FRIEDMAN MARK A (IL)
ARAV AMIR (IL)
US4972681A | 1990-11-27 | |||
US5630321A | 1997-05-20 | |||
US4531373A | 1985-07-30 |
LAVRIA AND GANDALFI: "VITRIFICATION OF OOCYTES AND EMBRYOS", EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT AND MANIPULATION (PORTLAND PRESS), 1 January 1992 (1992-01-01), pages 255-264
1. | A device for freezing a biological sample, comprising: (a) a track; (b) refrigeration means for imposing a laterally variable temperamre gradient along said track; and (c) a mechanism for moving the biological sample along said track. |
2. | The device of claim 1, wherein said refrigeration means include a plurality of thermally conductive blocks substantially enclosing said track. |
3. | The device of claim 2, wherein said blocks are arranged linearly . |
4. | The device of claim 3, wherein said blocks are separated by gaps. |
5. | The device of claim 4, further comprising monitoring means deployed at said gaps. |
6. | The device of claim 5, wherein said monitoring means includes at least one video camera. |
7. | The device of claim 5, wherein said monitoring means includes at least one infrared thermograph. |
8. | The device of claim 2, wherein said refrigeration means includes at least one cryogenic fluid. |
9. | The device of claim 2, wherein said refrigeration means includes at least one thermoelectric device. |
10. | The device of claim 2, wherein said refrigeration means includes at least one electrical resistance heater. |
11. | The device of claim 1 , wherein said mechanism for moving the biological sample includes a plurality of rollers. |
12. | The device of claim 1, wherein said mechanism for moving the biological sample includes at least one piston. |
13. | The device of claim 1, wherein said track has an exit, the device further comprising a container of liquid nitrogen, positioned to receive the sample as the sample emerges from said exit. |
14. | The device of claim 1, further comprising a seeding mechanism. |
15. | The device of claim 14, wherein said seeding mechanism includes at least one cryogenic fluid. |
16. | A method for freezing a biological sample having a freezing temperamre, comprising the steps of: (a) placing the biological sample inside a straw having a leading end; (b) moving said straw from a warm region having a first temperamre higher than the freezing temperamre to a cold region having a second temperamre lower than the freezing temperamre, said leading end of said straw entering said cold region before any other part of said straw; and (c) freezing said leading end of said straw before said leading end of said straw enters said cold region. |
17. | The method of claim 16, wherein said freezing is effected by touching said leading end of said straw with liquid nitrogen. |
18. | The method of claim 16, wherein said moving of said straw from said warm region to said cold region is effected via a seeding region having a seeding temperamre slightly lower than said freezing temperamre and higher than said second temperature, and wherein said freezing of said leading end of said straw is done within said seeding region. |
19. | The method of claim 18, further comprising the step of selecting the biological sample from the group consisting of embryos, oocvtes, and ovarian cortical tissue. |
20. | The method of claim 19, wherein said moving of said straw is done at a speed of between about 20 microns per second and about 100 microns per second. |
21. | The method of claim 20, further comprising the steps of: (a) establishing a temperamre gradient, between said warm region and said seeding region, such that said cooling from said first temperamre to said seeding temperature is effected at a rate of between about 0.5°C per minute and about 10°C per minute; and (b) establishing a temperamre gradient, between said seeding region and said cold region, such that said cooling from said seeding temperature to said second temperamre is effected at a rate of between about O. PC per minute and about 1.5°C per minute. |
22. | A method for freezing a semen sample having a lipid phase transition temperamre, the sample being initially at a temperamre above the lipid phase transition temperature, the method comprising the steps of: (a) cooling the sample to an intermediate temperamre slightly below the lipid phase transition temperamre at a rate sufficiently slow to prevent chilling injury; and (b) cooling the sample below said intermediate temperamre at a rate of between about 30°C per minute and about 1500°C per minute. |
23. | The method of claim 22, wherein said cooling to an intermediate temperamre is effected at a rate of between about O.PC per minute and about 10°C per minute. |
