RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/791,137, filed March 15, 2013; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/712,886, filed October 12, 2012; and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/665,137, filed June 27, 2012.

BACKGROUND

Autophagy is a lysosomal degradation pathway in both animals and plants that is essential for development, differentiation, homeostasis, and survival. In animals, autophagy serves principally as an adaptive mechanism to protect organisms against diverse pathologies, including infection, cancer, neurodegeneration, heart disease, and aging. The repertoire of routine housekeeping functions performed by autophagy includes elimination of defective proteins and organelles, prevention of the accumulation of abnormal protein aggregates, and elimination of intracellular pathogens. The autophagy pathway is uniquely capable of degrading entire organelles, such as mitochondria, peroxisomes, and endoplasmic reticulum.

Multiple reports indicate that proteins required for autophagy induction, such as sirtuin 1 , have reduced expression in aged tissues; levels of autophagy have been shown to diminish with age. Reduced levels of autophagy have also been associated with obesity, diabetes, cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular disease, osteoarthritis, and age- related macular degeneration.

A number of compounds that stimulate autophagy have been identified, including rapamycin, resveratrol, metformin, spermidine, and glucosamine.

Urolithins are ellagitannin- and ellagic acid-derived metabolites produced, e.g., by mammalian colonic microflora, including human colonic microflora. Urolithins are known to exhibit anti-oxidant activity. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

An aspect of the invention is a method of increasing autophagy in an animal, comprising the step of administering to an animal in need thereof an effective amount of a urolithin or a precursor thereof, thereby increasing autophagy in the animal.

An aspect of the invention is a method of increasing longevity in an animal, comprising the step of administering to an animal in need thereof an effective amount of a urolithin or a precursor thereof, thereby increasing longevity of the animal.

An aspect of the invention is a method of increasing autophagy in a cell, comprising the step of contacting a cell with an effective amount of a urolithin or a precursor thereof, thereby increasing autophagy in the cell.

An aspect of the invention is a method of increasing longevity of a cell, comprising the step of contacting a cell with an effective amount of a urolithin or a precursor thereof, thereby increasing longevity of the cell.

An aspect of the invention is a method of increasing autophagy of eukaryotic cells in vitro, comprising the step of contacting eukaryotic cells in vitro with an effective amount of a urolithin or a precursor thereof, thereby increasing autophagy in the eukaryotic cells in vitro.

An aspect of the invention is a method of increasing longevity of eukaryotic cells in vitro, comprising the step of contacting eukaryotic cells in vitro with an effective amount of a urolithin or a precursor thereof, thereby increasing longevity of the eukaryotic cells in vitro.

An aspect of the invention is a composition comprising a urolithin or a precursor thereof; and a compound selected from the group consisting of rapamycin, resveratrol, metformin, and spermidine.

An aspect of the invention is a compound of Formula II

Formula II wherein

X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are independently selected from the group consisting of H and OH; and

with the proviso that the compound is not a compound of Formula II wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ¹ is OH, and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ² is OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H (urolithin B);

X ³ is OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ⁴ is OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H; X ⁵ is OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ⁶ is OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ⁷ is OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ⁸ is OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H;

X ¹ and X ² are OH, and X ³ , X ⁴ , X ^s , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ^s are H; X ¹ and X ⁵ are OH, and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ¹ and X ⁷ are OH, and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ¹ and X ⁸ are OH, and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H;

X ² and X ³ are OH, and X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ^s are H;

X ² and X ⁴ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H; X ² and X ⁵ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ² and X ⁶ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ^s are H (urolithin A);

X ² and X ⁷ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ³ and X ⁴ are OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ³ and X ⁵ are OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H; X ³ and X ⁶ are OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ⁵ and X ⁶ are OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H; X ⁵ and X ⁸ are OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H;

X ⁶ and X ⁷ are OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ¹ , X ² , and X ⁵ are OH, and X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ¹ , X ² , and X ⁶ are OH, and X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ¹ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are OH, and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H;

X ² , X ⁴ , and X ⁶ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ² , X ⁴ , and X ⁷ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ² , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H (urolithin C);

X ² , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are H;

X ² , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are H;

X ¹ , X ² , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are OH, and X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ¹ , X ² , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are OH, and X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ¹ , X ² , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH, and X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H (urolithin D);

X ¹ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH, and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁵ are H;

X ² , X ³ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH, and X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H;

X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are OH, and X ³ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ¹ , X ² , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH, and X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁵ are H; and

X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH, and X ⁴ and X ⁵ are H.

An aspect of the invention is a compound of Formula III

Formula III

wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are independently selected from the group consisting of H and OR;

R is H, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, a substituted or unsubstituted monosaccharide, or a substituted or unsubstituted oligosaccharide; and with the proviso that the compound is not a compound of Formula III wherein

R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ¹ is OR, and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² is OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H; R ³ is OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ⁴ is OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ⁵ is OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ⁶ is OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ⁷ is OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H; R ⁸ is OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ¹ and R ² are OR, and R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ¹ and R ⁵ are OR, and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ¹ and R ⁷ are OR, and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ¹ and R ⁸ are OR, and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H; R ² and R ³ are OR, and R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² and R ⁴ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² and R ⁵ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² and R ⁶ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H; R ² and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ³ and R ⁴ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ³ and R ⁵ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H; R ³ and R ⁶ are OR, and R , R ²² ,, RR ⁴⁴ ,, RR ⁵⁵ ,, RR ⁷⁷ ,, and R ⁸ are H;

R ³ and R ⁷ are OR, and R R l ²² ,, RR ⁴⁴ ,, RR ⁵⁵ ,, RR ⁶⁶ ,, and R ⁸ are H;

R ³ and R ⁸ are OR, and R I ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷

R ⁴ and R ⁸ are OR, and R R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ⁵ and R ⁶ are OR, and R R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ⁵ and R ⁷ are OR, and R , R ²² ,, RR ³³ ,, RR ⁴⁴ ,, RR ⁶⁶ ,, and R ⁸ are H;

R ⁵ and R ⁸ are OR, and R R > 2 ² , _n R3 ³ , R r> 4 ⁴ , R> 6 , a—nd R n ⁷⁷ are H;

R ⁶ and R ⁷ are OR, and R , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ⁶ and R ⁸ are OR, and R R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ¹ , R ² , and R ³ are OR, and R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ¹ , R ² , and R ⁵ are OR, and R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ¹ , R ² , and R ⁶ are OR, and R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ¹ , R ² , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ¹ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ¹ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are H;

R ² , R ³ , and R ⁴ are OR, and R ¹ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ⁴ , and R ⁶ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ⁴ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ² , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ² , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are H;

R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ³ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are H;

R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are H;

R ¹ , R ² , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are OR, and R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H; R ¹ , R ² , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ¹ , R ² , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ¹ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are H;

R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁶ are OR, and R ¹ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are H;

R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ¹ , R ² , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are H;

R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ³ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are H;

R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , and R ⁵ are H;

R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , and R ⁴ are H;

R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ⁴ and R ⁵ are H;

R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ and R ⁵ are H; and

R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ and R ³ are H. An aspect of the invention is a compound of Formula V

Formula V

wherein X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ^U , X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H and OH; and with the proviso that the compound is not a compound of Formula V wherein

X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are H; X ¹⁰ is OH, and X ⁹ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are H;

X ⁹ and X ¹² are OH, and X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are H;

X ⁹ and X ¹³ are OH, and X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , and X ¹⁴ are H;

X ⁹ and X ¹⁴ are OH, and X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , and X ¹³ are H;

X ¹⁰ and X ¹³ are OH, and X ⁹ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , and X ¹⁴ are H; X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , and X ¹³ are OH, and X ⁹ , X ¹² , and X ¹⁴ are H;

X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹² , and X ¹⁴ are OH, and X ¹¹ and X ¹³ are H;

X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are OH, and X ¹¹ and X ¹² are H (ellagic acid);

X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are OH, and X ¹² is H; and

X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ^u , X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are OH. An aspect of the invention is a compound of Formula VI

Formula VI wherein

R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ^U , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H and OR;

R is H, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, a substituted or unsubstituted monosaccharide, or a substituted or unsubstituted oligosaccharide; and with the proviso that the compound is not a compound of Formula VI wherein R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ^U , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are H; R ¹⁰ is OR, and R ⁹ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are H; R ⁹ and R ¹² are OR, and R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are H; R ⁹ and R ¹³ are OR, and R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , and R ¹⁴ are H; R ⁹ and R ¹⁴ are OR, and R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , and R ¹³ are H; R ¹⁰ and R ¹³ are OR, and R ⁹ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , and R ¹⁴ are H; R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , and R ¹³ are OR, and R ¹¹ , R ¹² , and R ¹⁴ are H; R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , and R ¹⁴ are OR, and R ¹¹ , R ¹² , and R ¹³ are H; R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , and R ¹³ are OR, and R ⁹ , R ¹² , and R ¹⁴ are H; R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹² , and R ¹³ are OR, and R ¹¹ and R ¹⁴ are H; R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹² , and R ¹⁴ are OR, and R ¹¹ and R ¹³ are H; R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are OR, and R ¹¹ and R ¹² are H; R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , and R ¹³ are OR, and R ⁹ and R ¹⁴ are H; R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , and R ¹³ are OR, and R ¹⁴ is H; R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are OR, and R ¹² is H; and R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ^U , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are OR.

An aspect of the invention is a composition comprising a first compound; and a second compound selected from the group consisting of rapamycin, resveratrol, metformin, and spermidine, wherein the first compound is a compound of any one of Formulas II, III, V, or VI.

An aspect of the invention is a method of increasing autophagy in a cell, comprising contacting the cell with an effective amount of a compound of any one of Formulas II, III, V, or VI, thereby increasing autophagy in the cell.

An aspect of the invention is a method of increasing longevity in an animal, comprising administering to an animal in need thereof an effective amount of a compound of any one of Formulas II, III, V, or VI, thereby increasing longevity of the animal.

An aspect of the invention is a method of increasing longevity of eukaryotic cells in vitro, comprising contacting eukaryotic cells in vitro with an effective amount of a compound of any one of Formulas II, III, V, or VI, thereby increasing longevity of the eukaryotic cells in vitro.

BRIEF DESCIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Figure 1 is a schematic diagram depicting four steps of macroautophagy: induction and nucleation, expansion, fusion, and degradation. Proteins involved in each step are indicated above each step. The role of p62 and LC3 is explained schematically, whereby p62 helps to transport cellular material into the autophagosome by binding to LC3.

Figure 2 depicts structural formulas for urolithin A (UA), ellagic acid (EA), tellimagrandin (TL), punicalagin (PA), and punicalin (PB). Figure 3 depicts ellagic acid (EA) and its metabolites, urolithin D (UD), urolithin C

(UC), urolithin A (UA), and urolithin B (UB), which are produced by intestinal microflora in mammals, including humans.

Figure 4 is a group of five graphs depicting the effect of ellagic acid and urolithins A, B, C, and D on the lifespan of C. elegans. Test agents were present at 50 μΜ in DMSO. DMSO, dimethylsulfoxide, was the control and vehicle for test agents.

Figure 5 is a set of graphs depicting longevity of wild-type C. elegans grown in the presence of urolithin A at the concentrations shown.

Figure 6 is a group of six graphs (A-F) depicting lifespan analysis of wild-type and indicated mutant strains of C. elegans grown in the absence (black) or presence (grey) of urolithin A at 50 μΜ.

Figure 7 is a bar graph depicting the effect of urolithin A on mitochondria in muscle of C. elegans. Transgenic C. elegans strain SJ4103 shows fluorescence due to muscle-specific expression of green fluorescent protein (GFP) which is targeted to the mitochondrial membrane. Mitochondria presence in the muscle of the C. elegans is shown by an increase in fluorescence. Results are expressed as mean ± SEM. *, p = 0.0014 (Student's t-test).

Figure 8 is a line graph and three bar graphs depicting effect of urolithin A (UA) on basal and uncoupled respiration in young (one-day-old) and old (ten-day-old) C. elegans.

(A) Basal and uncoupled respiration (FCCP) in 10-day-old control worms treated with 0.1% DMSO and ten-day-old-worms treated with 30 μΜ urolithin A in 0.1% DMSO.

(B) Representative area under the curve (AUC) of uncoupled (FCCP) respiration in ten- day-old control worms treated with vehicle (0.1% DMSO) or 30 μΜ urolithin A in 0.1% DMSO. Results are expressed as mean ± SEM. *, p < 0.05 (Student's t-test). OCR, oxygen consumption rate. (C) Comparison of basal respiration between one-day-old and ten-day- old worms treated with vehicle (0.1% DMSO). (D) Comparison of basal respiration between one-day-old and ten-day-old worms treated with UA (30 μΜ).

Figure 9A is a group of three confocal images depicting the effect of urolithin A on autophagy induction in C. elegans. Figure 9B is a corresponding dot graph depicting the effect of urolithin A on autophagy induction. p <0.001 (student's t-test).

Figure 10 is a group of three graphs depicting survival curves, showing the effect of inactivation by RNAi of vps-34 and bec-1 on the longevity phenotype induced by urolithin A treatment in C. elegans. Both vps-34 (B) and bec-1 (C) inhibitions totally suppress the lifespan phenotype observed in worms treated with urolithin A (50 μΜ) and fed with empty vector (A). Survival analyses were performed using the Kaplan Meier method and the significance of differences between survival curves calculated using the log rank test. p < 0.001 (log rank test).

