PRIORITY CLAIM

This application claims the benefit of the filing date of United States Patent

Application Serial No. 15/060,183, filed March 3, 2016, pending, for "Device, System, and Method for Measuring Internal Impedance of a Test Battery Using Frequency Response," the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated in its entirety by this reference. RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is related to United States Patent Application No. 14/296,321, filed June 4, 2014, published as US 2014/0358462, pending, which claims benefit of United States Provisional Application 61/831,001, filed on June 4, 2013. This application is also related to United States Patent Application No. 14/789,959, filed July 1, 2015, pending. The disclosures of each of the foregoing applications are hereby incorporated in their entirety by this reference.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

The invention was made with government support under Contract No.

DE-AC07-05-ID14517, awarded by the United States Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention.

FIELD

Embodiments of the present disclosure relate to apparatuses, systems, and methods for impedance measurement of energy storage cells, such as electrochemical cells, and more particularly, to analysis of the state of health of energy storage cells.

BACKGROUND

Chemical changes to electrodes in a rechargeable battery may cause degradation in the battery's capacity, duration of charge retention, charging time, and other functional parameters. Battery degradation may accumulate over the life of the battery.

Environmental factors (e.g., high temperature) and functional factors (e.g., improper charging and discharging) may accelerate battery degradation. Operators of systems that rely on rechargeable battery power may desire to monitor the degradation of the batteries they use. One indicator of battery degradation is an increase in battery impedance.

FIG. 1 is an impedance plot 102 of a fresh battery and an impedance plot 104 of an aged battery, measured at several different frequencies using an Electrochemical

Impedance Measurement (EIM) system. The Y-axis is the imaginary impedance and the X-axis is the real impedance for a plurality of different frequencies plotted in FIG. 1. As illustrated in FIG. 1, the aged battery (plot 104) exhibits a higher impedance than the fresh battery (plot 102) at each of the different frequencies. Operators of systems that rely on rechargeable batteries may use impedance data, such as the impedance data of FIG. 1, to determine that a replacement battery is needed before a failure occurs. Such preemptive replacement may prevent expensive delays and property damage that may occur in the event of a battery failure. Also, knowledge of a battery's continued reliability may prevent expenses associated with unnecessarily replacing a battery that still has a substantial amount of lifetime left.

Existing impedance measurement systems have a resolution of approximately 0.1 mOhm when operating at an excitation current range of approximately 500 mA. As a result, existing impedance measurement systems may be able to determine the impedance of a test battery exhibiting a 10 mOhm internal impedance with adequate resolution. The resolution of existing impedance measurement systems may limit the ability to test batteries exhibiting lower internal impedance (e.g., 1 mOhm). Other methods of impedance measurement (e.g., electro-chemical impedance spectroscopy) may achieve high resolution, but may be slow to be tuned, such as requiring time on the order of about 10 minutes to obtain the measurements.

DISCLOSURE

Disclosed herein is an impedance measurement device. The impedance measurement device comprises a current driver configured to generate an excitation current signal to be applied to a test battery responsive to a control signal, and a processor operably coupled with the current driver. The processor is configured to generate the control signal during an auto-ranging mode and a measuring mode. The auto-ranging mode applies the excitation current signal to the test battery over a plurality of different amplitudes to measure a response to the excitation current signal at each amplitude. The measuring mode applies the excitation current signal to the test battery for an amplitude responsive to the results of the auto-ranging mode.

In some embodiments, an impedance measurement system is disclosed. The impedance measurement system includes a test battery and an impedance measurement device operably coupled to the test battery. The impedance measurement device includes a preamplifier including a current driver and a signal measuring module operably coupled with the test battery, a current control signal generator operably coupled with the preamplifier, a data acquisition system operably coupled with the preamplifier, and a processor operably coupled with the current control signal generator and the data acquisition system. The processor is configured to control the current control signal generator to transmit a current control signal to the preamplifier during an auto-ranging mode to cause the current driver to generate an excitation current signal exhibiting a range of amplitudes, control the data acquisition system to analyze the response of the test battery from the signal measuring module during the auto-ranging mode, control the current control signal generator to transmit the current control signal to the preamplifier during a measuring to cause the current driver to generate the excitation current signal exhibiting an selected amplitude based, at least in part, on analyzing the response of the test battery during the auto-ranging mode, and control the data acquisition system to analyze the response of the test battery from the signal measuring module during the measuring mode to determine an impedance of the test battery.

In some embodiments, a method of measuring impedance of a test battery is disclosed. The method comprises applying an excitation current signal to a test battery including a plurality of pulses exhibiting different amplitudes during an auto-ranging mode, measuring an electrical signal from the test battery responsive to the excitation current signal over the plurality of different amplitudes, applying the excitation current signal to the test battery exhibiting a fixed amplitude during a measuring mode, wherein the fixed amplitude is set based, at least in part, on an analysis of the electrical signal measured during the auto-ranging mode, and measuring the electrical signal from the test battery responsive to the excitation current signal exhibiting the fixed amplitude during the measuring mode to determine an internal impedance of the test battery. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is an impedance plot of a fresh battery and an impedance plot of an aged battery, measured at several different frequencies using an Electrochemical Impedance Measurement System.

FIG. 2 is a simplified block diagram of an impedance measurement system configured to perform real-time impedance spectrum measurement of a test battery according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 3 is a simplified block diagram of selected features of the impedance measurement device of the impedance measurement system of FIG. 2.

FIG. 4 is a simplified block diagram of the current driver of FIG. 3.

FIG. 5 illustrates a circuit diagram of the signal measuring module of the preamplifier of FIGS. 2 and 3.

FIG. 6 is a flowchart illustrating a method for operating an impedance measurement system of a battery according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

MODE(S) FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION In the following detailed description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings, which form a part hereof, and in which is shown by way of illustration specific embodiments in which the present disclosure may be practiced. These embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those of ordinary skill in the art to practice the present disclosure. It should be understood, however, that the detailed description and the specific examples, while indicating examples of embodiments of the present disclosure, are given by way of illustration only and not by way of limitation. From this disclosure, various substitutions, modifications, additions rearrangements, or combinations thereof within the scope of the present disclosure may be made and will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art.

In accordance with common practice, the various features illustrated in the drawings may not be drawn to scale. The illustrations presented herein are not meant to be actual views of any particular apparatus (e.g., device, system, etc.) or method, but are merely idealized representations that are employed to describe various embodiments of the present disclosure. Accordingly, the dimensions of the various features may be arbitrarily expanded or reduced for clarity. In addition, some of the drawings may be simplified for clarity. Thus, the drawings may not depict all of the components of a given apparatus or all operations of a particular method.

