animal or human resistance to pathogenic microorganisms.

Lastly, the composition as defined in the preceding embodiments can be used for stimulating the immune response towards a sequential vaccine administration. In some embodiments, the composition is administered before and/or after a vaccine administration. In some embodiments, the composition is administered before and after a vaccine administration.

In one embodiment, the vaccine is a vaccine for a non-human subject as defined herein above. In one embodiment, the vaccine is a vaccine against, without being limited to, Bordetella, Borrelia burgdorferi, Canine Distemper, Canine Hepatitis (Adenovirus), Canine Influenza H3N8, Canine Parainfluenza, Canine Parvovirus, Coronavirus, Giardia, Heartworm, Leptospirosis, Lyme Disease, Rabies, Rattlesnake, Panleukopenia (Feline Distemper), Feline Calicivims, Feline Herpesvirus type I (Rhinotracheitis), Feline Leukemia vims, Chlamydophila Felis or Feline Immunodeficiency vims infections and combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the vaccine refers to the first vaccine (primo- vaccination) or an ulterior vaccine (booster).

In one embodiment, the vaccine is a vaccine for a human subject. In one embodiment, the vaccine is a vaccine against, without being limited to, Seasonal Influenza, Helicobacter pylori, Adenovims, Anthrax, Cholera, Coronavirus, Diphtheria, Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, Haemophilus influenzae type b, Human Papillomavirus, Japanese Encephalitis, Measles, Meningococcal, Mumps, Pertussis, Pneumococcal, Polio, Rabies, Rotavims, Rubella, Shingles, Smallpox, Tetanus, Tuberculosis, Typhoid Fever, Varicella or Yellow Fever.

In yet another embodiment, the composition as defined in the preceding embodiments can be used in improving the metabolic homeostasis of a subject. In one embodiment, the composition is for use in reducing lipidemia, glycemia and/or blood cholesterol. In one embodiment, the composition is for preventing and/or treating metabolic inflammation. In one embodiment, the composition is for enhancing the insulin secretion in a subject in need thereof. In one embodiment, the composition is for preventing and/or treating insulin resistance in a subject in need thereof.

It can thus be understood that the invention further relates to a pharmaceutical composition comprising the composition as described above. Indeed, the composition may be formulated as a pharmaceutical composition, preferably an oral pharmaceutical composition. In one embodiment, the oral pharmaceutical composition is selected from tablets, gel capsules, powders, granules and oral suspensions or solutions.

In one embodiment, the oral pharmaceutical composition comprises the composition of the invention in association with at least one pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is selected from protective hydrocolloids (such as gums, proteins, modified starches), binders, film forming agents, encapsulating agents/materials, wall/shell materials, matrix compounds, coatings, emulsifiers, surface active agents, solubilizing agents (oils, fats, waxes, lecithins etc.), adsorbents, carriers, fillers, co-compounds, dispersing agents, wetting agents, processing aids (solvents), flowing agents, taste masking agents, weighting agents, jellifying agents, gel forming agents, antioxidants and antimicrobials. The oral pharmaceutical composition may also contain conventional pharmaceutical additives and adjuvants, excipients and diluents, including, but not limited to, water, gelatin of any origin, vegetable gums, ligninsulfonate, talc, sugars, starch, gum arabic, vegetable oils, polyalkylene glycols, flavoring agents, preservatives, stabilizers, emulsifying agents, buffers, lubricants, colorants, wetting agents, fillers, and the like. In all cases, such further components will be selected having regard to their suitability for the intended recipient.

It can be further understood that the invention further relates to methods for treating a subject in need thereof according to the uses detailed above, said method comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of the composition, or preparation according to the invention. Additionally or alternatively, the invention relates to the use the composition as described above for the preparation of a medicament, typically a medicament for preventing and/or treating any one of the aforementioned conditions.

It can be further understood that the invention further relates to non-therapeutic, typically nutraceutical, methods and uses comprising administering to a subject, typically an elderly subject, a nutraceutically effective amount of the composition, or preparation according to the invention for improving the subject’s well-being and/or for improving the subject’s microbiome balance as defined above.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Figure 1 is a graph showing the effect of the composition according to the invention on the CD4+CD8- T lymphocytes (left) and on the CD4+/CD8+ T-lymphocytes (right). Figure 2 is a graph showing the effect of the composition according to the invention on the CD4+/CD8+ ratio.

Figure 3 is a graph showing the effect of the composition according to the invention on the serum IgA. Figure 4 is a graph showing the results of the PICRUSt2 analysis between effects of the control and the composition according to the invention.

Figure 5 is a graph showing the fold change in the IL6:IL10 ratio compared to the reference of young mice (Figure 5A) or compared to the reference of old mice (Figure 5B) according to example 4. Figure 6 is a graph showing the fold change in the IL22 blood concentration compared to the reference of young mice (Figure 6A) or compared to the reference of old mice (Figure 6B) according to example 4.

Figure 7 is a graph showing the fold change in the IL17A blood concentration compared to the reference of young mice (Figure 7 A) or compared to the reference of old mice (Figure 7B) according to example 4.

Figure 8 is a graph showing the average values of the blood lymphocytes Thl7: Treg ratio in the blood of mice fed with different diets, namely YOUNG (standard diet), OLD (standard diet), OLD FOS (+ FOS), OLD PARA (+ Paraprobiotics) and OLD COMBO (composition according to the invention: + FOS + Paraprobiotics). Figure 9 is a graph showing the percentage of LT4 cells expressing TLR2 (Figure 9A), LT4 cells expressing TLR4 (Figure 9B), LT8 cells expressing TLR2 (Figure 9C), LT8 cells expressing TLR4 (Figure 9D), in mice fed with different diets, namely YOUNG (standard diet), OLD (standard diet), OLD FOS (+ FOS), OLD PARA (+ Paraprobiotics) and OLD COMBO (composition according to the invention: + FOS + Paraprobiotics). Figure 10 is a graph showing the relative abundance of key microbial taxa in fecal samples of mice fed with different diets, namely YOUNG (standard diet), OLD (standard diet), OLD FOS (+ FOS), OLD PARA (+ Paraprobiotics) and OLD COMBO (composition according to the invention: + FOS + Paraprobiotics) at day D56 according to example 4. Figure 10A shows the relative abundance of microbial taxa of the phylum Proteobacteria. Figure 10B shows the relative abundance of microbial taxa of the phylum Firmicutes. Figure IOC shows the relative abundance of microbial taxa of the phylum Bacteroidetes. Figure 10D shows the relative abundance of microbial taxa of the phylum Actinobacteria. Figure 10E shows the relative abundance of microbial species of the genus Bacteroides. Figure 10D shows the relative abundance of microbial species of the genus Bifidobacteriaceae . EXAMPLES

The present invention is further illustrated by the following examples.

Example 1: Effect of a blend of polysaccharides from different yeasts and fructo- oligosaccharides on immune parameters of elderly dogs undergoing a sequential vaccine administration. Material and methods

Animals.

A total of twenty-two healthy senior client-owned dogs were included into the study and assigned to one of two groups, ensuring uniform distribution of sex, age, body weight (BW) and body condition score (BCS) between groups. Each group contained 11 females and 11 male dogs with a mean age of 8.8 (SD2.2) and 8.6 (SD2.0) years, a mean BW of 25.7 (SD20.9) and 25.8 (SD20.8) kg and a mean BCS of 5/9 (SD1.0) and 5/9 (SD0.7), for the placebo and Profeed+ supplemented group, respectively. Both groups each contained 3 spayed females and 3 spayed males. A previously published human/pet age analogy chart (Fortney, 2012) was used as a guide to determine whether or not a dog could be considered senior. According to this chart, both senior and geriatric dogs were included in the study. A thorough clinical examination -including analysis of a fasting blood sample (Complete blood count, biochemistry) and urine (Siemens Multistix® 5 dipstick) analysis- was performed prior to the study (time point 1, Tl) demonstrating all dogs were healthy and had a body condition score of 3 to 6 out of 9 (Laflamme, 1997). All dogs had received their core vaccines (against canine distemper virus, adenovirus and parvovirus type 2) at early age but had never received a Lyme disease vaccine prior to the study. Three days prior to the start of the study, all dogs were dewormed with a product containing 5mg praziquantel and 50mg fenbendazole/kg BW (Caniquantel Plus, Fendigo sa/nv, Brussels, Belgium). None of the dogs received any other medication throughout the course of the study.

