Field of Invention

The present invention relates to an energy transfer apparatus, system and method. In particular the invention relates to a heat pump apparatus which uses layer(s) of material wherein the first and second surfaces of the layer(s) of material have different surface areas and/or different surface geometries. Typically the system includes a plurality of such layers, wherein the adjacent layers of material include geometrically different, opposed prism surfaces formed in and/or on layers of transparent material. The apparatus provides biased radiation flow which in turn can generate a heat differential, even against an existing temperature gradient. This heat differential can be used in any of a number of applications including heating and cooling of a surrounding environment.

Summary of the Invention

In a first aspect the invention provides an asymmetric apparatus including a plurality of layers, wherein the apparatus includes: i. a first layer having a first surface and a second surface; and ii. a second layer having a first surface and a second surface wherein: i. the second surface of the first layer and the first surface of the second layer face each other; ii. the first surface of the first layer and the second surface of the first layer have different surface areas and/or different surface geometries; iii. the first surface of the second layer and the second surface of the second layer have different surface areas and/or different surface geometries; and iv. the first layer and the second layer are made from material that is substantially transparent to at least a portion of electromagnetic radiation.

The apparatus provided is asymmetric, so that when the direction of electromagnetic radiation entering the apparatus initially through the first layer is rotated 180° so that the electromagnetic radiation is incident upon the second layer before the first layer, the electromagnetic radiation experiences a different bias. Considered another way, in embodiments where the system is assigned three orthogonal axes (the first axis being substantially orthogonal to the major plane of the first layer and penetrating the first and second layers, and the second and third axes not penetrating both layers), then the system does not have C2 rotational symmetry through the second or third axes - namely the system should not have reflectional symmetry through this 180° rotation. For convenience, as used herein, the expression System Reference Line (SRL) is used to refer to the active plane or planes which most directly bisect transparent layers and which is parallel with the first axis referred to above. It will be understood that the layers of the present invention are not necessarily substantially planar, and may be curved, or otherwise. Most typically the layers are substantially planar, each surface capable of having a surface geometry.

It has now been found that by providing the respective surfaces of the first layer and of the second layer in the defined relationship, radiation entering the first layer and radiation entering the second layer from either side of the apparatus is biased to flow towards one side of the apparatus over the other side of the apparatus. The direction of the bias is typically determined by the nature of the difference in surface areas and/or different surface geometries between the first surface of the first layer and the second surface of the first layer and/or the first surface of the second layer and the second surface of the second layer as defined herein. The bias in radiation flow can be used to generate a heat differential. Counter-intuitively this biased radiation flow can occur against an existing temperature gradient, including in such circumstances where a cooling body can be used to heat a heating body even where the cooling body is at a lower temperature than the heating body. Being configured to provide this biased radiation flow is a central function of the products and processes of the invention.

In a second aspect the invention provides an apparatus including a plurality of layers, wherein the apparatus includes: i. a first layer having a first surface and a second surface; ii. a second layer having a first surface and a second surface; ill. a first environment and a second environment, wherein: a. the first and second environments are separated by at least the first and second layers; b. the first environment is closer to the first layer than the second layer; and c. the second environment is closer to the second layer than the first layer; iv. a first heat exchanger located between a first environment and the first layer, wherein the first heat exchanger is configured to provide radiation to the first layer; and v. a second heat exchanger located between a second environment and the second layer, wherein the second heat exchanger is configured to provide radiation to the second layer; wherein: i. the second surface of the first layer and the first surface of the second layer face eachother; ii. the first surface of the first layer and the second surface of the first layer have different surface areas and/or different surface geometries; ill. the first surface of the second layer and the second surface of the second layer have different surface areas and/or different surface geometries; and iv. the first layer and the second layer are made from material that is substantially transparent to at least a portion of electromagnetic radiation, so that radiation provided by the first and second heat exchangers flows in a biased manner favouring radiation flow towards the first heat exchanger, so that the first environment gains heat and the second environment loses heat.

In a third aspect the invention provides the use of an apparatus, system and/or layer of the invention to generate a heat differential between two environments.

In some embodiments the invention provides an apparatus or system including multiple single layers of the invention wherein at least one of the multiple single layers is provided to generate a heat differential between two environments, such as providing a discrete heat exchanger.

In a fourth aspect the invention provides a method of generating a heat differential between two environments, the method including the steps of providing an apparatus, system and/or layer of the invention, and providing a radiation source, such that the radiation from the radiation source can enter the apparatus or system of the invention. In some embodiments the invention provides a method of generating a heat differential between two environments, the method including the steps of proving an apparatus or system including multiple single layers of the invention wherein at least one of the multiple single layers is provided to generate a heat differential between two environments, such as providing a discrete heat exchanger, such that the radiation from the radiation source can enter the apparatus or system of the invention.

In a fifth aspect the invention provides a layer of material that is substantially transparent to at least a portion of electromagnetic radiation, the layer having a first surface and a second surface wherein the first surface includes a surface profile that includes a plurality of square-based triangular prisms and wherein the second surface includes a surface profile that includes a plurality of triangular ridges and triangular troughs.

Where the invention is described and/or defined in relation to regular shapes such as "triangular" the invention contemplates those shapes as possibly being irregular so that the shapes may possess one or more of curvature, kinks, etc on any one or more of the faces of the regular shape. Attention should be given to the intended function of the product or process as merely needing to provide the function of biased radiation flow.

In a sixth aspect the invention provides a system having at least one layer, the or each layer being independently selected from a material that is substantially transparent to at least a portion of electromagnetic radiation, and wherein the or each layer has a first surface and a second surface wherein the surface area and/or surface geometry of the or each first surface is different to the surface area and/or surface geometry of the second surface on the same layer.

The system of the sixth aspect is configured to produce a temperature difference either side of the layer(s).

In a seventh aspect the invention provides a unit system wherein at least one of the substantially transparent layer(s) of the sixth aspect is sandwiched between substantially opaque heat exchangers.