Information and signals described herein may be represented using any of a variety of different technologies and techniques. For example, data, instructions, commands, information, signals, bits, symbols, and chips that may be referenced throughout the description may be represented by voltages, currents, electromagnetic waves, magnetic fields or particles, optical fields or particles, or any combination thereof. Some drawings may illustrate signals as a single signal for clarity of presentation and description. It should be understood by a person of ordinary skill in the art that the signal may represent a bus of signals, wherein the bus may have a variety of bit widths and the present disclosure may be implemented on any number of data signals including a single data signal.

The various illustrative logical blocks, modules, circuits, and algorithm acts described in connection with embodiments disclosed herein may be implemented as electronic hardware, computer software, or combinations of both. To clearly illustrate this

interchangeability of hardware and software, various illustrative components, blocks, modules, circuits, and acts are described generally in terms of their functionality. Whether such functionality is implemented as hardware or software depends upon the particular application and design constraints imposed on the overall system. Skilled artisans may implement the described functionality in varying ways for each particular application, but such implementation decisions should not be interpreted as causing a departure from the scope of the embodiments of the disclosure described herein.

In addition, it is noted that the embodiments may be described in terms of a process that is depicted as a flowchart, a flow diagram, a structure diagram, or a block diagram.

Although a flowchart may describe operational acts as a sequential process, many of these acts can be performed in another sequence, in parallel, or substantially concurrently. In addition, the order of the acts may be rearranged. A process may correspond to a method, a function, a procedure, a subroutine, a subprogram, etc. Furthermore, the methods disclosed herein may be implemented in hardware, software, or both. If implemented in software, the functions may be stored or transmitted as one or more computer-readable instructions (e.g., software code) on a computer-readable medium. Computer-readable media may include both computer storage media and communication media including any medium that facilitates transfer of a computer program from one place to another. Computer-readable media may include volatile and non-volatile memory, such as, for example, magnetic and optical storage devices, such as, for example, hard drives, disk drives, magnetic tapes, CDs (compact discs), DVDs (digital versatile discs or digital video discs), solid state storage devices (solid state drives), and other similar storage devices.

It should be understood that any reference to an element herein using a designation such as "first," "second," and so forth does not limit the quantity or order of those elements, unless such limitation is explicitly stated. Rather, these designations may be used herein as a convenient method of distinguishing between two or more elements or instances of an element. Thus, a reference to first and second elements does not mean that only two elements may be employed there or that the first element must precede the second element in some manner. Also, unless stated otherwise a set of elements may comprise one or more elements. When describing circuit elements, such as, for example, resistors, capacitors, and transistors, designators for the circuit elements begin with an element type designator (e.g., R, C, M) followed by a numeric indicator.

As used herein, the terms "energy storage cell" and "energy storage cells" refer to rechargeable electrochemical cells that convert chemical energy to a direct current electrical voltage potential across a positive terminal and a negative terminal of the energy storage cell. The terms "battery," "cell," and "battery cell" may each be used interchangeably herein with the term "energy storage cell."

As used herein, the term "mid-range voltage" means a voltage in a range near 50 V. Thus, a mid-range voltage may include an average voltage of about 40 V to 60 V with a variation of about 90% to 99% depending on the tolerances desired for a given system.

As used herein, the term "high-range voltage" means a voltage in a range near 300 V. Thus, a high-range voltage may include an average voltage of about 250 V to 350 V with a variation of about 90% to 99% depending on the tolerances desired for a given system.

As used herein, the terms "sinusoid," and "sinusoidal," refer to electrical signals (e.g., currents and voltage potentials) that oscillate at least substantially according to a sine or cosine function (e.g., having various magnitudes and phase shifts) over time. As should be readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art, any given sinusoidal signal may be equivalently expressed either as a sine function or a cosine function, as the sine and cosine are merely phase-shifted versions of each other. Sinusoidal signals are disclosed herein as being applied to energy storage cells and shunts (e.g., resistors of known resistance values for calibration purposes). In some cases, these sinusoidal signals are referred to more specifically herein as either sine signals or cosine signals. These specific references to sine signals and cosine signals may be indicative of the phase of such signals relative to a time when a sinusoidal signal is first asserted to a conductive line (e.g., a positive or negative battery terminal, a conductive trace on a circuit board, a wire, etc.).

As used herein, the term "sum-of-sinusoids" ("SOS") refers to electrical signals that oscillate according to a sum of sinusoidal signals. An SOS signal may include sums of sine signals, sums of cosine signals, or combinations thereof. For example, a harmonic orthogonal synchronous transform (HOST) SOS signal may include a base sinusoidal signal having a base frequency summed with one or more sinusoidal signals having successive integer harmonic frequencies of the base frequency, and alternating between sine signals and cosine signals (or some phase-shifted version thereof) for each successive harmonic. The orthogonal nature of the harmonic sinusoidal signals summed together in a HOST SOS may serve to reduce or eliminate excessive transients. While examples are provided herein referring to SOS signals, embodiments of the present disclosure also contemplate using other types of excitation signals, including sum of alternating sines, cosines (ASC) signals.

FIG. 2 is a simplified block diagram of an impedance measurement system 200 configured to perform real-time impedance spectrum measurement of a test battery 205 according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. The test battery 205 refers to the battery under test, and may be an actual battery deployed and in use by an end user. The impedance measurement system 200 may include an impedance measurement device (IMD) 210 (sometimes referred to as an impedance measurement box (1MB)) operably coupled to the test battery 205. The IMD 210 may include a processor 212, a data acquisition system (DAS) 214, an SOS generator (SOSG) 216, a preamplifier 218, and a power supply 222. The IMD 210 may be used in a variety of different environments and battery types such that the health of the battery may be monitored in situ. As an example, the impedance measurement system 200 may be incorporated within an automobile or other vehicle with batteries that include one or more energy storage cells. Such vehicles may include electric or hybrid vehicles. It is also contemplated that embodiments of the disclosure may be employed in non-vehicular applications such as, by way of non-limiting example, in association with energy storage cells operably coupled to solar, wind, or tidal energy generation systems.

The SOSG 216 may be configured to generate an SOS control signal to the preamplifier 218 to control an SOS current signal output by the preamplifier 218. The SOS control signal may be selected to cause the preamplifier 218 to provide an SOS current signal including a sum of a plurality of different current signals having a plurality of different frequencies of interest for testing impedance of the test battery 205. In some embodiments, the SOS control signal may include a voltage signal proportional to a desired current for the SOS current signal to be output by the preamplifier 218. Accordingly, the SOS control signal may include an SOS voltage signal. An SOS signal is used herein as an example, and the SOSG 216 may be an excitation current control signal generator that is configured to control other types of excitation current signals to apply to the test battery 205. Thus, SOS signals are used herein as a non-limiting example of a signal that may be applied to the test battery 205.