Diets and experimental design.

The research protocol was evaluated and approved by the Ethical Committee of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Belgium (EC 2017/103) and was in accordance with institutional and national guidelines for the care and use of animals. The double blinded in vivo experiment was conducted between March 2018 and June 2019, with dog owners being able to enter the study with their senior dog at any given time point. The first group of dogs was fed an extruded senior kibble diet, hereinafter referred to as ‘control diet’ .

The second group received the exact same diet, however this time further including 1% scFOS, (Profeed®, Beghin-Meiji, France,) and 0.1% an extract of parietal saccharides from Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Cyberlindnera jadinii NRRL-900, hereinafter referred to as ‘invention’s diet’ or Profeed+ diet.

Both diets contained dehydrated chicken (28%), rice, rice flour, animal fat, cellulose (2%), beet pulp (1%), brewer’s yeast, minerals, dried whole eggs, and lecithin. The upcoming expiration date of the formulated diets prevented further use after the first six dogs participated in the study. Therefore, the following 18 dogs were fed a new batch of diets, with identical formulation as the previous diets for the placebo and supplemented kibbles, respectively. The analyzed chemical composition of the diets is shown in Table 1. The diets met National Research Council (2006) vitamin and mineral requirements and were divided into two to three equal meals per day. Water always remained available. Chemical analyses of diets

The experimental diets were subjected to Weende (proximate) analysis. They were dried to a constant weight at 103°C to determine dry matter (DM, ISO 1442, 1997). Crude ash was determined by combustion at 550°C (ISO 936, 1998). Crude protein was calculated from Kjeldahl nitrogen (6.25 x N, ISO 5983-1, 2005). Crude fibre was analysed by acid- alkali digestion (ISO 5498, 1981), and crude fat was analyzed using acid-hydrolysis followed by Soxhlet extraction (ISO 1443, 1973). The results are presented in table 1.

Table 1. Composition analysis of the assessed feed diets

DM, dry matter; NFE, nitrogen-free extract; ME, metabolizable energy. NFE (% DM) was calculated as 100 - crude protein - crude fat - crude fibre - crude ash, ith all components on DM basis.

ME was calculated as (((5.7 x g protein) + (9.4 x g fat) + (4.1 x (g NFE + g fibre))) x (91.2 - (1.43 x % CF in DM)) /100) - (1.04 x g protein))/ 1000.

Four days after the health screening (T1 + 4d), all dogs were gradually transitioned to their respective new diets over the course of three days, after which the diets were fed for 14 consecutive weeks. The diets were fed in amounts sufficient to meet the daily maintenance requirement of each dog (NRC, 2006) based on animal’s ideal body weight and to maintain animal’s body weight constant throughout the study, with the exception of one dog fed with the placebo diet that started the study with a BCS of 3/9. This dog was fed to reach a BCS of 4/9 during the first four weeks of the study (up until the vaccination). The body weight and food intake of all dogs were recorded respectively once and twice per week by the owner. Three weeks after exclusively consuming the test diets (T2), dogs were vaccinated with a Lyme vaccine (Merilym-3, Merial, Diegem, Belgium). This vaccination was repeated after three weeks (booster, T3). Four (T4) and 8 weeks (T5) after the booster vaccination, dog owners were invited to the veterinary clinic of Ghent University for a follow-up consultation. Sample collection.

On Tl, 2, 4 and 5, blood samples (35mL per dog) were collected via jugular venipuncture following an overnight fast and immediately distributed into vacutainer serum tubes for biochemistry-, total serum immunoglobulin-, vaccine-specific immunoglobulin-, acute phase protein- and cytokine-analysis. Additionally, for peripheral blood mononuclear cell isolation, blood was collected in vacutainers containing lithium heparin. Furthermore, Sodium Fluoride vacutainers were used to measure the blood glucose level as well as vacutainers with tripotassium EDTA to perform a CBC analysis and a Canine Lyme Antibody Rapid Test (Abaxis Europe GmbH, Griesheim, Germany). Serum samples were centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 5 min at 21°C and supernatants were collected, aliquoted and frozen at -20°C (for immunoglobulins and acute phase proteins) and -80°C (for cytokines) awaiting further analysis. All other blood samples were immediately processed further on the day of collection. Additionally, naturally voided fecal samples were collected within 15 minutes of defecation and immediately stored at -20°C with the respective owners within 24h prior to the consultation at Tl, 2, 4 and 5. These samples were then brought to the Veterinary clinic of Ghent University using cooling elements during transport and were consequently stored at -80°C until further analysis.

Determination of IgA, IgG and IgM and Borrelia burgdorferi-specific IgG and IgM in canine serum. Serum immunoglobulin concentrations were determined by a commercial ELISA kit specific for canine IgA, IgG and IgM (Bethyl Laboratories, Montgomery, AL, USA). Absorbance was read at 450 nm with a microplate reader and results were analyzed by Deltasoft JV 2.1.2. All samples were tested in duplicate and the mean optical density (OD) was calculated. Total serum IgA, IgG and IgM concentrations as well as Borrelia- specific IgG were determined by sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA’ s) developed at the Laboratory of Immunology of Ghent University.

Isolation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from heparinised canine blood.

Blood samples (5ml at T1 and 10ml at T2, T4 and T5, contained in lithium heparin Vacutainer tubes) were kept at room temperature (RT, 18-22°C) until processing. Within four hours after sample collection, heparinised blood samples were diluted 1/1 with sterile phosphate buffered saline (PBS). Isolation of PBMC was achieved using a Licoll density gradient centrifugation at 900 g for 30 min at 18°C (7.1% Licoll PM400 and 9% sodium diatrizoate hydrate (Merck, Burlington, MA, USA)) (De Bruin et al, 2005). The interphase containing the PBMC was collected, and cells were washed in an equal volume of Alsever’s (pH of 6.1, VWR, Radnor, PA, USA) solution (centrifugation at 300 g for 10 min at 18°C), after which the supernatant was removed. Erythrolysis was performed with a lysis buffer (140 mM NH4C1, 17 mM Tris (VWR), with a pH of 7.2) for 5 min at room temperature. Then, cells were washed again with 5ml Alsever’s solution for 10 min at 400 g.

Determination of subpopulations of lymphocytes.

Subpopulations of T-lymphocytes (CD4+, CD8+) were analyzed using flow cytometry. To this end, isolated PBMC were resuspended in PBS and brought on a 96- well plate at a concentration of 5 x 105 cells/v-cup. Subsequently, 50 pi of the 1 in 8 diluted CD3/CD4/CD8 antibodies (anti-Dog CD3:LITC/CD4:RPE/CD8:Alexa Lluor® 647, Bio rad, Veenendaal, The Netherlands) was added. Plates were then incubated and kept on ice (dark environment) for 20 minutes. Hereafter, cells were washed twice in PBS + 1% bovine serum albumin (BSA) for 3 min at 4°C and 400 g. The proportion of lymphocyte subpopulations was determined by flow cytometry (CytoLlex, Beckman Coulter, Life Sciences, Woerden, The Netherlands) using the CytExpert 2.0 software program (Beckman Coulter). After discrimination of doublets (1) and exclusion of monocytes and eosinophils (2), focus remained on the CD3+ cells (3) with subsequent specific differentiation between CD4+ and CD8+ T cells (4). Total IgA and Borrelia burgdorferi- specific IgA antibody secreting cells (ASC) ELISPOT.