In an eighth aspect the invention provides a system having a plurality of the unit systems of the seventh aspect, and wherein the unit systems are connected in series.

In a ninth aspect the invention provides a provides a layer of material that is substantially transparent to at least a portion of electromagnetic radiation, the layer having a first surface and a second surface wherein: i. the first surface includes a surface profile that is comprised at least predominantly (preferably completely) of ridged prisms which form an included angle less than 30 degrees or include a combination of angles which are equivalent to an included angle of less than 30 degrees; and ii. the second surface includes a surface profile that is comprised at least predominantly (preferably completely) of: a. peaked prisms which are no taller than the prisms on the first surface; or b. ridged prisms which form an included angle in the range 25 to 50 degrees or are formed from a combination of angles equivalent to included angles in the range 25 to 50 degrees, or c. a planar surface.

In a tenth aspect the invention provides a system having a first layer according to the ninth aspect in series with a second layer according to the ninth aspect, the layers being configured so that the taller prisms of the second layer are intermeshed with the shorter prisms of the first layer.

Further aspects of the invention, which should be considered in all its novel aspects, will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon reading of the following description which provides at least one example of a practical application of the invention.

Brief Description of the Drawings

One or more embodiments of the invention will be described below by way of example only, and without intending to be limiting, with reference to the following drawings, in which:

Figure 1 shows a perspective view of a first layer only, showing a combination of a shape that varies in each dimension (a square-based triangular prism) on a first surface; and a shape that is substantially uniform in its third dimension (a triangular ridge/trough shape) on a second surface (partially obscured);

Figure 2 shows a perspective view of a portion of first, second and third layers each having surfaces consisting of triangular ridges/troughs which are (inter)meshed together to provide an interstitial space;

Figure 3 shows a cross-sectional profile through an apparatus of the invention having a battery of layers;

Figure 4 shows a cross-sectional profile through an apparatus of the invention having three batteries;

Figure 5 shows a schematic of a mechanism for regulating heat flow; Figure 6.1 shows a schematic of a system incorporating an apparatus of the invention configured to cool a fluid, such as air;

Figure 6.2 shows a schematic of the same system shown in figure 5.1, but configured to heat a fluid, such as air;

Figure 7 shows a system incorporating an apparatus of the invention which is configured to utilise energy from an external source to convert fluid to vapour to power a turbine;

Figure 8 shows the variation in external and internal reflectance as a function of angle of incidence;

Figure 9 shows three ray-drawing schematics for: partial refraction sequences in two different layers ((a) and (b)) and the partial refraction sequences in an asymmetric layer (c);

Figure 10 shows a ray-drawing schematic for an asymmetrical layer in a system where all primary rays lie parallel to both the plane of the page and the "System Reference Line" (SRL) which indicates the active plane or planes which most directly bisect transparent layers;

Figure 11 shows a ray-drawing schematic for the three interaction combinations available to rays passing through an inferior wedge prism;

Figure 12 shows a ray-drawing schematic for the angular and spatial ranges of incoming primary rays subject to initial R1 interactions through prisms as dictated by the presence of adjacent prisms;

Figure 13 shows a ray-drawing schematic for the effects of initial interaction sequences for primary rays;

Figure 14 shows ray-drawing schematics for primary rays, which are identical in angle and spatial position, entering a wedge and a modified ridged prism against the direction of bias with clearly different outcomes;

Figure 15 shows a ray-drawing schematic for the cut-off point beyond which returning capacity rises rise with increased included angle although inferior prism included angles should be much larger than those of superior prisms there is

Figure 16 shows a ray-drawing schematic for the biasing effect of a layer composed of superior and inferior prisms on rays which enter the layer in the plane of the page at an angle of 20°to the SRL; Figure 17 shows a ray-drawing schematic for radiation entering a superior prism through an angular range of 20° and being ultimately compressed to a range of just over half the original size;

Figure 18 shows ray-drawing schematics for angular overlays where radiation with diferent input histories share an output range;

Figure 19 shows a ray-drawing schematic showing that the largest proportion of radiation leaving a layer against the direction of bias is contained by ranges at small angles to the SRL as indicated by Figure 18 or, more importantly, at angles greater than 45°;

Figure 20 shows a ray-drawing schematic showing that at increasingly larger angles the distance between absorption points grows dramatically with small increases of angle;

Figure 21 shows a ray-drawing schematic showing that the regular intersection of rays at approximately 11 ° wherein, when rays from every point on the surface of the layer are considered, there must be points on a receiving surface where the energy of two rays conflate irrespective of the distance between the layer and receiving surface;

Figure 22 shows a perspective view of a first layer only, showing a combination of a shape that varies in each dimension (a square-based triangular prism) on a first surface; and a planar second surface (obscured);

Figure 23 shows a ray-drawing schematic showing a layer with a planar superior and ridged inferior surfaces which has rays entering it in the plane of the page and at 25 degrees relative to the SRL.

Detailed Description of the Invention

Whilst at its most basic level the invention will function with only a first layer and a second layer, (or even just a single layer such as referred to in the fifth and sixth aspects above) typically the apparatus will provide only a weak bias with this simple construction. As such, preferably the apparatus will further include at least one other layer made from material that is transparent to at least a portion of electromagnetic radiation. In preferred embodiments the apparatus will include several layers, such as a multitude of layers. In such embodiments, it is convenient to consider that the apparatus may be described as a battery. Preferably the several or multitude of layers are configured to provide substantially the same direction of biased radiation flow as provided by the first and second layers. In such embodiments including a third (and possibly fourth and possibly fifth, etc) layer, the opposing surfaces of adjacent layers will typically have different surface areas and/or different surface geometries. For example, where present the third layer will have a first surface and a second surface so that the second surface of the second layer and the first surface of the third layer face eachother, and the second surface of the second layer and the first surface of the third layer face have different surface areas and/or different surface geometries.

In preferred embodiments the apparatus includes a plurality of substantially identical layers, each layer having a first and a second surface such that each first layer has the same surface area and/or surface geometry and each second layer has the same surface area and/or surface geometry. In preferred embodiments the apparatus includes a plurality of identical layers laid substantially parallel to each other.