The IMD 210 may be configured to measure electrical signals 206 at terminals of the test battery 205 responsive to the SOS current signal being applied to the terminals of the test battery 205. The preamplifier 218 may be configured to measure a battery response signal (e.g., voltage response and/or current response) responsive to receiving the electrical signals 206 from the test battery 205. The DAS 214 may be configured to receive the battery response signal and compute the impedance of the test battery 205 at the frequencies of the SOS control signal. In this way, the IMD 210 may be configured to test the impedance of the test battery 205 at a plurality of different frequencies substantially simultaneously.

In some embodiments, the DAS 214 may divide the measured voltage response by the measured current response to obtain the impedance response of the test battery 205. In such embodiments, no calibration may be needed because the impedance of the test battery 205 may be determined by dividing a measured voltage by a measured current. In some embodiments, the DAS 214 may be configured to measure only a voltage response of the test battery 205 to the SOS current signal 356 (FIG. 3). In such embodiments, calibration may be needed to determine the impedance of the test battery 205. Different calibration methods (e.g., single-shunt calibration, multiple shunt calibration, etc.) are contemplated, which may be used to account for real and imaginary portions of signals. For a single shunt method, a standard deviation may be determined for its measurements over time, and then an unknown shunt resistance may be determined by equating a ratio of the known single shunt resistance to the standard deviation of the measurements over its time record.

The IMD 210 may utilize data processing methods (e.g., algorithms) for generating battery impedance spectrum data 225. Impedance spectrum data 225 may be transmitted from the IMD 210 to a remote computer 230. The impedance spectrum data 225 may be formatted in any suitable format (e.g., Comma Separated Values (CSV) format). Each individual spectrum may include a time stamp, an information header, and the impedance spectrum data 225 may include the frequencies, the real part of the impedance, the imaginary part of the impedance and the common mode battery voltage for that spectrum. Additional data that may be transmitted to the remote computer 230 with the impedance spectrum data 225 include the SOS RMS current and the magnitude and phase calibration constants. The remote computer 230 may include a personal computer, a tablet computer, a laptop computer, a smart phone, a server, a vehicle computer (e.g., central processing unit), or other suitable computing devices.

A user may control the IMD 210 from the remote computer 230 using

commands 235 via an interface, such as a Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface, hardwire serial interfaces, hardwire parallel interfaces, a wireless interfaces (e.g., WiFi, ZIGBEE®, BLUETOOTH®), or other suitable interface. For example, the IMD 210 may be able to be controlled via a human interface on the remote computer 230 or the IMD 210 for the purpose of inputting control constraints to the IMD 210, performing embedded system diagnostics, calibration, or performing manual impedance spectrum acquisition. The

IMD 210 may implement a minimum of three-point magnitude and phase calibration for each frequency within the SOS control signal.

The processor 212 may be configured to synchronize and control the DAS 214, the SOSG 216, and the preamplifier 218. In some embodiments, the measurements may be performed according to a set schedule and/or control parameters dictated by the remote computer 230. As a non-limiting example, the processor 212 may interface with the remote computer 230 to download desired parameters and commands and upload various measured data. As non-limiting examples, the processor 212, or other devices not shown such as memory, may include adequate buffer memory to hold an acquired battery response time record until processed, hold the desired number of battery impedance spectrums for archive, hold system control and interface software, hold high resolution SOS samples, and hold the impedance spectrum control parameters. The processor 212 may be further configured to accept downloaded impedance spectrum control and calibration parameters and upload to the remote computer 230 archived battery impedance spectrum data under direction of the remote computer 230.

In operation, when a measurement is executed, the DAS 214 may transmit a digital signal ("Power Up") to the power supply 222 to cause the power supply 222 to power up the rest of the system (e.g., the preamplifier 218). The electrical signals 206 may be measured by the in the preamplifier 218 and input to the DAS 214 as the analog signal "Battery Voltage." At least one of the DAS 214 or the processor 212 may digitize the voltage and may send the digitized result to the remote computer 230. At least one of the remote computer 230 or the processor 212 may then process the measured DC battery voltage and use the DAS 214 to send a series of digital signals (e.g., "Buck Signals", "Buck D/A Control," etc.) to the preamplifier 218 to generate a DC bias voltage to subtract from the DC voltage response from the overall response of the test battery 205. As will be discussed further below with reference to FIG. 5, a low buck signal and a high buck signal may be generated to achieve the higher gain signals used for improved measurement resolution.

With the preamplifier 218 connected to the test battery 205, at least one of the remote computer 230 or processor 212 sends a measurement signal such as, for example, the SOS control signal or other suitable measurement signal to the preamplifier 218. When the test battery 205 is excited with the SOS current, the voltage that appears at its terminals may be the battery voltage plus any voltage drop of the SOS current acting on the internal impedance of the test battery 205. It is this SOS voltage drop that, when captured and processed, will yield the spectrum of the battery impedance for the test battery 205. A challenge may be that the battery voltage can be as much as two orders of magnitude greater than the SOS voltage drop. Thus, to accurately detect that signal, the battery voltage may be subtracted out prior to measuring the SOS voltage drop allowing all the bits of resolution of the A/D converter to focus on the desired signal to greatly improve accuracy. This subtraction of the battery voltage may be accomplished by measuring the battery voltage prior to the application of the SOS current and then feeding back a computer generated buck voltage that is subtracted with a differential amplifier from the total battery voltage to yield only the SOS voltage.

In one embodiment, the SOSG 216, under control of the processor 212, may be configured to synthesize a sample clock to be used by the DAS 214. The sample clock frequency may be selected at a rate that may differ depending on the data processing method used. The SOSG 216 may have a programmable signal level for the DAC output to the smoothing filter 306 (FIG. 3), which enables the processor 212 to control the SOS RMS current level to the test battery 205. The SOSG 216, under the control of the processor 212, may be configured to operate in an auto-ranging mode as well as a measuring mode. The auto-ranging mode may occur prior to the measuring mode to determine the SOS current amplitude that should be used for the SOS current during the measuring mode. The auto-ranging mode and the measuring mode will be discussed further below with respect to FIG. 6.