Per individual dog, 9 wells of a Polysorp 96-well plate (Thermofisher Scientific) were coated with (1) bicarbonate buffer (pH 9.4) for the first three wells, (2) 10 pg/ml of native Borrelia burgdorferi antigen (EastCoast bio, North Berwick, USA) in bicarbonate buffer for the middle three wells and (3) 5 pg/ml goat anti-canine IgA (Bethyl Laboratories) in bicarbonate buffer for the last three wells. After coating for 16h at room temperature, the plate was blocked for another 2 hours using bicarbonate buffer with 2% gelatin from cold water fish skin (Merck). After washing (PBS + 0.05% Tween®20 (Merck)), 50 pi of cell suspension (10x106 PBMC/ml of RPMI) was added to each of the first six wells (bicarbonate buffer and Borrelia burgdorferi-coated wells) and cell suspensions were diluted 1/5 (well 7), 1/10 (well 8) and 1/20 (well 9) in complete RPMI before addition of 50 pi of the respective dilutions to the anti-dog IgA- coated wells. The cell suspensions were maintained for 16 h at 37°C and 5% C02. After washing more than 90% of the cells away using PBS+ 0.2% Tween®20 (Merck), 80 ng/ml of goat anti-dog IgA HRP (Bethyl Laboratories) in bicarbonate buffer + 2% fish gelatin (Merck) was added for 2 hours at room temperature. After washing (PBS + 0.05% Tween®20 (Merck)), 50 pi of TMB liquid substrate system for membranes (Merck) was added to each well for 5 minutes at room temperature. After aspiration of the fluid, the plate was scanned using an ImmunoSpot analyser (Cellular Technology Limited, Cleveland, USA) and spots were counted using the auto-count function of the ImmunoSpot 4.0 software (Cellular Technology Limited). Background spots were determined by the number of spots present in the wells containing the cell suspensions in uncoated but blocked wells (first three wells/dog). The average number of background spots in the first three wells was then subtracted from the number of spots in the respective Borrelia burgdorferi and anti-IgA coated wells. The total IgA- ASC were determined by multiplying the number of spots with the dilution of the cell suspension. Results were expressed as the number of Borrelia burgdorferi- specific IgA ASC/total IgA ASC and the number of IgA ASC per 500.000 PBMC.

To evaluate the coating procedure, blood plasma of a dog known to have IgA antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi was used as a positive control on each plate. The ELISA performed to this end followed the procedure of the ELISPOT. As substrate, 50 pi of 1 mg/ml ABTS (Merck) was added to the wells for 30 min at RT. Results were expressed as the optical density (OD) measured at 405 nm.

Serum samples were analysed for serum amyloid A (SAA, spectrophotometry, idfiSIS) and canine C-reactive protein (CRP, turbidimetry, Abbott architect Cl 6000) by AML laboratory (Antwerp, Belgium).

Serum cytokines TNF-a, IFN-y, IL-6 and IL-17.

Serum samples for the analyses of cytokines TNF-a, IFN-g, IL-6 and IL- 17 were collected at Tl, T2 and T5 and frozen at -80°C awaiting further analysis. These cytokines were determined (duplicate) using commercially available canine ELISA test kits (canine TNF- a ELISA, Raybiotech, Georgia, USA; canine IFN-g ELISA, Raybiotech, Georgia, USA; canine IL-6 ELISA kit, Cloud-Clone Corp., Texas, USA; canine IL-17 ELISA kit, Wuhan Fine Biotech Co., Ltd., Wuhan, China) according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

Serum cytokines TNF-a, IFN-g, IL-6 and IL-17. Serum samples for the analyses of cytokines TNF-a, IFN-g, IL-6 and IL-17 were collected at Tl, T2 and T5 and frozen at - 80°C awaiting further analysis. These cytokines were determined (duplicate) using commercially available canine ELISA testkits (canine TNF-a ELISA, Raybiotech, Georgia, USA; canine IFN-g ELISA, Raybiotech, Georgia, USA; canine IL-6 ELISA kit, Cloud-Clone Corp., Texas, USA; canine IL-17 ELISA kit, Wuhan Fine Biotech Co., Ltd., Wuhan, China) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Fecal analyses.

The weight of the fecal samples was recorded and fecal pH was measured in triplicates using a portable pH meter (Hanna Instruments, Temse, Belgium). Fresh fecal consistency (1: very hard and dry; 2: firm, but not hard; 3: log-like; 4: very moist; 5: very moist but has distinct shape; 6: has texture, but no defined shape; 7: watery, no texture, flat) was evaluated by the dog owners using Purina® Fecal Scoring System (Lappin, 2011).

Statistical analysis.

All analyses were run with SPSS. Significance was set at a < 0.05, the trend was established at a < 0.10. The analysis consisted of a general linear model using repeated measures, with treatment and dog size.

Results

Immune parameters

The percentage of lymphocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils and monocytes was unaffected by the treatment. Interestingly, the percentage of CD4+CD8- T cells increased, while the percentage of CD4-CD8+ T cells decreased with the invention (Fig 1), resulting in an increase in CD4+/CD8+ ratio (Fig 2).).

Immunoglobulins and cytokines. The concentration of serum IgA decreased with the treatment (Fig 3, P = 0.006). Serum IgG and serum IgM concentrations were not different according to the treatment (control/Profeed+), the size of the dog or the time.

Humoral response.

The specific anti-Borrelia IgA antibody secreting cells were numerically higher with the treatment according to the invention (Profeed+ group).

Regarding blood cytokines concentrations, using the mixed model, only IFN gamma tended to be affected with a significant interaction between the treatment and the size of the dogs (P=0.052).

No significant differences could be observed with regards to Interleukin- 6, Interleukin- 17, and TNF-alpha. However, the correlation between immune parameters and the microbiota alpha-diversity index or discriminant AS Vs can be used to see the relationships between the treatment, the microbiota and the immune parameters.

Example 2: Effect of a blend of polysaccharides from different yeasts and fructo- oligosaccharides on microbiota of elderly dogs undergoing a sequential vaccine administration.

Methods

Fecal microbiota determination. 29 stool samples from time points 2 and 4 of the Experiment 1 (before and after vaccination) were used to extract the DNA using physical disruption with the bead beating method (Hemandez-Sanabria et al., 2010). Briefly, samples were thawed, manually homogenized, and centrifuged at 14,600 xg for 5 min at 4°C. The pellet was resuspended in 1 ml of lysis buffer (100 mM Tris pH8, 100 mM Na EDTA pH8, 100 mM NaCl, 1% (w/v) polyvinylpyrrolidone, 1% PVP40, and 2% (w/v) sodium dodecyl sulfate) and transferred to a 2 ml microcentrifuge tube containing 0.3 g of zirconium beads (diameter, 0.1 mm). The cells were lysed in a Power Lyzer 24 (Mo Bio Laboratories, Carlsbad, CA, United States) for 3 min at 2000 rpm. DNA concentration and quality were verified based on the absorbance at 260 and 280 nm, using a DeNovix DS (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, United States).

DNA was then amplified with PCR in V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA genes using universal primers 341F (CCT ACGGGN GGC W GC AG, SEQ ID NO:l) and modified 785R (GACTACHVGGGTATCTAATCC, SEQ ID NO:2) (Klindworth et al., 2013). niumina sequencing adapters and dual-index barcodes were added to the amplicon, using a limited-cycle PCR that included an initial denaturation step at 95 °C for 3 min, 15 cycles of a denaturation step at 95°C for 30 s, an annealing step at 55°C for 10 s, an extension step at 72°C for 45 s, and a final extension at 72°C for 5 min. Following, a clean-up step was performed using the AMPure XP beads (Beckman-Coulter, Krefeld, Germany) to remove free primers and primer-dimer species from amplicons. A second PCR to attach the specific Illumina multiplexing sequencing primers and index primers, was performed. Thermal cycling included an initial denaturation step at 95 °C for 3 min, 8 cycles of a denaturation step at 95°C for 30 s, an annealing step at 55°C for 30 s, an extension step at 72°C for 30 s, and a final extension at 72°C for 5 min. These PCR products were verified by gel electrophoresis, purified using the Promega Wizard PCR clean-up kit (Promega, Madison, WI, United States) following the manufacturer’s instructions and quantified with the QuantiFluor dsDNA System kit (Promega, Leiden, The Netherlands). High-throughput amplicon sequencing of the V3-V4 hypervariable region using primer pair 341F-785R (Klindworth et ah, 2013) was performed with the Illumina MiSeq platform according to the manufacturer’s guidelines at LGC Genomics GmbH (Berlin, Germany). Contigs were created by merging paired-end reads based on the Phred quality score (of both reads) heuristic as described by Kozich et al. (2013) in Mothur (Schloss et al., 2009) (v.1.33.3). Raw fastq files were imported, demultiplexed and processed using

QIIME 2 (version 2020.2) (Bolyen et al., 2019). Paired-ends fastq files were quality filtered and dereplicated through high resolution sample inference with DADA2 (Callahan et al., 2016). Alpha and beta diversity were calculated under rooted phylogeny down sampling to the lowest count of sequences. Taxonomy was assigned to the resulting 16S rRNA marker genes against Greengenes (gg-13-8-99-nb-classifier, trained with naive-bayes for 341F-785R region of the 16S) using skleam classifier method to determine the taxonomy according to Bokulich et al. (2018). Low frequency amplicon sequence variants (AS Vs) (<100 reads in <2 samples) were removed previously to taxonomical statistical analysis. Picrust2 was used to determine the metabolic pathways attached to taxonomical results (Figure 4). One sample was removed for low depth (1829 seqs) and another one was removed for overabundance blinding in Shannon index=l (9939 seqs). Good coverage metric reflects a plateau from 5000 sequences, reflecting that microbiota was fully sampled. After filtering and rarefaction, we analyzed the microbial diversity of the fecal microbiota using 14 500 sequences. Statistical analysis.

