Background and Summary of the Invention

The invention is in the field of electrophoresis. It is of particular interest in terms of its applications in genetic engineering and molecular biology.

The invention which is based upon the discovery of a new kind of electrophoresis makes it possible, inter alia, to carry out important analyses which were not possible or practical with previously known techniques. Potential applications include the separation of chromosomal DNA, chromosomal mapping, the convenient production of genetic libraries, studies on the effects of various drugs on chromosomal DNA, and the convenient chararacterization of polymers. The invention makes it possible to separate with a. high degree of resolution and at high speeds larger particles (molecules) than those capable of resolution with prior art techniques, to concurrently separate particles which differ substantially in mass. In a preferred embodiment the invention makes it possible to lyse cells for electrophoretic separation of macromole- cules contained in the cells with minimal degradation or breakage.

Electrophoresis in which particles such as a mixture of macromolecules are moved, e.g., through a gel matrix, by an electric field, is a widely used technique for quali¬ tative analysis and for separation, recovery and purifi¬ cation. It is particularly important in the study of proteins, nucleic acids and chromosomes. See, e.g.. Cantor, C. R. et al.. Biophysical Chemistry, Freeman, 1980, Part 2, pp. 676, 683. Indeed, it is probably the

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principal tool used in most DNA and chromosomal analysis.

Difficulties. arise when electrophoretic separation of very large particles is attempted. For example, using previously known techniques, the size of the largest DNA molecule routinely handled is that of a bacteriophage (3.2 x 10 ⁷ daltons) . Such a limit on size prevents many kinds of desirable analyses from being carried out. For ^■ example, intact chromosomal DNAs are larger and are typi- cally reduced in size in order to make it possible to work with them. This, however, destroys important infor¬ mation encoded within the DNA and precludes many impor¬ tant experiments.

it has been proposed to extend gel electrophoresis to particles of higher mass by reducing the gel concentra¬ tions. However, this adversely affects resolution, makes experimental conditions difficult to control and has not been successfully applied to DNA molecules having molecu- lar weights greater than about 5 x 10^ daltons. Fangman, .L., Nucleic Acids Research, Vol. 5, No. 3, March 1978, pp. 653-655; Serwer, P., et al., Electrophoresis, 1981, Walter, deGreuyter and Coe, pp. 237-243.

it is believed that resolution in previously known elec¬ trophoresis techniques is field-dependent since lower electric field intensities generally give higher resolu¬ tion. As a consequence, electrophoresis runs in which higher resolution is desired often take as long as 100 hours. Moreover, particle mobility, and hence resolution capability, is believed to vary with the logarithm of the mass of the particles to be separated, which of course is not a highly sensitive basis for obtaining separations. Additionally, in known prior art gel electrophoresis, different gel concentrations are typically used for

different mass or molecular weight ranges, thereby limit¬ ing the range of particles which can be concurrently resolved. Furthermore, previously known electrophoresis techniques are typically used to separate only small amounts of particles, and the process cannot conveniently be extended to larger amounts.

Despite the fact that electrophoresis has been used for some time, and despite the fact that important limita- tions thereof and the need to overcome them have also been long known, no previous proposals are known which have successfully overcome such limitations.

This invention is a significant departure from the estab- lished principles of electrophoresis and is based on the surprising discovery that electrophoresis through delib¬ erately varied electric fields, rather than through the uniform fields sought in previously known electrophoresis methods, unexpectedly yields highly desirable results. More specifically, the invention is based on the discov¬ ery that desirable separation results when particles are subjected to respective electrical fields which move them in overall directions generally transverse to the respec¬ tive general directions of the fields. Particularly desirable results are achieved in at least those cases examined to date when at least one of the electric fields has a deliberate intensity gradient in a direction trans¬ verse to its own. As a specific nonlimiting example, two fields can be used which alternate between respective high and low intensities out of phase with each other and are in directions transverse to each other. For example, one of the fields can be on while the other one is off, etc. Particularly good results are obtained when the on and off times of the fields are related to the mass of the particles to be separated, e.g., when the on and off

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periods are proportional to the mass of the particles raised to a power of about 1.5.