Several batteries may be installed in series.

Whilst it will be understood that the difference in surface areas and/or surface geometries of the respective surfaces of any given layer may be provided by any number of surface profiles including geometrical shapes, it is preferable that the surfaces are formed from a repeating geometrical shape primarily for ease of manufacturing. The shape may be substantially uniform in its third dimension (such as provided by a triangular ridge/trough shape) or may vary in each dimension (such as a triangular prism, such as a square-based triangular prism).

In preferred embodiments the opposing surfaces of adjacent layers may (inter)mesh or abut so as to provide an interstitial volume - namely a space between the adjacent layers. The requirement of a difference in: surface area and/or different surface geometries; and meshing surfaces may be simultaneously satisfied by providing: i. a triangular ridge/trough shape on one surface and a square-based triangular prism on the opposing surface of the adjacent layer. These essentially triangular forms may mesh, especially where the height of the ridge/trough is greater than the height of the triangular prism; or ii. a triangular ridge/trough shape on each surface, such that the height of the ridge/trough is greater on one of the surfaces than the height of the ridge/trough on the other surface; or ill. a planar surface. In such a case it will be acknowledged that the planar surface will abut the surface profile of the other surface so as to provide an interstitial volume. Where present, such interstitial volume may be filled by any gas, although it may be substantially evacuated.

As used herein, being substantially transparent to at least a portion of electromagnetic radiation typically means that portion of electromagnetic radiation at wavelengths pertaining to application temperatures. Examples of preferred materials are: KBr, KCI, NaCI. KBr is the most preferred material. The refractive indices of preferred materials can range from 1.4 to 1.7 (although this should not be seen as limiting) and an exemplary refractive index is 1.45 to 1.55 (such as about 1.5).

The invention is predicated in part on the discovery of previously unrecognised characteristics of geometrically distinct opposed prism surfaces on layers of transparent material, although the invention is not limited to such surface geometries. In particular, based on the known phenomena of reflection and refraction, the amount of radiation reflected from the surface of one of the prism surfaces will be different to the amount of radiation reflected from the surface of the geometrically distinct opposed prism surface. This difference in the amount of radiation reflected leads to a biased radiation flow through the apparatus of the invention. This means that equilibrium in radiation flows passing completely through the apparatus of the invention can only occur when flows into the system from opposite sides are unequal and this means in turn that proximate surfaces either side of the system are at different temperatures. The discovery of the phenomenon of biased effects has led to the invention of optical heat pumps which bias the flow of radiation in order to raise or lower temperature from ambient while sacrificing sufficient of the energy input to satisfy the requirements of the second law of thermodynamics.

Figure 1 shows a perspective view of a first layer (2) of the invention, which may be made of any material that is substantially transparent to the electromagnetic radiation being used. For example, the first layer may be made of an optically transparent material such as KBr. The first layer has a first surface (4) which, in the exemplary embodiment shown, consists of a repeating motif of square-based triangular prisms (6). The first layer also has a second surface (8; partially obscured) which, in the exemplary embodiment shown, consists of a repeating motif of a triangular ridge/trough shape (8). The surface area of the first surface is not equal to the surface area of the second surface, and in this embodiment the first surface and the second surface have different surface geometries. For ease of fabrication, the first surface and the second surface may be separated by an intermediate band (12) of solid material, although this is not essential. Ridged prisms are maximally inferior when they form an included angle somewhere in the range of about 34-40 degrees. Peaked prisms forming similar angles are more inferior again. Superior prisms are invariably ridged and form a smaller included angle or combination of angles than inferior prisms. They become increasingly superior as the included angle or angle combination that they form becomes smaller - limited only by practicality. The direction of bias flows from superior to inferior." In the example shown in Figure 1, the ridged prisms on the upper surface are superior.

Figure 2 shows a perspective view of a portion of first (14), second (16) and third (18) layers. In this embodiment, each surface of the layers is geometrically a triangular ridge/trough shape, such that the height of the ridge/trough is greater on one of the surfaces than the height of the ridge/trough on the other surface. In the embodiment shown, the second surface (20) of the first layer (14) and the first surface (22) of the second layer (16) face each other, and the second surface (20) of the first layer (14) and the first surface (22) of the second layer (16) have different surface areas. In this instance the interstitial space (24) may be substantially evacuated.

Figure 3 shows a cross-sectional profile through an apparatus (26) of the invention having a battery (28) of layers - including the first layer (30), second layer (32), third layer (34) and fourth layer (35). The apparatus further includes a first environment (36) and a second environment (38), wherein the first and second environments are separated by at least the first and second layers. As shown, the first environment (36) is closer to the first layer (30) than the second layer (32) and the second environment (38) is closer to the second layer (32) than the first layer (30). The fourth layer (35) includes a first surface including only superior prisms and a second surface having a planar geometry. The fourth layer is bonded to the heat exchanger (42) so that the planar second surface does not constitute a reflective or refractive barrier to radiation. This configuration is not essential, but would make it easier to mount the optics in the casing in a secure manner and may also improve biasing.

The apparatus shown in Figure 3 also includes a first energy (eg heat) exchanger (40) located between the first environment (36) and the first layer (30) so that the first energy (eg heat) exchanger is configured to provide radiation to the first layer. The energy (eg heat) exchanger is capable of transferring energy (eg heat) to and/or from the first environment (30). The energy (eg heat) exchanger will typically be made of a material that is not substantially transparent to the electromagnetic radiation to which the first and second layers are substantially transparent. The energy (eg heat) exchanger will typically be made of a material that is capable of absorbing/releasing energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation to which the first and second layers are substantially transparent. In this manner, the biased flow of radiation through the battery of layers may be exchanged as heat to and/or from the first environment.