The DAS 214 may be configured with a desired resolution (e.g., 16 bit, 32 bit, etc.) and accept an external sample clock from the SOSG 216 with clock frequency that may range, for example, from 1 kHz to 100 kHz. The DAS 214 may accept an enable signal from the processor 212 to start acquiring data concurrent with the application of the SOS current signal to the test battery 205 being tested during its auto-ranging mode or its measuring mode. The DAS 214 may accept the analog battery voltage signal that has been conditioned by the preamplifier 218 for digitizing. The DAS 214 may include a buffer memory to hold a sample of the digitized battery voltage signal for uploading to memory (not shown). Each of the acquired samples may become part of the time record array that is input into the data processing method. Additionally, the DAS 214 may acquire a measurement of the DC voltage and case temperature of the test battery 205 prior to the application of the SOS current.

In some embodiments, the SOS current leads may be configured as a twisted pair and protected with a fuse. The preamplifier 218 may utilize a full differential battery voltage sense and may incorporate a method to bias out the common mode battery voltage from the batteries response to the SOS current excitation. This biasing may enable the full resolution of the DAS 214 to be focused upon the test batteries response to the SOS current rather than the average battery voltage.

The preamplifier 218 input signal may be the zero order hold SOS control signal from the SOSG 216. The preamplifier 218 may include an active Butterworth low-pass filter as the smoothing filter 306 (FIG. 3) and include about 1 dB of attenuation at 8 kHz and 60 dB of attenuation to the frequencies introduced by the zero order hold upon the SOS signal. The SOS control signal may then be fed into a current driver 308 (FIG. 3), which converts the SOS control signal into a current (e.g., "SOS Current") provided to the test battery 205. A signal measuring module 310 (FIG. 3) of the preamplifier 218 may detect the battery voltage and subtract a DC buck voltage to become the battery response that may be digitized by the DAS 214. The resultant battery response may be used by various data processing methods discussed herein to generate the impedance spectrum.

In some embodiments, an optional connection circuit (not shown) may be included between the preamplifier 218 and the test battery 205 to isolate at least one signal line of the preamplifier 218 providing the SOS current signal from a direct current voltage sourced by the test battery 205. As a result, sensitive electronics included in the preamplifier 218 may not be exposed to the extremes of the direct current voltage potential sourced by the test battery 205. Also, the preamplifier 218 may be subjected to less noise than if the analog ground were extended outside of the preamplifier 218. As a result, the connection to the test battery 205 may be disconnected when the SOS current signal is not being sent to the test battery 205. An example of such an optional connection circuit that uses relays coupled to between the preamplifier 218 and the test battery 205 is described in United States Patent Application Publication No. 2014/0358462, filed June 4, 2014, entitled "Apparatuses and Methods for Testing Electrochemical Cells by Measuring Frequency Response." As described previously, the disclosure of this application is incorporated in its entirety by the reference above.

FIG. 3 is a simplified block diagram of selected features of the IMD 210 of the impedance measurement system 200 of FIG. 2. As shown in FIG. 3, the IMD 210 may include an SOS control module 302, a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) 304, a smoothing filter 306, a signal measuring module 310, and an impedance computation module 312. The SOSG 216 may incorporate the SOS control module 302 and the DAC 304. The

preamplifier 218 may incorporate the smoothing filter 306, the current driver 308, and the signal measuring module 310. The DAS 214 may incorporate the impedance computation module 312.

The SOS control module 302 may be configured to generate a digital SOS signal 350 including a sum of sinusoids having a plurality of different frequencies that are of interest for impedance measurement of the test battery 205 (FIG. 2). The digital SOS signal 350 may be sampled at least at aNyquist rate of a highest one of the plurality of different frequencies of the digital SOS signal 350. The digital SOS signal 350 may also represent at least one period of a lowest one of the plurality of different frequencies of the digital SOS signal 350. The SOS control module 302 may be configured to provide the digital SOS signal 350 to the DAC 304.

The DAC 304 may be configured to convert the digital SOS signal 350 to an analog signal transmitted to the preamplifier 318. As those of ordinary skill in the art should understand, digital signals, such as the digital SOS signal 350, are only capable of manifesting a discrete set of discontinuous signal levels. As a result, when digital signals are converted to analog signals, the analog equivalent may manifest stepwise, or "choppy," fluctuations. Thus, the analog signal generated by the DAC 304 may be a choppy SOS signal 352 that manifests stepwise fluctuations. This choppy SOS signal 352 may be received by the smoothing filter 306 within the preamplifier 218. In some embodiments, the smoothing filter 306 may be incorporated within the SOSG 216.

The smoothing filter 306 may be configured to "smooth" the choppy SOS signal 352 to provide a smooth SOS control signal 354. By way of non-limiting example, the smoothing filter 306 may include a low-pass filter configured to smooth the stepwise fluctuations of the choppy SOS signal 352. The smooth SOS control signal 354 may be provided to the current driver 308. Responsive to the smooth SOS control signal 354 being provided to the current driver 308, the current driver 308 may transmit a corresponding SOS current signal (FIG. 2) to the test battery 205.

As should be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art, a filter may alter a magnitude, phase, or combination thereof, of periodic signals. It should also be appreciated that filters may alter the magnitude and phase of different components of signals oscillating at different frequencies in different ways. Accordingly, each of the different frequency components of the smooth SOS control signal 354 may be altered in magnitude, frequency, or a combination thereof, from the corresponding magnitude and frequency of the different frequency components of the digital SOS signal 350, due at least in part to the smoothing filter 306.

In some embodiments, properties of the smoothing filter 306 may be known to analytically estimate the frequency response of smoothing filter 306. In some embodiments, calibration may be used to determine the frequency response to the smoothing filter 306. The SOS control module 302 may use the frequency response of the smoothing filter 306 to take into account expected changes in magnitude, phase, or a combination thereof, that the smoothing filter 306 is expected to impose on the different frequency components of the SOS control signal 354. The SOS control module 302 may compensate for the expected changes when generating the digital SOS signal 350. In other words, the SOS control module 302 may be configured to pre-emphasize the digital SOS signal 350 to compensate for the response of the smoothing filter 306. By way of non-limiting example, if the smoothing filter 306 is expected to attenuate and shift a first frequency component of the choppy SOS signal 352 by known amounts, the SOS control module 302 may preemptively increase the magnitude and shift the phase of the corresponding first frequency component of the digital SOS signal 350 by the known amounts to compensate for the expected changes. The signal measuring module 310 may be configured to measure electrical signals 206 at the terminals of the test battery 205. By way of non-limiting example, the signal measuring module 310 may be configured to measure a voltage response of the test battery 205 to the SOS signal, a current response of the test battery 205 to the SOS signal, or a combination thereof. The signal measuring module 310 may be configured to provide the impedance computation module 312 with measured signal data 360 indicating the measured response of the test battery 205 to the SOS signal.