24. | The method of claim 22, wherein said cooling is done directionally, at a velocity of between about 50 microns per second and about 3000 microns per second. |
25. | A method for freezing a biological sample having a glass transition temperature, the sample being initially at a temperature above the glass transition temperamre, the method comprising the steps of: (a) cooling the sample to about the glass transition temperamre at a rate sufficiently fast to prevent ice formation; and (b) cooling the sample below about the glass transition temperature at a rate sufficiently slow to prevent glass fracturing. |
26. | The method of claim 25, wherein said cooling to about the glass transition temperature is effected at a rate of at least 100°C per minute. |
27. | The method of claim 25, wherein said cooling below about the glass transition temperamre is effected at a rate of at most about 10°C per minute. |
28. | A method of warming a biological sample having a glass transition temperamre, the sample being initially at a temperamre below the glass transition temperamre, the method comprising the steps of: (a) warming the sample to about the glass transition temperature at a rate sufficiently slow to prevent glass fracturing; and (b) warming the sample above about the glass transition temperamre at a rate sufficiently fast to prevent devitrification. |
29. | The method of claim 28, wherein said warming to about the glass transition temperature is effected at a rate of at most about 10°C per minute. |
30. | The method of claim 28, wherein said* warming above about the glass transition temperature is effected at a rate of at least about 100°C per minute. |
FIELD AND BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
The present invention relates to the controlled freezing of biological
samples consisting of cells and tissues, such as semen, oocytes, and
embryos; and, more particularly, to a directional freezmg device that sets
up a laterally varying temperature gradient, and freezing and thawing
protocols allowed by the device.
When a biological sample containing living cells in a freezing
solution is frozen, the first portion of the sample to freeze is the
intercellular fluid. The formation of ice in the intercellular fluid increases
the salt concentration there. If the sample is frozen too slowly, the high
concentration of salt in the intercellular fluid may kill the cells, by osmotic
shock or by chemical toxicity. Conversely, freezing the sample too
rapidly may lead to the formation of intracellular ice crystals, which also
kill the cell, by internal mechanical damage. In addition, the rate of
cooling affects the morphology of the intercellular ice crystals.
Morphologies such as closely packed needles also kill cells, by external
mechanical damage. Thus, maximizing the survival rate of cells subjected
to freezing and thawing requires careful control of the freezing process.
An alternative method of freezing biological samples, which totally
avoids the problems associated with ice crystal formation, is to cool them
so fast that the intercellular and intracellular fluids vitrify instead of
crystallizing as ice. This method has dangers of its own, however. In
particular, the rate of cooling is so fast that, because of thermal shock,
glass fractures may form within the sample at temperatures below its glass
transition temperature. To prevent ice crystal formation upon thawing,
vitrified samples must be warmed as fast as they were cooled, so thermal
shock may cause fracture formation either during the cooling process or
during the warming process.
The conventional method for freezing biological samples is to place
them in a chamber and lower the temperature of the chamber in a
controlled manner. Samples frozen in this manner freeze from the outside
in. The thermal gradient within the sample is determined implicitly by the
temperature of the chamber and the thermal conductivities of the materials
within the sample, and is not explicitly controllable. This makes it
difficult to achieve the optimal cooling rate, which minimizes both the
toxicity associated with cooling too slowly and the mechanical damage
associated with cooling too fast.
Rubinsky, in U.S. Patent No. 4,531 ,373, introduced controlled
directional freezing, in which a sample is placed on a microscope slide,
and the microscope slide is moved longitudinally through a region of
substantially constant temperature gradient dT/dx (T denoting temperature
and x denoting distance). If the microscope slide is moved through the
temperature gradient at a constant speed V = dx/dt, where t denotes time,
then each point in the sample cools at a rate of dT/dt = V*(dT/dx).