One of the important advantages of this discovery is that it dramatically extends the mass range of particles which can be electrophoretically separated at high resolution. As a nonlimiting example, the new technique can separate at high resolution particles whose mass is about 1.2 x 10^ daltons, while the upper limit of previously known methods which provide lower resolution, is believed to be about 0.5 x 10 ⁹ daltons. It is believed that the new technique can also resolve particles larger than 1.2 x 10^ daltons. Another important advantage is that in the new technique resolution is much less dependent on elec- trie field intensity; consequently, the new kind of elec¬ trophoresis can be run at much higher speed, so long as heat produced can be effectively dissipated. As a result, a typical laboratory run can be carried out in 4 to 8 hours,, while correspomding runs using prior art tech- niques require 12 to 100 hours.- Another significant advantage of the new technique is that larger amounts of sample, as compared to the known prior art, can be used, thus giving increased resolution and sensitivity. A further advantage is that the new technique can si ul- taneously resolve, in the same gel, particles from a wider mass range than is believed possible with prior art techniques. As a nonlimiting example, the new technique can resolve simultaneously, in the same gel, particles ranging in mass from about 10*> to about 10^ daltons. With previously known techniques several different gel concentrations would have been required to resolve parti¬ cles in the narrower mass range from about 1Q6 to about 10 ⁸ daltons. As yet another important aspect of the invention, a technique has been found to minimize han- dling damage to cell-derived macromolecules by lysing

cells or spheroplasts in a block of gel which is the same as, or compatible with, the electrophoresis gel, and implanting the entire block in the electrophoresis cham¬ ber.

These and other advantages of the invention, as well as additional inventive features, will become apparent from the detailed description which follows.

Brief Description of the Drawings

Figure 1 is a perspective, partly cut-away view of an electrophoresis chamber useful in explaining certain principles of the invention.

Figure 2 is a top plan view of the same chamber.

Figure 3 is a partly schematic and partly block diagram showing an interconnection of exemplary chamber elec- trodes.

Figures 4-7 illustrate exemplary electric fields acting in the electrophoresis chamber.

Figure 8 illustrates the movement of particles in the new kind of electrophoresis.

Figure 9 illustrates a hypothesized distortion and move¬ ment of a large DNA molecule through agarose gel under the ^' influence of transverse electric fields acting out of phase.

Figure 10 illustrates the hypothesized effect of a uni¬ form electric field on a large DNA molecule in agarose gel.

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Figure 11 is similar to Figure 10 but illustrates the hypothesized effect of an electric field which has a substantial intensity gradient in a direction transverse to the field direction. ^*

Figure 12 illustrates the circulation of cooled buffer through the electrophoresis chamber.

Figure 13 illustrates the resolution obtained in an ex- perimental example using the new kind of electrophoresis.

Figure 14 is a perspective view of a mold used for lysing cells or spheroplasts _in situ in gel blocks which are later inserted into matching wells in the electrophoresis gel.

Detailed Description of the Invention

An exemplary laboratory device useful in explaining cer- tain principles of the invention is illustrated in Fig¬ ure 1 in a perspective, partly cut-away view, and in Figure 2 in a top plan view. It comprises an open-top, rectangular electrophoresis chamber 10 made of an elec¬ trically insulating material, such as 1/4" plexiglass, with dimensions approximately 4" x 4". It supports on its bottom a layer of a material medium 12, such as the agarose gel commonly used in electrophoresis, surrounded by electrodes 14. The electrodes are thin (0.032") plati¬ num wires which extend vertically about 3/4" each and are arranged about 1.5 cm apart as seen in the top plan view of Figure 2.

As one example, the electrode wires can enter the chamber through respective holes arranged in a horizontal row about 3/4" above the interior bottom of the chamber, with

each wire extending down, along a respective interior side wall, to the interior bottom of the chamber. In order to generate the desired electrical fields, elec¬ trodes 14 are interconnected as shown in Figure 3. In particular, a d-c power supply 16 {such as Biorad Model 500) supplies d-c power to relay 18 (such as a DPDT, 115 volt a-c relay) which is controlled by a programmable timer 20 (such as a Lindberg Enterprises Chrontrol 4- Channel CT Series) to connect a selected one of its two pairs of outputs to the d-c power from supply 16. One output pair of relay 18 (consisting of a negative and a positive output terminal) is connected to the top and bottom rows of electrodes 14 (as seen in Figure 3) , through a respective diode for each electrode. However, it is only when a switch 22 is closed that all the elec¬ trodes of the top row are connected to the negative output terminal of relay 18; when switch 22 is open, only the rightmost electrode 14 is so connected. The other pair of relay 18 output terminals is similarly connected to the left and right rows of electrodes 14, using a similar switch 24 for the corresponding purpose. Variable resis¬ tors R can be used to vary the relevant voltages, as can the controls of power supply 16. The controls of timer 20 determine when a particular pair of relay 18 terminals is energized and when it is de-energized.