The impedance computation module 312 may be configured to compute a determined impedance (impedance data 362) of the test battery 205 using the measured signal data 360 from the signal measuring module 310. By way of non-limiting example, the measured signal data 360 may include both the voltage response and the current response of the test battery 205 to the SOS current signal 356 (FIG. 2). The impedance computation module 312 may be configured to divide the voltage response by the current response for each of the plurality of different frequencies of the SOS current signal 356 to determine the impedance data 362 for each of the plurality of different frequencies.

Also by way of non-limiting example, the measured signal data 360 may include only the voltage response of the test battery 205 to the SOS current signal 356. The impedance computation module 312 may be configured to estimate the current response using the voltage response and calibration data from previous or subsequent calibrations of the control circuitry. A known calibration response may be measured by applying the SOS current signal 356 to one or more shunts of known impedance, and measuring and storing calibration data including the response of the one or more shunts to the SOS current signal 356.

The impedance computation module 312 may be configured to provide or store impedance data 362 including the determined impedance of the test battery 205 at each of the frequencies included in the digital SOS signal 350 (i.e., the same frequencies included in the choppy SOS signal 352, the SOS control signal 354, and the SOS current signal 356). In some embodiments, the impedance data 362 may be displayed to a user of the impedance measurement system 200 (FIG. 2) (e.g., on an electronic display of the impedance measurement system 200 in list form, in plot form, in table form, etc.). In some embodiments, the impedance data 362 may be processed automatically to determine whether the test battery 205 should be replaced, and the user may be informed of the automatic determination. In some embodiments, the impedance data 362 may be processed automatically to determine an estimate of how much life is remaining to the test battery 205. Such automatic processing may be performed locally by the impedance measurement system 200, remotely by a computing device (e.g., remote computer 230) configured to communicate with the impedance measurement system 200, or combinations thereof. A warning (e.g., visual, audible, or a combination thereof) may be provided when the IMD 210 detects that the test battery 205 should be replaced.

FIG. 4 is a simplified block diagram of the current driver 308 of FIG. 3. In some embodiments, the current driver 308 may include differential current sources including a push current source 410 and a pull current source 420 that are configured to receive the SOS control signal 354 (e.g., through the smoothing filter 306 (FIG. 3)) and generate the SOS current signal 356 provided to the test battery 205. The SOS current signal 356 may include a current signal that is proportional to a voltage potential of the SOS control signal 354. As discussed above, the SOS current signal 356 may include a sum of sinusoidal current signals having frequencies of interest for test battery 205 impedance measurements.

The push current source 410 may be configured to push current IPUSH into the test battery 205, and the pull current source 420 may be configured to pull current IPULL from the test battery 205. The analog ground terminal GND of the current driver 308 may be floated between the push current source 410 and the pull current source 420, isolating the analog ground terminal GND from the terminals of the test battery 205. The push current source 410 and the pull current source 420 may be high impedance current sources. As a result, the SOS current excitation circuitry may be fully high impedance ground isolated. As a result, the system analog ground GND may be moved to within the IMD 210 (FIG. 2) where it is better shielded from noise than in many conventional systems. In addition, the current driver voltages powering the operational amplifiers 412, 422 may be balanced (e.g., at ± 30V) which may further reduce noise from the power supply 222 (FIG. 2). As a result of the balanced voltages for the current driver 308, a protector may not be necessary for protecting the current driver 308 if the test battery 205 is connected backward.

In some embodiments, the push current source 410 may include an operational amplifier 412 operably coupled to resistors RINAI, RINA2, RFAI, RFA2, and RSA in an operational amplifier current source configuration. Input resistors RINAI and RINA2 may be operably coupled to the inverting input and the non-inverting input, respectively, of the operational amplifier 412. The non-inverting input of the operational amplifier 412 may be configured to receive the SOS control signal 354 through the resistor RINA2- The inverting input of the operational amplifier 412 may be operably coupled to analog ground GND through resistor RINAI- Resistors RINAI and RINA2 may be selected to have the same resistance value RINA.

The inverting input of the operational amplifier 412 may also be operably coupled to an output of the operational amplifier 412 through resistor R _F AI. The non-inverting input of the operational amplifier 412 may be operably coupled to the output of the operational amplifier 412 through resistors RFA2 and RSA The resistance of RFAI and RFA2 may be selected to have the same resistance value RFA An output of the push current source 410 may be located between resistors RFA2 and RSA- Accordingly, a push portion of the SOS current signal 356 may be provided between resistors RFA2 and RSA- Thus configured, the push portion of the SOS current signal 356 provided by the push current source 410 may be expressed as:

where IPUSH is the current provided by the push current source 410, and VSOSCONTROL is the voltage potential of the SOS control signal 354. As may be seen by inspecting this expression, the I _PU SH is proportional to VSOSCONTROL-

In some embodiments, the pull current source 420 may include an operational amplifier 422 operably coupled to resistors RINBI, RINB2, RFBI, RFB2, and RSB in an operational amplifier current source configuration. Input resistors RINBI and RINB2 may be operably coupled to the inverting input and the non-inverting input, respectively, of the operational amplifier 422. The inverting input of the operational amplifier 422 may be configured to receive the SOS control signal 354 through the resistor RINBI- The non-inverting input of the operational amplifier 422 may be operably coupled to analog ground GND through resistor RINB2- Resistors RINBI and RINB2 may be selected to have the same resistance value RINB.

The inverting input of the operational amplifier 422 may also be operably coupled to an output of the operational amplifier 422 through resistor R _F BI- The non-inverting input of the operational amplifier 412 may be operably coupled to the output of the operational amplifier 422 through resistors RFB2 and RSB- The resistance of RFBI and RFB2 may be selected to have the same resistance value RFB- An output of the pull current source 420 may be located between resistors RFB2 and RSB- Accordingly, a pull portion IPULL of the SOS current signal 356 may be pulled from by a node between resistors RFB2 and RSB- Thus configured, the pull portion I _PUL L of the SOS current signal 356 pulled by the pull current source 420 may be expressed as:

where IPULL is the current pulled by the pull current source 420, and VSOSCONTROL is the voltage potential of the SOS control signal 354. As is apparent from inspection of this expression, is proportional to Vsos CONTROL- Additional details regarding a configuration including a push current source and a pull current source are described in United States Patent Application No. 14/789,959, filed July 1, 2015, entitled "Apparatuses and Methods for Testing Electrochemical Cells by Measuring Frequency Response." As described previously, the disclosure of this application is incorporated in its entirety by the reference above. In some embodiments, the current driver 308 may include a single-ended current driver in place of the push-pull current driver of FIG. 4. An example of a single-ended current driver is described in United States Patent Application Publication No. 2014/0358462, filed June 4, 2014, entitled "Apparatuses and Methods for Testing Electrochemical Cells by Measuring Frequency Response." As described previously, the disclosure of this application is incorporated in its entirety by the reference above.