Using Rubinsky's method, the rate of cooling of each point in the sample
is subject to explicit control. In addition, if the cooling is done on a
microscope stage, the sample can be monitored in detail for undesired
phenomena such as the formation of intracellular ice.
Rubinsky's method, having only one uniform thermal gradient, is
inherently limited to cooling at a single rate. Thus, it is unsuitable for
cooling protocols that require different rates in different temperature
ranges. For example, Arav ("Vitrification of oocytes and embryos", in
Embryonic Development and Manipulation (Lavria and Gandalfi, editors),
Portland Press, 1992, pp. 255-264) recommends that vitrification be done
with rapid cooling above the glass transition temperature and slower
cooling below the glass transition temperature. In addition, Rubinsky's
use of a microscope stage for monitoring makes his device unsuitable for
commercial or industrial scale production, or for the use of commercial
cell packaging ("straws").
There is thus a widely recognized need for, and it would be highly
advantageous to have, a device for directional cooling of a biological
sample by moving the sample through regions of laterally varying
temperature gradient, and associated freezing and thawing protocols that
exploit the ability to cool and thaw at different rates in different
temperature ranges.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
According to the present invention there is provided a device for
freezing a biological sample, comprising: (a) a track; (b) refrigeration
means for imposing a laterally variable temperature gradient along the
track; and (c) a mechanism for moving the biological sample along the
track.
According to the present invention there is provided a method for
freezing a biological sample having a freezing temperature, comprising the
steps of: (a) placing the biological sample inside a straw having a leading
end; (b) moving the straw from a warm region having a first temperamre
higher than the freezing temperamre to a cold region having a second
temperamre lower than the freezing temperamre, the leading end of the
straw entering the cold region before any other part of the straw; and (c)
freezing the leading end of the straw before the leading end of the straw
enters the cold region.
According to the present invention there is provided a method for
freezing a semen sample having a lipid phase transition temperamre, the
sample being initially at a temperature above the lipid phase transition
temperature, the method comprising the steps of: (a) cooling the sample
to an intermediate temperature slightly below the lipid phase transition
temperamre at a rate sufficiently slow to prevent chilling injury; and (b)
cooling the sample below the intermediate temperature at a rate of between
about 30°C per minute and about 1500°C per minute.
According to the present invention there is provided a method for
freezing a biological sample having a glass transition temperature, the
sample being initially at a temperamre above the glass transition
temperamre, the method comprising the steps of: (a) cooling the sample
to about the glass transition temperamre at a rate sufficiently fast to
prevent ice formation; and (b) cooling the sample below about the glass
transition temperamre at a rate sufficiently slow to prevent glass
fracturing.
According to the present invention there is provided a method of
warming a biological sample having a glass transition temperamre, the
sample being initially at a temperature below the glass transition
temperamre, the method comprising the steps of: (a) warming the sample
to about the glass transition temperature at a rate sufficiently slow to
prevent glass fracturing; and (b) warming the sample above about the glass
transition temperamre at a rate sufficiently fast to prevent devitrification.
The preferred embodiment of the device of the present invention is
a series of copper blocks arranged in a line, with a straight track running
through the blocks. Each block is equipped with a refrigerator to cool the
block, and optionally one or more heaters to warm the block. In the
simplest configuration, the refrigerator is on one side of the block and one
heater is on the other side of the block, thereby imposing a temperamre
gradient on the portion of the track contained in the block. In another
configuration, the refrigerator cools the block as a whole, and two or more
heaters impose a temperamre gradient along the portion of the track
contained in the block. The blocks are separated by gaps, and the
temperature of the block on one side of the gap typically is different from
the temperature on the other side of the gap, thereby imposing a
temperature gradient across the gap. Biological samples to be frozen or
thawed are placed inside straws, and the straws are moved along the track
at speeds such that the samples are frozen or thawed at rates specified by
protocols specific to the samples. Monitoring devices, such as CCD video
cameras coupled to microscope objectives, and such as infrared
thermographs, are deployed at the gaps to monitor the progress of the
freezing or thawing.