Figure 11 is a set of graphs demonstrating the effects of urolithin A (UA), urolithin B (UB), urolithin C (UC) and urolithin D (UD) treatment on pharyngeal pumping in C. elegans worms after 7 and 14 days of treatment. (* p< 0.05; ** p<0.01; ***p<0.001)

Figure 12 are three line graphs demonstrating the effects of ellagic acid (EA), urolithin A (UA) and urolithin B (UB) treatment on motility in young C. elegans worms at days 1, 3, 5, and 8 of treatment. (* p< 0.05; ** p<0.01; ***p<0.001)

Figure 13 is a set of images demonstrating time-lapse traces of C. elegans motility following treatment with ellagic acid (EA), urolithin A (UA), urolithin B (UB), urolithin C (UC) and urolithin D (UD) treatment on days 8, 14 and 16 of treatment. Figure 14 is a western blot of ModeK cells, a mouse intestinal epithelial cell line, demonstrating the effect of urolithin A treatment on the autophagy marker ratio LC3- II/LC3-I, p62, and on the ratio of ρ-ΑΜΡΚα/ΑΜΡΚα. Bar graph demonstrates the quantified fold increase in the ratio of LC3-II to LC3-I, and the ratio of p-AMPKa to AMPKa levels observed in the western blots, ctl, control. Figure 15 is a western blot of primary mouse hepatocytes, demonstrating the effect of urolithin A treatment on the autophagy marker ratio LC3-II/LC3-I, p62, and on the ratio of ρ-ΑΜΡΚα/ΑΜΡΚα. Bar graph demonstrates the quantified fold increase in the ratio of LC3-II to LC3-I, and the ratio of p-AMPKa to AMPKa levels observed in the western blots, ctl, control.

Figure 16 is a western blot of C2C12 mouse myocytes, demonstrating the effect of urolithin A treatment on the autophagy marker ratio LC3-II/LC3-I, p62, and on the ratio of ρ-ΑΜΡΚα/ ΑΜΡΚα. Bar graph demonstrates the quantified fold increase in the ratio of LC3-II to LC3-I, and the ratio of p-AMPKa to AMPKa levels observed in the western blots, ctl, control.

Figure 17 is a western blot of human primary myoblasts, demonstrating the effect of urolithin A treatment on the autophagy marker ratio LC3-II/LC3-I, p62, and on the ratio of ρ-ΑΜΡΚα/ΑΜΡΚα. Bar graph demonstrates the quantified fold increase in the ratio of LC3-II to LC3-I levels observed in the western blots. Ctrl, control.

Figure 18 is a western blot of human primary aortic endothelial cells, demonstrating the effect of urolithin A treatment on the autophagy marker ratio LC3-II/LC3-I and the protein p62. Bar graph demonstrates the quantified fold increase in the ratio of LC3-II to LC3-I levels observed in the western blots. Ctrl, control.

Figure 19 is a western blot of livers isolated from untreated control mice and mice administered urolithin A at a dose of 55 mg/kg/day admixed in food. Urolithin A treatment increased the autophagy marker ratio LC3-II/LC3-I, decreased p62, and increased the ratio of ρ-ΑΜΡΚα/ΑΜΡΚα. Bar graph demonstrates the quantified fold increase in the ratio of LC3-II to LC3-I, and the ratio of p-AMPKa to AMPKa levels observed in the western blots, ctl, control.

Figure 20 is a graph depicting the effect of orally consumed urolithin A at 55 mg/kg/day on the motor activity of C57BL/6J mice. Young treated mice increased their spontaneous voluntary running on a running wheel by at least 25% during the five-day period investigated.

Figure 21 is a bar graph depicting the effect of orally consumed urolithin A on running in aged C57BL/6J mice.

Figure 22 is a bar graph depicting the effect of orally consumed urolithin A on grip strength in aged C57BL/6J mice.

Figure 23 is pair of graphs depicting the effect of orally consumed urolithin A on ambulation and rearing in aged C57BL/6J mice. HFD, high fat diet; UA, urolithin A.

Figure 24 is a western blot of skeletal muscle isolated from aged high fat diet (HFD) untreated control mice, and from aged high fat diet mice administered urolithin A (UA) at a dose of 50 mg/kg/day admixed in food. Urolithin A treatment increased the autophagy marker ratio LC3-II/LC3-I and decreased the levels of p62. Bar graph demonstrates the quantified fold increase in the ratio of LC3-II to LC3-I levels observed in the western blots. Ctrl, control.

Figure 25 shows the effect of urolithin A (UA) on autophagy in C2C12 myoblasts. Myoblasts incubated 24 hrs with increasing doses of UA showed a dose response, with increasing autophagy as the UA concentration was raised (10 μΜ, 50 μΜ and 100 μΜ), which was demonstrated by the increasing shift in the histogram representing the LC3-B cell levels, a marker of autophagy, as compared to untreated controls.

Figure 26 shows the effect of urolithin A (UA), urolithin B (UB), urolithin C (UC), and urolithin D (UD) on autophagy in C2C12 cells. Myoblasts incubated with UA, UB, UC, or UD at 100 μΜ experienced an increase in autophagy as demonstrated by the shift in the histogram representing the LC3-B cell levels as compared to untreated controls.

Figure 27 depicts twenty-five compounds of the invention.

Figure 28 depicts prophetic synthetic routes to the compounds in Figure 27.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Overview

Autophagy is a process by which cells degrade their own components, recycling amino acids and other building blocks that can be reused. Such degradation is performed by lysosomal acidic hydrolases. It is a tightly regulated process that plays an important role in normal cell growth, development, and homeostasis, helping to maintain a balance between the synthesis, degradation, and subsequent recycling of cellular products. It is a major mechanism by which starving cells can reallocate nutrients from less-essential processes to more essential processes.

During nutrient starvation, increased levels of autophagy lead to the breakdown of non-vital components and the release of nutrients, ensuring that vital processes can continue. Mutant yeast cells that have a reduced autophagic capability rapidly perish in nutrient-deficient conditions. A gene known as Atg7 has been implicated in nutrient- mediated autophagy, and studies in mice have shown that starvation-induced autophagy was impaired in _^ 4t 7-deficient mice. Komatsu M et al. (2005) J Cell Biol. 169:425-434.

Autophagy degrades damaged organelles, cell membranes, and proteins. The failure of autophagy is thought to be an important factor in the accumulation of cell damage and, therefore, aging.

Three types of autophagy can be distinguished, depending on the pathway along which cellular components are delivered to lysosomes: macroautophagy, microautophagy, and chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA).

Macroautophagy

Macroautophagy involves the degradation of long-lived proteins and whole cellular organelles through a multistep process (Figure 1). Macroautophagy begins with the formation of a double-layered isolation membrane (phagophore) around the molecules and/or organelles to be degraded. The phagophore engulfs cytosolic components and seals around the content, forming an autophagosome. Eventually, the autophagosome fuses with a lysosome, evolving into an autophagolysosome (or autolysosome), wherein lysosomal hydrolases digest the cargo. Microautophagy involves the direct sequestration of cytosolic components through invaginations or armlike projections of the lysosomal membrane. Microautophagy may serve for the turnover of long-lived proteins; however, the significance and regulation of this type of autophagy remain poorly understood. Finally, chaperone-mediated autophagy is a highly selective process devoted to the degradation of soluble cytosolic proteins.

The microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-Iight chain 3 (LC3), a mammalian homo log of the yeast Atg8, is a soluble protein with a molecular mass of approximately 17 kDa which is distributed ubiquitously in mammalian tissues and cultured cells. It is processed immediately after its synthesis by Atg4B, a cysteine protease, that exposes the C- terminal glycine residue (LC3-I). During autophagy, autophagosomes engulf cytoplasmic components, including cytosolic proteins and organelles. Concomitantly, a cytosolic form of LC3 (LC3-I) is conjugated to phosphatidylethanolamme (PE) to form and LC3-PE conjugate (LC3-II), which is recruited to autophagosomal membranes (Figure 1). p62, also known as sequestosome-1, was identified as a novel partner of the atypical protein kinase Cs (aPKCs) and is a ubiquitiously expressed cellular protein. p62 is known to have domains that interact with and bind to ubiquitinated proteins, and it has been identified as a component of inclusion bodies observed in human diseases, especially neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) as well as in liver diseases. p62 also has been identified as an LC3 interacting protein and it has been demonstrated that an 11 amino acid sequence in the mouse p62 serves to recognize the LC3 protein. As seen in Figure 1, LC3 binds to p62 and transports it (and any ubiquitinated proteins or cell components bound to it) into the autophagosome, where it is degraded. Consequently, one of the hallmarks of autophagy is an increase in the ratio of LC3-II/LC3-I with a concomitant decrease in the level of cellular p62. Of the three types of autophagy described, macroautophagy is the best characterized in mammalian cells. Starvation is the strongest stimulus of macroautophagy. During nutrient deprivation, macroautophagy breaks down cellular components, generating amino acids, fatty acids, and carbohydrates, which can be harnessed for energy production and for the synthesis of essential cellular molecules. Macroautophagy is also involved in specific cytosolic rearrangements during embryogenesis and postnatal development. Furthermore, macroautophagy is induced during viral or bacterial infections, in hypoxia, and under various stress conditions, including radiation exposure and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. In these circumstances, macroautophagy is essential for the maintenance of cell homeostasis by its promotion of the removal of damaged components. Indeed, impairments in macroautophagy induce premature aging and shorten the lifespan in several organisms, including C. elegans, yeast, and Drosophila. Hars ES et al. (2007) Autophagy 3:93-95; Matecic M et al. (2010) PLoS Genet. 6:el000921; Lee JH et al. (2010) Science 327: 1223-1228. Conversely, upregulation of macroautophagy is proposed to be a major mechanism underlying the lifespan-extending properties of calorie restriction. Toth ML et al. (2008) Autophagy 4:330-338; Morselli E et al. (2010) Cell Death Dis. I :el0.

More than 35 Atg (AuTophaGy-related) proteins have been identified in yeasts and mammals; however, the precise role each Atg protein plays during autophagy is not yet fully established. As illustrated in Figure 1, the process of macroautophagy can be divided into discrete steps, namely, induction and nucleation, expansion, fusion, and degradation. The induction phase is mediated by the ULKl-Atgl3-FIP200 kinase complex. The regulation of the nucleation stage, which consists of the recruitment of Atg proteins to the phagophore assembly site, is not yet completely understood. However, the vacuolar protein sorting-34 (Vps34), a class III phosphatidylinosito 1-3 -kinase (PI3K), is required for this step. Vps34 associates with Beclinl, the mammalian homologue of yeast Atg6, and subsequently recruits Atgl4 and Vpsl5 (pl50) to the preautophagosomal structure. The elongation and expansion of the phagophore membrane require two ubiquitin-like conjugation systems involving Atgl2 (conjugated to Atg5) and Atg8/microtubule- associated protein 1 light chain-3 (LC3, conjugated to phosphatidyl ethanolamine), along with other Atg proteins such as Atg9 and Atgl6. The fusion of the autophagosome with a lysosome relies on canonical cellular fusion machinery that consists of the Rab-SNARE (Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor Attachment protein REceptor) system and requires the presence of lysosomal membrane-associated protein-2 (LAMP-2) and the UV radiation resistance-associated gene (UVRAG). Finally, the digestion of the cargo is accomplished by lysosomal hydrolases, followed by the transportation of degraded components into the cytoplasm by lysosomal efflux transporters such as Atg22.

With regard to the regulation of macroautophagy, mTOR, the mammalian target of rapamycin, is considered to be a major checkpoint, linking the cellular nutritional state with the level of ongoing autophagy. Under nutrient-rich conditions, mTOR is active and inhibits the ULKl-Atgl3-FIP200 complex required for the induction of macroautophagy. Energy deprivation leads to mTOR inactivation and stimulation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which both induce macroautophagy. AMPK functions as an energy-sensing kinase and is activated by increases in the cellular AMP to ATP ratio. Under such circumstances, AMPK promotes autophagy by directly activating ULK1 and by relieving the mTOR-mediated inhibition of macroautophagy.

Macroautophagy can be selectively directed toward the removal of particular targets, e.g., peroxisomes (pexophagy), endoplasmic reticulum (reticulophagy), intracellular lipids (lipophagy), ribosomes (ribophagy), and intracellular pathogens (xenopathy). Likewise, mitochondria can be selectively targeted for degradation via macroautophagy (mitophagy).

Mitophagy: A Specialized Form of Macroautophagy

Mitophagy is a highly selective process that can promote the elimination of dysfunctional or unnecessary mitochondria. Wang K et al. (2011) Autophagy 7:297-300. The loss of mitochondrial membrane potential represents a major trigger of mitophagy. Indeed, laser-induced photo damage of selected mitochondria inside living hepatocytes results in the rapid dissipation of followed by the quick removal of depolarized mitochondria through mitophagy. In addition, oxidative damage can lead to the formation of asymmetrical daughter mitochondria characterized by different with autophagy specifically targeting mitochondria with lower Apart from the degradation of damaged mitochondria under stress conditions, mitophagy is essential for mitochondrial turnover in the basal state and during cell differentiation, such as the maturation of reticulocytes into mature red blood cells.