The apparatus shown in Figure 3 also includes a second energy (eg heat) exchanger (42) located between the second environment (38) and the second layer (32) so that the second energy (eg heat) exchanger is configured to provide radiation to the second layer. In the embodiment shown, the apparatus also has an intervening third layer (34). In this case it will be appreciated by virtue of the substantial transparency of the third layer that the energy (eg heat) exchanger is still configured to provide radiation to the second layer. The second energy (eg heat) exchanger will typically be made of a material that is not substantially transparent to the electromagnetic radiation to which the first and second layers are substantially transparent. The second energy (eg heat) exchanger will typically be made of the same material to that of the first energy (eg heat)exchanger. In this manner, the biased flow of radiation through the battery of layers may be exchanged as energy (eg heat) to and/or from the second environment.

The apparatus shown in Figure 3 is capable of moving energy (eg heat) from the first environment to the second environment or vice versa - depending in part on the difference in surface areas between the second surface (44) of the first layer (30) and the first surface (46) of the second layer (32), wherein said layers are facing eachother as shown. In the case shown it is believed that the increased temperature of one environment at the expense of another is the net result of flows in both directions and, most importantly, the different ratios of radiation that leave and return to the same environment either side of the transparent layers. As shown in Figure 3, bias of net flow in this apparatus is from top of page to bottom because the inferior prisms in each layer are below the superior and bias direction is from superior to inferior.

It is the surface area of the first and second surface that faces eachother that is the most relevant to the invention, since light will pass from one surface to the other surface by virtue of the facing relationship. Said surface areas may be modulated by choosing appropriate geometrical shapes. In this instance the first surface (46) and/or second surface (44) may consist of triangular ridges/troughs, and/or the first surface (46) and/or second surface (44) may consist of square-based triangular prisms.

The exemplary apparatus shown in Figure 3 is also provided with a reflective surface (48), so that it reflects at least some of the electromagnetic radiation which is subject to the biasing within the battery of layers. The exemplary apparatus shown in Figure 3 is also provided with a thermally insulating layer (50).

Figure 4 shows a cross-sectional profile through an apparatus of the invention having three batteries - a first battery (52), a second battery (54), and a third battery (56). Each battery may independently be substantially the same or different to the other batteries. In the apparatus as shown, the second battery (54) may be conceptualised as occupying the space provided by the second environment of the apparatus of Figure 3. By arranging batteries in series as shown in Figure 4 it is believed that the biased flow of electromagnetic radiation is enhanced. Each side of the apparatus of Figure 4 may include a thermally insulating layer (58; 60).

Whether used for heating or cooling, it is believed that the apparatus of the invention has a fixed potential output which depends on the nature of the batteries forming the assembly. In most practical applications it is desirable to control both the output temperature of the apparatus and the temperature of the environment being heated or cooled. In some simple cases such as smaller scale refrigeration this could be achieved using an insulated barrier which could selectively prevent or allow contact between the cool heat exchanger of the apparatus and the refrigerated environment as illustrated by Figure 5, showing the movement of a moveable thermally insulating element (62 and 64). The thermal barrier (62) may be pressed against the heat exchanger (66), or the thermal barrier (64) may be withdrawn from the heat exchanger (66) using a thermostatically controlled actuator (not shown).

In most larger applications both temperature regulation and the efficient induction of energy into and distribution out of the apparatus of the invention would require the use of circulating fluids (including gases and/or liquids) between the apparatus and input or output environments. Figures 6.1 and 6.2 shows how the same system incorporating an apparatus (68) of the invention can be configured in two different ways to provide either heating or cooling functions, in this case using air as the circulating fluid/carrier medium. Figure 6.1 shows the valve (69) arrangements which configure the system to provide heat to an external environment and Figure 6.2 shows the valve (69) arrangements which configure the system to remove heat from an external environment.

Figure 7 shows an application of the present invention. An external source of energy, such as oceanic or geothermal energy, is provided as an input (70) using a fluid such as water which enters an environment (72) within the apparatus of the invention. The fluid may exit the apparatus as an output (74). The water from the input (70) radiates energy across the biased sruface area layers in the apparatus (76) leading to the heating of a second environment (78) which may be a boiler, where a fluid is heated, including to boiling point to produce steam. Escaping steam may drive a turbine (80) before being condensed in a condenser (82) and returned as cooled fluid to the boiler (78). In the manner shown, fluid that is isothermic with a heat source such as an ocean of geothermal source can be used to heat another fluid and thereby drive a turbine, thus producing current.

Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that weakly biased versions of the present invention are governed by Fresnel's law and the determination of the percentage ratios of transmission and reflection at a refractive interface. The amount of energy subtracted from an incident ray by the production of a reflected ray depends on the refractive ratio and on both whether the refraction is internal or external and on the initial angle of incidence of the parent ray to the normal of the surface through which it refracts. Assuming that the incident ray is travelling through a medium of refractive index of 1 and is incident upon a surface of a material of refractive index 1.5, as shown in Figure 8 at lower angles to the surface normal there is little change to the amount of reflection at the normal itself. As the angle of incidence increases, reflectance varies for incident rays which are polarised parallel or perpendicular to the refracting surface. At all but a few small angles to normal the ratio of reflectance to transmission varies non-linearly and becomes very large as angular divergence approaches the grazing angle for external refraction and the critical angle for internal contacts.

The key point is that percentage differences in reflection ratios can be calculated with essentially arbitrary precision so that, except for some smaller angles, the smallest fractional difference in ray angles causes a difference in reflectance. This means that except for a few small angles the probability of any large group of refractions having exactly the same overall reflectance ratio as any other group of refractions is effectively zero.

Figures 9(a) and (b) show partial refraction sequences in two different symmetric layers. Figure 9(c) shows partial refraction sequences in an asymmetric layer - namely where the second surface of the first layer and the first surface of the second layer have different surface areas and in this case also different surface geometries (flat vs peaks/troughs). Each of Figures 9 (a)-(c) has a primary ray travelling in opposed directions through them. In all figures the primary rays are the progenitors of some reflected rays which fail to penetrate the layer and are returned to source. The return of some proportion of radiation against its original flow direction is characteristic of all layers, symmetric and asymmetric, irrespective of the specific geometry of their surfaces. This means that for a given layer there is a transmission/return ratio for every individual primary ray input angle and a collective transmission/return ratio for all primary rays entering from the same side of a layer.