In a variant of this preferred embodiment, the blocks are mounted
in the neck of a dewar of liquid nitrogen, with the entrance (high
temperature end) of the track at or above the top of the neck, and the exit
(low temperamre end) of the track within the neck or at the base of the
neck. When the straws reach the exit, they fall into the liquid nitrogen for
long term storage.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
The invention is herein described, by way of example only, with
reference to the accompanying drawings, wherein:
FIG. 1A is a schematic side view of a preferred embodiment of the
device of the present invention, based on thermally conductive blocks;
FIG. IB is a schematic cross sectional view of the preferred
embodiment of FIG. 1A.
FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a variant of the device of FIG.
1A.
FIG. 3 shows the manner in which a sample of embryos or oocytes
is loaded in a straw.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS
The present invention is of a cooling device which can be used for
the controlled freezing and thawing of biological samples, and of protocols
for its use with various kinds of samples. Specifically, the device of the
present invention can be used to move biological samples through regions
of laterally varying temperamre gradients, thereby effecting cooling and
thawing at controlled rates.
The principles and operation of a cooling device according to the
present invention may be better understood with reference to the drawings
and the accompanying description.
Referring now to the drawings, Figure 1A is a schematic side view
of one preferred embodiment of the device of the present invention. Three
blocks 12, 14, and 16, of a thermally conductive material, preferably
copper, are arranged in a line. Block 12 is about 16 centimeters long.
Block 14 is about 2.5 centimeters long. Block 16 is about 10 centimeters
long. Blocks 12 and 14 are separated by a gap 18. Blocks 14 and 16 are
separated by a gap 20. Gaps 18 and 20 may be between .01 centimeters
and 1.5 centimeters wide. A tunnel 36, preferably of rectangular cross
section, runs through blocks 12, 14, and 16. Tunnel 36 defines a track
along which a sled 40 is moved. Sled 40 preferably is made of a
thermally conductive material, preferably copper, and bears one or more
straws 38 that contain biological samples to be frozen or thawed. Straws
38 typically are hollow tubes of circular or rectangular cross section, about
14 to 30 centimeters long. Sled 40 is moved through tunnel 36 by a piston
42 to which is attached a helically threaded rod 44. Rod 44 is moved to
the right by a screw drive (not shown).
Blocks 12 and 14 include refrigerators 50 and 52. Blocks 12 and
16 include heaters 56, 57 and 58. Refrigerators 50 and 52 operate
conventionally, by compressing and expanding cryogenic fluids. Heaters
56, 57 and 58 typically are electrical resistance heaters. Block 16 includes
a channel 54 through which liquid nitrogen is circulated. Refrigerator 50
and heater 56 serve to impose a temperamre gradient on the portion of
tunnel 36 that runs from warm side 22 of block 12 to cold side 24 of block
12. Refrigerator 52 imposes a substantially constant temperamre on block
14. The effect of the liquid nitrogen in channel 54 and heaters 57 and 58
is to impose a temperature gradient on the portion of tunnel 36 that runs
from warm side 30 of block 16 to cold side 32 of block 16. The
temperatures within blocks 12, 14, and 16 are monitored by thermocouples
(not shown) and controlled by feedback loops (not shown) that include
refrigerators 50 and 52 and heaters 56, 57 and 58.
In general, gaps between blocks of the present invention, such as
gaps 18 and 20 separating blocks 12, 14, and 16, preferably are no wider
than 1.5 centimeters. In that way, the tunnel, such as tunnel 36, through
the blocks encloses substantially all of the track along which the biological
samples move, isolating the samples from the outside environment and
helping to impose the thermal gradients of the blocks on the biological
samples.
