REDOX FLOW BATTERIES

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Patent Application No. 14/530,442, Hied October 31 , 2014, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

STATEMENT AS TO RIGHTS TO INVENTIONS MADE UNDER FEDERALLY-SPONSORED

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under Contract DE-AC05-76RL01830 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

High energy non-aqueous lithium sulfur (Li-S) redox flow batteries are of interest, particularly for stationary applications. However, the presence of insoluble short-chain polysulfides largely sacrifices the theoretically high energy opportunity due to deposition of onto the current collectors (for example, graphite felt). In addition, the unstable interface between the conventional clccuolytc and the lithium metal anode surface also limits the long-term cycling performance of the redox flow batteries.

SUMMARY

Disclosed herein is a device comprising:

a lithium sulfur redox flow battery comprising an electrolyte composition comprising:

(i) a dissolved eleciroactive salt, wherein x≥4;

(it) a solvent selecred from dimethyl sulfoxide, letrahydrofuran, or a mixture thereof; and

(iii) a supporting sail at a concentration of at least 2 M, as measured by moles of supporting salt divided by the volume of the solvent without considering the volume change of the electrolyte after dissolving the supporting salt.

Also disclosed herein is an energy storage system comprising:

a lithium sulfur redox flow battery comprising an electrolyte composition comprising:

(i) a dissolved electroactive sail, wherein x≥4;

(ii) a solvent selected from dimethyl sulfoxide, telrahydrofuran, or a mixture thereof; and

(iii) a supporting salt at a concentration of at least 2 M, as measured by moles of supporting salt divided by the volume of the solvent without considering the volume change of the electrolyte after dissolving the supporting salt; and a source of the electrolyte composition fluidly coupled to the lithium sulfur redox flow battery. The foregoing will become more apparent from the following detailed description, which proceeds with reference to the accompanying figures. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Fig.1 is a schematic representing one embodiment of an energy storage system disclosed herein. Fig.2 is a graph depicting the solubility of Li2Sx in pure dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO),

tetrahydrofuran (THF) and 1,3-dioxolane (DOL) and dimethoxyethane (DME) co-solvent (DOL:DME). Solubility for Li2Sx is calculated based on elemental sulfur S.

Fig.3 is a graph demonstrating the effect of LiTf on increasing the solubility of Li2S2 in DMSO solvent.

Fig.4 is a graph demonstrating the solubility of Li ₂ S _x in DMSO ₃₀ :LiTf mixture.

Figs.5a and 5b show the charge/discharge curves in Li-S batteries in (a) 1M and (b) concentrated (2 M) electrolyte consisting of LiTf in DMSO solvent.

Fig.6 is a graph showing the effect of LiTFSI on increasing the solubility of Li ₂ S ₂ in DMSO solvent. Figs.7a and 7b shows the charge/discharge curves of Li-S batteries using (a) 1M and (b) concentrated (3 M) electrolyte comprised of LiTFSI in DMSO. (Note: the S cathode used here was dissolved into DMSO electrolyte in the form of Li ₂ S _x ).

Figs.8a and 8b are graphs showing (a) the cycling performance and (b) the Coulombic efficiency of Li-S batteries in 1M and concentrated (3 M) electrolytes comprised of LiTFSI in DMSO-based electrolyte, respectively. (Note: the S cathode used here was dissolved into DMSO electrolyte in the form of Li ₂ S _x ). DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The following explanations of terms and abbreviations are provided to better describe the present disclosure and to guide those of ordinary skill in the art in the practice of the present disclosure. As used herein, "comprising" means "including" and the singular forms "a" or "an" or "the" include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. The term "or" refers to a single element of stated alternative elements or a combination of two or more elements, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise.

Unless explained otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood to one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present disclosure, suitable methods and materials are described below. The materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting. Other features of the disclosure are apparent from the following detailed description and the claims. Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities of components, percentages, temperatures, times, and so forth, as used in the specification or claims are to be understood as being modified by the term "about." Accordingly, unless otherwise indicated, implicitly or explicitly, the numerical parameters set forth are approximations that may depend on the desired properties sought as known by those persons of ordinary skill in the art or limits of detection under standard test

conditions/methods, as known to those persons of ordinary skill in the art. When directly and explicitly distinguishing embodiments from discussed prior art, the embodiment numbers are not approximates unless the word "about" is recited.