FIG. 5 illustrates a circuit diagram of the signal measuring module 310 of the preamplifier 218 of FIGS. 2 and 3. The signal measuring module 310 may be suitable for use with mid-range voltage systems (e.g., approximately 50 V) as well as high-range voltage systems (e.g., approximately 300 V). Other voltage ranges are also contemplated. The signal measuring module 310 includes a plurality of operational amplifiers 510, 520, 530 operably coupled as a first gain stage (operational amplifier 510) and additional gain stages (operational amplifiers 520, 530) that cascade from the first gain stage. The first gain stage exhibits a first gain (Gain A), the second gain stage exhibits a second gain (Gain B), and the third gain stage exhibits a third gain (Gain C).

The test battery 205 may be connected to the first amplifier 510 acting as an attenuator. As shown in FIG. 5, the positive terminal of the test battery 205 may be coupled to the inverting input of the first amplifier 510 (e.g., through resistor Rl), and the negative terminal of the test battery 205 may be coupled to the non-inverting input of the first amplifier 510 (e.g., through the voltage divider of resistors R2, R3). The output of the first amplifier 510 (i.e., output A) may be returned to the DAS 214 (FIG. 2). The values of resistors Rl, R2, R3, and R4 may be selected for a desired Gain A. In some embodiments, Gain A is approximately -0.166. Thus, the voltage sent to the DAS 214 as output A may be within a range of about +/- 10 V for a 50 V battery. For a 300 V battery, the voltage sent to the DAS 214 as output A may be within a range of about ± 60 V.

The second amplifier 520 may be used to condition the battery voltage and set an appropriate voltage for comparison to a low buck signal received from the DAS 214. In particular, the second amplifier 520 may receive the output (i.e., output A) from the first amplifier 510 at its inverting input (e.g., through resistor R5), and the buck signal from the DAS 214 at its non-inverting input (e.g., through the voltage divider of resistors R6, R7). The output of the second amplifier 520 (i.e., output B) may be returned to the DAS 214. The values of resistors R5, R6, R7, and R8 may be selected for a desired Gain B. In some embodiments, Gain B is approximately -20 (e.g., -19.85). Thus, the voltage sent to the

DAS 214 as output B may be within a range of about +/- 200 V for a 50V battery (assuming Gain A is approximately -0.166). For a 300 V battery, the voltage sent to the DAS 214 as output B may be within a range of about ± 1.2 kV (assuming Gain A is

approximately -0.166).

The third amplifier 530 may be used to condition the battery voltage and set an appropriate voltage for comparison to a buck signal from the DAS 214. In particular, the third amplifier 530 may receive the output (i.e., output B) from the second amplifier 520 at its non-inverting input (e.g., through voltage divider of resistors R9/R10, and Rl 1), and the buck signal from the DAS 214 at its inverting input (e.g., through the voltage divider of resistors R13, R14). The output of the third amplifier 530 (i.e., output C) may be returned to the

DAS 214. The values of resistors R9, R10, Rl 1, R12, R13, and R14 may be selected for a desired Gain C. In some embodiments, Gain C is approximately +20 (e.g., +19.95). Thus, the voltage sent to the DAS 214 as output C may be within a range of about +/- 4kV for a 50 V battery (assuming Gain A is approximately -0.166, and Gain B is approximately -20). For a 300 V battery, the voltage sent to the DAS 214 as output C may be within a range of about ± 24 kV (assuming Gain A is approximately -0.166, and Gain B is approximately -20).

A Total Gain for the signal measuring module 310 may be the product of each of the Gains A, B, C. Thus, when Gain A « -0.166, Gain B « -20, and Gain C « +20, the Total Gain may be approximately +66 (e.g., 66.4). The total gain may be raised in comparison to many conventional systems (that have been on the order of about 17), which increased gain (e.g., by a factor of approximately 4) may contribute to an increased sensitivity and resolution of the signal measuring module 310. Having at least two bias voltage feedback lines in the gain stages of signal measuring module 310 may enable the total gain to be increased safely. Output A, output B, and output C may each be transmitted to the DAS 214 for feedback when generating the buck signals. The DAS 214 may be configured to adapt the generation of the buck signals responsive to the feedback received from output A, output B, and output C. The buck signals may be received from the DAS 214 at each of the second gain stage and the third gain stage of the signal measuring module 310. In particular, the second amplifier 520 may receive the low buck signal at its non-inverting input, and the third amplifier 530 may receive the high buck signal at its inverting input. As a result, the low buck signal is used to define the voltage that is compared to the output (output A) of the first amplifier 510 by the second amplifier 520 to generate its output (output B). In addition, the high buck signal is used to define the voltage that is compared to the output (output B) of the second amplifier 520 by the third amplifier 530 to generate its output (output C).

FIG. 6 is a flowchart 600 illustrating a method for operating an impedance measurement system of a battery according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. The impedance measurement system may operate in an auto-ranging mode and a measuring mode. The auto-ranging mode may enable the IMD to operate over a variety of batteries exhibiting a broader range of impedance. At operation 610, the IMD may perform an auto-ranging function on the test battery to determine a current amplitude to use during the measuring mode. At operation 620, the IMD may perform measurements on the test battery to determine the impedance measurements that may inform the impedance measurement system of the health of the test battery. The processor of the IMD may be configured to control the SOSG to perform auto-ranging of the current excitation signal prior to entering the measuring mode. As an example, the auto-ranging of the current excitation signal may occur after the desired buck voltage is achieved by the signal measuring module of the preamplifier, but prior to the performing impedance measurements during the measuring mode.

Referring specifically to operation 610 in view of FIG. 3, the SOSG 216 may cause the current driver 308 to generate the SOS current signal 356 as pulses of increasing or decreasing amplitudes. For example, a first pulse may exhibit a first amplitude, a second pulse may exhibit a second amplitude, a third pulse may exhibit a third amplitude, etc. In some embodiments, the amplitudes of the pulses may increase sequentially, while in other embodiments, the amplitudes of the pulses may start at a maximum and decrease sequentially. In yet other embodiments, the amplitudes may be different magnitudes, but not necessarily in a sequential order. In some embodiments, the sequence of pulses may be performed over one period of a sine wave (e.g., 100 Hz). The voltage response for these auto-ranging pulses may be analyzed by the DAS 214, which may be used to determine what SOS current level will be used during the measurement phase. In some embodiments, the DAS 214 may determine which pulse in the sequence of pulses was the last one before voltage clipping occurred in the measurement signals. In some embodiments, the pulse may be over a single period of a sine wave above 1 Hz and below the Nyquist frequency to enable rapid determination of RMS excitation current. For embodiments in which a time crosstalk compensation (TCTC) method is employed, the RMS excitation may be conservatively selected because saturation in the captured time record may corrupt the impedance measurement.