We compared the alpha-diversity of the samples using QIIME2 (version 2020.2) by calculating the Shannon diversity, the Pielou index, the faith phylogenetic distance index and the number of observed AS Vs. These indices allowed to have an idea of both richness and evenness of samples. Differences obtained between alpha-diversity indexes were evaluated using Kruskal-Wallis test. Jaccard distances were used to assess beta-diversity distances. UniFrac measures distances between microbial communities based on the species they contain and the phylogenetic relationships between these species. Jaccard similarity index compares members for two sets to evaluate which members are shared and which are distinct. Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) was used to visualize the distances. Each point in the PCoA plots represents the microbial community from a single sample. Samples with the most similar microbial communities will cluster together. An unweighted PCoA only accounts for microbial species (presence/absence); without considering microbial relative abundance. The PERMANOVA and ANOSIM analysis were performed to partition variation in the matrix.

Finally, compositional beta-diversity was analyzed using DEICODE based on Aitchison distances (Aitchison, 2011 [1986]). This method considers the relative abundance of different ASVs. Basically, the first step consists of making a centred log-ratio transformation for all the non-zero values. In the second step, a reduction of the dimensions is done through robust Principal Component Analysis (PCA) on only the non zero values of the data. This results in obtaining discriminant ASVs to understand the microbial structure. Like for other beta-diversity evaluation, significant differences were evaluated using PERMANOVA and ANOSIM.

Taxonomy data was analyzed with ANOVA of the communities (ANCOM, Mandal et al., 2015) for phyla level. Differential analysis was performed using ALDEx2 package (Fernandes et al., 2014), based on Dirichlet distribution. Briefly, this analysis allows performing differential abundance analysis of proportional data which are transformed using centred log-ratio transformation. Data obtained are expressed as geometric means. Wilcoxon tests were thus used to evaluate the significance of the effect. To finish, the package QURRO (Fedarko et al., 2020) was used to test specific ratios of interesting ASVs obtained from compositional data analysis (ALDEx2) and discriminant analysis (DEICODE).

In order to see if some relationships could be set between alpha-diversity indexes, certain ASVs selected from ALDEx2 and DEICODE analysis and immune parameters, we performed Spearman correlations. The Phylogenetic Investigation of Communities by Reconstruction of Unobserved States (PICRUSt) approach was used to evaluate the functional potential of microbial communities. Since this is a following process after QIIME analysis, we included the same samples with QIIME. The data was processed with the PICRUSt2 using the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis module and the MetaCyc database. Wilcoxon test from ALDEx2 (Fernandes et al., 2014) was used to analyze data obtained.

Results were considered significantly different when P<0.05, and trends when p value was 0.05<P<0.1. Results

Overall, Faith_pd index (6.9+2.1) and number of observed OTUs (85.5+20) did not differ according to the treatment. On the contrary, Shannon index was significantly lower in the feces of the dogs fed with Profeed+; while Pielou index tended to decrease in the same group (Table 2). Table 2 - Effects of the different factors tested in the study on the alpha-diversity parameters. Data are expressed as average + SD.

Shannon Pielou Faith_pd Observed

ASYs

Treatment effect

Control, n=14 4.6+0.4 0.71+0.06 7.3+2.1 92+21

Profeed+, n=13 4.3+0.5 0.68+0.06 6.5+2.1 79+19

P-value_ 0.047_ 0.073_ 0.286_ 0.115

Time effect

T2, n=14 4.6+0.5 0.72+0.06 7.2+1.9 89+25

T5, n=13 4.3+0.5 0.67+0.05 6.6+2.3 82+15

P-value_ 0.145_ 0.033_ 0.286_ 0.662

Treatment x Time effect

Control_T2, n=7 4.7+0.6 0.73+0.07 7.2+1.8 92+28

Profeed+_T2, 4.6+0.5 0.72+0.04 7.3+2.1 86+22 n=7 P-value_ 0.338_ 0.180_ 0.949_ 0.898

Control_T5, n=7 4.5+0.3 0.70+0.04 7.5+2.5 91+11

Profeed+_T5, 3.9+0.4 0.64+0.05 5.6+1.9 71+13 n=6

P-value 0.032 0.116 0.116 0.032

Sample collection time point did not affect all the alpha-diversity parameters, except the Pielou index which was significantly lower 8 weeks following the vaccination. When regarding the effect of the treatment per time point, both Shannon index and number of observed OTUs significantly decreased 8 weeks after vaccination when dogs received Profeed+.

At family level, Lachnospiraceae (21.0+17.4%), Fusobacteriaceae (12.5+13.7%), Clostridiaceae (16.0+12.5%), Erysipelotrichaceae (8.8+12.6%), Veillonellaceae (8.1+13.0%), Streptococcaceae (5.4+16.8%), Bacteroidaceae (5.1+6.9%) contributed to more than 75% of the relative abundance whatever the collection time and the treatment. Other important families (relative abundance <5% on average) were Lactobacillaceae, Paraprevotellaceae, Enterobacteriaceae .

Considering OTUs level, 21 OTUs were sufficient to characterize almost 80% of the total microbiota. Among them, C. hiranonis (14.7+12.1%; 28/29), Fusobacteriaceae (9.28+9.60%; 28/29), Megamonas sp. (6.28+11.7%; 23/29), Blautia producta

(4.43+4.07%; 29/29), Bacteroides (3.95+5.94%; 24/29), Ruminococcus gnavus (3.69+4.65%; 29/29), Dorea sp. (3.46+3.78%; 28/29), Lachnospiraceae (3.18+5.29; 28/29), Blautia sp (2.96+4.19%; 28/29), Fusobacterium sp. (2.29+3.87%; 24/29), Blautia (1.86+2.15%; 26/29), ColUnsella stercoris (1.76+1.94%; 27/29) and F. praustnitzii (1.54+2.15%; 22/29) were found at high frequency and with a relative abundance higher than 1.50%. Other OTUs present in high abundance but with lower frequency of detection were Allobaculum sp. (3.99+12.24%; 11/29), Prevotella copri (2.72+3.21%; 14/29), Streptococcus luteciae (5.21+18.3%; 9/29), Prevotella sp. (2.72+3.21%; 9/29), Enterobacteriaceae (2.53+8.83%; 12/29), and Catenibacterium (1.42+2.86%; 16/29). Microbial composition: differential analysis

Remarkably, significant differences (P<0.05) at phyla level were found after vaccination at T5 with higher abundances of Fusobacteria (22.1±% vs 38.3+%), Bacteroidetes (7.9+% vs 16.0+%), and Proteobacteria (3.5+ % vs 4.5+ %) in fecal microbiota from dogs receiving Profeed+, and lower abundance of Firmicutes (51.9+% vs 40.1+%) and Actinobacteria (14.6+% vs 1.0+%).

Overall, the relative abundance of Megamonas sp., Bacteroidaceae family, B. plebeius, Clostridiales unidentified, Phascolarctobacterium and Succinivibrionaceae family significantly increased, while that of Lachnospiraceae family decreased when dogs were supplemented with Profeed+ (Table 3).

Table 3. Relative abundance of OTUs (Operational taxonomic units) that significantly changed (P<0.05) or tended to change in the fecal microbiota of dogs supplemented or not with Profeed+.