At gap 18, a video camera 60 and an infrared thermograph 64 are
deployed for monitoring the condition of the biological sample in straw 38
as straw 38 traverses gap 18. Suitable infrared thermographs 64 include
those made by Elbit Ltd. of Haifa, Israel, and the Microscanner D501
made by Exergen Co. of Newton MA. Similarly, another video camera
62 is deployed at gap 20 for monitoring the condition of the biological
sample in straw 38 as straw 38 traverses gap 20. Video cameras 60 and
62, and infrared thermograph 64, transmit signals to a monitor (not
shown), on which an operator can observe the visual appearance and the
temperamre contours of the contents of straw 38. In production mode,
most straws 38 are opaque. For the purpose of visual monitoring for
quality control, some of straws 38 are special transparent (typically glass)
straws of rectangular cross section. Infrared thermograph 64 monitors the
temperamre profile of all straws 38.
Block 14 is provided with a channel 72 for applying liquid nitrogen
to straw 38 to seed freezing, as described below.
Figure IB is a schematic cross sectional view of the preferred
embodiment of Figure 1A, taken along cut A-A. Figure IB shows that the
geometry of channel 54 in block 16 is that of a coil open at both ends,
with liquid nitrogen entering channel 54 at the end nearer to cold side 32
of block 16 and exiting channel 54 at the end nearer to warm side 30 of
block 16. Figure IB also shows that channel 72 in block 14 is provided
with an electrically activated valve 74 to admit liquid nitrogen. The
variant of channel 72 shown in Figure IB is capable of seeding six straws
38 at once.
Figure 2 is a schematic view of a variation of the device of Figures
1A and IB. In this variation, blocks 12, 14, and 16 are mounted in a neck
104 of a dewar 100 of liquid nitrogen 102. Refrigerators 50 and 52, and
heaters 56, 57 and 58 are thermoelectric devices, rather than conventional
cryogenic refrigerators or resistance heaters. Tunnel 36 is circular in
cross section; and, instead of providing sled 40 to move straw 38 laterally
along the track defined by tunnel 36, as in Figure 1 A, pairs of rollers 120
are provided that grip straw 38 frictionally and move straw 38 downwards
through tunnel 36. When straw 38 emerges from exit 37 of tunnel 36,
straw 38 falls into liquid nitrogen 102 for preservation.
The device of the present invention enables the implementation of
controlled seeding in the freezing of biological samples. When any liquid
is cooled below its freezing point, it remains a liquid, in an unstable
supercooled state, for at least a short time. Freezing starts at nucleation
sites that are distributed substantially randomly throughout the volume of
the liquid, and spreads through the rest of the liquid. In the conventional,
equiaxial (nondirectional) method of freezing biological samples, ice grows
with uncontrolled velocity and morphology, and may disrupt and kill the
cells of the samples.
Directional freezing allows controlled nucleation, or seeding, of
freezing, at least in principle. As a straw containing a biological sample
is moved forward along a thermal gradient, from a temperamre above the
freezing point of the sample to a temperature below the freezing point of
the sample, at some point in time, the leading edge of the straw reaches
a point in space at which the temperature is below the freezing point of the
sample. The leading end of the straw is now frozen, for example by
touching it with a cold object such as a small amount of liquid nitrogen.
Uncontrolled freezing proceeds backwards along the straw to the point in
space at which the temperamre is equal to the freezing point of the sample.
As the straw continues to move forward, the frozen part of the sample
nucleates freezing of the liquid part of the sample as the liquid part of the
sample passes the point in space at which the temperamre is equal to the
freezing point of the sample. Thus, uncontrolled freezing, with
consequent random destruction of cells, is confmed to a small region at the
leading end of the straw, and controlled freezing occurs at a freezing front
that moves backwards along the straw but remains Substantially stationary
with respect to the thermal gradient, substantially at the point along the
thermal gradient at which the temperature is equal to the freezing point of
the sample.