Investigations into the molecular regulation of mitophagy have unveiled several mitophagy-specific proteins. Parkin and Pinkl are believed to play important roles in the selective degradation of damaged mitochondria, at least under certain circumstances. Parkin is a cytosolic E3-ubiquitin ligase that is selectively recruited to dysfunctional mitochondria and assists in their removal by mitophagy. Narenda D (2008) J Cell Biol. 183:795-803. Pinkl is imported into healthy mitochondria through a process and is degraded by the presenilin-associated rhomboidlike (PARL) protease. Matsuda N et al. (2010) J Cell Biol. 189:211-221. The dissipation of results in the accumulation of Pinkl on the mitochondrial surface, leading to the recruitment of Parkin, which ubiquitinates outer membrane proteins, including the voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC). It is proposed that ubiquitin-tagged mitochondria are targeted directly to autophagic vacuoles through the interaction of ubiquitinated proteins with the autophagosomal marker LC3 (Atg8). In addition, Parkin can ubiquitinate the inner mitochondrial membrane and apoptosis regulator protein B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), thereby de-repressing Beclinl .

Recent evidence also suggests that the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) may be required for the selective removal of damaged mitochondria. Opening of the mPTP causes a sudden increase of the inner membrane permeability to solutes with molecular weight up to 1500 Da. This results in mitochondrial depolarization, activation of the mitochondrial ATPase (i.e., ATP synthase operating in reverse), and swelling and rupture of the outer membrane. The loss of subsequent to permeability transition targets individual mitochondria for degradation. The loss of and the activation of macroautophagy are prevented by cyclosporin A, an inhibitor of the mPTP component cyclophilin D. Furthermore, starvation fails to induce macroautophagy in cyclophilin D-deficient murine cardiomyocytes, whereas autophagy is enhanced even under fed conditions in cardiac cells from mice overexpressing cyclophilin D. The nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)-dependent deacetylase sirtuin-3 (SIRT3) appears to be critically involved in the control of mPTP by modulation of cyclophilin D.

Similar to the mPTP, the apoptotic proteins Bnip3 (Bcl-2 and adenovirus E1B 19- kDa-interacting protein-3) and Nix (Nip3-like protein X) are thought to trigger selective mitophagy through mitochondrial depolarization. Moreover, Bnip3 may induce mitophagy by competitively disrupting the inhibitory interaction between Bcl-2 and Beclinl . Finally, Nix associates with mitochondrial membranes and directly interacts with LC3 (Atg8).

Although the molecular regulation of mitophagy has not yet been completely elucidated, the mTOR/AMPK pathway is proposed to be a major checkpoint. AMPK, in addition to stimulating mitochondrial removal through autophagy, enhances the activity of sirtuin-1 (SIRT1) and its downstream target PGC-Ι , resulting in stimulation of mitochondrial biogenesis. Hence, through the activity of AMPK, mitophagy and mitochondrial biogenesis are coordinately regulated, maintaining a healthy and functional pool of mitochondria in the cell. Lipophagy is a recently recognized alternative pathway of lipid metabolism in which intracellular lipid droplet triglycerides and cholesterol are taken up by autophagosomes and delivered to lysosomes for degradation by acidic hydrolases, thereby releasing free fatty acids. Lipophagy, therefore, functions to regulate intracellular lipid stores, cellular levels of free lipids, such as fatty acids, and energy homeostasis. Xenophagy is a recently recognized mechanism of defense against various types of intracellular pathogens, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Salmonella typhimurium, Legionella pneumophila, Brucella species, Chlamydia species, Coxiella burnetii, Listeria monocytogenes, Shigella flexneri, Rickettsia species, Mycobacterium marinum, Burkholderia species, and Francis ella tularensis. Microautophagy involves lysosomes directly engulfing cytoplasm by invagination, protrusion, or septation of the lysosomal limiting membrane.

Chaperone-mediated autophagy

Chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) concerns only those proteins that have a consensus peptide sequence that can be recognized by the binding of a hsc70-containing chaperone/co-chaperone complex. The CMA substrate/chaperone complex then moves to the lysosomes, where the CMA receptor lysosome-associated membrane protein type-2a (LAMP-2A) recognizes it. The protein is unfolded and translocated across the lysosome membrane assisted by the lysosomal hsc70 on the other side. Thus, CMA substrates are translocated across the lysosomal membrane on a one-by-one basis, whereas in macroautophagy and microautophagy the substrates are engulfed or sequestered in bulk. Moreover, CMA degrades only certain proteins and not organelles.

Exemplary Therapeutic Indications for Increased Autophagy

Compounds, compositions, and methods of the invention can be used to treat and prevent any of the following therapeutic indications for increased autophagy.

Autophagy Protects Organisms from Metabolic Stress Nutrient deprivation, growth factor depletion, and hypoxia can induce metabolic stress leading to the induction of autophagy and to the generation of free amino acids and fatty acids. These can be recycled in a cell-autonomous fashion and be used for 1) de novo synthesis of proteins important in the stress response, and 2) fueling the TCA cycle to maintain ATP function. The importance of this process is demonstrated in the inability of mice and C. elegans with deficiencies in the ATG proteins important for autophagy to resist starvation. Thus, a critical role for autophagy is the mobilization of intracellular energy resources to meet cellular and organismal demand for metabolic substrates.

Induction of Autophagy for Treatment of the Heart

Cardiomyocyte function and survival rely critically on the presence of basal levels of cardiomyocyte autophagy. Autophagic recycling of damaged cellular components in nutrient-rich conditions constitutes a major means of protein and organelle quality control, ridding the cell of defective (e.g., misfolded or oxidized) proteins and dysfunctional organelles. This fact is highlighted by the observation that abrogation of autophagic pathways in adult heart by conditional inactivation of either the Atg5 or Atg7 genes triggers rapid-onset cardiac hypertrophy, left ventricular dilation, and diminished cardiac output.

Danon disease, a condition marked by severe and progressive myopathy, stems from defective fusion of autophagosomes with lysosomes. In early cardiac development, Atg5 disruption provokes in utero defects and embryonic lethality. At the other end of the age spectrum, age-related declines in the efficiency of autophagic clearance likely contribute to progressive accumulation of defective proteins and organelles which ultimately lead to functional deterioration over time. Normal aging is associated with loss of cardiac function mainly due to impaired relaxation during diastole. Varying formulations of caloric restriction (CR) can prolong lifespan and improve LV diastolic function; the underlying mechanisms are believed to be the induction of autophagy. Together, these facts highlight the vital housekeeping role for cardiomyocyte autophagy as a mechanism of protein and organelle surveillance and quality control.

Autophagy Can Improve Skeletal Muscle Function in Setting of Muscular Atrophy

Skeletal muscle adapts its capacity to levels of load and utilization. A central aspect of this adaption is the regulation of fiber remodeling through degeneration or regeneration of muscle fibers.

In the absence of muscle activity, muscular atrophy occurs, resulting in decreased muscular capacity. This atrophy has been shown to occur due to increased levels of oxidative stress in disused muscle. Attenuation of this oxidative stress could lead to decreased atrophy.

The autophagy process, and in particular mitophagy are important in clearing damaged mitochondria and reducing the effects of increased oxidative stress on muscle functional capacity. Failure of the autophagy process has been shown to be an important contributing factor to muscle disuse atrophy, by failing to remove damaged mitochondria. This decrease in mitochondria turnover leads to an accumulation of dysfunctional organs and ensuing muscle damage.

Preserving Autophagy Function During Aging Can Improve Sarcopenia

Skeletal muscle atrophy and impaired muscle strength represent an important health issue and may occur as a consequence of immobilization, disuse, injury, starvation, and aging. In particular, advanced age is ineluctably accompanied by the loss of muscle mass and strength. This condition, known as sarcopenia of aging, has significant effects on individual health and impacts the severity of frailty. Moreover, poor muscular strength is highly predictive of disability and mortality, and general weakness often results in the loss of independent living, thereby affecting individual quality of life and imposing a high burden on healthcare expenditure. Aside from aging, skeletal muscle can undergo significant atrophy following disuse.

Sarcopenia is characterized by a gradual loss of muscle proteins. The size of stable post-mitotic tissues, such as skeletal and cardiac muscles, is regulated by protein turnover, and skeletal muscle is influenced by a balance between protein synthesis and degradation and the turnover of contractile proteins. A key factor influencing the development of sarcopenia is the imbalance between the rates of protein synthesis and degradation. Protein degradation in skeletal muscle cells is essentially mediated by the activity of two highly conserved pathways: the autophagic lysosomal pathway and the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway.

Recent studies have shown that the impaired autophagy seen in ATG7 null muscles is characterized by muscle atrophy, weakness, and features of myofiber degeneration. Consequently, autophagy has been found to be essential for myofiber maintenance and for the clearance of damaged proteins and altered organelles.

Autophagy, which is activated when skeletal muscle is under nutritional stress (such as metabolic stress), plays a role in the catabolic condition and in the degradation of macromolecules and organelles. Catabolic pathways are accelerated during exercise to supply energy and substrates to the muscle for continuation of contractions. It has been well established that the rates of amino acid (relatively small) and glucose oxidation are increased during endurance exercise, and increased energy consumption is likely required to induce autophagy. It has been shown that autophagy is required for myofiber maintenance and for the clearance of damaged proteins and altered organelles.

Mild exercise has been shown to improve muscle function and decrease the decline in muscle function observed in sarcopenia. These positive benefits are at least in part due to an exercise induced improvement in the autophagy process. In aging mice, the autophagy proteins LC3-II, Beclin-1, ATG7, and MuRF-1 significantly decrease with age in muscle. However, mice undergoing a training regimen during the aging process show a significantly attenuated decrease in these autophagy proteins. In overweight older women, mild exercise has been shown to increase the transcript levels of the autophagy regulators LCB3, Atg7, and LAMP-2 and thus improve the autophagy process. Thus, preservation of autophagy may play an important role in skeletal myocyte homeostasis and optimal mitochondrial turnover in aged muscle.

An age-related attenuation of autophagy has been shown and results in a diminished efficiency of protein degradation and the clearance of damaged organelles. A decrease in proteolytic activity has been considered responsible, at least in part, for the accumulation of damaged cellular components in almost all tissues of aging organisms. Improving Autophagy as a Therapeutic Target for Muscle Degenerative Diseases

Muscular dystrophies are a group of genetic, hereditary muscle diseases characterized by defects in muscle proteins. These defects result in progressive skeletal muscle damage accompanied by myofiber necrosis and chronic local inflammation, leading to substitution of myofibers by connective and adipose tissue. In Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), the most severe form of these diseases, the continuous and progressive skeletal muscle damage leads to complete paralysis and death of patients, usually by respiratory and/or cardiac failure.

The therapeutic protocols currently in use, based on corticosteroid administration, provide some delay in the progression of the disease, but they are associated with severe side effects. Therapies that substitute corticosteroids or at least may act as corticosteroid- sparing drugs are thus being actively pursued, and biological mechanisms relevant to skeletal muscle homoeostasis are explored, in order to identify new targets.

Autophagy is emerging as an important process that limits muscle damage. Inhibition/alteration of autophagy contributes to myofiber degeneration leading to accumulation of abnormal organelles. Mutations that inactivate Jumpy, a phosphatase that counteracts the activation of VPS34 for autophagosome formation and reduces autophagy, are associated with a centronuclear myopathy. This observation suggests that unbalanced autophagy is pathogenic in muscle degeneration. Likewise, hyperactivation of Akt as a consequence of muscle-specific deletion of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) leads to inhibition of autophagy and to a muscle phenotype resembling the one observed in muscular dystrophy. The validity of autophagy modulation as a therapeutic strategy has been shown in a mouse model of Ulrich myopathy characterized by defective autophagy and accumulation of dysfunctional organelles. Forced reactivation of autophagy in these animals yielded a beneficial therapeutic response.

In vivo and ex vivo analyses have shown that autophagy is defective in both the human (DMD) and mouse (mdx) muscular dystrophy and that such defect contributes to the pathogenesis of the disease. Muscle biopsies from DMD patients have been shown to have significantly lower levels of LC3 II and significant accumulation of p62, a protein known to be incorporated into autophagosomes and efficiently degraded, with respect to tissues from control, non-affected individuals.

A low protein diet has been shown in mice to lead to a prolonged induction of autophagy. In mice with DMD fed a low protein diet, an induction of autophagy leads to an improvement and management in the disease progression. Significant improvements in muscle function have been observed with an improvement of whole body tension, reduced muscle fibrosis, decreased collagen disposition, reduced accumulation of damaged organelles and reduced apoptosis of muscle fibers.

This demonstrates that induction of autophagy is an important homoeostatic mechanism that is disrupted in dystrophic muscles and indicates that novel therapeutic approaches aimed at reactivating autophagy can serve as a valuable strategy to reduce muscle damage in DMD. Autophagy Protects the Liver from Oxidative Stress and Disease

During liver diseases such as cancer and cirrhosis, the liver can undergo tissue hypoxia. This process has been shown to induce an autophagy process, which if inhibited resulted in increased apoptosis of liver cells.