AS Vs Control Profeed+ P-value

Megamonas sp. 2.06+5.30 10.8+14.8 0.01

Bacteroidaceae 3.22+3.90 7.02+8.70 0.01

Bacteroides plebeius 0.40+0.80 0.80+1.00 0.01

Clostridiales 0.18+0.30 0.46+0.70 0.02

(unidentified)

Lachnospiraceae 25.0+19.8 16.7+13.7 0.03

Phascolarctobacterium 0.18+0.20 0.69+0.80 0.04

Succinivibrionaceae 0.34+0.60 0.81+1.70 0.05

Prevotella copri 1.57+3.60 3.95+8.00 0.07

Fusobacterium sp. 1.15+1.30 3.52+4.70 0.07

Sutterella sp. 0.76+1.60 0.74+0.60 0.08

Other trends (P<0.10) like notably the higher relative abundance of P. copri, Fusobacterium sp ., and the lower relative abundance of Sutterella sp. were also obtained. Just before vaccination, we noticed two main trends (P<0.10), namely the decrease in the abundance of Enterobacteriaceae family and the increase in the abundance of Megamonas sp. Finally, at T5, significant higher abundance for Bacteroidaceae family, B. plebeius and Bacteroides sp., and Fusobacterium sp. while a lower abundance of Lachnospiraceae family were observed when dogs were fed with Profeed+. Still, this treatment resulted in a trend for a higher relative abundance of Megamonas sp., unidentified Clostridiales and Phascolarctobacterium and Succinivibrionaceae family (Table 4).

Table 4. Relative abundance of OTUs that significantly changed (P<0.05) or tended to change in the fecal microbiota of dogs supplemented or not with Profeed+ according to the sampling time.

AS Vs Control T2 Profeed+ T2 P-value

Enterobacteriaceae 6.22+15.1 0.33+0.10 0.09 Megamonas sp. 0.95±0.90 5.70+7.90 0.10

Control T5 Profeed+ T5 P-value

Bacteroidaceae 2.65+2.20 6.74+5.30 0.02

Lachnospiraceae 26.2+24.2 10.2+8.40 0.03

Bacteroides plebeius 0.57+1.10 0.82+0.90 0.03

Bacteroides sp. 1.78+9.60 4.87+4.70 0.04

Fusobacterium sp. 1.17+3.40 4.71+6.20 0.05

Megamonas sp. 3.33+6.60 17.7+20.3 0.06

Succinivibrionaceae 0.41+0.90 0.60+1.20 0.06

Clostridiales 0.37+0.70 0.47+0.60 0.06

(unidentified)

Phascolarctobacterium 0.05+0.80 0.81+0.90 0.07

Principal Coordinate Analysis (PcoA) based on unweighted, weighted UniFrac and Jaccard distances indicated that samples tended to cluster between treatments (P-value = 0.01; 0.07 and 0.13 for Jaccard, weighted and unweighted UniFrac distances respectively). More precisely, the microbial community structures differed significantly between treatments at T5, thus 8 weeks following vaccination and 14 weeks following the start of the Profeed+ supplementation using both Jaccard and unweighted UniFrac distances.

Significant differences appeared in fecal microbiota beta-diversity when dogs where fed with Profeed+ 8 weeks after supplementation (P =0.017 and 0.04 respectively when using Jaccard and unweighted UniFrac distances).

We performed additional analyses on beta-diversity using DEICODE, and we found that the 2 first axis explained 100% variability in the microbial community. We confirmed that the microbial community per time point was significantly different according to the treatment received by the dogs (Permanova test, P = 0.05). More precisely, we found a set of discriminant AS Vs.

Fusobacterium sp. was negatively correlated to the family of Enterobacteriaceae, C. spiriforme, Blautia sp., B. producta and Dorea sp . ; while being positively related to Megamonas sp., Phascolarctobacterium sp., Prevotella sp., and Fusobacteriaceae .

An opposition (19.33% variability explained) was observed between C. hiranonis and the families of Lachnospiraceae, Erysipelotrichaceae, Ruminoccocaceae, and E. dolichum.

This analysis allowed discriminate the fecal microbiota from dogs fed with Profeed+, which was associated with more Fusobacterium sp., Prevotella sp, and Megamonas sp. (T5), and less Enterobacteriaceae (T2).

Correlations between immune parameters and alpha-diversity index.

In order to attenuate any inter- and intra-individual variability obtained on immune parameters, and while the effect of Profeed+ was stronger on microbiota, statistical correlations between some microbiota and immune parameters is hereinafter presented.

Interestingly, positive relationships were found between most of bacteria harbouring higher relative abundance with Profeed+, namely Fusobacterium, Phascolarctobacterium, Megamonas genera and their families, Veillonellaceae and Fusobacteriaceae with the number of Borrelia specific IgA ASC: total IgA ASC ratio. We obtained the same result when using the log ( Enterobacteriaceae+ C.spiriforme)/(Megamonas+Fusobacterium), which was the ratio found to discriminate the community structures of our 2 groups. Remarkably, a strong negative correlation was obtained between this immune parameter and the log (Enterobacteriaceae: Megamonas). In addition, positive correlations were obtained between Bacteroides sp., Bacteroidaceae and Fusobacterium sp (which reltive abundances increased with Profeed+) with the IgA Borrelia ASC covert cells.

Analysis of pathways highlighted 32 significant different pathways between the microbiota from Control and Profeed+. Among the 18 pathways more expressed with Profeed+, 4 were related to B and 2 to K vitamins biosynthesis, 4 to the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and 2 to the propionate biosynthesis. Discussion

The effect of the composition according to the invention exerted a significant effect on alpha-diversity of the intestinal microbiota. Indeed, the administration of Profeed+ composition attenuated the phylogenetic dispersion of the microbiota.

Such results suggest that Profeed+ was able to decrease the phylogenetic dispersion and thus balance the microbiota of elderly dogs. This effect was also observed after the vaccination.

The supplementation with Profeed+ led to unexpected and significant changes in microbial composition and structure.

The Profeed+ supplementation resulted in change in relative abundance of the 5 dominant phyla, with higher relative abundance of Fusobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Proteobacteria while lower abundance of Actinobacteria and Firmicutes leading to a higher Bacteroidetes :Firmicutes ratio, and especially Bacteroidaceae :Lachnospiraceae ratio. Such effects restore the dysbiotic microbiota of aged subjects, as witnessed in the literature. Indeed, in rodents and humans, a decrease in the Bacteroidetes: Firmicutes ratio has been associated with aging process. It was recently reported that in dogs, as in humans, an increase in Actinobacteria was associated with memory failures of the elder subjects (Kubinyi et ah, 2020). Interestingly, Fusobacteria phylum was associated with age using a regression tree model, the relative abundance of this phylum being lower in old than in young dogs, confirming that those bacteria are typical to a healthy dog microbiota (Pilla and Suchodolski, 2020).

Whatever the time point, Megamonas sp. was significantly enriched in feces from Profeed+ supplemented dogs. Megamonas sp. is a propionate producing bacteria inducing the differentiation of T cells and exerts anti-inflammatory effects. Interestingly, at dl05, we observed numerically lower blood concentrations of serum IL17 in dogs fed with Profeed+, (1291 vs 117 pg/mL).

Without willing to be bound by a theory, via the effects on the microbiota, the present composition leads to a better gut-derived IgA specific response. Another significant immune modulation obtained with Profeed+ was the decrease in total serum IgA (but not IgG, the most prevalent circulating antibody). Therefore, the composition according to the invention can be used in boosting the immune system of a subject in need thereof.

Furthermore, Bacteroidaceae, B. plebeus, Clostridiales, Phascolarctobacterium, Succinivibrionaceae, Fusbacterium sp., Prevotella copri were also found in higher relative abundance in feces from Profeed+ dogs. Most of these AS Vs are present in high abundance in fecal microbiota of healthy adult dogs from 1 to 10 years old (Burton et al., 2017).

Consequently, the above data evidence that the composition according to the present invention can be effective in maintain the balance of a healthy microbiota. The present invention induces the CD4+:CD8+ ratio which is known to decrease with age

Indeed, a body of evidence suggests that a decline of the CD4/CD8 ratio in humans is linked to immune dysfunction, leading to a poor response to immunization and consequently to a major risk of severe infections and malignancies in elderly populations (Wikby et al., 1994). As witnessed by the above examples, the addition of Profeed+ not only allowed reshaping the modulation of the immune system of the host, but also induced the CD4+ population resulting in a higher ratio of CD4+:CD8+ cells. Such evidence is further corroborated by the fact that the CD4/CD8 ratio is increasingly becoming a valuable marker of immune activation and immune senescence (Bruno et al., 2017).