When switch 22 is closed and the relay outputs energizing the top and bottom rows of electrodes 14 are on, e.g., at +200 and -200 volts respectively, a substantially uniform electrical field E is established across the bottom of the electrophoresis chamber, as illustrated schematically in Figure 4. The short arrows in Figure 4 are uniform in length, to indicate the substantial uniformity of the field, and the longer arrow indicates the general direc- tion of the field (from positive to negative electrodes) .

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While in reality the field is not perfectly uniform in intensity throughout the gel, because of the physical arrangement of individual, spaced-apart electrodes, and for other reasons, and while the general direction may deviate somewhat from the vertical (as seen in Figure 4) , for the purposes of this specification such fields will be called uniform, and are distinguished ^" from fields which are deliberately made nonuniform, e.g., by means of causing an operatively significant intensity gradient. in a direction transverse to the overall field direction.

A field El which is nonuniform, in that it has an opera¬ tively significant intensity gradient in a direction transverse to the general field direction, is illustrated in Figure 5, and is obtained, in this example, by opening switch 22 such that only the electrode in the upper right- hand corner of Figure 5 remains at the +200 V potential, while each of the bottom electrodes is at the -200 V potential. ^* The electric field illustrated in Figure 5 is somewhat fan-shaped, but still has a general direction, illustrated by the longer arrow, which can be viewed as the vector sum of the individual fields that are due to the respective potential differences between the upper right-hand corner electrode and the individual electrodes of the bottom row. The intensity gradient of interest is in a direction transverse to the general field direction, as shown by arrow G, and is due to the fact the distance between the upper righthand corner electrode and the electrodes of the bottom row increases (and the intensity per unit volume or unit area of the individual fields hence decreases) as one moves to the left along the bottom row, as is indicated by the decreasing lengths of the shorter arrows.

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Similarly, when switch 24 is open and the relay outputs connected to the electrode at the lower left corner and the electrodes along the right-hand row are energized, a similar field E2 is generated, as illustrated in Figure 6. The only significant difference between the fields in Figure 5 and Figure 6 is that the one in Figure 6 has a different general direction, which is transverse to that of the field El in Figure 5.

One of the unexpected discoveries which this invention utilizes is that if fields such as El and Ξ2 alternate out of phase with each other between respective high and low intensities at frequencies selected on the basis of the mass of the particles (e.g., macromolecules) which are to be separated electrophoretically, the particles move from an initial position, such as at 26, in an over¬ all direction D which is transverse to both fields El and E2, and for any one particle the velocity of movement depends o its mass (or charge) . As a result, particles of different masses (charges) travel different distances from the initial position 26, forming bands such as Ml, M2, M3 and M4 in Figure 8, where lighter particles move further distances from the initial position.

i should be noted that the term "transverse" as used in this specification is not limited to an angle of, or close to, 90°, but includes other substantial angles of intersection. When used with respect to the angle between electric fields such as El and E2, it is meant to exclude only those angles between electric fields in the prior art which resulted from spurious events or from the in¬ ability to achieve in practice the design goal of a uni¬ form and unidirectional combination of fields. When used with respect to the angle between the overall direction of particle movement, the term "transverse" is again

meant to exclude only angles which resulted from spurious events or from the inability of prior art devices to have the electrophoretic movement coincide with the desired field direction. The term "operationally significant" intensity gradient which is sufficient to enable the relevant fields to move the relevant particles in the direction transverse to the general field directions, for example, as illustrated in _. Figure 7.

Satisfactory results can be obtained in some cases with electric fields which alternate and are transverse to each other as discussed above, but are substantially uniform, as is field E in Figure 4. However, typically better results are obtained when one of the fields has the requisite intensity gradient in the direction trans¬ verse to its general direction. Typically, better re¬ sults are obtained when both fields have such intensity gradients.