The fact that radiation which fails to penetrate a layer is returned to source provides an absolute distinction between the present invention and optical isolators. Optical isolators have a superficial similarity to the present invention in that they bias the direction of radiation. However radiation which fails to penetrate an optical isolator is never returned to source under any circumstance in contrast to the present invention where the return of radiation to source is the primary reason for biased heat flow - namely heat pumping.

The fact that a proportion of radiation invariably fails to penetrate a layer means that for a layer to be unbiased the amount of energy turned back and that transmitted through the layer must be exactly proportional to input energy in both directions. So if both the primary rays in Figure 9 (a), for instance, carry identical amounts of energy then the ratio of returned to transmitted energy must be exactly the same in either direction. In light of the consequences of Fresnel's law it is clear that this equality of the ratio of transmitted to returned radiation occurs because every ray generated in one direction has an identical twin moving in the opposite direction so that the ratio of reflection to transmission for every refraction of radiation originating in one direction is exactly matched by an identical refraction in the other.

Different symmetric layers such as those shown in Figures 9(a) and 9(b) have quite different refraction sequences and thus different return/transmission ratios one from the other so that the individual twinning of refraction sequences is the only common element and the sole determinant of neutrality. Although the complete difference in refractive sequences between those shown in Figures 9(a) and 9(b) clearly requires contacts with both surfaces, it is equally clear that the differences start from the point of initial contact with a layer. The consequence of this is that if a surface from Figure 9(a) is opposed by a surface from Figure 9(b) to form the layer illustrated by Figure 9(c), identically angled primary rays entering the layer through the two different surfaces must initiate completely different refraction sequences for the opposed input directions. This unavoidably results in different transmission/ return ratios for opposed radiation flows through the layer and thus inevitable directional partiality.

Only a few very weakly biased asymmetric layers and particular input angles have refraction sequences which are sufficiently uncomplicated and few enough in number to illustrate bias in a readily comprehensible form using ray tracing. Figure 10 shows an asymmetrical layer in a system where all primary rays lie parallel to both the plane of the page and the "System Reference Line" (SRL) which indicates the active plane or planes which most directly bisect transparent layers. The SRL is derived from the geometry of the layer, for instance when a layer surface is comprised of longitudinally symmetrical prisms the SRL is the line of zero degrees that remains when the angles of alternatively inclined surfaces cancel one another. Because the SRL is derived from the geometrical structure of a layer it is a reference line against which all ray and surface angles can be measured. When applied to a biased system the SRL has an arrowhead indicating the direction of bias. The configuration of the layer surfaces has been chosen to minimise the number of refraction sequences and the three shown in Figure 10 are the only ones possible for this system. For the sake of clarity, second generation split rays are not shown but their energy content has been deducted from the percentages in the figure, which are all percentages of the energy initially carried by the primary rays.

It is apparent from the foregoing that bias in asymmetric layers is a mathematical requirement of Fresnel's law and when that fact is combined with the fact that returned radiation in a system of the invention can only be absorbed at source, it is apparent that the biased movement of heat is also an inescapable mathematical consequence of Fresnel's law.

There are obviously a huge number of possible asymmetric layers, and while each of them is contemplated by the present invention, it is preferable that the asymmetric layers are sufficiently biased to produce functionally useful amounts of heat pumping. Attaining maximal differences in return/transmission ratios is preferably attained by using geometrically distinct prisms as the opposed surface features of layers. Fresnel's law becomes only marginally relevant to these more highly biased systems because their transmission/return ratios are dominated by differences in the proportions of interaction types in opposed surfaces rather than on differences in the percentage amount of reflection at surfaces.

As used herein, layer surfaces and individual prisms within them may be described as "superior" or "inferior" depending on their relative ability to return radiation to source which itself depends on the relative proportions of interactions through both them and opposed prisms. Ridged prisms are maximally inferior when they form an included angle somewhere in the range of about 34-40 degrees. Peaked prisms forming similar angles are more inferior again. Superior prisms are invariably ridged and form a smaller included angle or combination of angles than inferior prisms. They become increasingly superior as the included angle or angle combination that they form becomes smaller - limited only by practicality. The direction of bias flows from superior to inferior. A planar surface can be used as a superior surface and has the advantage of relative simplicity but is generally less effective than superior non-planar surfaces, such as prism surfaces.

Figure 11 shows the three interaction combinations available to rays passing through a wedge prism - in this case an inferior wedge prism. Rl+TIR is refraction through a prism surface followed or preceded by one or more total internal reflection [TIR] contacts. R2 is refraction through both surfaces of a prism. R2 interactions occur to rays which are already at a large angle to the SRL and are the only refractive interactions which can actually reverse radiation flow relative to the direction of bias. R2 interactions can proceed Rl+TIR interactions for incoming primary rays in superior surfaces but in such cases they are effectively ancillary components of Rl+TIR interactions and are treated as such.

R1 is refraction through one prism face without any contact with an opposed face. R1 interactions are the essential driver of significant bias so understanding their effects and the limitations on their occurrence is most important.

As shown by Figure 11, R1 interactions change ray angles in the opposite direction to the net action of Rl+TIR interactions [e.g. a primary ray entering a prism and undergoing an R1 interaction has its angle increased relative to the SRL while for an Rl+TIR interaction the net effect is to decrease its angle relative to the SRL], The Primary rays entering a layer are initially subject to either an R1 or an Rl+TIR interaction and these initial interactions dictate the subsequent course of rays through a layer, so largely controlling the transmission/return ratios of a layer and thus its level of bias.