In a 1 -antitrypsin deficiency, the most common genetic cause of human liver disease, there is significant chronic inflammation and eventual carcinogenesis. In this disease, a point mutation occurs in a 1 -antitrypsin Z (ATZ) leading to improperly folding and accumulation of aggregates. Deletion of ATG5 in hepatic cell lines lead to an accumulation of the mutant ATZ protein, demonstrating the important role for autophagy in reducing the impact of liver disease. Autophagy Is Important in Limiting Ischemic Reperfusion Injury

With advancing age, patients are more likely to acquire primary and secondary hepatic malignancies that are amenable to surgical resection and transplantation. Though the elderly patients may be treated surgically, the aged liver has significantly decreased reparative capacity following ischemia and reperfusion injury associated with these operations.

Ischemic preconditioning is the only promising strategy for improving the outcome of liver surgery, but its beneficial effects are limited to young patients. To date, no therapeutic strategy can suppress the age-dependent ischemia and reperfusion injury.

A reduction in autophagy has been observed in the old cells subjected to a severe stress such as ischemia followed by reperfusion. Studies have shown that by overexpression of autophagy genes in aged livers of mice, autophagy was increased and hepatocyte cell survival was increased after ischemia and reperfusion. Consequently, defective autophagy has been shown to be a causal mechanism for the age-dependent hepatic reperfusion injury and that enhancement of autophagy has been demonstrated to offer therapeutic benefit and reducing age-mediated liver ischemia reperfusion injury. Autophagy in Intestinal Epithelial Cells as a Therapeutic Target

The intestinal epithelium interfaces directly with a diverse community of bacteria that includes benign commensals, opportunistic pathogens, and overt pathogens, and consequently is the first line of defense against bacterial invasion of host tissues. One means that the epithelial cells employ to defend themselves includes secreting antimicrobial proteins. Unfortunately, there are some intestinal pathogens, including Salmonella tyhpimurium or opportunistically invasive commensal bacteria, such as Enterococcus faecalis, which can avoid this first line of defense and enter the epithelial cells.

Autophagy has been shown to be essential for the recognition and degradation of intracellular pathogens, acting as an innate barrier to infection. In cell culture, autophagy has been shown to limit the replication of certain bacterial species.

It has been shown via genetic studies of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that autophagy plays an important role in the intestinal immune homeostasis. IBD is a chronic inflammatory disease of the intestine that arises from dysregulated interactions with resident microbiota. Recently, it has been shown that polymorphisms in genes in the autophagic pathway are linked to Crohn's disease (CD). Crohn's disease is a chronic form of IBD that can affect any part of the gastrointestinal system, but is usually found in the colon or terminal ileum. The average onset is at 27 years of age in humans, and is usually present throughout the normal lifespan of the individual. It is characterized by severe colitis, strictures, and perianal fistulas, typically requiring surgery.

The chronic inflammatory process characteristic of CD requires the intensive interaction between intestinal epithelial cells and immune competent cells. In CD, there is an exaggerated immune response to the intestinal microbiota, characterized by an abnormal increase in Thl7 cells, which play a major role in autoimmunity, and a down-regulation of Treg cells important for controlling the immune response.

It has recently been shown that intestinal epithelial cell autophagy is essential for mammalian intestinal defense against invasive bacteria. Autophagy in the epithelial cells protects against the dissemination of invasive bacteria. Following oral infection with the invasive pathogen Salmonella typhimurium as well as Enterococcus faecalis, mouse epithelial cells activate autophagy as a consequence of exposure to these pathogens. Autophagy was also shown to be critical to limit the extra-intestinal spread of S. typhimurium. This indicates that autophagy is a key epithelial cell-autonomous mechanism of antibacterial defense that protects against dissemination of intestinal bacteria.

The present invention provides the know-how to use compounds that include urolithins and their precursors as enhancers of autophagy for the administration to and the treatment of individuals with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) or Crohn's disease (CD) and in need of increasing the levels of autophagy in their in the epithelial cells of the intestine in order to treat either IBD or CD.

Autophagy is Important in Aging Cardiac Muscle

The effects of autophagy induction on improved outcome for ischemic injury and muscle maintenance makes it especially relevant for cardiac muscle maintenance and protection from injury. Cardiac muscle undergoes progressive decline in mitochondrial function, similar to that observed in skeletal muscle, resulting in an increase in reactive oxygen species, as well as an increase in the accumulation of defective organelles. The clearance of these damaged organelles by autophagy is important for the maintenance of cardiac muscle function. As autophagy decreases with age, promoting autophagy can serve to protect cardiac muscle function.

Cardiac muscle is also strongly exposed to ischemic episodes during cardiac infarcts. The level of cardiac muscle damage that these ischemic episodes produce is strongly dependent on the ability of the cells to mount an effective autophagy response to clear damaged organelles. In aged animals, a defective autophagy response leads to an increase in cardiac muscle damage after ischemic events. Thus, promotion of autophagy during these acute events could serve to protect cardiac muscle from damage.

Autophagy is Important in the Inflammatory Process

Due to the role of autophagy in clearing defective organelles, a defect in this process leads to a buildup of cellular debris and the induction of apoptosis. Autophagy also plays an important role in defending the organism against microbial pathogens by inducing their degradation. Additionally, autophagy plays an important role in the trafficking events that activate innate and adaptive immunity.

The autophagic removal of apoptotic corpses is critical for preventing danger signals that could lead to an inflammation response. In an impaired autophagy response, where apoptotic clearance is not efficient the resulting induction of inflammation, could overcome tolerance to self-antigens leading to autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus. Thus, induction of autophagy could serve to decrease inflammatory responses and the development of autoimmune diseases.

Applications of Autophagy for Treatment of Disorders of the Liver

A number of features of hepatocytes and the liver as a whole make this organ particularly dependent on autophagy. The liver is rather unique in its regenerative properties as while hepatocytes are normally in a quiescent state, they retain the ability to quickly enter the cell cycle when there is a loss of liver tissue due to injury or surgical removal. The lack of cell turnover makes hepatocytes particularly vulnerable to the effects of impaired autophagy, as cells having long lives accumulate high levels of damaged organelles, protein aggregates, etc. that are normally cleared by autophagy. This leads to cellular injury and potentially to transformation.

Hepatocellular Lipid Metabolism

The liver serves as the second largest repository of stored lipids in the body after adipose tissue. Hepatocytes are a major cellular storehouse for neutral lipids in the form of triglycerides (TGs) and cholesterol esters contained in specialized organelles termed lipid droplets (LD). Autophagy mediates the breakdown of intracellular LD stores through the process of lipophagy. This enables the hepatocytes to rapidly mobilize their lipid stores in times of metabolic need. The loss of hepatocyte autophagy leads to a marked increase in hepatic TG and cholesterol content, indicating that lipophagy limits lipid accumulation by the liver in vivo. Also, lipophagy controls cellular energy homeostasis by providing free fatty acids (FFA) from the breakdown of TGs, which subsequently drives mitochondrial β- oxidation and cellular ATP generation. It has been shown that the autophagosomal protein LC3, critical for autophagosome membrane formation, associates with LDs.

Autophagy Protects Against Hepatic Diseases SERPINAl/ l-anti-trypsin deficiency (ATD) is the most common genetic cause of human liver disease in children. This disease is caused by homozygosity for the SERPINAl/ l -antitrypsin Z allele SERPINA1-Z, a point mutation, which renders the hepatic secretory glycoprotein SERPINAl prone to misfolding, polymerization, and aggregation. The mutant SERPINAl -Z protein accumulates in hepatocytes and the levels of SERPINAl found in the blood and body fluids are reduced to 10-15% of those normally observed. Accumulation of mutant SERPINAl -Z in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of hepatocytes leads to liver damage by a gain-of-function. It has been shown that intracellular degradation of SERPINAl -Z aggregates and polymers involves the autophagic pathway.

The drug carbamazepine, known to induce autophagy, was recently shown to be effective in cell based and mouse model of ATD. Carbamazepine increases autophagic degradation of SERPINAl -Z in cultured cells and when provided orally to the PiZ mouse model of ATD, it reduced the hepatic load of SERPINAl -Z. Additionally, inducing autophagy reduced hepatic fibrosis. Consequently, drugs enhancing autophagy are attractive candidates for improving the liver disease that develops in some patients with ATD.

The present invention provides the know-how to use compounds that include urolithins and their precursors as enhancers of autophagy for the treatment of individuals with ATD and in need of increasing the levels of autophagy in their liver and hepatocytes in order to reduce liver toxicity. Autophagy Protects Against Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is an important component of the metabolic syndrome together with obesity and diabetes. NAFLD encompasses a spectrum of hepatic abnormalities that range from simple fatty liver or steatosis, to fatty liver with hepatocellular injury and inflammation, which is known as nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). NAFLD is now the most prevalent liver disease in the USA and accounts for about 75%) of all chronic liver diseases.

The most important role of autophagy in fatty liver disease could be to regulate the process of excessive lipid accumulation. In fact, mice with a hepatocyte-specific knockout of Atg7, a protein required for autophagy, consuming a high-fat diet led to a marked increase in liver TGs and cholesterol content, showing that autophagy defects can induce hepatic steatosis. When considering NASH, while its exact causes are unknown, free fatty acid (FFA)-induced lipotoxicity has been implicated in the mechanisms of hepatocellular injury of this disease. Evidence points to the fact that hepatocyte autophagy renders the cells more resistant to injury from FFA.

Autophagy is an attractive therapeutic target for the treatment and prevention of both NAFLD and NASH. Therapeutic intervention to increase autophagy may reverse not only the hepatic manifestations of NAFLD, including hepatocellular steatosis and injury, but also some of the underlying metabolic abnormalities of the disease via its effects on insulin resistance. Additionally, treatment by increasing autophagy may prevent common end-stage complications of NAFLD, such as hepatocellular carcinoma.

The present invention provides the know-how to use compounds that include urolithins and their precursors as enhancers of autophagy for the treatment of individuals with NAFLD and in need of increasing the levels of autophagy in their liver and hepatocytes in order to treat these conditions.

Autophagy Protects Against Alcoholic Liver Disease

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is a major cause of chronic liver disease, and like NAFLD, has a wide spectrum of pathogenic features, that range from steatosis to sever acute alcoholic hepatitis, fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma.

Autophagy has been shown to play a role in treating ALD. For example, induction of autophagy by administration of rapamycin significantly suppresses acute alcohol- induced steatosis. Also, a common feature of chronic alcohol abuse is the formation of hepatic protein aggregates known as Mallory-Denk bodies, which are cytosolic inclusion bodies enriched with Krt8/keratin 8 and Krtl8 and proteins that include ubiquitin. Rapamycin treatment significantly reduces the number of Mallory-Denk bodies in proteasome inhibitor-treated KRT8 transgenic mice.

Consequently, enhancing hepatic autophagy is an attractive target for improving alcohol-induced liver disease. The present invention provides the know-how to use compounds that include urolithins and their precursors as enhancers of autophagy for the treatment of individuals with ALD and in need of increasing the levels of autophagy in their liver and hepatocytes in order to treat this condition.

Autophagy Protects Against Drug-Induced Liver Injury Most drugs are metabolized and detoxified in the liver, making the liver the principal target for drug damage. Liver injury due to drugs is a common cause for the withdrawal of approved drugs on the market, and it is thought that drug-induced hepatotoxicity is responsible for more than half of acute cases of liver failure. Acetaminophen, also known as paracetamol and N-acetyl-p-aminophenol (APAP), is a widely used antipyretic and analgesic drug and is also the most common source of severe drug-induced hepatotoxicity. At therapeutic levels APAP is safe, but overdosing leads to toxicity mainly due to its reactive metabolite, N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI). NAPQI can deplete hepatic stores of glutathione (GSH), an intracellular antioxidant. Following the depletion of GSH, NAPQI is known to react with cellular proteins as well as mitochondrial proteins to form protein adducts. These APAP-induced mitochondrial protein adducts can then lead to mitochondrial damage and subsequent necrosis.

When autophagy is enhanced with rapamycin, APAP-induced necrosis is significantly inhibited, both in cultured primary hepatocytes and in the livers of mice. Treatment with rapamycin two hours after APAP administration has been seen to significantly improve APAP-induced liver injury, even though APAP metabolism and hepatic GSH depletion have already occurred. This is particularly important as patients at risk for hepatotoxicity from an acute APAP overdose do not receive medical care until they are past the metabolic phase. Consequently, pharmacologic intervention targeting an enhancement of autophagy holds a potential therapeutic benefit for individuals with a risk of APAP hepatotoxicity following an overdose. The present invention provides the know how-to use compounds that include urolithins and their precursors as enhancers of autophagy for the treatment of individuals at risk of hepatotoxicity due to drug side effects and in need of increasing the levels of autophagy in their liver and hepatocytes in order to treat or prevent the potential drug toxicity. Autophagy is Important in Limiting Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury

Ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury is a causal factor contributing to morbidity and mortality. The vulnerability of the liver to I/R injury is a major obstacle to liver resection and transplantation surgery where reperfusion after sustained ischemia is unavoidable during hepatectomy and vascular reconstruction. Mitochondrial dysfunction is known to be one of the critical downstream events that lead to I/R-mediated cell death.

Autophagy clears abnormal or dysfunctional mitochondria to ensure an optimal cellular function and survival. With impaired or insufficient mitophagy, cells accumulate damaged mitochondria, which subsequently leads to uncontrolled ROS formation, mitochondrial DNA mutation, energetic failure, and ultimately cell death. Consequently, the failure of mitophagy to remove a small number of damaged mitochondria during I/R can have a significant impact on hepatocellular function and viability. Mitophagy is essential for hepatic function and survival following I/R injury.