Referring specifically to operation 620 in view of FIG. 3, the processor 212 be configured to cause the SOSG 216 to control the current driver 308 to generate SOS current signal 356 during its measuring mode based, at least in part, on the results of the auto-ranging mode. In some embodiments, the processor 212 may use settings for the SOSG 216 that caused the SOS current signal 356 having the greatest amplitude prior to voltage clipping of the battery voltage measured during the auto-ranging mode. Whereas prior conventional IMDs often had a fixed current level (e.g., 0.5 ARMS) that was reduced in order to safely avoid voltage clipping, embodiments of the present disclosure may have a variable current level with an increased gain so that the IMD may operate more closely at its peak performance during measuring mode while still avoiding voltage clipping. As a result, the maximum possible current amplitude for the excitation current may be limited by what the hardware supports (e.g., 2ARMS, 3 ARMS, 4ARMS, etc.) rather than being limited to a fixed value that ensures voltage clipping is avoided. Thus, the auto-ranging feature being may be used to determine what current amplitude to use during measuring mode from a range of possible current amplitudes.

During measuring mode, a number of different data processing methods may be employed to determine the impedance of the test battery 205 from the electrical signals 206 (FIG. 2). As an example, the data processing method used by the DAS 214 may include a time crosstalk compensation (TCTC) method, such as for example, is described in U.S. Patent 8,762,109, issued June 24, 2014, entitled "Crosstalk Compensation in Analysis of Energy Storage Devices." In some embodiments, the data processing method used by the DAS 214 may include a HOST method, such as for example, is described in United States Patent Application No. 14/789,959, filed July 1, 2015, entitled "Apparatuses and Methods for Testing Electrochemical Cells by Measuring Frequency Response." As described previously, the disclosure of this application is incorporated in its entirety by the reference above. In some embodiments, a Fast Summation Transformation (FST) method, disclosed in U.S.

Patent 8,150,643, issued April 3, 2012, and entitled "Method of Detecting System Function by Measuring Frequency Response." In some embodiments, the data processing method used by the DAS 214 may include a triads based Generalized Fast Summation Transformation (GFST) method described in U.S. Patent 8,352,204, issued January 8, 2013, entitled "Method of Detecting System Function by Measuring Frequency Response." The disclosure of each of the foregoing applications is hereby incorporated in their entirety by this reference. Other methods are also contemplated, including modified TCTC and HOST methods.

The data processing method may be configured to be tolerant of over-range saturation. For example, the captured time record for battery voltage may be examined for signal saturation and any samples within that voltage time record that are either above or below the full scale voltage may be discarded. Additionally, within the current time record, the same condition may be applied to discarded samples within the current time record that are either above or below the full scale current. As a result, the data processing method may be configured to compensate for deleted data points.

As an example, some of the data processing methods are based upon an SOS signal with a frequency spread that is octave harmonic (e.g., HOST). With such a HOST method, the frequency spread was harmonic over a decade as follows: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9. In some embodiments, a HOST method may alternate between sine and cosine between frequencies. As a result, the spread that was the harmonic the sine cosine alternation provides an extra level of orthogonality between frequencies. In addition, if both voltage and current time records were acquired and processed into the frequency domain using the HOST method, the ratio of voltage response to the current response at a specific frequency is the impedance at that frequency. Thus, the measurement using the HOST method may be self-calibrated and, since both measurements have responded to the same smoothing filter, pre-emphasis of the smoothing filter may also not be required.

As discussed above, the HOST method may employ a sum of alternating sines, cosines (ASC) signal instead of a pure SOS signal. If the frequency spread over a

measurement decade is excessively fine, the signal to noise ratio (SNR) may be the signal power divided up amongst a large number of frequencies, which may result in a lowered signal to noise ratio for each frequency. For the derivation of these methods, it may be assumed: a given number, M, and spread of frequencies, f _K where f _M ≤ 2000 Hz. For a HOST method, with an ASC current signal used to excite the test battery, the current excitation signal is given by Equation (1).

where: I _p is the peak current at each frequency, At is the sample time step, and _C is the computer generated current. The captured voltage time record is given by Equation (2a) and the captured current time record is given by Equation (2b).

where: accounts for any DC offset in the current measurement system, is the

amplitude of the sine frequency, is the amplitude of the cosine frequency,

is the phase of the sine frequency, and the phase of the cosine

frequency.

where: accounts for any DC offset in the voltage measurement system, is the

amplitude of the sine frequency, is the amplitude of the cosine frequency,

is the phase of the sine frequency, and is the phase of the f cosine

frequency.

Equation (2a) and Equation (2b) may be solved as Equation (3) for a generic time record:

which may be converted into matrix form and further simplified as:

Equation (4) may then be used to solve Equations (2a) and (2b), which may result in a battery impedance at the ith frequency that is approximately: Equation (5) may operate with samples from the captured time record discarded when the samples are at plus or minus the full scale voltage or current if the N remaining samples are such that . In some embodiments, a second order Butterworth low-pass

filter may be chosen for the smoothing filter (FIG. 3), which may result in the following transfer function H(s) for the low- ass filter:

In some embodiments, the cut-off frequency for the transfer function H(s) may be selected as 1 Hz or another suitable frequency. An excitation current signal may be selected with a Nyquist frequency greater than the highest frequency (e.g., 2 kHz) within the excitation current signal. With the frequency for the excitation current selected, the amplitude for the excitation current signal may be selected based on the analysis performed during the auto-ranging mode. The excitation current signal may then be used during the measuring mode with the increased gain described above with respect to FIG. 5.

As a result of the combination of excitation current amplitude increase and the gain increase, the sensitivity and resolution may be improved over existing IMDs. The improvement in sensitivity and resolution may be by a factor of approximately 10 to 15 based on preliminary testing. As a result of the features discussed herein, the IMD may be configured to measure the internal impedance of high power battery cells exhibiting low impedance (e.g., between about 1 mOhm to 5 mOhm, less than about 1 mOhm, etc.) while also maintaining a high resolution (e.g., at least about 0.01 mOhm) with rapid measurements (e.g., 10 seconds or less). Such characteristics are improvements over conventional methods using IMDs (having resolution limitations for low impedances) as well as those using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (having slow measurements).