Since initial primary ray R1 and Rl+TIR interactions are mutually exclusive the difference in their ratios for primary rays travelling in opposed directions reduces to the ratio of initial R1 interactions through a superior surface to those through an opposed inferior surface. As shown by Figure 12 the angular and spatial ranges of incoming primary rays subject to initial R1 interactions through prisms are dictated by the presence of adjacent prisms. This severely constrains the proportion of initial R1 interactions in the superior prisms relative to inferior prisms. Because initial primary ray R1 interactions increase the angle of rays relative to the SRL, and because rays at larger angles are more likely to undergo subsequent R2 interactions in opposed prisms, the higher ratio of initial R1 interactions in inferior prisms ensures a higher returning capacity for the superior surface. In fact even where R1 interactions do occur in a superior surface they are generally incapable of causing primary ray return in a well-chosen inferior surface. Figure 13 provides a visual summary of the effects of initial interaction sequences. Primary rays subject to Rl+TIR interactions in one surface generally also undergo Rl+TIR interactions in the other so that they usually penetrate the layer. For this reason, although there are invariably split rays which loop energy back to source, Rl+TIR interactions generally have a minor net effect on bias. The dashed line shows a primary ray subjected to an R1 interaction in an inferior prism which leads to multiple R2 interactions in the opposed superior prisms which results in substantial amounts of radiation returned to source.

If the superior prisms were aligned at right angles to the inferior ones, the dashed ray could be returned by a series of TIR contacts within a superior prism. If the figure was drawn with a planar superior surface the dashed ray could be returned by a single TIR interaction from that surface.

Superior surfaces typically comprise ridged prisms of some kind. The superior prisms directly receiving radiation from a heat exchanger should be wedge prisms, as long in relationship to their base width as is practical to maximise the number of TIR contacts occurring in initial Rl+TIR interactions for radiation travelling in the direction of bias. There are potential advantages in modifying superior prisms in subsequent layers so that the main body of the prism has a reduced included angle relative to a pure wedge but the tip of the prism has a larger included angle as in the example of Figure 14(b). Figures 14 (a) & (b) show primary rays which are identical in angle and spatial position, entering a wedge and a modified ridged prism against the direction of bias with clearly different outcomes. The inferior prism Rl+TIR contact in Figure 14(a) will cause the ray to continue against bias so that it will penetrate the next layer, whereas the inferior prism R1 contact in Figure 14(b) will ensure that the primary ray is turned to the direction of bias by the next layer of superior prisms.

Minimising returning capacity in inferior prisms is complicated by an inherent conflict between maximising R1 interactions for radiation travelling against the direction of bias and minimising R2 interactions for radiation travelling with the direction of bias. Although inferior prism included angles should be much larger than those of superior prisms there is a cut-off point beyond which returning capacity will again rise with increased included angle. The reason for this, as shown by Figure 15, is that shallow inferior prisms can cause an Rl+TIR interaction at such an angle that a ray is reversed by subsequent R2 interactions even though the ray first contacts the inferior surface at a small angle to the

SRL. It is the conflict between maximising R1 interactions for radiation travelling against bias direction whilst minimising R2 interactions for radiation travelling with bias direction which makes peaked prisms the preferred choice for inferior prisms. Radiation can bypass one or more entire prism rows when moving through peaked prisms at large angles to the SRL thus reducing the number of R2 interactions which might otherwise cause ray return in the inferior surface. Also peaked prisms allow radiation travelling against the direction of bias to, on average, contact the prisms closer to their base and at larger angles to the SRL than is the case for ridged prisms which increases the incidence of R1 interactions through the peaked prisms and therefore the amount of reversal through the opposed superior surface. Most importantly the use of peaked inferior prisms allows R1 interactions in those prisms to occur in two planes. So the use of peaked inferior prisms perhaps doubles the returning capacity of superior surfaces whilst greatly reducing that of inferior surfaces. Unfortunately the flow through peaked prisms is very difficult to illustrate but although additional interaction types are possible in peaked prisms they are not critical and nothing essential is lost by description based on wedge prisms.

Whilst it is impossible, even for a single input angle, to provide a comprehensible illustration of the complexity of actual flows within a layer of the invention defined herein, by choosing a favourable primary ray input angle it is possible to gain an impression of how maximising the difference between interaction sequences in opposed directions can provide a relatively large differential in return/transmission ratios.

Figure 16 illustrates the biasing effect of a layer composed of superior and inferior prisms on rays which enter the layer in the plane of the page at an angle of 20°to the SRL. The three paired Rl+TIR interactions occurring to rays Tl, T2 and T3 cover all possible interactions with the direction of bias and show that it is impossible for a primary ray travelling with the direction of bias at this angle to be returned to source. For this radiation, split rays generated by refraction through superior prism surfaces have a lesser but still relatively high probability of also penetrating the layer.

Not illustrated in Figure 16 are the less than half of the primary rays against the direction of bias which will undergo Rl+TIR interactions in the inferior prisms and consequently will carry most of their original energy content through the layer. All primary rays entering an inferior prism between T4 and T5 against the direction of bias will be returned by R2 interactions in superior prisms. Much of the energy carried by split rays externally generated on the upward arc of the primary rays through superior prisms will continue against the direction of bias, but internally generated splits and their descendants will almost entirely loop back to the direction of bias. For the situation partly illustrated by Figure 16, overall transmission in the direction of bias is somewhat greater than 90%. For rays like T4 & 5 which undergo R1 interactions in the inferior prisms transmission is probably not much greater than about 30% but when the nearly half of rays which undergo Rl+TIR in inferior prisms are included overall transmission against bias is about 60% - 65%. Considering that the input angle of 20 degrees is particularly favourable to bias so that average return ratios for all input angles is far smaller, albeit less so in layers with peaked inferior prisms, it can be seen that even a relatively strongly biased layer is individually quite weak in absolute terms which is the reason for preferring multi-layer batteries. However the number of layers which can be productively utilised is circumscribed because each additional layer is subject to diminishing returns caused by the fact that radiation which is returned in one layer is not available to be returned in the next. Since a larger proportion of radiation travelling against the direction of bias is returned by each layer than is the case for radiation travelling with the direction of bias, the differences between the amounts returned in either direction is reduced by every additional layer.