While minimizing I/R injury plays an important role in the outcome of transplanted young livers, aged livers are even more susceptible to negative impact of I/R injury. In the case of aged livers, hepatocytes fail to respond to the I/R stress and upregulate their endogenous protective autophagy response. Similar to young livers following prolonged ischemia, aged livers after short-term ischemia accumulate dysfunctional mitochondria, undergo mitochondrial permeability transition, and lose their viability soon after reperfusion.

Methods of enhancing autophagy, including pre-ischemia nutrient depletion and over expression of pro-autophagy genes ATG7 or BECN1, lead to the suppression of the mitochondrial permeability transition and increases hepatocyte survival following reperfusion.

This indicates that treatments with agents that induce autophagy in the liver will offer protection during a situation of I/R and help to minimize cellular injury. Such treatments are applicable in situations of the transplantation of both young and aged livers. Treatments may involve: (i) pre-treatments of the liver tissue ex vivo by perfusion of the liver with a solution that contains an inducer of autophagy; (ii) treatment of the liver donor with an autophagy inducer; or (iii) treatment of the liver recipient prior to, during the operation and/or immediately after the surgical intervention. Of course, these treatment modalities may be applied individually or in any combination (for example: 1 and 2; 2 and 3; 1 and 3; 1, 2, and 3).

The present invention provides the know-how to use compounds that include urolithins and their precursors as enhancers of autophagy for the treatment of individuals and their livers, that may be at risk of I/R injury. These compounds may be provided orally or parenterally to the donor or recipient, or provided in a preconditioning solution that may be applied to the resected liver tissue.

Autophagy and Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common aging-related joint pathology and is characterized by degradation of cartilage extracellular matrix (ECM) and reduced cartilage cellularity. Changes in the articular cartilage appear to be critical in OA initiation and progression. Chondrocytes are the only cell population of adult articular cartilage. The capacity of the adult articular chondrocytes to regenerate the normal cartilage matrix architecture is limited and declines with aging, due to cell death and abnormal responsiveness to anabolic stimuli. Articular cartilage is characterized by a very low rate of cell turnover and it has been shown that autophagy play an important role in chondrocyte cellular function and survival. In fact, autophagy is a constitutively active and protective process for the maintenance of cartilage homeostasis. Studies have shown both in joint aging and OA in humans and in mice that there is a reduction in the expression of autophagy regulators, which was accompanied by an increase in chondrocyte apoptosis. Compromised autophagy is thought to contribute to the development of OA. It has been shown that treatment with the compound rapamycin, a known inducer of autophagy, has been able to increase activation of LC3 in cartilage in an animal model of OA and consequently reduce the severity of articular cartilage degradation. In the present invention, urolithins and their precursors have been shown to increase the levels of autophagy in tissues following oral consumption, making them ideal candidates for the treatment and reduction of the severity of osteoarthritis in young and aging humans and mammals.

Metabolic Syndrome, Diabetes, and Obesity Compounds and methods of the invention are useful in the treatment and prevention of metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and obesity. As used herein, the term "metabolic syndrome" refers to a combination of medical disorders that, when occurring together, increase the risk of developing cardiovascular disease and diabetes. It affects one in five people in the United States and prevalence increases with age. Some studies have shown the prevalence in the United States to be an estimated 25% of the population. In accordance with the International Diabetes Foundation consensus worldwide definition (2006), metabolic syndrome is central obesity plus any two of the following:

• Raised triglycerides: > 150 mg/dL (1.7 mmol/L), or specific treatment for this lipid abnormality; · Reduced HDL cholesterol: < 40 mg/dL (1.03 mmol/L) in males, < 50 mg/dL

(1.29 mmol/L) in females, or specific treatment for this lipid abnormality; • Raised blood pressure: systolic BP > 130 or diastolic BP >85 mm Hg, or treatment of previously diagnosed hypertension; and

• Raised fasting plasma glucose: (FPG)>100 mg/dL (5.6 mmol/L), or previously diagnosed type 2 diabetes.

Autophagy and Neurodegenerative Diseases

In neurodegenerative diseases, brain tissue accumulates autophagosomes, demonstrating an increase in autophagy, which in model organisms has been shown to have a protective effect. It plays an important role in clearing the misfolded proteins that accumulate as a result of several neurodegenerative diseases. These include proteins that have polyQ repeats as seen as in Huntington's diseases and spinocerebellar ataxia, mutant a-synucleins involved in Parkinson's as well as tau aggregates.

Knockdown of ATG genes important in autophagy in C. elegans resulted in increased aggregate formation and toxicity of PolyQ proteins. In Alzheimer's disease the autophagy process is impaired as a result of a defect in autophagosomal maturation that could be an important reason for aggregate accumulation. By contrast, autophagy induction by rapamycin in both Drosophila and mouse models of polyQ disease protected these animals from neurotoxicity. These results demonstrate that autophagy induction can have a protective role in neuronal cells against neurodegeneration.

The development of neurodegenerative diseases in patients implies that autophagy can reach a saturation point in which the ability to degrade mutant protein aggregates is exceeded. Thus, promotion of autophagy could help in delaying the onset of neurodegeneration disease.

Cognitive Disorder

Compounds and methods of the invention are useful for treating a cognitive disorder. As used herein, a cognitive disorder refers to any condition that impairs cognitive function. In one embodiment, "cognitive disorder" refers to any one or more of delirium, dementia, learning disorder, attention deficit disorder (ADD), and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In one embodiment, the cognitive disorder is a learning disorder. In one embodiment, the cognitive disorder is attention deficit disorder (ADD). In one embodiment, the cognitive disorder is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Compounds and methods of the invention are useful for improving cognitive function, even in the absence of a cognitive disorder. As used herein, "cognitive function" refers to any mental process that involves symbolic operations, e.g., perception, memory, attention, speech comprehension, speech generation, reading comprehension, creation of imagery, learning, and reasoning. In one embodiment, "cognitive function" refers to any one or more of perception, memory, attention, and reasoning. In one embodiment, "cognitive function" refers to memory.

Methods for measuring cognitive function are well known and can include, for example, individual or battery tests for any aspect of cognitive function. One such test is the Prudhoe Cognitive Function Test. Margallo-Lana et al. (2003) J Intellect Disability Res. 47:488-492. Another such test is the Mini Mental State Exam (MMSE), which is designed to assess orientation to time and place, registration, attention and calculation, recall, language use and comprehension, repetition, and complex commands. Folstein et al. (1975) J Psych Res. 12: 189-198. Other tests useful for measuring cognitive function include the Alzheimer Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive (ADAS-Cog) (Rosen et al. (1984) Am J Psychiatry. 141(11): 1356-64) and the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) (Robbins et al. (1994) Dementia. 5(5):266-81). Such tests can be used to assess cognitive function in an objective manner, so that changes in cognitive function, for example in response to treatment in accordance with methods of the invention, can be measured and compared.

Protein Misfolding and Aggregation

These diseases and disorders, which are collectively referred to herein as "amyloid- related diseases", fall into two main categories: (a) those which affect the brain and other parts of the central nervous system; and (b) those which affect other organs or tissues around the body.

Examples of amyloid-related diseases which fall under these two categories are listed in the following two sections; however, many other examples of rare, hereditary amyloid-related diseases are known which are not included here, and additional forms of amyloid-related disease are likely to be discovered in future.

Neurodegenerative Diseases Associated with Amyloidosis

Many different neurodegenerative diseases are associated with the misfolding and aggregation of a specific protein or peptide in a particular part of the brain, or elsewhere in the central nervous system, depending on the specific disease. Examples of such diseases follow. Various forms of Alzheimer's disease (AD) as well as Down's syndrome, hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis (HCHWA, Dutch type), cerebral amyloid angiopathy, and possibly also mild cognitive impairment and other forms of dementia are associated with the aggregation of a 40/42-residue peptide called β-amyloid, Αβ(1-40) or Αβ(1-42), which forms insoluble amyloid fibers and plaques in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus or elsewhere in the brain, depending on the specific disease. Alzheimer's disease is also associated with the formation of neurofibrillary tangles by aggregation of a hyperphosphorylated protein called tau, which also occurs in frontotemporal dementia (Pick's disease). Parkinson's disease (PD), dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), and multiple system atrophy (MSA) are associated with the aggregation of a protein called a-synuclein, which results in the formation of insoluble inclusions called Lewy bodies. Huntington's disease (HD), spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA, also known as Kennedy's disease), dentatorubral pallidoluysian atrophy (DRPLA), different forms of spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA, types 1, 2, 3, 6 and 7), and possibly several other inheritable neurodegenerative diseases are associated with the aggregation of various proteins and peptides that contain abnormally expanded glutamine repeats (extended tracts of polyglutamine). Creutzfeldt- Jakob disease (CJD), bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cows, scrapie in sheep, kuru, Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker disease (GSS), fatal familial insomnia, and possibly all other forms of transmissible encephalopathy are associated with the self-propagating misfolding and aggregation of prion proteins.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and possibly also some other forms of motor neuron disease (MND) are associated with the aggregation of a protein called superoxide dismutase. Familial British dementia (FBD) and familial Danish dementia (FDD), respectively, are associated with aggregation of the ABri and ADan peptide sequences derived from the BRI protein.

Hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis (HCHWA, Icelandic type) is associated with the aggregation of a protein called cystatin C. Systemic Diseases Associated with Amyloidosis

In addition to the neurodegenerative diseases listed above, a wide variety of systemic ageing-related or degenerative diseases are associated with the misfolding and aggregation of a particular protein or peptide in various other tissues around the body (i.e., outside of the brain). Examples of such diseases follow.

Type II diabetes mellitus (also known as adult-onset diabetes, or non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus) is associated with the aggregation of a 37-residue peptide called the islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP, or "amylin"), which forms insoluble deposits that are associated with the progressive destruction of insulin-producing β cells in the islets of Langerhans within the pancreas.

Dialysis-related amyloidosis (DRA) and prostatic amyloid are associated with the aggregation of a protein called p ₂ -microglobulin, either in bones, joints and tendons in DRA, which develops during prolonged periods of hemodialysis, or within the prostate in the case of prostatic amyloid.

Primary systemic amyloidosis, systemic AL amyloidosis and myeloma-associated amyloidosis are associated with the aggregation of immunoglobulin light chain (or in some cases immunoglobulin heavy chain) into insoluble amyloid deposits, which gradually accumulate in various major organs such as the liver, kidneys, heart and gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

Reactive systemic AA amyloidosis, secondary systemic amyloidosis, familial Mediterranean fever, and chronic inflammatory disease are associated with the aggregation of serum amyloid A protein, which forms insoluble amyloid deposits that accumulate in major organs such as the liver, kidneys and splee. Senile systemic amyloidosis (SSA), familial amyloid polyneuropathy (FAP) and familial amyloid cardiomyopathy (FAC) are associated with the misfolding and aggregation of different mutants of transthyretin protein (TTR), which form insoluble inclusions in various organs and tissues such as the heart (especially in FAC), peripheral nerves (especially in FAP) and gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Another form of familial amyloid polyneuropathy (FAP, type II) is associated with the aggregation of apolipoprotein AI in the peripheral nerves. Familial visceral amyloidosis and hereditary non-neuropathic systemic amyloidosis are associated with misfolding and aggregation of various mutants of lysozyme, which form insoluble deposits in major organs such as the liver, kidneys and spleen. Finnish hereditary systemic amyloidosis is associated with aggregation of a protein called gelsolin in the eyes (particularly in the cornea). Fibrinogen α-chain amyloidosis is associated with aggregation of the fibrinogen A a- chain, which forms insoluble amyloid deposits in various organs, such as the liver and kidneys.

Insulin-related amyloidosis occurs by the aggregation of insulin at the site of injection in diabetics.

Medullary carcinoma of the thyroid is associated with the aggregation of calcitonin in surrounding tissues.

Isolated atrial amyloidosis is associated with the aggregation of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) in the heart. Various forms of cataract are associated with the aggregation of γ-crystallin proteins in the lens of the eyes.

Autophagy and Endothelial Cell Function and Associated Diseases

Endothelial cell dysfunction

Global endothelial cell dysfunction occurs in several diverse diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, and atherosclerosis. In these diseases endothelial cell dysfunction is thought to occur as a result of stress-induced premature senencense (SIPS). SIPS is characterized by subverted autophagy and lysosomal dysfunction, with the accumulation of autolysosomal vacuoles.

Endothelial cell dysfunction also occurs as a result of aging with an increased incidence of cardiovascular diseases. This increase in cell dysfunction correlates with a decrease in autophagy. In older humans, expression of autophagy markers in arterial endothelial cells was impaired by 50% (P <0.05) and was associated with a 30% (P <0.05) reduction in arterial endothelium-dependent dilatation (EDD). Similarly, in C57BL/6 control mice aging was associated with a 40% decrease (P <0.05) in arterial markers of autophagy and a 25% reduction (P <0.05) in EDD, demonstrating that impaired autophagy is a cause of age-related arterial dysfunction.