Additional Embodiments include:

Embodiment 1. An impedance measurement device, comprising: a current driver configured to generate an excitation current signal to be applied to a test battery responsive to a control signal; and a processor operably coupled with the current driver, the processor configured to generate the control signal during an auto-ranging mode and a measuring mode, wherein: the auto-ranging mode applies the excitation current signal to the test battery over a plurality of different amplitudes to measure a response to the excitation current signal at each amplitude; and the measuring mode applies the excitation current signal to the test battery for an amplitude responsive to the results of the auto-ranging mode.

Embodiment 2. The impedance measurement device of Embodiment 1, further comprising a pre-amplifier including the current driver and a signal measuring module configured to measure electrical signals responsive to the excitation current signal being applied to the test battery.

Embodiment 3. The impedance measurement device of Embodiment 1 or

Embodiment 2, wherein the current driver exhibits a total gain of greater than

approximately 20.

Embodiment 4. The impedance measurement device of Embodiment 3, wherein the total gain is greater than approximately 60.

Embodiment 5. The impedance measurement device of any of Embodiment 2 through 4, wherein the current driver includes at least three cascading gain stages with outputs from each cascading gain stage being fed back to the processor to determine a plurality of buck voltages transmitted back from the processor to the current driver.

Embodiment 6. The impedance measurement device of Embodiment 5, wherein the at least three cascading gain stages include a first gain stage exhibiting a first gain of approximately -0.166, a second gain stage exhibiting a second gain of approximately -20, and a third gain stage exhibiting a third gain of approximately 20.

Embodiment 7. The impedance measurement device of any of Embodiments 1 through 6, wherein the current driver is configured to generate at least one of a sum-of-sinusoids (SOS) current signal or a sum of alternating sines, cosines (ASC) signal.

Embodiment 8. The impedance measurement device of any of Embodiments 1 through 7, wherein the current driver includes differential current sources including a pull up current source and a pull down current source operably coupled to the test battery.

Embodiment 9. An impedance measurement system, comprising: a test battery; and an impedance measurement device operably coupled to the test battery, wherein the impedance measurement device includes: a preamplifier including a current driver and a signal measuring module operably coupled with the test battery; a current control signal generator operably coupled with the preamplifier; a data acquisition system operably coupled with the preamplifier; and a processor operably coupled with the current control signal generator and the data acquisition system, wherein the processor is configured to: control the current control signal generator to transmit a current control signal to the preamplifier during an auto-ranging mode to cause the current driver to generate an excitation current signal exhibiting a range of amplitudes; control the data acquisition system to analyze the response of the test battery from the signal measuring module during the auto-ranging mode; control the current control signal generator to transmit the current control signal to the preamplifier during a measuring to cause the current driver to generate the excitation current signal exhibiting a selected amplitude based, at least in part, on analyzing the response of the test battery during the auto-ranging mode; and control the data acquisition system to analyze the response of the test battery from the signal measuring module during the measuring mode to determine an impedance of the test battery.

Embodiment 10. The impedance measurement system of Embodiment 9, wherein the battery includes one or more energy storage cells.

Embodiment 11. The impedance measurement system of Embodiment 9 or Embodiment 10, wherein the data acquisition system includes an impedance computation module that executes a data processing method to determine the impedance of the test battery, wherein the data processing method is configured to capture at least one of a voltage time record or a current time record, and to discard samples within the voltage or current time records that are either above or below a full scale for the respective time record.

Embodiment 12. The impedance measurement system of any of Embodiments 9 through 11, wherein the data acquisition system includes an impedance computation module that executes a data processing method to determine the impedance of the test battery, wherein the data processing method is selected from the group consisting of a time crosstalk compensation (TCTC) method, a harmonic orthogonal synchronous transform (HOST) method, a Fast Summation Transformation (FST) method, and a triads based Generalized Fast Summation Transformation (GFST) method.

Embodiment 13. The impedance measurement system of any of Embodiments 9 through 12, further comprising a remote computer operably coupled with the impedance measurement device, the remote computer configured to control the impedance measurement device and receive impedance data from the impedance measurement device.

Embodiment 14. The impedance measurement system of any of Embodiments 9 through 13, wherein the preamplifier further includes a smoothing filter operably coupled between the current control signal generator and the current driver.

Embodiment 15. The impedance measurement system of any of Embodiments 9 through 14, wherein the excitation current signal includes at least one of a sum-of-sinusoids (SOS) current signal or a sum of alternating sines, cosines (ASC) signal for each of the auto-ranging mode and the measuring mode.

Embodiment 16. The impedance measurement system of any of Embodiments 9 through 15, wherein the test battery exhibits an internal impedance between about 1 mOhm and 5 mOhm.

Embodiment 17. The impedance measurement system of any of Embodiments 9 through 16, wherein the impedance measurement device exhibits a resolution of at least 0.01 mOhm with a measurement time of about 10 seconds or less.

Embodiment 18. The impedance measurement system of any of Embodiments 9 through 17, further comprising a vehicle including the test battery.

Embodiment 19. The impedance measurement system of Embodiment 18, wherein the vehicle further includes the impedance measurement device.

Embodiment 20. A method of measuring impedance of a test battery, the method comprising: applying an excitation current signal to a test battery including a plurality of pulses exhibiting different amplitudes during an auto-ranging mode; measuring an electrical signal from the test battery responsive to the excitation current signal over the plurality of different amplitudes; applying the excitation current signal to the test battery exhibiting a fixed amplitude during a measuring mode, wherein the fixed amplitude is set based, at least in part, on an analysis of the electrical signal measured during the auto-ranging mode; and measuring the electrical signal from the test battery responsive to the excitation current signal exhibiting the fixed amplitude during the measuring mode to determine an internal impedance of the test battery.

Embodiment 21. The method of Embodiment 20, wherein the fixed amplitude corresponds to an amplitude within the plurality of pulses that is at least one pulse before voltage clipping was determined to have occurred in the electrical signal during the auto-ranging mode. Embodiment 22. The method of Embodiment 20 or Embodiment 21, wherein applying the excitation current signal to the test battery includes applying the excitation current signal to the test battery exhibiting an average mid-range voltage between about 40 V to 60 V or about 250 V to 350 V.

While certain illustrative embodiments have been described in connection with the figures, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize and appreciate that embodiments encompassed by the disclosure are not limited to those embodiments explicitly shown and described herein. Rather, many additions, deletions, and modifications to the embodiments described herein may be made without departing from the scope of embodiments

encompassed by the disclosure, such as those hereinafter claimed, including legal equivalents. In addition, features from one disclosed embodiment may be combined with features of another disclosed embodiment while still being encompassed by the disclosure.