Ideally, the velocity of the freezing front should be such that the ice
morphology does not disrupt the cells of the biological sample. This is
difficult to achieve using the directional freezing devices of the prior art,
which have laterally constant gradients, because the rate of cooling
consistent with favorable ice morphology may not be consistent with other
desired cooling rates of a sample's freezing protocol. The laterally
varying gradient of the device of the present invention allows cooling at
different rates in different temperamre regimes, thereby allowing fully
controlled nucleation at the freezing front. For example, a short part of
the thermal gradient, immediately to the cool side of the point at which the
temperature is equal to the freezing point of the sample, can be set equal
to zero, providing a short region of constant temperamre slightly below the
freezing point of the sample. If the sample is a suspension of separate
cells, then this constant temperature is slightly below the freezing
temperature of the freezing solution in which the cells are suspended. If
the sample is a tissue sample, then this constant temperamre is slightly
below the freezing temperature of the tissue sample. Note that in the
context of the present invention, "slightly below" means lower in
temperature by between about 1°C and about 10°C. This now will be
illustrated in the context of the use of the device of Figure 1 for freezing
oocytes and embryos.
The prior art protocol for freezing oocytes and embryos is to cool
from 0°C to -7°C at a rate of between about 0.5°C per minute and about
10°C per minute, but most preferably at a rate of about 1°C per minute;
and from -7°C to -35°C at a rate of between about 0.1 °C per minute and
about 1.5 °C per minute, but most preferably at a rate of about 0.3°C per
minute. The present invention allows this protocol to be effected
directionally. The present invention also allows this protocol to be applied
to the directional freezing of ovarian cortical tissue. The ovarian cortical
tissue is removed surgically from the patient (typically a woman about to
undergo chemotherapy or radiation therapy) and sliced into slices having
a dimension of about 1 cm x 1 cm x 0.5 mm. These slices are frozen
inside specially dimensioned flat straws 38 having rectangular cross
sections about 1 cm wide and about 2 mm high.
Straw 38 is loaded as shown in Figure 3. A sample 150, containing
one or more oocytes or embryos, is placed in the middle of straw 38,
surrounded by about 10 to 100 microliters 160 of freezing solution. One
end 39 of straw 38, which is the leading end as straw 38 travels through
tunnel 36, is plugged with a cotton plug 180 saturated with freezing
solution. The other end of straw 38 is filled with sucrose solution 190 and
sealed with seal 200. Plug 180, sample-bearing freezing solution 160,
sucrose solution 190, and seal 200 are separated by air bubbles 170 as
shown.
Refrigerator 50 and heater 56 are set to give block 12 a temperature
of 22°C at warm side 22 and a temperamre of 0°C at cold side 24.
Refrigerator 52 is set to give block 14 a uniform temperamre of -7°C .
Heaters 57 and 58 are set to give warm side 30 of block 16 a temperamre
of -10°C and cold side 32 of block 16 a temperamre of
-35°C. For this protocol, the width of gap 18 is set to 0.84 centimeters,
and the width of gap 20 is set to 1.2 centimeters.
Straw 38 is placed on sled 40, the side of sled 40 bearing leading
end 39 of straw 38 is placed inside tunnel 36 at warm end 22 of block 12,
and sled 40 is moved through tunnel 36, using piston 42 and rod 44, at a
speed of 20 microns per second. When leading end 39 of straw 38 enters
end 26 of block 14, valve 74 is opened for between about 5 seconds and
about 10 seconds, allowing a small amount of liquid nitrogen to touch
leading end 39 of straw 38, thereby seeding the freezing of the contents
of straw 38. Because blocks 12 and 14 and sled 40 are made of a
thermally conductive material such as copper, the imposition of a
temperamre of 0°C at cold end 24 of block 12 and of -7°C throughout
block 14 sets up a substantially linear temperature gradient, of -8.3°C per
centimeter, in the portions of sled 40 and straw 38 that occupy gap 18.