In old mice, treatment with the autophagy-enhancing agent trehalose restored expression of autophagy markers, rescued NO-mediated EDD by reducing oxidative stress, and normalized inflammatory cytokine expression. The present invention provides the know-how to use compounds that include urolithins and their precursors as enhancers of autophagy for the treatment of individuals having health conditions linked to endothelial cell dysfunction and in need thereof. Endothelial cell injury

Endothelial cell injury can occur as a result of disease processes such as sickle cell anemia or thalassemia in which pathologically high levels of heme and iron release can occur. Severe skeletal muscle damage, as well as cardiac ischemia injury results in the release of the heme protein, myoglobin, which also results in endothelial cell injury. This damage to the vascular endothelial cells can lead to vascular dysfunction and an increase in cardiovascular complications. Endothelial cell injury caused by heme toxicity is associated with a progressive decrease in endothelial cell mitochondrial membrane potential, leading to apoptosis.

Micro- and macro-vascular complications are commonly seen in diabetic patients, and endothelial dysfunction contributes to the development and progression of the complications. Abnormal functions in endothelial cells lead to the increase in vascular tension and atherosclerosis, followed by systemic hypertension as well as increased incidence of ischemia and stroke in diabetic patients. Mitochondrial dysfunction appears to be central to the vascular endothelial dysfunction. Enhanced mitochondrial fission and/or attenuated fusion leads to mitochondrial fragmentation and disruption of the endothelial physiological function. Abnormal mitochondrial biogenesis and disturbance of mitochondrial autophagy increase the accumulation of damaged mitochondria, such as irreversibly depolarized or leaky mitochondria, and facilitate cell death. Augmented mitochondrial ROS production and Ca ²⁺ overload in mitochondria not only cause the maladaptive effect on the endothelial function, but also are potentially detrimental to cell survival.

Endothelial cell injury can also result from cardiac procedures such as angioplasty, bypass surgery, and valve replacement. Upregulation of autophagy should lead to a reduction in the injury to the associated endothelial cells.

Strategies that increase autophagy would have clear therapeutic potential. The present invention provides the know-how to use compounds that include urolithins and their precursors as enhancers of autophagy for the treatment of individuals having health conditions linked to endothelial cell injury resulting from disease processes such as diabetes, sickle cell anemia, or thalassemia, as well as protecting endothelial cells from the more acute effects of severe muscle injury. Autophagy and Cancer

Autophagy and cancer have similar regulatory pathways, with several tumor suppression genes such as PTEN, TSCl and TSC2 leading to the upstream inhibition of TOR signaling, leading to the stimulation of autophagy. Additionally, the autophagy protein, Beclinl has been identified as a tumor suppressor deleted in many human cancers. These results demonstrate that autophagy plays an important role in tumor suppression.

Aging

By far the greatest risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), is aging. Mitochondria have been thought to contribute to aging through the accumulation of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations and net production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Although most mitochondrial proteins are encoded by the nuclear genome, mitochondria contain many copies of their own DNA. Human mtDNA is a circular molecule of 16,569 base pairs that encodes 13 polypeptide components of the respiratory chain, as well as the rRNAs and tRNAs necessary to support intramitochondrial protein synthesis using its own genetic code. Inherited mutations in mtDNA are known to cause a variety of diseases, most of which affect the brain and muscles— tissues with high energy requirements. It has been hypothesized that somatic mtDNA mutations acquired during aging contribute to the physiological decline that occurs with aging and aging-related neurodegeneration. It is well established that mtDNA accumulates mutations with aging, especially large-scale deletions and point mutations. In the mtDNA control region, point mutations at specific sites can accumulate to high levels in certain tissues: T414G in cultured fibroblasts, A189G and T408A in muscle, and C150T in white blood cells. However, these control-region "hot spots" have not been observed in the brain. Point mutations at individual nucleotides seem to occur at low levels in the brain, although the overall level may be high. Using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-cloning-sequencing strategy, it was found that the average level of point mutations in two protein-coding regions of brain mtDNA from elderly subjects was ~2 mutations per 10 kb. Noncoding regions, which may be under less selection pressure, potentially accumulate between twice and four times as many. The accumulation of these deletions and point mutations with aging correlates with decline in mitochondrial function. For example, a negative correlation has been found between brain cytochrome oxidase activity and increased point- mutation levels in a cytochrome oxidase gene (COl). Net production of ROS is another important mechanism by which mitochondria are thought to contribute to aging. Mitochondria contain multiple electron carriers capable of producing ROS, as well as an extensive network of antioxidant defenses. Mitochondrial insults, including oxidative damage itself, can cause an imbalance between ROS production and removal, resulting in net ROS production. The importance to aging of net mitochondrial ROS production is supported by observations that enhancing mitochondrial antioxidant defenses can increase longevity. In Drosophila, overexpression of the mitochondrial antioxidant enzymes manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) and methionine sulfoxide reductase prolongs lifespan. This strategy is most successful in shortlived strains of Drosophila, and has no effect in already long-lived strains. However, it has recently been shown that overexpression of catalase experimentally targeted to mitochondria increased lifespan in an already long-lived mouse strain.

Improving Activity During Aging

Activity in animals is driven largely by circadian rhythm and is synchronized to the environment. Disruption of the circadian rhythm or a desynchronization with the environment can lead to increase in nighttime wakefulness or daytime naps.

Normal aging is accompanied by declining locomotor activity, altered circadian rhythms, as well as altered sleep and food intake patterns. These effects lead to a decrease in alertness and vigilance decreases in the elderly, leading to an increase in nighttime wakefulness, as well as an increase in daytime naps. Activity patterns can also be disrupted in a similar way by disease, such as Alzheimer's Disease.

Age-dependent changes in activity rhythms are also observed in other animals, for example, rats, hamsters, mice and dogs, with an increase in fragmentation and a decrease in synchronization with the environment. These age-dependent circadian disruptions have been linked to the degeneration of the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus. Sleep disruption in both humans and rodents have been shown to contribute to age-dependent cognitive dysfunction.

The increasing disruption of circadian rhythms is accompanied by a gradual decline in motor activity with age in several species, including humans, mice, monkeys, and dogs. Of particular note, the daytime activity of senior dogs (>10 years of age) declines as compared to young and middle-aged dogs. These changes in activity can be monitored by devices intended to measure activity, for example, by means of an accelerometer or by employing motion sensing cameras.

Many of the disruptions seen in aging as a result of decreased activity are also observed in younger populations where cultural trends have resulted in decreased activity, accompanied with increased caloric intake, leading to an obesity epidemic. The resulting caloric imbalance has led to an increase in several disease conditions such as type 2 diabetes, colon cancer, and metabolic syndrome, as well as mental health issues. Several prospective cohort studies and meta-analysis in humans have shown that physical inactivity is associated with an elevated risk for the development of metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, coronary artery disease, stroke, and cardiovascular disease.

Both humans and animals, particularly dogs, would benefit from the present invention and its ability to improve activity both during the youth and aging periods of life.

In one embodiment, the urolithin or precursor would increase activity of the recipient, human or animal. In yet another embodiment, the increase in activity is an increase by 1% to 100%. For example, the activity may be increased by 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%), 9%), or 10%. In certain embodiments, the increase in activity is an increase of 5-10%, 10-15%, 15-20%, 20-25%, 25-30%, 30-35%, 35-40%, 40-45%, 45-50%, 50-55%, 55-60%, 60-65%, 65-70%, 70-75%, 75-80%, 80-85%, 85-90%, 90-95%, and 95- 100%.

In one embodiment, treatment by urolithin or a precursor thereof would increase activity and lead to a reduction in risk of metabolic syndrome. In one embodiment, treatment by urolithin or a precursor thereof would increase activity and lead to a reduction in risk of type 2 diabetes. In one embodiment, treatment by urolithin or a precursor thereof would increase activity and lead to a reduction in risk of hypertension, coronary artery disease, stroke, and cardiovascular disease. In one embodiment, treatment by urolithin or a precursor thereof would increase activity and improve cognitive function.

Mood Disorders

Compounds and methods of the invention are useful for treating a mood disorder (also known as an affective disorder). As used herein, a "mood disorder" refers to a disturbance in emotional state, such as is set forth in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association. Mood disorders include but are not limited to major depression, postpartum depression, dysthymia, and bipolar disorder. In one embodiment, the mood disorder is major depression. Compounds and methods of the invention are useful for treating or preventing a stress-induced or stress-related mood disorder. As used herein, a "stress-induced or stress- related mood disorder" refers to a disturbance in emotional state that is induced or related to stress. Such mood disorders are sometimes referred to as reactive mood disorders and are to be distinguished from other mood disorders, e.g., so-called organic mood disorders.

Compounds and methods of the invention are useful for treating an anxiety disorder. As used herein, an "anxiety disorder" refers to a dysfunctional state of fear and anxiety, e.g., fear and anxiety that is out of proportion to a stressful situation or the anticipation of a stressful situation. In one embodiment, an anxiety disorder is any one or combination of generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, panic disorder with agoraphobia, agoraphobia, social anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder. In one embodiment, an anxiety disorder is any one or combination of generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and social anxiety disorder. In one embodiment, an anxiety disorder is generalized stress disorder. In one embodiment, an anxiety disorder is post-traumatic stress disorder. In one embodiment, an anxiety disorder is a stress-induced anxiety disorder.

Compounds and methods of the invention are useful for treating or preventing a stress-induced or stress-related anxiety disorder. As used herein, a "stress-induced or stress-related anxiety disorder" refers to a dysfunctional state of fear and anxiety that is induced or related to stress. Such anxiety disorders are sometimes referred to as reactive anxiety disorders and are to be distinguished from other anxiety disorders, e.g., so-called organic anxiety disorders.

For purposes of this invention, each of the foregoing diseases or conditions is associated with, or characterized by, reduced or decreased autophagy, or would benefit from increased autophagy, and therefore would benefit from the administration of urolithins and their precursors.

Table 1 summarizes some of the types of cells affected by autophagy and the beneficial effects of autophagy in those cells.

Table 1. Health Benefits of Increased Autophagy

Cell Type Condition Improved by Autophagy All cells • Maintenance of the amino acid pool during starvation

• Anti-aging

• Tumor suppression

• Clearance of intracellular microbes

• Clearance of protein aggregates

Neurons • Prevention of neurodegeneration

• Alleviation of symptoms related to

neurodegeneration

• Clearance of protein aggregates

Acinar cells of the pancreas • Improved outcome in acute pancreatitis

Smooth muscle cells • Improved outcome in various heart conditions such as heart disease, cardiac hypertrophy, left ventricular dilation, Danon disease

• Amelioration of cardiomyopathy resulting from diabetes

• Preventing cardiac deterioration with age

• Improvement outcome from

ischemia/reperfusion injury

• Protection of cells from ischemia and hypoxic conditions resulting from myocardial function

• Improved cardiac output

• Improved left ventricular diastolic function

• Improvement in blood pressure

• Protection of cells during cardiac procedures such as angioplasty, bypass, valve replacement

Intestinal epithelial cells • Improvement of immune response to

intracellular bacteria; Crohn's disease;

inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)

Podocytes in kidney • Podocyte resistance to injury, which can be caused by the following diseases: minimal change disease, focal segmental

glomerulosclerosis, diabetic nephropathy, membrane glomerulopathy, lupus nephritis, and experimental glomerular disease

Skeletal muscle cells • Protection against glucose intolerance, leptin resistance, high cholesterol and triglycerides in high fat diets

• Improved muscle function

• Reduction in sarcopenia

• Improved balance and coordination

• Improvement in muscle strength

• Increase in muscle mass

• Reduction in muscle atrophy

• Improvement in muscle endurance

• Improved outcome for muscular dystrophy

• Improvement in muscle recovery following exercise

• Protection against muscle damage

Liver tissue • Clearance of mutant alpha-antitrypsin

• Improved outcome in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), non-alcoholic

steatohepatitis (NASH), and alcoholic liver disease (ALD)

Liver hepatocyte • Protection against glucose intolerance, leptin resistance, high cholesterol and triglycerides in high fat diets

• Treatment of obesity and type II diabetes

• Improvement outcome from

ischemia/reperfusion injury

• Protection against drug induced liver injury

• Protection of liver tissue

Pancreatic beta cells • Protection against glucose intolerance, leptin resistance, high cholesterol and triglycerides in high fat diets

Adipocytes • Protection against glucose intolerance, leptin resistance, high cholesterol and triglycerides in high fat diets

• Treatment of obesity and type II diabetes

Endothelial cells • Improves endothelial cell dysfunction which can occur as a result of diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, atherosclerosis and aging

• Protects against endothelial cell injury

resulting from disease processes such as, diabetes, sickle cell anemia or thalassemia, as well as from severe muscle injury.