To facilitate review of the various embodiments of the disclosure, the following explanations of specific terms are provided:

Cell: As used herein, a cell refers to an electrochemical device used for generating a voltage or current from a chemical reaction, or the reverse in which a chemical reaction is induced by a current.

Examples include voltaic cells, electrolytic cells, redox flow cells, and fuel cells, among others. A battery includes one or more cells. The terms "cell" and "battery" are used interchangeably only when referring to a battery containing a single cell.

Half-cell: As used herein, a half-cell is an electrochemical cell including a lithium metal negative electrode, another working electrode as the positive electrode, a separator, and an electrolyte. The volume energy density of a redox flow battery can be calculated from the following equation: E= n·26.8·M·OCV (Wh/L) Eq(1)

where n is the electron transfer number, M is the concentration of catholyte; OCV is the open circuit voltage of the cell. From Eq(1), the higher concentration the higher volumetric energy density in a redox flow battery, thus it is critical to increase the concentration of catholyte/anolyte to improve the volumetric energy density of a given system.

In the case of Li-S redox flow batteries, the higher the solubility of Li ₂ S _x , the higher energy density would be achieved. Furthermore, high solubility is needed not only for starting species like soluble Li ₂ S ₈ , it is also very critical for the discharge product Li2S2 which is nearly insoluble. Otherwise, the insoluble Li2S2 easily blocks the porous current collector (graphite felt) and terminates the cell operation.

Thus, disclosed herein are energy storage systems that include a non-aqueous lithium sulfur (Li-S) redox flow battery device that includes a novel electrolyte composition that increases the solubility of short- chain polysulfides such as Li2S2 and enable the stable cycling of lithium metal anodes. An example of one embodiment of an energy storage system is shown in Fig.1. The redox flow battery device includes a catholyte solution 2 that is in contact with a current collector 4. The redox flow battery also includes an anode electrode 7. The catholyte solution 2, the current collector 4 and the anode electrode 7 may be arranged in a redox flow battery compartment 15.

The catholyte solution includes particular combinations of a solvent and a high concentration of at least one supporting salt that increase the solubility of short-chain polysulfides such as Li2S2 and enable the stable cycling of lithium metal anodes.

Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) is a strong high polar solvent, which shows higher solubility for high order lithium polysulfide Li2Sx (x≥6). However, for low order lithium polysulfide (x≤4), the solubility in pure DMSO is quite low (Fig.2.). In addition, although the DMSO-based solvent has been identified to improve polysulfide solubility, the compatibility of Li anode with DMSO-based electrolyte is a concern in a Li-S redox flow battery. Usually lithium metal cannot be cycled at all in DMSO-based electrolyte due to intense side reactions between DMSO and lithium. It has now surprisingly been found that a combination of a specific solvent, DMSO and/or THF, and a high concentration of at least one supporting salt

synergistically cooperate to provide both increased solubility of low order Li ₂ S _x electroactive salts and enable reversible cycling of a Li metal anode.

In particular, the catholyte solution includes a solvent selected from DMSO, THF, or a mixture of DMSO and THF. In certain embodiments, the catholyte solution consists essentially of, or consists of, DMSO. In certain embodiments, the catholyte solution consists essentially of, or consists of, THF. In certain embodiments, the catholyte solution consists essentially of, or consists of, a mixture of DMSO and THF.

The supporting salt in the catholyte solution may be selected from lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate (CF3SO3Li, LiTf), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulphonyl) imide (LiN(SO2CF3)2, LiTFSI), LiCF2CO2, LiNO3, or a mixture thereof. In general, the concentration of at least one of the supporting salts should be at least 2M, particularly greater than 2 M, more particularly at least 3 M, and most particularly at least 4 M, as measured by moles of supporting salt divided by the volume of the solvent without considering the volume change of the electrolyte after dissolving the supporting salt. In other words, x M means x M supporting salt/1 L solvent. When the supporting salt concentration is greater than 5 M, the utility of sulfur becomes low due to increased viscosity.