As straw 38 moves across gap 18, freezing proceeds in the opposite
direction within straw 38, with a freezing front established at the point in
gap 18 where the temperature is the freezmg point of the solutions
contained in straw 38, about -3°C. (In air bubbles 170, the freezing front
propagates via fluid that wets the inner wall of straw 38.) As sample 150
crosses gap 18, it is cooled from 0°C to -7°C at the desired rate of 1°C per
minute. Video camera 60 and infrared thermograph 64 are used to
monitor the morphology and location of the freezing front in gap 18, so
that the speed at which straw 38 is moved across gap 18 can be fine-tuned.
The temperamre of sample 150 stays constant at -7°C as sample 150 moves
through block 14. As sample 150 enters block 14, the speed of sled 40 is
increased to about 40 microns per second, so that sample 150 spends about
10 minutes inside block 14 at a constant temperamre of -7°C. When
sample 150 emerges from block 14, it is in a region, including both gap
20 and block 16, in which the temperamre gradient is about -2.5°C per
centimeter. At this point the speed of sled 40 is reduced to the original 20
microns per second, so that sample 150 reaches cold end 32 of block 16,
at which the temperamre is -35°C, in about 93 minutes, i.e., at the desired
rate of -0.3°C per minute. Video camera 62 monitors the morphology of
the contents of straw 38 as straw 38 emerges from block 14 into gap 20,
to make sure that the contents of straw 38 are entirely frozen and that
sample 150 has not been damaged mechanically by the freezing process.
In the case of other kinds of biological samples, such as bull semen,
straw 38 is substantially entirely filled with the sample to be frozen. In
that case, seeding by quickly freezing one end of straw 38 inevitably kills
the part of the sample being frozen in the seeding process. Nevertheless,
the rest of the sample may be frozen in a controlled manner, and
significantly more of the sample survives freezing and thawing than in the
conventional, nondirectional freezing method.
The above protocol is conventional; the advantage of implementing
it using the device of the present invention is that it can be implemented
directionally. The present invention also includes other freezing and
thawing protocols that can be effected only through the use of the device
of the present invention. These include:
Semen (including bull, ram, goat, stallion, and human semen):
Cool from 30°C to an intermediate temperature slightly below the lipid
phase transition temperamre of the semen at a rate slow enough to prevent
chilling injury, preferably about PC per minute. Cool from the
intermediate temperamre to -50°C at a rate of between about 30°C per
minute and about 1500°C per minute. In the case of bull semen, the
preferred intermediate temperamre is about 5°C. This is faster than the
conventional protocol for bull semen, which prescribes a cooling rate of
only 30°C per minute between 0°C and -50°C. The preferred range of
velocities for directional cooling under this protocol is between about 50
microns per second and about 3000 microns per second.
Vitrification: Cool from 30°C to slightly below the glass transition
temperamre (typically about -110°C) at a rate fast enough to prevent ice
formation, at least about 100°C per minute, but preferably at a rate of
about 8400°C per minute. Cool from slightly below the glass transition
temperamre to the temperature of liquid nitrogen at a rate of at most about
10°C per minute, to avoid fracturing the sample by thermal shock.
Warming a vitrified sample stored in liquid nitrogen: Warm from
the temperamre of liquid nitrogen to slightly below the glass transition
temperamre at a rate of at most about 10°C per minute, to avoid fracturing
the sample by thermal shock. Warm from slightly below the glass
transition temperature to 30°C at a rate fast enough to prevent
devitrification, at least about 100°C per minute, but preferably at a rate of
about 8400°C per minute. This is safer than the conventional method of
heating the sample in a water bath at a temperature between 55°C and
75°C, because the danger of overheating inherent in the conventional
method is avoided.
While the invention has been described with respect to a limited
number of embodiments, it will be appreciated that many variations,
modifications and other applications of the invention may be made.