Increasing temperature divergence beyond the limits of a single battery unit is achieved by connecting units in series to form a multi-unit heat pump which would be the norm for most practical applications. The degree of temperature divergence which is attained by a multiunit heat pump depends on the number of units in series and the rate at which energy is extracted from the output end of a heat pump assemblage.

Figure 16 reinforces the importance of ray splitting to the function of the heat pumps of the invention. Ultimately, primary rays such as T4 & T5 retain less than half of their original energy, much of which has been transferred to generations of descendants. For this reason even where a primary ray is not returned a significant fraction of its original energy content can be returned by internally generated split rays. To a degree depending on the transmission characteristics of layer material, absorption and reemission in the layer would also generate internally produced rays which would be subject to the bias of the system.

From a purely geometrical point of view, the fact that symmetric layers are neutral and asymmetric ones are biased seems unremarkable. However biased effect heat pumping superficially appears to conflict with the established fact that spontaneous heat transfer from colder to hotter is an impossible violation of the second law of thermodynamics. This in turn implies a contradiction between the second law and optical laws which is obviously out of the question. Compared to an unmediated flow the layer(s) of the invention radically alters the nature of the radiation flow between Body B and Body A. Some available pathways carry little or no energy while others carry concentrated flows. In addition to this the system increases the incidence of rays terminating at the same location on Body A. This combination of variable intensity ray paths and common termination points means that at intervals across the surface of Body A, greater than average amounts of energy are absorbed by points or local regions of the surface so that these areas are absorbing more radiation than they are emitting.

The absorption of intensified radiation on the local areas of Body A causes a temperature rise at those locations; however the temperature increase is constrained by conduction to the cooler regions surrounding a local region. Since the temperature rise is constrained in this manner and since the energy content of emissions is solely a function of temperature the energy absorbed by the local regions is greater than the energy emitted from them and so there is a heat flow from Body B to the local regions of Body A running counter to the greater flow of heat from the larger regions of Body A to Body B. The conduction of heat away from the local areas also means that the heat input from Body B is quite large in relation to temperature change in the local regions which generates significant amounts of entropy. This reverse flow of heat from B to A provides sufficient additional entropy to legitimise the modest temperature difference between the bodies created by a single system of the invention, which may function as a heat pump unit.

The difference between radiation flows A to B and B to A is at a maximum when the temperature difference between A and B is zero. At this point the amount of entropy required to initiate temperature divergence is minimal and can be met by a wisp of reverse heating. As the temperature difference increases so does the demand for entropy which is met by a greater radiation flow from B to A so that, incrementally, the intensity of radiation absorbed by local areas on body A's surface increases, a process that continues until the temperature difference is at its maximum and total radiation flows A to B and B to A equalise.The production of higher intensity radiation flows and increased incidence of common ray terminations can be broadly described by the concepts - "refractive compression", "angular overlays", "clumping" and "angular conflation" some or all of which can work in concert.

By far the most important factor in local heating is angular conflation which occurs to a greater or lesser degree in all systems irrespective of layer type or input angles. In the very weakly biased layer shown by Figure 10, primary rays leaving the layer against the direction of bias do so at an angle of about 11 degrees. Figure 21 illustrates the regular intersection of rays at this angle and it is obvious that when rays from every point on the relevant surface of the layer are considered there must be points on a receiving surface where the energy of two rays conflate irrespective of the distance between the layer and receiving surface. Because in this case rays emitted from the receiving surface carry only a few percentage points more energy than rays that are absorbed by it, the conflation of two rays means that absorption at the point of conflation is over 180% of emission.

Figure 24 shows a layer with a planar superior and ridged inferior surfaces which has rays entering it in the plane of the page and at 25 degrees relative to the SRL. The figure shows the way in which the inferior prisms divide the primary input flow between R1 interactions (which in this case are all returned) and R1 +TIR interactions which are subdivided into two oppositely angled streams. Areas where the two alternately angled streams intersect are where conflation of rays occur. Split rays can provide an important contribution to angular conflation; particularly in a system with a planar superior surface where split rays are returned to the emitting surface at the angle of incidence of their parent rays.

Refractive compression is a consequence of the fact that radiation which contacts a surface at a range of large angles to the normal is greatly compressed when refracted into a higher refractive index medium. If refracted out of the medium through a parallel surface the original range is recovered but if the refractions occur through converging surfaces some of the compression is retained. Figure 17 shows radiation entering a superior prism through an angular range of 20° and being ultimately compressed to a range of just over half the original size. Intensification is less than that implied by the reduction of range due to losses caused by ray splitting at large angles to normal, but the average intensity of the output range is still well in excess of that of the input range. Although illustrated as occurring in a superior prism the effect also occurs in a system with a planar superior surface because of the converging angular relationship between the surfaces of inferior prisms and the planar surface. It should be noted that the intensity of input and output ranges is not homogenous; individual pathways within a range can carry widely different amounts of energy. Compression is irreversible and ratchet like in a system of the invention because there is no means of decompression but already compressed radiation can be involved in further compression.

Angular overlays occur where radiation with diferent input histories share an output range. For instance the compressed output range in Figuyre 18(a) which has both angular and spatial inputs, is shared by split rays represented by dashed lines in Figure 18(b). The overlaying compensates for the large energy losses incurred by ray splitting in Figure 18(a). Angular overlaying should not be confused with the mere spatial overlapping of ranges which do not contain common ray angles. All angular ranges are transient and only conceptually useful when centred on particular locations in a system. Compression forces an existing number of rays into a smaller number of pathways and overlaying forces a larger number of rays into an existing number of pathways so that intensification reduces to an increase in energy carried by individual pathways.

Intensification is cumulative through the layers of a multi layer unit. Additional compression and overlaying occurs in each layer, so even though the amount of radiation travelling against the direction of bias is diminished by each layer the intensity of of the remainder is maintained.

Clumping occurs where rays leave a superior surface at very large angles to the SRL. These rays are close spaced and so are absorbed by relatively small regions on a receiving surface. This by itself might not provide reverse heating but is a significant contributor to reverse heating when it combines with one or more of the other factors.