The electroactive salt in the catholyte solution may be selected from any Li2Sx salt (where x≥4). In certain embodiments, the electroactive salt is Li2S8.

Listed below are illustrative embodiments of catholyte solutions (the _{Li2S8 concentration is based} on elemental sulfur):

1) 0.5-4 M Li2S8 dissolved in DMSO solvent with 2M-4 M LiTFSI as supporting salt.

2) 0.5-4 M Li2S8 dissolved in DMSO solvent with 2M-4 M LiTFSI and 0-0.5 M LiNO3 as supporting salt.

3) 0.5-6 M Li ₂ S ₈ dissolved in DMSO solvent with 2M-4 M LiTFSI and 0.001-1 M LiTf as supporting salt. 4) 0.5-6 M Li2S8 dissolved in DMSO solvent with 2M-4 M LiTFSI, 0.001-1 M LiTf and 0- 0.5 M LiNO3 as supporting salt.

The anode electrode may be a lithium metal (with or without a passivation layer), graphite, tin or a tin alloy with another metal, or porous silicon.

The current collector may be a porous carbon electrode such as graphite felt, or where the carbon is a carbon nanofiber, a carbon nanotube, or graphene; a porous carbon electrode modified with metal and/or metal oxide, such as Pt, Au, MnO ₂ , or ITO; or a porous carbon electrode modified by a functional group such as–COOH.

In certain embodiments of the system shown in Fig.1, the redox flow battery 15 includes a first half cell part 20 and a second half cell part 21. In certain embodiments, the first cell part 20 is contiguous with the second cell part 21. The first cell part 20 includes the catholyte solution 2 and the current collector 4. The second cell part 21 includes the same catholyte solution 2 for Li2Sx free common electrolyte that is in contact with the anode electrode 7. A separator 8 is located between the first half cell 20 and the second half cell 21.

In certain embodiments, there is no separator. In the separator-less embodiment there are not first and second half-part cells.

Also disclosed are energy storage systems that include a catholyte solution source 1 (e.g., a tank) in fluid communication with the redox flow battery compartment 15. A flow conduit 3 fluidly couples the source 1 to the compartment 15. For example, the first half cell part 20 may include ports connected to the flow conduit 3. A pump 5, or some other fluid motive device, is in fluid communication with the flow conduit 3. The system may also include a flow controller for electrolyte maintenance. The conduit and flow controller can be configured to permit or restrict circulation of electrolyte solution from the first half cell part 20 to the second half cell part 21, and vice versa. The first half cell part 20 and the second half cell part 21 are configured to be flow cells.

The system also includes an external electrical load 6 coupled to the current collector 4 and the anode 7.

In certain embodiments, the catholyte solution and the anolyte solution are substantially the same solution and/or are sourced from a common solution. In certain embodiments with an ion selective membrane separator, the anolyte may include a salt such as LiTFSI or LiFSI dissolved in an ether solvent such 1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME), or an alkyl carbonate solvent such as propylene carbonate (PC), ethylene carbonate (EC), or dimethyl carbonate (DMC).

The redox flow battery compartment can be configured as a flow cell in fluid communication with a source of the catholyte solution. In certain embodiments, the first half cell 20 can be configured as a flow cell in fluid communication with catholyte source 1.

In certain embodiments, the separator 8 may be a porous membrane material. Examples of the membrane can include, but are not limited to, ion-exchange membranes, polymer membranes, and solid- state membranes the comprise polymer(s), sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene based fluoropolymer- copolymer(s), and ceramics. Examples of a porous separator include, but are not limited to, nano- and micro-porous separators that comprise polymer(s), ceramic(s), glass(es) or other materials. Non-limiting examples of suitable separator materials include, NAFION- type ion exchange membranes (sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene-based fluoropolymer-copolymers), other porous polymeric materials such as, for example, sulfonated poly(ether ether ketones), polysulfones, polyethylene, polypropylene, ethylene- propylene copolymers, polyimides, polyvinyldifluorides, and the like, which can be in the form of membranes, matrix-supported gels, sheets, films, or panels. Other suitable materials include porous ceramics, porous insulated metals, cation-conducting glasses, and zeolites. Alternatively, the separator can be an interface between immiscible liquids. In such case, a porous film, panel, or mesh might be included to aid in maintaining separation between the liquids (e.g., as a physical support or guide to aid in maintaining laminar flow at the interface).