While the mechanism by which the new type of electropho¬ resis works is not entirely understood, it is believed that the application of alternating fields causes a large particle, such as a coiled ^" DNA molecule, to squeeze into the agarose matrix by orienting itself first along the general direction of one of the fields, then along the general direction of the other, etc. Moreover, it is believed that using gradient fields (such as El and E2) rather than uniform fields (such as E) produces a shearing effect that helps stretch the molecule in the desired direction. Figure 9 illustrates this hypothesis by show¬ ing a randomly coiled DNA molecule which is pushed into an agarose gel matrix by a uniform electric field E' and is squeezed into the gel by being formed into an elon¬ gated cylindrical shape (snake) . This snake is then subjected to a uniform electric field E" and is gradually

distorted away from its initial snake shape until it forms a new snake, this time oriented along the general direction of field E", etc., so that its overall direction of movement is along the approximate vector sum of the directions of fields E ¹ and E". This initial hypothesis has been modified, however, by a later belief that long chain macromolecules such as DNA probably do not snake when their radius of gyration is greater than the effec¬ tive gel pore radius. Instead, such macromolecules prob- ably condense to a shape more akin to a "beer can" than a snake, as is illustrated in ^' Figure 10, and therefore do not move easily in a direction transverse to the long axis of the "beer cans." Indeed, it is believed that the use of a gradient rather than a uniform field is one of the critical factors for forcing large molecules, such as DNA molecules, into the desirable elongated cylindrical or snake shape, as is illustrated in Figure 11. Moreover, it is believe that the proper choice of a frequency at which the change from one field to another should occur, is related to the time it takes the particle (molecule) of interest to orient itself into the desired elongated cylindrical or snake shape, and that this time _t is re¬ lated to the mass of the particle (the molecular weight) M, the effective pore radius of the gel _r, and the eas- ured velocity of the particle in the gel v, in accordance with the relationship t « M- *5/(r ² v) .

It should be emphasized that the hypothesis referred to above, while consistent with experimental results to date, is not to be taken as a factor limiting the scope ^* of the invention, as the invention produces its beneficial results despite the fact that the underlying phenomenon may not be well understood, and despite the possibility that a totally different mechanism may be involved.

The following examples demonstrate certain aspects of the invention but, of course, should not be taken ^* as limiting its scope:

General Ξlectrophoretic Conditions for Examples A, B and C. Gels about 1 cm thick were cast in 10 cm ² disposable square Petri dishes. Wells for the sample were formed in a conventional manner using a plastic comb with teeth 0.250" x 0.0787", spaced 0.125" apart. The gels consisted of 1.5% low endoosmosis agarose (Miles Biochemical Company) dissolved in TBE (10.3 g Tris, 5.5 g boric acid and 0.93 g disodium EDTA per liter) . Electrophoresis buffer (TBE) was continuously circulated via a magnetically driven polypropylene-housed vane pump (Fischer Scientific) and cooled in a re-circulating refrigerated bath (Haa-ke, type T-52) , as illustrated in Figure 12. The intake and dis¬ charge ends of the circulation pipes were close to the gel, and delivered and withdrew liquid buffer at two diametrically opposite corners of the gel square. Sam- pies were loaded into wells using a Gilson Pipetman with the pippette tip ends cut to minimize shear. DNA was visualized after soaking gels in 0.5 micrograms of ethidium bromide per ml of TBE. Photographs were taken using Polaroid 107 film with shortwave ϋ.V. illumination. Ξx- posure times varied from 15 to 180 seconds at f8 depending on samples.

Example A: Preparation and Electrophoresis of Marker DNA. Bacteriophage viruses T7, T2, and G were prepared by lysing a given amount of virus overnight at 50° C in

NDS as described in Laurer et al.. Journal of Microbiology, 1975, 9_5_: 309-326. The resulting lysates were then dial- ysed overnight against the electrophoresis buffer. The bacteriophage DNA masses in daltons are believed to be:

T7=2.7 x 10 ⁷ ; T2=1.2 x 10 ⁸ ; and G=5 x 10 ⁸ . A 0.02 micro- gram sample of each DNA was loaded into the wells in 5 microliters of 10% glycerin, TBE and 0.0015% bromphenol blue. Samples were run into gel with a single field for 15 minutes before pulsing. Optimal pulse times, in second for resolution of macromolecules near or at the molecular weight of the following examples were T7=0.25; T2=4; and G=20. The term "pulse time" refers to pulse width, i.e., the time interval over which one of the fields is on (or high) while the other one is off (or low) . In this experi ment fields of the type and voltage levels illustrated in Figures 5 and 6 were used, i.e., both fields had intensity gradients. The relative mobility obtained in this experi¬ ment was G=l; T2=2.5; and T7=8.