The present results further supply correlations between discriminant bacteria with the administration of the composition according to the invention.

Interestingly, several microbiota parameters that changed in the Profeed+ group of dogs were statistically correlated with specific IgA secreting cells: total IgA secreting cells ratio. Notably, Fusobacterium sp. Megamonas sp., Veillonaceae family, and, in a less extent, Phascolarctobacterium sp. were AS Vs positively associated with this parameter.

Remarkably, when looking at the ratio between the different discriminating AS Vs, a strong positive correlation was highlighted between the same parameter and the ratio between Enterobacteriaceae and Megamonas sp. Enterobacteriaceae are clearly involved in pro-inflammatory events, and, in elderly dogs, this can contribute to inflamm- aging process (Kim et al., 2016), and in decreasing the gut-derived specific IgA response to a new antigen like Borrelia OpsA.

Functional inference revealed that adding Profeed+ resulted in increased relative abundance of KEGG pathways related to B vitamin biosynthesis, especially B2, B9 precursor (pterin), and B5 and in different pathways related to TCA cycle. Bacterial vitamin B2 exists as free riboflavin and is directly absorbed in the large intestine. Vitamin B2 levels looked important for T cell differentiation (Shimizu et al., 2019). A vitamin B2 deficiency suppresses the activity of acylCoA dehydrogenases involved in the oxidation of fatty acids to generate acetyl-CoA (Yoshii et al., 2019); while B5 vitamin, pantothenate and phosphopantothenate are precursors of acetyl CoA (Leonardi and Jackowski, 2007). Fatty acid oxidation is involved in the activation, differentiation, and proliferation of immune cells through the generation of acetyl CoA and its entry into the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) cycle (Yoshii et al., 2019). Yoshii et al. (2019) showed in a recent review that B1 and B2 vitamins play a crucial role for naive B cells which use the TCA cycle, while once B cells are activated, they prefer to use glycolysis pathway, which is not dependent to the supply of B vitamins. In addition, the same authors reported how the balance between B2 and B9 vitamins is key to understand immune homeostasis. The commensal bacteria are both providers and consumers of B vitamins. Interestingly, P. copri, F. varium express factors essential for vitamin B2 and B9 synthesis, suggesting that these bacteria are an important source of vitamin B2 and B9 in the large intestine. In addition, recent evidence indicates that some species in Bacteroidetes phylum produce more riboflavin (B2 vitamin) than Firmicutes or Actinobacteria (Tastan et al., 2018). Those observations are consistent with our findings. Beside this observation, the propionate (and the acetate, potentially produced by Megamonas sp.) can enhance the induction of T cells. Although we did not measure its concentration, propionate is primarily produced by Bacteroidetes and some Firmicutes , among which Phascolarctobacterium (Reichardt et al., 2014) and Megamonas sp. In agreement with that hypothesis, PICRUSt analysis revealed the stimulation of propionate production pathways.

Example 3: Effect of a blend of polysaccharides from different yeasts and fructo- oligosaccharides on serum metabolome of elderly dogs.

This study is complementary to the example 1 and blood sera from the same elderly dogs are used in order to decipher the serum metabolome of the dogs fed with the control or with the composition according to the invention.

Example 4: Effect of a blend of polysaccharides from different yeasts and fructo- oligosaccharides on immune parameters and gut microbiota of elderly mice.

The objective of this study is to demonstrate a synergistic effect between the oligosaccharides on gut microbiota, immune system and metabolic homeostasis in elderly rodents.

Material and methods

Animal experiments The protocol received the agreement of the local ethics committee and the French Minister of Research, Education and Innovation (ethical approval number n°APAFIS #31503-202105111152854 v5). Nine-week-old and eighteen-month-old female C57BL/6J mice were obtained from Janvier Labs (Le Genest Saint Isle, France) and fed ad libitum with control food (chow diet A04 from Safe-diets) during a 1-week acclimation period, with full access to drinking water. The animals were maintained at 22 °C under a 12 h light, 12 h dark cycle at 20% humidity level. Mice (12 per group) were randomly assigned into one of the six experimental groups depending on the diet and the age of animals, that are, i) control 9 week-old (chow diet AIN-92 from Safe diets, “YOUNG” group), ii) control 18 month-old (chow diet AIN-92 from Safe diets, “OLD” group), Hi) FOS 18 month-old (Chow diet AIN-93G supplemented with 10% of scFOS, ( short-chain fructo-oligosaccharides Profeed®, Beghin-Meiji, France), “OLD FOS” group), iv) Paraprobiotic 18 month-old (Chow diet AIN-93G supplemented with 1% of Paraprobiotic composed of an extract of parietal saccharides from Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Cyberlindnera jadinii NRRL-900, “OLD PARA” group), v) Mix 18 month-old (Chow diet AIN-93G supplemented with 10% of scFOS and 1% Paraprobiotic, also referred to as ‘invention’s diet’ or Profeed+ diet, “OLD COMBO” group). Body weight evolution was followed once a week, and food intake was measured after two and seven weeks. Eight weeks after the beginning of the protocol, mice were fasted overnight. Blood sampling was performed by cardiac puncture under general anesthesia. Total blood was collected on EDTA devices (Monovette, Startedt, Niimbrecht, Germany). 200pL were used for Peripheral blood monocytes cells preparation, the remaining blood was prepared by centrifugation at 3.000 rpm for 15 min at 4 °C and plasma was stored at -80 °C. Mice were euthanized by cervical dislocation under general anesthesia, and various tissues (liver, colon and various white AT deposits) were collected, and stored at -80 °C. Spleen was stored in MACS storing solution (Miltenyi Biotech, Paris, France) until processing for splenocytes isolation.

Biochemical Analyses

Plasmatic glucose, cholesterol and triglycerides concentrations were measured by colorimetric methods (Biolabo, Maizy, France), as well as non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) (RANDOX, Crumlin, Co. Antrim, United Kingdom). Insulin was measured using an enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent assay ELISA (ALPCO Diagnostics, New Hampshire, United States). Leptin and C-Reactive Protein (CRP), Plasmatic IL1 b was quantified by ELISA (R&D Systems quantikine ELISA, Minneaopolis, United States). TNFa, IL6, IL10, IL17, IL22 were measured using Legendplex immunoassays (Biolegend, Amsterdam, The Netherlands).

RNA Extraction and Real-Time PCR.

Total RNAs were extracted from homogenized tissues (liver or peri-epididymal adipose tissue) using Tri Reagent solution (Euromedex, Souffelweyersheim, France) following manufacturer’s instruction. RNA purity was monitored using Nanodrop (Thermo, Evry, France). One pg of RNA was used to reverse transcribed using 1 U of M-MLV Reverse transcriptase (Thermo), 15 ng random hexamers, 10 mM DTT, and 1 mM dNTPs. After 1 hour at 37°C, reverse transcriptase was inactivated by heating for 10 min at 65°C. cDNAs were diluted 5 times with ultrapure water. For qPCR reactions, 2.5 pL cDNA were mixed with 6.25 pL of Taqman UNIV PCR Master mix 2X, 0.625 pL Taqman assay 20X (Thermo) and 3.125 pL of ultrapure water. Amplification was performed in a Stratagene Mx 3005P thermocycler (Agilent, Les Ulis, France) using the following temperature conditions: 2 min at 50°C, 10 min at 95°C, and 40 cycles of alternance of 15 sec at 95 °C / 1 min at 60°C. For each condition, expression was quantified in duplicate and 18S rRNA was used as the endogenous control in the comparative cycle threshold (CT) method. Data were expressed as relative expression ratio and presented as means ± standard deviation (n=5 mice/group). The primers and Taqman gene expression assays (ThermoFisher) used for qPCR determination of gene expression were as follows Toll-like Receptor 1 / TLR 1 (Mm00446095_m 1 ), Toll-like Receptor 2 / TLR2 (Mm00442346_ml), Toll-like Receptor 3 /TLR3 (Mm01207404_ml), Toll-like Receptor 4 / TLR4(Mm00445273_ml), Toll-like Receptor 5 / TLR5 (Mm00546288_sl), Toll-like Receptor 6 / TLR6 (Mm02529782_sl), Toll-like Receptor 7 / TLR7 (Mm00446590_ml), Toll-like Receptor 8 / TLR8 (Mm04209873 _m 1 ) , Toll-like Receptor 9 / TLR9 (Mm00446193_ml), Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha / TNFalpha (Mm00443258_ml), Interleukin- 1 beta / ILlbeta (Mm00434228_ml), Interleukin-6 / IL6 (Mm00446190_ml), Interleukin- 10 / IL10 (Mm01288386_ml), and Eukaryotic 18S rRNA Endogenous Control / 18S rRNA (4352930E). Flow Cytometry Analysis