The redox flow battery device has a prior-to-charge state in which the catholyte comprises the components described above. This means that the catholyte solution includes S ₈ ^2- and optionally at least one species selected from

During discharging of the battery, the current collector and the anode electrode are placed in a circuit (e.g., with an external load such as a power grid), while simultaneously pumping the catholyte over the cathode current collector. S ₈ ^2- and/or S _m ^2- species are reduced to S ₃ ^*- , S ₂ ^2- and/or S ^{2 -} and stored in the catholyte. Reduced catholyte flows through the cathode current collector, and back to the tank 1. During discharging the following reactions may be occurring:

During charging of the battery, an electric potential is applied to the cathode and anode current collectors, with the stored reduced catholyte being pumped back over the cathode current collector again to be oxidized. During discharging the following reactions may be occurring:

After charging and discharging, the catholyte again comprises the components described above. The redox active species may be:

S8 + 2e-→ S8 ^2- (1)

S3 ^*- + e-→ S3 ^2- (2)

In which, reaction (1) is dominate reaction at higher voltage; reaction (2) is the dominate reaction at a lower voltage.

Certain metal-ligand coordination also possibly may be produced during charge/discharge process, such as (DMSO)n(LiTFSI)m(Li2Sx)l (m, n, l≥ 0).

Compared with aqueous redox flow cells, the volume energy density of the presently disclosed systems is much higher due to the increased voltage and capacity. For example, in certain embodiments, the non-aqueous redox flow batteries may have volume energy density values that are greater than 50 Wh/L, or greater than 100 Wh/L. In addition, sulfur is very cheap thus reducing the cost. Examples

Lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate (LiTf) comprised of Tf- anion with high ionic association, was used as an additive to enhance the solubility of low order Li ₂ S _x in DMSO solvent. Fig.3 shows the effect of LiTf addition on increasing solubility for insoluble Li ₂ S ₂ at different LiTf concentrations in DMSO solvent. For salt/solvent mole ratio of 30 (DMSO ₃₀ :LiTf), the solubility of Li ₂ S ₂ can be increased almost ten times higher than that in pure DMSO solvent. The solubility of other polysulfides with different chain lengths is also improved after the addition of LiTf (Fig.4). Concentrated salt electrolyte is employed to improve the capability of Li anode with DMSO-based electrolyte. When 1M LiTf in DMSO is used in a Li-S battery, the charge-discharge curves show large fluctuations (Fig.5a) due to the unstable interface between DMSO and lithium metal. When LiTf concentration is increased to more than 1M, the curves in Fig.5b became smoother. It was found that if LiTf was replaced by LiTFSI, similar increased solubility of short-chain polysulfides can be reached (Fig.6). Again, 1M LiTFSI in DMSO has abnormally long charge plateau due to the instability of Li metal in DMSO (Fig.7a). Increasing LiTFSI concentration effectively prevents the parasitic reactions during charge (Fig. 7b). Significantly improved cycling stability (Fig.8a) and Columbic efficiency (Fig.8b) are observed in concentrated LiTFSI electrolytes with high reversible capacity at ca.1000-1200 mAh/g. These examples were performed with stationary button cells, with carbon sheet as cathode current collector, dissolved Li ₂ S _x in DMSO-based solvent as catholyte, and Li counter and reference electrodes. In view of the many possible embodiments to which the principles of the disclosed systems, devices and compositions may be applied, it should be recognized that the illustrated embodiments are only preferred examples of the invention and should not be taken as limiting the scope of the invention.