HEAT PUMP STRUCTURE AND UTILISATION

In principle the apparatus of the invention can operate at a wide range of temperatures. In practice input temperatures are most likely to be in the range of those generally pertaining at the earth's surface so batteries would predominantly be made from materials capable of transmitting radiation at least in the mid to long wavelength IR range. In a large multiunit heat pump the extent of temperature and wavelength variation might encourage the use of more than one type of material to form the batteries within a single heat pump assemblage.

There are a large number of available materials which are currently used in IR applications such as windows, lenses and prisms; however they vary widely in their physical properties and production costs and only a small proportion are likely to be suitable for the orders of magnitude increase in production and forming necessary to allow the widespread use of the apparatus of the invention. Without wishing to be bound by theory, in principal the apparatus and layer(s) of the invention may be formed using any material that is transparent to any wavelength of electromagnetic radiation, however in practice the apparatus and layer(s) are typically formed from IR transparent materials. It is believed that, even at the red end of the visible spectrum, temperature is so high that there would be little benefit in heat pumping but even if there was, the high temperatures at visible light frequencies would make it very difficult to build a heat pump capable of withstanding such temperatures. For practical purposes, at least in the short term it seems likely that economic factors would strongly favour the use of salts such as KBr (preferred), KCI, NaCI, or plastic materials specifically formulated for superior IR transmission. The hygroscopic nature of many IR transmitting materials is of little consequence in applications of the apparatus of the invention because the components would be sealed from the environment to prevent ingress of water vapour.

Batteries of the apparatus of the invention, in preferred embodiments, are contained by housings, at least parts of which are made of an opaque material which is both a good thermal conductor and has a high rate of radiation emission and absorption so that those parts of the housing double as input and output heat exchangers, respectively radiating heat to and extracting it from a battery as shown in part by Figure 3. The housing heat exchangers are thermally separated from each other by an insulating material to minimise conductive heat exchange between them, and the housing sealed to prevent gas exchange with the external environment. The perimeter of the batteries of the apparatus of the invention can be lined or coated with reflective material to reflect radiation back into the system at its margins.

The specific manner in which batteries of the apparatus of the invention are mounted within a heat pump unit depends on unit size and the type of material they are made from. It is possible that manufacturing limitations might mitigate against large surface areas so that an individual heat pump unit might have batteries of the apparatus of the invention constructed in the form of multiple parallel cells.

Since useful heat pumps are generally multi-unit assemblages [shown schematically by Figure 4] some, and usually most, of the housing heat exchangers lie between two batteries constituting an upstream heat exchanger for one and the downstream exchanger for another. The two exterior heat exchangers might have fins or other measures to increase their exposed surface area and be served by piped gases or liquids to deliver or extract heat energy, or they might directly extract or release heat energy to their surrounds. Whether used for for heating or cooling, a particular apparatus of the invention has a fixed potential output which depends on the nature of the batteries forming a unit and on the number of units making up the assemblage. In most practical applications it is desirable to control both the output temperature of an apparatus of the invention and the temperature of an environment being heated or cooled. In some simple cases such as smaller scale refrigeration this could be achieved using an insulated barrier which could selectively prevent or allow contact between the cool heat exchanger of an apparatus of the invention and the refrigerated environment as illustrated by Figure 5. The thermal barrier would be pressed against the heat exchanger or withdrawn from it using a thermostically controlled actuator.

In most larger applications both temperature regulation and the efficient induction of energy into and distribution out of an apparatus of the invention would require the use of circulating fluids between a an assemblage of the apparatus of the invention and input or output environments. Figure 6 illustrates a dual heating/air conditioning system using air as the carrying medium. Figure 6(a) shows the valve arrangements which cause the system to act as a heat pump and Figure 6(b) shows the system in AC mode. Output temperature of the apparatus of the invention is controlled by the rate of airflow across or through a heat exchanger.

The apparatus of the invention, made up of sufficient number of heat pump units to create a relatively large temperature difference, would allow the hot side of a heat pump assemblage to be a boiler converting fluid to vapour which could then be used to drive a turbine as illustrated by Figure 7.

Figure 23 shows a layer arrangement where ridged prisms or a planar surface are opposed by pyramidal prisms; the latter being representative of a range of possible preferred peaked prisms including hexagonal prisms and hybrid prisms e.g. a pyramidal base morphing into a cone apex.

Figure 24 shows a layer with a planar superior and ridged inferior surfaces which has rays entering it in the plane of the page and at 25 degrees relative to the SRL. As noted in the figure, "0" represents no rays, "1" represents one ray stream, "2" represents overlapping ray streams. The figure shows the way in which the inferior prisms divide the primary input flow between R1 interactions (which in this case are all returned) and R1 +TIR interactions which are subdivided into two oppositely angled streams. Areas where the two alternately angled streams intersect are where conflation of rays occur. Split rays can provide an important contribution to angular conflation; particularly in a system with a planar superior surface where split rays are returned to the emitting surface at the angle of incidence of their parent rays. As shown, a Body A is located at the top of the figure, and a Body B is located at the bottom of the figure.

Unless the context clearly requires otherwise, throughout the description and the claims, the words "comprise", "comprising", and the like, are to be construed in an inclusive sense as opposed to an exclusive or exhaustive sense, that is to say, in the sense of "including, but not limited to".

The entire disclosures of all applications, patents and publications cited above and below, if any, are herein incorporated by reference.

Reference to any prior art in this specification is not, and should not be taken as, an acknowledgement or any form of suggestion that that prior art forms part of the common general knowledge in the field of endeavour in any country in the world.

The invention may also be said broadly to consist in the parts, elements and features referred to or indicated in the specification of the application, individually or collectively, in any or all combinations of two or more of said parts, elements or features.

Where in the foregoing description reference has been made to integers or components having known equivalents thereof, those integers are herein incorporated as if individually set forth.

It should be noted that various changes and modifications to the presently preferred embodiments described herein will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Such changes and modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention and without diminishing its attendant advantages. It is therefore intended that such changes and modifications be included within the present invention.