• Protection of cells from ischemia and hypoxic conditions resulting from myocardial function

• Improved angiogenesis

• Protection of cells during cardiac procedures such as angioplasty, bypass, valve replacement Chondrocytes / cartilage • Reduction in osteoarthritis in joints

Osteoblasts • Improvement of tissue mineral density

• Increased bone strength

Lens epithelial cells • Reduction in age-related cataracts

Retinal cells • Reduction in age related macular degeneration

Ganglion cell layer • Protection from diabetic retinopathy

Inner nuclear layer

Outer nuclear layer

Retinal pigment epithelial

cells

Retinal photoreceptors • Improved outcome from intraocular

inflammation or uveitis

• Reduction in photoreceptor injury from uveitis

Glaucomatous tissue • Reduction in glaucomatous neurodegeneration

Keratinocytes • Treatment of intracellular skin infections,

warts, psoriasis

• Protection of skin from environmental insults i.e. UV light, anti-aging

• Reduction of skin injury from excessive lipid oxidation commonly observed in aged and diseased skin

Lung cells • Clearance of protein aggregates in pulmonary cells

• Improved outcome from pulmonary

emphysema cause by l-antrypsin

• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder

Alveolar macrophages • Improved outcome for chronic obstructive

pulmonary disease

Airway epithelial cells • Reduction in protein aggregates in cystic

fibrosis

• Improved clearance of aggresomes that

accumulate mutant cystic fibrosis

transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein

• Improved outcome for human idiopathic

pulmonary fibrosis

Immune cells • Reduction of auto-immune disorders

• Improved immune response to infection from pathogens

Exemplary Compounds of the Invention

Compounds of the invention include certain urolithins and precursors thereof. These compounds can be used to practice any of the methods herein, including but not limited to increasing autophagy or longevity, and for the treatment or prevention of the various diseases and conditions described herein.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to urolithins. As used herein, a "urolithin" refers to a compound of Formula I:

Formula I wherein

R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are independently selected from the group consisting of H and OR; and R is H, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, a substituted or unsubstituted monosaccharide, or a substituted or unsubstituted oligosaccharide.

As used herein, the term "alkyl" refers to a straight chain or branched, noncyclic or cyclic, unsaturated or saturated aliphatic hydrocarbon radical containing carbon atoms. Representative saturated straight chain alkyls include methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, n- butyl, n-pentyl, n-hexyl, and the like; while saturated branched alkyls include isopropyl, sec-butyl, isobutyl, tert-butyl, isopentyl, and the like. Representative saturated cyclic alkyls include cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, and the like; while unsaturated cyclic alkyls include cyclopentenyl and cyclohexenyl, and the like. Unsaturated alkyls contain at least one double or triple bond between adjacent carbon atoms (referred to as an "alkenyl" or "alkynyl", respectively). Representative straight chain and branched alkenyls include ethylenyl, propylenyl, 1-butenyl, 2-butenyl, isobutylenyl, 1-pentenyl, 2-pentenyl, 3- methyl-l-butenyl, 2-methyl-2-butenyl, 2,3-dimethyl-2-butenyl, and the like; while representative straight chain and branched alkynyls include acetylenyl, propynyl, 1-butynyl, 2- butynyl, 1-pentynyl, 2-pentynyl, 3 -methyl- 1-butynyl, and the like.

As used herein, the term "aryl" refers to a hydrocarbon ring system radical comprising hydrogen, 6 to 18 carbon atoms and at least one aromatic ring. For purposes of this invention, the aryl radical may be a monocyclic, bicyclic, tricyclic or tetracyclic ring system, which may include fused or bridged ring systems. Aryl radicals include, but are not limited to, aryl radicals derived from aceanthrylene, acenaphthylene, acephenanthrylene, anthracene, azulene, benzene, chrysene, fluoranthene, fluorene, as-indacene, s-indacene, indane, indene, naphthalene, phenalene, phenanthrene, pleiadene, pyrene, and triphenylene. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, the term "aryl" or the prefix "ar-" (such as in "aralkyl") is meant to include aryl radicals that are optionally substituted.

As used herein, the term "monosaccharide" refers to a simple sugar of the formula (CH ₂ 0) _n . The monosaccharides can be straight-chain or ring systems, and can include a saccharose unit of the formula — CH(OH)— C(=0)— . Examples of monosaccharides include erythrose, threose, ribose, arabinose, xylose, lyxose, allose, altrose, glucose, mannose, gulose, idose, galactose, talose, erythulose, ribulose, xyulose, psicose, fructose, sorbose, tagatose, erythropentulose, threopentulose, glycerotetrulose, glucopyranose, fructofuranose. In certain embodiments, monosaccharide refers to glucopyranose.

As used herein, the term "oligosaccharide" refers to saccharide consisting of at least two, up to 10 glycosidically linked monosaccharide units, preferably of 2 to 8 monosaccharide units, more preferably of 2 to 7 monosaccharide units, and even more preferably of 2 to 6 monosaccharide units or of 2 to 5 monosaccharide units.

The term "substituted" as used herein (for example, in the context of a substituted heterocyclyl or substituted aryl) means that at least one hydrogen atom is replaced with a substituent. "Substituents" within the context of this invention include halogen, hydroxy, oxo, cyano, nitro, imino, thioxo, amino, alkylamino, dialkylamino, alkyl, alkoxy, alkylthio, haloalkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, heterocycle and heterocyclealkyl, as well as -NR _a R _b , -NR _a C(=0)R _b , -NRaC(=0)NRaNRb,

NRaC(=0)OR _b -NRaS0 ₂ R _b , -C(=0)Ra, -C(=0)ORa, -C(=0)NR _a R _b , -OC(=0)NRaR _b , - OR _a , -SR _a , -SOR _a , -S(=0) ₂ R _a , -OS(=0) ₂ R _a , -S(=0) ₂ OR _a , =NS0 ₂ R _a and -S0 ₂ NR _a R _b . In the foregoing, R _a and R _b in this context may be the same or different and independently hydrogen, alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heterocyclyl. In addition, the foregoing substituents may be further substituted with one or more of the above substituents. In one embodiment, the urolithin is urolithin A.

In one embodiment, the urolithin is urolithin B. In one embodiment, the urolithin is urolithin C. In one embodiment, the urolithin is urolithin D.

In one embodiment, a "urolithin" refers to any one or combination of urolithin A, urolithin B, urolithin C, and urolithin D (see, for example, Figure 2 and Figure 3). In one embodiment, a urolithin is urolithin A, urolithin B, urolithin C, urolithin D, or any combination of urolithin A, urolithin B, urolithin C, and urolithin D. In one embodiment, a urolithin is urolithin A, urolithin B, urolithin C, or any combination of urolithin A, urolithin B, and urolithin C. In one embodiment, a urolithin is urolithin A, urolithin B, or a combination of urolithin A and urolithin B. In one embodiment, a urolithin is urolithin A.

In one embodiment, a urolithin is provided as an isolated urolithin, e.g., isolated from a natural source or prepared by total synthesis. Isolated urolithins may be synthesized de novo. See Examples 1-4.

In one embodiment, a urolithin is provided as a purified urolithin.

In one embodiment, a "urolithin" as used herein is or can include a glucuronated, methylated, or sulfated urolithin.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to a compound of Formula II

Formula II wherein

X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are independently selected from the consisting of H and OH; with the proviso that the compound is not a compound of Formula II wherein

X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ¹ is OH, and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ² is OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H (urolithin B);

X ³ is OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ⁴ is OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H; X ⁵ is OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ⁶ is OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ⁷ is OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ⁸ is OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H;

X ¹ and X ² are OH, and X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ¹ and X ⁵ are OH, and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ¹ and X ⁷ are OH, and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ¹ and X ⁸ are OH, and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H;

X ² and X ³ are OH, and X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ² and X ⁴ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ² and X ⁵ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ² and X ⁶ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H (urolithin A);

X ² and X ⁷ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ³ and X ⁴ are OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ³ and X ⁵ are OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ³ and X ⁶ are OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ⁵ and X ⁶ are OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ⁵ and X ⁸ are OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H;

X ⁶ and X ⁷ are OH, and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ¹ , X ² , and X ⁵ are OH, and X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ¹ , X ² , and X ⁶ are OH, and X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ¹ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are OH, and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H;

X ² , X ⁴ , and X ⁶ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ² , X ⁴ , and X ⁷ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H;

X ² , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H (urolithin C);

X ² , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are H; X ² , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are H; X ¹ , X ² , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are OH, and X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H; X ¹ , X ² , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are OH, and X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H; X ¹ , X ² , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH, and X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H (urolithin D); X ¹ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH, and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁵ are H;

X ² , X ³ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH, and X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H; X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H; X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH, and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H; X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are OH, and X ³ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H; X ¹ , X ² , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH, and X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁵ are H; or

X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH, and X ⁴ and X ⁵ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least two of X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least three of X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least four of X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least five of X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least six of X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least seven of X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ and X ³ are OH; and X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ and X ⁴ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ and X ⁶ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ and X ⁷ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁴ and X ⁵ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁴ and X ⁶ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁴ and X ⁷ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁴ and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁵ and X ⁷ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁶ and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁷ and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , and X ³ are OH; and X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , and X ⁴ are OH; and X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , and X ⁴ are OH; and X ² , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , and X ⁵ are OH; and X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁴ , and X ⁵ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁴ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁴ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁴ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , and X ⁴ are OH; and X ¹ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , and X ⁵ are OH; and X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁴ , and X ⁵ are OH; and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁴ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁵ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁴ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁵ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , and X ⁴ are OH; and X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , and X ⁵ are OH; and X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , and X ⁵ are OH; and X ³ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁵ are OH; and X ² , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ² , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ² , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁵ are OH; and X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ⁴ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁵ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁵ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁵ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁵ are OH; and X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ⁴ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ³ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ³ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ³ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ³ , X ⁴ , and X ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ² , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ² , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ² , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ² , X ⁴ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ⁴ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ⁴ , and X ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ⁴ , and X ⁵ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , and X ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , and X ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² , X ³ , and X ⁴ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ¹ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ¹ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ¹ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ¹ , X ⁴ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ⁴ , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ⁴ , and X ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ⁴ , and X ⁵ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ¹ , X ³ , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ³ , and X ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ³ , and X ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ³ , and X ⁵ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ³ , and X ⁵ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , and X ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , and X ⁵ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , and X ⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ , X ² , and X ³ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁶ are OH; and X ⁷ and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ⁶ and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁶ and X ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ⁵ and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁵ and X ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁵ and X ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ⁴ and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁴ and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁴ and X ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ³ and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ³ and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ³ and X ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ³ and X ⁵ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ³ and X ⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ² and X ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² and X ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² and X ⁵ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² and X ⁴ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² and X ³ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ¹ and X ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ and X ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ and X ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ and X ⁵ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ and X ⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ and X ³ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ and X ² are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁷ are OH; and X ⁸ is H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁷ is H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁶ is H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁵ is H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ³ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ⁴ is H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ² , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ³ is H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹ , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ² is H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ² , X ³ , X ⁴ , X ⁵ , X ⁶ , X ⁷ , and X ⁸ are OH; and X ¹ is H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to a compound of Formula III

Formula III wherein

R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are independently selected from the group consisting of H and OR;

R is H, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, a substituted or unsubstituted monosaccharide, or a substituted or unsubstituted oligosaccharide; and with the proviso that the compound is not a compound of Formula III wherein

R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H; R ¹ is OR, and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H; R ² is OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H; R ³ is OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H; R ⁴ is OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H; R ⁵ is OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H; R ⁶ is OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H; R ⁷ is OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H; R ⁸ is OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H; R ¹ and R ² are OR, and R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H; R ¹ and R ⁵ are OR, and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H; R ¹ and R ⁷ are OR, and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ¹ and R ⁸ are OR, and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ² and R ³ are OR, and R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² and R ⁴ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² and R ⁵ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² and R ⁶ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ³ and R ⁴ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ³ and R ⁵ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ³ and R ⁶ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ³ and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ³ and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ⁴ and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ⁵ and R ⁶ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ⁵ and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ⁵ and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ⁶ and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ⁶ and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ¹ , R ² , and R ³ are OR, and R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H; R ¹ , R ² , and R ⁵ are OR, and R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H; R ¹ , R ² , and R ⁶ are OR, and R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H; R ¹ , R ² , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H; R ¹ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H; R ¹ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are H; R ² , R ³ , and R ⁴ are OR, and R ¹ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H; R ² , R ⁴ , and R ⁶ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ⁴ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ² , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ² , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are H;

R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ³ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are H;

R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are H;

R ¹ , R ² , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are OR, and R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ¹ , R ² , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ¹ , R ² , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ¹ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are H;

R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁶ are OR, and R ¹ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H;

R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are H;

R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ¹ , R ² , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are H;

R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR, and R ¹ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H;

R ² , R ³ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are H;

R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , and R ⁵ are H;

R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ , R ³ , and R ⁴ are H; R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ⁴ and R ⁵ are H; R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ and R ⁵ are H; and R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR, and R ¹ and R ³ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least two of R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least three of R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least four of R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least five of R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least six of R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least seven of R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ and R ³ are OR; and R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ and R ⁴ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ and R ⁶ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁴ and R ⁵ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁴ and R ⁶ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁴ and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁷ and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , and R ⁴ are OR; and R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , and R ⁴ are OR; and R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , and R ⁵ are OR; and R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁴ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁴ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁴ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , and R ⁵ are OR; and R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are OR; and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ⁴ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁴ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , and R ⁴ are OR; and R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , and R ⁵ are OR; and R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are OR; and R ³ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are OR; and R ² , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are OR; and R ¹ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned

2 3 7 8 1 4 6 7 compounds, wherein R , R , R , and R are OR; and R , R , R", and R' are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , and R ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , and R ⁵ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , and R ⁴ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are OR; and R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ⁴ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ³ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ³ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ³ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ² , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ² , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ² , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned

1 3 4 7 8 2 5 7 compounds, wherein R , R , R , R , and R are OR; and R", R ^J , and R' are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ² , R ⁴ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ⁴ , and R ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ⁴ , and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² , R ³ , and R ⁴ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ¹ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ⁴ , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ⁴ , and R ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ⁴ , and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ³ , and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ³ , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ³ , and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , and R ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , and R ⁵ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , and R ⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ , R ² , and R ³ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁶ are OR; and R ⁷ and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ⁶ and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ⁶ and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ⁵ and R ⁸ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ⁵ and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ⁵ and R ⁶ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ⁴ and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ⁴ and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ⁴ and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ³ and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ³ and R ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ³ and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ³ and R ⁵ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ³ and R ⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ² and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² and R ⁷ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² and R ⁵ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² and R ⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² and R ³ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ¹ and R ⁸ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ and R ⁷ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ and R ⁶ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ and R ⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ and R ² are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁷ are OR; and R ⁸ is H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ⁷ is H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ⁶ is H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ⁵ is H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ⁴ is H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ² , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ³ is H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹ , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ² is H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , R ⁶ , R ⁷ , and R ⁸ are OR; and R ¹ is H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R is H.