For PBMC phenotyping, red blood cells were lysed using Red Blood Lysis Solution (Miltenyi Biotec, Paris, France). Cells were labeled with Zombie NIR Viability Dye (Biolegend, Amsterdam, The Netherlands), Kirvia Blue 520-conjugated anti-CD4 antibody (Biolegend), APC-conjugated CD282-TLR2 (Biolegend), Brillant Violet 421- conjugated CD286-TLR6 (Becton Dickinson, Pont-de-Claix, France), PE/Cy7- conjugated CD284-TLR4 (Biolegend), Brillant Violet 510-conjugated anti-CD3 antibody (Biolegend), Brillant Violet 711-conjugated anti-CD25 antibody (Biolegend), Brillant Violet 785-conjugated anti CD8a (Biolegend) and PerCP-conjugated anti-CD45 (Biolegend). Cells were next fixed and permealized using Transciption Factor Staining Buffer Set (Miltenyi Biotec) and labeled with PE-conjugated FoxP3 (Biolegend), and Brillandt Violet 605-conjugated IL-17 (Biolegend). Cells were analyzed in a Cytoflex LX flow cytometer (Beckman Coulter, Marseille, France).

To phenotype T lymphocytes in spleen, mouse spleens were passed through a 70-mesh nylon screen using a syringe plunger. After repeated washing of the mesh with phosphate- buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.4), the cell isolate was centrifuged at 250 g for 5 min. After re-suspension in PBS, cells were labeled using Zombie NIR Viability Dye (Biolegend), Kirvia Blue 520-conjugated anti-CD4 antibody (Biolegend), Brillant Violet 510- conjugated anti-CD3 antibody (Biolegend), PE-conjugated anti-CD62L antibody (Biolegend), Brillant Violet 785-conjugated anti CD8a (Biolegend) and PerCP- conjugated anti-CD45 (Biolegend). After incubation, cells were immediately analyzed in a CytoFLEX LX flow cytometer (Beckman Coulter).

Statistical analysis A Principal Component Analysis (PCA) has been performed using R software (FactoMineR package) in order to evaluate the global pattern of the blood concentrations of cytokines according to the treatment.

Microbiota analysis 237 (12 samples per group) fecal samples from 3 time points (day 0, 28, 56) were used to extract the DNA using Minikit (Zymoresearch) following the manufacturer’s instructions. PCR was done in V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA genes using universal primers 341F and 806R. High-throughput sequencing was performed on an Illumina HiSeq platform 2x250 paired end at GeT-PlaGe INRAE Platform (Toulouse, France). All reagents used were molecular grade.

Raw fastq files were imported, demultiplexed and paired-ends fastq files were quality filtered and dereplicated through high resolution sample inference with DADA2 (Callahan et ah, 2016), under default parameters excluding primers length, in QIIME 2 (version 2020.2) (Bolyen et ah, 2019). De novo alignment and phylogeny were performed with MAFFT and FastTree2 (Katoh et ah, 2002 and Price et ah, 2010). Rarefaction curves were checked for full community sampling depth. Alpha and beta diversity were calculated at the lowest count of sequences (22543). Taxonomy was assigned to the resulting 16S rRNA marker genes against Greengenes (gg-13-8-99-nb-classifier) using skleam classifier method according to Bokulich et al. (2018). To compare paired differences in alpha and beta diversity Kruskall-Weallis and ANOSIM/PERMANOVA were used. Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) effect size (LEfSe) (Segata et al., 2011) from Galaxy was used by default parameters to identify significant differences in taxonomy data. Results were considered significantly different when P<0.05, and trends when 0.05<P<0.1. Results

Blood cytokine analyses : IL6. IL10 ratio

IL6 is one of the pro-inflammatory cytokine involved in inflamm- aging. Its secretion is increased in aging and in subjects with markers of frailty and chronic disease. On the contrary, IL10 is an anti-inflammatory cytokine which has the capacity to decrease the production of the pro-inflammatory IL6 cytokine (Rao et ah, 2018). As a result, in recent years, the ratio of pro-inflammatory cytokine IL6 to anti-inflammatory cytokine IL10 (IL6:IL10 ratio) has been used as a reliable marker for measuring inflammatory status in 5 humans or animals (Sun et ah, 2016; Sapan et ah, 2016; Rong et ah, 2018). More precisely, it can be used to evaluate the inflammatory balance and to predict the severity of a systemic inflammatory response.

As expected, the IL6:IL10 ratio increased with the age of the mice (i.e., YOUNG vs. OLD), regardless of the diet considered (Table 5 and Figure 5), confirming that it can be f0 considered as a biomarker of inflamm- aging. The highest value was obtained for the old mice receiving the paraprobiotic alone. However, it was surprisingly observed that old mice supplemented with the combination of FOS + paraprobiotics according to the invention (ie., OLD COMBO) present i) a decreased IL6:IL10 ratio and ii) an increased homogeneity within the group (See Table 5, SE of 0.46) compared to mice fed with f5 standard diet, with standard diet + FOS or standard diet with paraprobiotics. These data suggest that the administration of FOS + Paraprobiotic combination in elderly subjects reduces the disbalance towards a pro-inflammatory status observed in old vs young mice more importantly than the 2 other ingredients individually taken.

Table 5. Calculated values of the IL6TL10 ratio measured in the blood of mice fed with 20 different diets, namely YOUNG (standard diet), OLD (standard diet), OLD FOS (Standard diet + FOS), Old PARA (Standard diet + Paraprobiotics) and Old COMBO (Standard diet + FOS + Paraprobiotics).

Blood cytokine analyses : IL22 IL22 belongs to the IL10 family, is involved in the crosstalk between immune and epithelial cells (notably of skin, lung, intestine and liver). The main function of IL22 is to induce STAT3-driven proliferation, anti-apoptosis, and anti-microbial tissue protection at host-environment interfaces; it is thus key for mucosal immunity. It stimulates the production of acute phase reactants and promotes the antimicrobial defense (Chiang et ah, 2022). It has been demonstrated that healthy centenarian humans exhibited high concentration of IL22 (Basile et ah, 2012). This pro-inflammatory condition could be protective against infection, promoting the longevity of these subjects. The IL22 properties in healthy individuals also suggest a role in tissue protective therapy (Muhl, 2013).

Our data demonstrate that the blood concentration of IL22 decreased in old mice vs the young ones (Figure 6). No change in the IL22 concentration was observed between OLD and OLD PARA groups, while IL22 reached the same level as in young mice fed with FOS diet. Surprisingly, mice fed with a combination of FOS + Paraprobiotics according to the invention increased their IL22 concentration by 1.6 when compared to the young mice group and by 5.5 when compared to the old group (See Table 6 and Figure 6). These unexpected data demonstrate a synergistic effect provided by the combination of FOS + Paraprobiotic on this specific cytokine that could confer a protective effect in old mice. These data suggest that IL22 increase may contribute to resolution of inflammation appearing with age by promoting Tregs or IL10 secretion. By its reported clinical relevance, an increase of IL22 in old subjects may contribute to promote epithelial regeneration or wound healing and protect against infection and inflammatory diseases.

Table 6. Measured values of the IL22 in the blood of mice fed with different diets, namely YOUNG (standard diet), OLD (standard diet), OLD FOS (Standard diet + FOS), OLD PARA (Standard diet + Paraprobiotics) and OLD COMBO (Standard diet + FOS + Paraprobiotics)

Blood cvtocine analyses : IL17 A

IL17A is a key pro-inflammatory cytokine produced by a subset of CD4+ cells, which plays a central role in host defense against invading pathogens. Elderly people (age >65) have shown a decreased frequency of IL17A-producing cells in memory subset of CD4+ T cells compared to healthy younger people (Rea et ah, 2018; Lee et ah, 2011). The data presented in Table 7 and Figure 7 demonstrate that IL17A blood concentration decreased with age and that this effect is counteracted by the mixture of FOS + Paraprobiotic, mainly due to the high increase of IL17A by paraprobiotic intake.