Example B: Yeast DNA. Various strains of yeast were grown to mid-log phase in 100 to 1000 ml of YPD (YPD: 1 g yeast extract, 2 g dextrose and 2 g bactopeptone added to 1* liter of distilled water) . Spheroplasts were made as described in Cryer et al.. Progress in Cell

Biology, Vol. 12, 1975, pp. 39-44. The spheroplasts were then lysed in NDS overnight at 50° C. Yeast lysates were prepared in NDS with concentrations ranging from about 10 ⁹ to 2xlθl° cells per ml of lysate. Generally, 90 microliters of lysate were loaded using a blue-tipped (1 ml capacity) Pipetman. Samples were run into 1.5% agarose gel at 100 volts for 45 minutes with a single field. Pulse times of 15-45 seconds at 200 volts (fields El and E2 of Figures 5 and 6) gave the molecular weight resolutions shown in reduced scale in Figure 13.

Example C: Ethidium Bromide. The experimental conditions of Example .B were used, except that gels were run in the dark and contained 0.5 micrograms per ml ethidium bromide in the gel as well as the circulation buffer, and pulse

times were 30 and 45 seconds, using D-273 yeast lysates. Clear resolution of many chromosomes was obtained.

In the examples above, lysing was done in a conventional manner and the lysates were transferred to the electro¬ phoresis gel in a conventional manner. It is known that such handling of lysates can result in breakage and other damage to fragile macromolecules. A way has been found, however, to substantially avoid such deleterious effects, and it forms a part of this invention. In particular, in accordance with the invention cells or spheroplasts (cells minus cell walls) can be suspended in agarose gel, and this gel can be poured, into molds to form inserts. The inserts are then placed in lysing solution to lyse the suspended cells or spheroplasts, and then the intact inserts are placed snugly into matching wells in the electrophoresis gel. The gel making up the inserts can be the same as, or compatible with, the electrophoresis gel.

An illustrative mold used in this new technique is shown in a perspective view in Figure 14, and comprises a pair of matching rectangular blocks 14a and 14b which can be secured in the illustrated configuration by means of screws 14c. The top block 14a has a number of molding channels 14d which go through the entire thickness of the block, while the bottom block 14b is solid. When the blocks are assembled in the configuration shown in Figure 14, suitable agarose gel with suspended cells or sphero- plasts is poured into the molding channels 14d and allowed to solidify. The blocks 14a and 14b are then taken apart, and the insert blocks, such as 14e, are carefully extracte placed in lysing material under conditions sufficient for staisfactory lysing, and are then carefully inserted snugly into matching wells formed in the electrophoresis

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gel, e.g., by a comb whose outer shape and dimension matches the molding channels 14d. The following Example D illustrates electrophoresis using the new technique.

Example D: Lysing In Gel Inserts. Yeast spheroplasts (lθl° to IQH cells per ml of 1% low- gelling agarose in TBE) were suspended in agarose gel and poured into the mold channels to form inserts. The inserts were then placed into NDC at 50° C overnight, thereby lysing the suspended spheroplasts. Yeast cells, previously treated with mercaptoethanol were also suspended in 1% agarose gel, but in this case 75 microliters of a Zymolyase 5000 mixture (2 mg per ml 0.01M sodium phosphate, 50% glycer¬ ine) was added to the inset mixture prior to molding the inserts. 75 microliters of Zymolyase was also added to 0.8 ml of LET (0.5M tetrasodium EDTA, 0.01M Trie., pH = 7.5). Molded inserts with the yeast cells were added to the LET, and incubated overnight at 37° C. The resulting suspended spheroplasts were then lysed in NDS. Both cell and spheroplast inserts were placed in matching wells in electrophoresis gel. Electrophoresis using the conditions discussed above in connection with Examples A-C, provided good chromosomal DNA resolution.

Example E: Double Minute DNA. 2.5 x 10 ⁷ mouse 3T3-R500 cells were lysed in 0.3 ml of NDS at 50°C for four (4) days. The lysate were then loaded into 1.5% agarose cells in TBE and run at 200 Volts with 30 second pulsing. One diffuse band was obtained. It moved as if it had the molecular weight of intact double minute DNA (mol. wt. approx. 600 x 10 ⁶ ) . Marker was G phage (mol. wt. approx. 500 x 106 ₎ .

The new kind of electrophoresis discussed above has numerous applications. As one example, by use of this

technique yeast chromosomal DNA has for the first time been successfully separated and characterized by size. Another use of the new technique is exploring the nature of DNA-gyrase complexes in E^ coli supercoiled, chromo- somal domains to map gyrase locations and thus provide tools for. eucaryotic chromosome analysis. The new tech¬ nique is particularly advantageous when different mole¬ cules, such as different DNA molecules, are close to each other in mass. The use of alternating fields each with an intensity gradient, tends to sharpen resolution dramati¬ cally and allow unexpected resolution for molecules close to each other in mass. Another use is resolving a great number of bands in the same gel, an important considera¬ tion when eucaryotic DNA is being analyzed. Yet another use of the new kind of electrophoresis is to purify mole¬ cules such as enzymes, e.g., urokinase, myosins or hyal- uronic cids so as to provide a purified sample which can serve as the basis for developing a way to produce the same or an equivalent molecule. As yet another use, the effect of various agents, such as drugs, can be assessed for their effect on chromosomes, nucleic acids and pro¬ teins because of the ability to separate such materials provided by the invention. As yet another example, poly¬ mers can be accurately and quickly analyzed for molecular weight distribution, branching, and other physical proper¬ ties by use of the new kind of electrophoresis. As still another example, intact or cut human, animal or plant chromosomes can be analyzed using the new kind of electro¬ phoresis.

It should be clear that the laboratory device discussed in connection with Figures 1-8, and the particular kinds of electric fields used thereby, and the insert molding device discussed in connection with Figure 14, are only specific examples which are convenient for explaining

certain principles of the invention. Numerous variations are possible and are within the scope of the invention. For example, a differently shaped electrophoresis chamber, or differently produced, distributed or varied electric fields can be used so long as the particles are acted on by electric fields varying with time so as to move them in overall directions generally transverse to at least two of the relevant, operationally significant fields. For example, the desired fields can be generated by dif- ferently shaped electrodes, by suitably excited coils or by other sources or combinations of different (in kind) sources, and the relevant field directions can be con¬ trolled by other means, such as without limitation, chang¬ ing the net direction of the field or changing the elec- trode characteristics (e.g., potential). Similarly, the desired field gradient can be produced in any number of ways, such as by selecting an appropriate shape for the relevant electrodes, by maintaining different electrode portions at different potentials or by the interaction of two or more fields. Moreover, more than two fields can be used, so long as the net effect is at least to act in the desired manner on a particle first in one direction, then in another, direction transverse to the first, etc., so as to move the particle in a third direction trans- verse to the first two.

It has been found desirable, in the above-described pre¬ ferred exemplary embodiment of the new electrophoresis device, to have a number of discrete electrodes, and to interconnect them through devices (such as diodes) which allow current flow to each in only a selected direction. Moreover, it has been found desirable to have the wire electrodes extend along the interior sidewalls of the chamber vertically, or nearly so, because such electrodes make it particularly convenient to generate the desired

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electrical fields, and because with such electrodes when they are long enough in the vertical direction it is possible to have several gel layers on top of each other, each containing samples of particles, and to subject all of them to substantially identical electric fields so as to carry out electrophoresis in all of them concurrently. To generate more complex fields, or to provide more free¬ dom of choice in producing fields of selected character¬ istics, such as the fields E, El and E2 in Figures 4-6, each electrode (or at least electrode of a selected plur¬ ality of electrodes) can have its own, switchable, power supply connection such that each can be selectively main¬ tained at any positive or negative electrical potential within a selected range (or at ground) . In some cases, as few as three electrodes will suffice, and two of them can be connected (intermittently) to the same potential, so long as they cooperate with each other to produce at least, two electrical fields which have the desired charac¬ teristics (i.e., being transverse to each other).

As one variation, the new kind of electrophoresis arrange¬ ment described above can make use of high frequency switch¬ ing between transverse fields, e.g., at frequencies in the range from about 10^ to about 10 ⁹ Hz, superimposed on one or more steady, or more slowly switching fields such as the fields E, El and E2 discussed above. It is be¬ lieved that the rapidly switching field or fields can help rotate (or orient) particles such as macromolecules in a desired manner while the steady or slowly switching field or fields can serve to move the particles in the desired overall direction. This arrangement of rapidly switching fields and steady or slowly switching fields can in fact use as few as two transverse fields, at least one of them having a steady or slowly switching intensity component and a rapidly switching intensity component

superimposed thereon. For example, mutually transverse fields El and E2 as in Figure 7 can be used, but at least one of the electrodes can have superimposed on the illus¬ trated squarewave voltage waveform, a much higher fre¬ quency voltage waveform of a selected amplitude, such as at a frequency from about 10^ to about 10 ⁹ Hz.

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