Table 7. Measured values of the IL17A in the blood of mice fed with different diets, namely YOUNG (standard diet), OLD (standard diet), OLD FOS (Standard diet + FOS), OLD PARA (Standard diet + Paraprobiotics) and OLD COMBO (Standard diet + FOS + Paraprobiotics) Blood cvtocine analyses : Evolution of the ratio IL17A :IL22

Interestingly, the IL17ATL22 ratio differs according to treatments (Table 8). It was high in old mice fed paraprobiotics (>6), and more than 1 in old mice; while it was < 0.5 in young mice or in mice fed the COMBO composition according to the invention.

These results suggest that the use of the COMBO composition according to the invention is able not only to stimulate cytokine secretion, but also to keep an appropriate balance between IL17A and IL22. Increasing evidence suggests that IL17 and IL22 are key regulators of homeostasis and epithelial barrier function (Eyerichlet ah, 2010). Indeed, they provide barrier integrity against extracellular pathogens by: (i) instructing innate immune responses in tissue cells; (ii) allowing immunological memory by inducing the recruitment of adaptive immune cells via epithelial-derived chemokines; and (iii) inducing regeneration of epithelial surfaces after inflammation. They should however be regarded as siblings and not twins, because IL17 is pro-inflammatory and IL22, when acting alone, is protective. In contrast to the pro-inflammatory IL17, IL22 has only minor pro-inflammatory effects and, in some cases, is protective against autoimmune disease. Table 8. Measured values of the IL17ATL22 ratio in the blood of mice fed with different diets, namely YOUNG (standard diet), OLD (standard diet), OLD LOS (Standard diet + LOS), OLD PARA (Standard diet + Paraprobiotics) and OLD COMBO (Standard diet + LOS + Paraprobiotics)

Blood cvtocine analyses : PCA Blood cytokines analysis The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) analysis allowed discriminating 2 dimensions explaining around 55% variability. The first dimension is associated with high concentrations of all the cytokines considered, except ILlbeta (P<0.05); while the second dimension is characterized by concentrations of IL22, IL17A (positive correlations), TNLalpha, IL6, ILlbeta (negative correlations, P<0.05). Interestingly, the first dimension is also characterized by the OLD PARA administration, which exhibited high levels of all the cytokines evaluated (OLD PARA effect, estimate = 1.31; P = 0.001); while the second dimension was characterized by OLD PARA and OLD COMBO, each group being opposed according to this dimension (estimate= -0.87, P = 0.003 and estimate = 0.77, P = 0.009 respectively for OLD PARA and OLD COMBO). Those results confirm that the combination of FOS and yeast-based paraprobiotics according to the invention exerts effects on blood cytokines that are overall significantly different to the other treatments (Data not shown).

Blood cvtocine analyses : Conclusions Overall, the administration of the FOS + Paraprobiotics combination composition according to the invention in old mice promotes a unique pattern of blood cytokine concentrations, namely: a low IL6:IL10 ratio and a low concentration of ILlbeta; while favoring concentrations of IL22 and IL17A, and an appropriate balance between IL17A and IL22. A reduction of IL6:IL10 ratio, meaning an increase of anti-inflammatory status, is a positive finding as IL6 has been long recognized as important in aging and age-related disease and has been called the “gerontologist’s cytokine”. In parallel, an improvement of IL22 and IL17A concentrations suggest better host defenses against pathogen invasion and infections, also conferring a lower susceptibility of inflammation diseases. A state of chronic inflammation, has a significant impact on survival and fragility, one of the most important components of fragility being sarcopenia and bone mass loss. In addition, the increase of pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL6 has been associated with dementia, Parkinson’s disease, atherosclerosis, diabetes type 2, sarcopenia and a high risk of morbidity and mortality (Ventura et ah, 2017). In younger animals, the decrease in this ratio could also be of importance. As an example, a decrease in this ratio has been associated with reduced offspring weight at birth, suggesting that cytokines are key regulators of pregnancy inflammation and that the IL6:IL10 ratio is an interesting biomarker of cytokine balance (Ragsdale et ah, 2019). As another example, this ratio is known to increase in obese and diabetes humans and rodents (Lu et ah, 2020). Currently, IL10 appears an interesting therapeutic against ulcerative colitis, cancers, psoriasis (Ouyang and O’Garra, 2019).

As stated before, IL-17A, and IL-22 are leukocyte-derived cytokines that have a major impact on epithelial cells in various tissues. In normal physiological conditions, both can be protective against infections. Reduced or absent production of IL-17 and IL-22 is observed in the human orphan diseases autosomal-dominant hyper-IgE syndrome and chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis, which are both characterized by chronic infections of skin and mucosal membranes by bacteria and/or yeasts such as Candida albicans. IL- 17 and IL-22 are also crucial in defense against Leishmania donovani. In mice, protective effects have also been shown after infection with Salmonella and Citrobacter (Eyerichlet al., 2010). With its properties, IL22 appears a good candidate to support mucosal healing, which represents a current therapeutic goal for intestinal bowel disease (Mizoguchi et al., 2018), but also a promising candidate as a therapeutic against ulcerative colitis, atopic dermatitis (Ouyang and O’Garra, 2019). Finally, chronic diseases such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease have been associated with IL17 and IL22 responses directed against innocuous antigens suggesting a potential therapeutic efficacy of targeting the IL17/IL22 pathway in pulmonary inflammation (McAleers and Koll, 2014).

Flux cytometry : Thl7/Treg ratio Thl7 cells have been implicated in the development of autoimmune and chronic inflammatory diseases in humans. Additionally, a reciprocal relationship between these pro-inflammatory Thl7 and the anti-inflammatory Treg has been described in humans but also in mice. The Thl7/Treg ratio basically increases during aging and such a rise of Thl7/Treg may lead to increased development of inflammatory diseases (Schmitt et al., 2013).

However, Treg and Thl7 cells have opposite function on bone mass, Treg cells inhibiting the differentiation of osteoclasts, while Thl7 cells promote their differentiation. Thus, keeping a good balance of those 2 types of cells is important to maintain bone homeostasis and prevent bone mass losses in elderly subjects, while diminishing the susceptibility to develop inflammatory diseases.

The Thl7/Treg ratio of young mice is the lowest, while those of old mice fed with the standard diet, the standard diet with FOS or the diet with paraprobiotics tend to be clearly higher. Surprisingly, administering the combination of FOS + Paraprobiotics to old mice decreases the value of the Thl7/Treg ratio compared to what was determined with old mice fed with the other diets (See Figure 8).

Flux cytometry : Toll like receytor expression in lymphocytes

Interestingly, as observed in the results shown in Figure 9, the proportion of TLR4 immune-positive T4 and T8 lymphocytes increased with the combo. More precisely, we found a clear additional effect between the FOS and the yeast-based paraprobiotic on the percentage of LT4 expressing TLR4 cells (See Figure 9B). El Naseeri et al. (2020) found that aging rodents had decreased number of such immune cells in spleen. A defective TLR4 signaling may significantly contribute to increased susceptibility to infection and elicit a poor adaptive immune response in the elderly. So, an increase proportion of lymphocyte T expressing-TLR4 may suggest a higher adaptative immune response.

In addition, the percentage ofLT8 expressing TLR2 cells also increased with the combo. Remarkably, the LT8 expressing TLR2 cells overpassed the percentage observed for the young mice. Fecal microbiota analysis

As shown in Figure 10, the supplementation of diets with the COMBO composition according to the invention resulted in decreased relative abundance of Proteobacteria and Firmicutes, mainly due to FOS supplementation. Interestingly, the COMBO composition induced a higher reduction of Firmicutes than FOS alone or paraprobiotic alone, suggesting an additional effect when combining both supplements. In addition, the COMBO composition led to an increase of relative abundance of Bacteroidetes, Bacteroides genus and of Bifidobacteriaceae mainly B. pseudolongum, in a higher way than the two ingredients alone, emphasizing an additional effect. References

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