As used herein, the term "urolithin precursor" refers to ellagic acid and any ellagitannin capable of being converted to one or more urolithins following administration to an animal. In certain embodiments, a "urolithin precursor" is a compound of Formula IV:

Formula IV wherein

R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ^U , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H and OR; and

R is H, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, a substituted or unsubstituted monosaccharide, or a substituted or unsubstituted oligosaccharide.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to a compound of Formula V

Formula V wherein

X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ^U , X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H and OH; and with the proviso that the compound is not a compound of Formula V wherein X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are H; X ¹⁰ is OH, and X ⁹ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are H; X ⁹ and X ¹² are OH, and X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are H; X ⁹ and X ¹³ are OH, and X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , and X ¹⁴ are H; X ⁹ and X ¹⁴ are OH, and X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , and X ¹³ are H;

X ¹⁰ and X ¹³ are OH, and X ⁹ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , and X ¹⁴ are H; X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , and X ¹³ are OH, and X ⁹ , X ¹² , and X ¹⁴ are H; X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹² , and X ¹⁴ are OH, and X ¹¹ and X ¹³ are H; X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are OH, and X ¹¹ and X ¹² are H (ellagic acid); X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are OH, and X ¹² is H; and

X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ^u , X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are OH.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least one of X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ is OH.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least two of X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are OH.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least three of X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are OH.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least four of X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are OH. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein five of X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are OH.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ is OH; and X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹¹ is OH; and X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ and X ¹⁰ are OH; and X ¹¹ , X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ and X ¹¹ are OH; and X ¹⁰ , X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹⁰ and X ¹¹ are OH; and X ⁹ , X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹⁰ and X ¹² are OH; and X ⁹ , X ¹¹ , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹¹ and X ¹² are OH; and X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , and X ¹¹ are OH; and X ¹² , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , and X ¹² are OH; and X ⁿ , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , and X ¹³ are OH; and X ⁿ , X ¹² , and X ¹⁴ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , and X ¹⁴ are OH; and X ⁿ , X ¹² , and X ¹³ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ , X ¹¹ , and X ¹² are OH; and X ¹⁰ , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ , X ¹¹ , and X ¹³ are OH; and X ¹⁰ , X ¹² , and X ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ , X ¹¹ , and X ¹⁴ are OH; and X ¹⁰ , X ¹² , and X ¹³ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ , X ¹² , and X ¹³ are OH; and X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , and X ¹⁴ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , and X ¹² are OH; and X ⁹ , X ¹³ , and X ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , and X ¹² are OH; and X ¹³ and X ¹⁴ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , and X ¹³ are OH; and X ¹² and X ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , and X ¹⁴ are OH; and X ¹² and X ¹³ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹² , and X ¹³ are OH; and X ¹¹ and X ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , and X ¹³ are OH; and X ¹⁰ and X ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , and X ¹⁴ are OH; and X ¹⁰ and X ¹³ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , and X ¹³ are OH; and X ⁹ and X ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , and X ¹³ are OH; and X ¹⁴ is H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein X ⁹ , X ¹⁰ , X ¹¹ , X ¹² , and X ¹⁴ are OH; and X ¹³ is H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to a compound of Formula VI

Formula VI wherein

R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ^U , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H and OR;

R is H, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, a substituted or unsubstituted monosaccharide, or a substituted or unsubstituted oligosaccharide; and with the proviso that the compound is not a compound of Formula VI wherein R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ^U , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are H;

R ¹⁰ is OR, and R ⁹ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are H;

R ⁹ and R ¹² are OR, and R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are H;

R ⁹ and R ¹³ are OR, and R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , and R ¹⁴ are H; R ⁹ and R ¹⁴ are OR, and R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , and R ¹³ are H;

R ¹⁰ and R ¹³ are OR, and R ⁹ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , and R ¹⁴ are H;

R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , and R ¹³ are OR, and R ¹¹ , R ¹² , and R ¹⁴ are H;

R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , and R ¹⁴ are OR, and R ¹¹ , R ¹² , and R ¹³ are H;

R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , and R ¹³ are OR, and R ⁹ , R ¹² , and R ¹⁴ are H; R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹² , and R ¹³ are OR, and R ¹¹ and R ¹⁴ are H;

R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹² , and R ¹⁴ are OR, and R ¹¹ and R ¹³ are H;

R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are OR, and R ¹¹ and R ¹² are H;

R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , and R ¹³ are OR, and R ⁹ and R ¹⁴ are H;

R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , and R ¹³ are OR, and R ¹⁴ is H; R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are OR, and R ¹² is H; and

R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ^U , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are OR.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least one of R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ is OR.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least two of R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are OR.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least three of R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are OR.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein at least four of R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are OR. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein five of R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are OR. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁹ is OR; and R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹¹ is OR; and R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁹ and R ¹⁰ are OR; and R ¹¹ , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁹ and R ¹¹ are OR; and R ¹⁰ , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹⁰ and R ¹¹ are OR; and R ⁹ , R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹⁰ and R ¹² are OR; and R ⁹ , R ¹¹ , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹¹ and R ¹² are OR; and R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , and R ¹¹ are OR; and R ¹² , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , and R ¹² are OR; and R ^U , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁹ , R ¹¹ , and R ¹² are OR; and R ¹⁰ , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁹ , R ¹¹ , and R ¹³ are OR; and R ¹⁰ , R ¹² , and R ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁹ , R ¹¹ , and R ¹⁴ are OR; and R ¹⁰ , R ¹² , and R ¹³ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁹ , R ¹² , and R ¹³ are OR; and R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , and R ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , and R ¹² are OR; and R ⁹ , R ¹³ , and R ¹⁴ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , and R ¹² are OR; and R ¹³ and R ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , and R ¹³ are OR; and R ¹² and R ¹⁴ are H. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , and R ¹⁴ are OR; and R ¹² and R ¹³ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁹ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , and R ¹³ are OR; and R ¹⁰ and R ¹⁴ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁹ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , and R ¹⁴ are OR; and R ¹⁰ and R ¹³ are H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R ⁹ , R ¹⁰ , R ¹¹ , R ¹² , and R ¹⁴ are OR; and R ¹³ is H.

In certain embodiments, the invention relates to any one of the aforementioned compounds, wherein R is H. In one embodiment, a urolithin precursor is punicalagin (PA). In one embodiment, a urolithin precursor is punicalin (PB). See, for example, Figure 2. In one embodiment, a urolithin precursor is ellagic acid (EA). In one embodiment, a urolithin precursor is provided as an isolated urolithin precursor, e.g., isolated from a natural food source or prepared by total synthesis. Isolated urolithin precursors are usually purified from natural sources or synthesized de novo; some urolithin precursors, including EA, are commercially available from suppliers, such as Sigma Aldrich.

Also in accordance with the invention, precursors of urolithins also include natural foods containing ellagitannins and ellagic acid, especially natural foods that are rich in ellagitannins, ellagic acid, or both ellagitannins and ellagic acid. Such foods include without limitation certain berries, grapes, pomegranates, rose hips, and nuts. In one embodiment, the natural food is pomegranate.

Additionally, precursors of urolithins include processed foods and drinks prepared from such natural foods. The processed food can take any form, including, for example, jams, jellies, preserves, pastes, spreads, juices, wines, extracts, concentrates, and the like. In one embodiment, the processed food is pomegranate juice. In one embodiment, a urolithin precursor is provided as an extract, e.g., a fruit extract.

In one embodiment, a urolithin precursor is provided as a concentrate, e.g., a fruit concentrate or fruit juice concentrate. In one embodiment, the urolithin precursor is an isolated urolithin precursor.

In one embodiment, the urolithin precursor is a purified urolithin precursor.

In one embodiment, the urolithin precursor is selected from the group consisting of ellagic acid, an ellagitannin, and any combination thereof.

In one embodiment, the urolithin precursor is ellagic acid. In one embodiment, the urolithin precursor is an ellagitannin.

In one embodiment, the ellagitannin is selected from the group consisting of castalagin, castalin, casuarictin, chebulagic acid, chebulinic acid, gemin D, grandinin, pedunculagin, punicalagin, punicalin, roburin A, strictinin, tellimagrandm I, tellimagrandm II, terflavin A, terflavin B, tergallagin, Lambertianin C, Sanguiin H-6, Sanguiin H-10, and vescalagin.

EUagitannins

Among the more than 500 hydrolysable tannins hitherto characterized, ellagitannins, which produce ellagic acid upon hydrolysis, constitute the largest group; the remaining group is gallotannins (galloylglucoses). The ellagitannins include: (1) monomeric ellagitannins, (2) C-glycosidic ellagitannins with an open-chain glucose core, (3) condensates of C-glycosidic tannins with flavan-3-ol (complex tannin), (4) oligomers which are produced through intermolecular C-0 or C-C bonds between monomers, and (5) other ellagitannins. Unlike the condensed tannins that are widespread throughout the plant kingdom, ellagitannins have been found only in dicotyledoneous angiosperms. Among the plant families rich in ellagitannins are the Myrtaceae, Lythraceae, Onagraceae, Melastomataceae, and Combretaceae. These families belong to the order Myrtales according to the plant classification systems of New Engler, Cronquist, and APGII (angiosperm phylogeny group).

Ellagitannins are characterized by the presence of one or more

hexahydroxydiphenoyl (HHDP) unit(s) on a glucopyranose core. The HHDP group is biosynthetically formed through intramolecular, oxidative C-C bond formation between neighboring galloyl groups in galloylglucoses. They are easily hydro lyzed, either enzymatically or with acid, to liberate a stable ellagic acid as the dilactone form of hexahydroxydiphenoic acid. In addition to the HHDP group, other constituent acyl units in ellagitannins include a galloyl group and HHDP metabolites such as valoneoyl, dehydrohexahydroxydiphenoyl (DHHDP), and chebuloyl groups. Referring to Table 2, variations in the number and position of these acyl units on the glucose core provide a variety of analogs such as tellimagrandin I (1), and II (2), pedunculagin (6), casuarictin (7), chebulagic acid (14), and chebulinic acid (15).

Table 2. Representative Monomeric Ellagitannins

Table 3 presents a representative list of natural sources of monomeric ellagitannins-15.

Table 3. Representative Natural Sources of Monomeric Ellagitannins 1-15

Plant Source Ellagitannin Monomers Found in Myrtales

E. globulus 1

E. rostrata 1

E. viminalis 1,2, 4,6

Myrtus communis 1,2

Pimento, dioica 2,3,5,6

Syzygium aqueum 2, 6,7

S. aromaticum 1,2,3,4,7

Onagraceae

Epilobium angustifolium 1,3,4,6

Oenothera erythrosepala 1,4

0. laciniata 1

0. tetraptera 1,2,4

Combretaceae

Combretum glutinosum 8,9, 10

C. molle 9, 10

Quisqualis indica 1,2, 6, 8,9, 10

Terminalia arborea 8,9, 10, 14, 15

T. arjuna 8,9, 10

T. brachystemma 9

T. calamansanai 1,2, 8,9, 10

T. catappa 1,8,9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15

T. chebula 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15

T. citrina 9, 14

T. macroptera 8,9, 12, 13

T. myriocarpa 8,9

T. triflora 10

Punicaceae

Punica granatum 1,3,6, 8,9, 10

C-Glycosidic ellagitannins have been found in many plant families, including Lythraceae, Myrtaceae, Combretaceae, Melastomataceae, and Punicaceae, as well as Fagaceae, Betulaceae, Casuarinaceae, Rosaceae, Theaceae, and Elaeagnaceae. They are categorized into two types: castalagin-type, which contain a flavogalloyl unit participating in the C-glucosidic linkage, such as castalagin (16) and its C-l epimer, vescalagin (18), and casuarinin-type, which contain an HHDP unit, such as casuarinin (20) and stachyurin (21). Table 4. Representative C-Glycosidic Ellagitannins'

, - , an a ave t e same meanngs as n a e .

Table 5 presents a representative list of natural sources of C-glycosidic ellagitannins 16-28.

Table 5. Representative Natural Sources of C-Glycosidic Ellagitannins 16-28

Terminalia macroptera 27

Terminalia arborea 28

Thiloa glaucocarpa 16, 18, 20, 21

Lythraceae Lager stroemia flos-reginea 16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 29

Lager stroemia speciosa 16, 18, 19, 29

Melastomataceae Osbeckia chinensis 20, 22, 25

Tibouchina semidecandra 16, 18, 20

Myrtaceae Callistemon lanceolatus 20

Eucalyptus alba 21, 22

Eugenia grandis 16, 18

Kunzea ambigua 20

Melaleuca squarrosa 20, 21

Pimenta dioica 16, 18, 20, 22

Siphoneugena densiflora 16, 20

Syzygium aqueum 16, 18, 19

Syzygium aromaticum 20, 22

Punicaceae Punica granatum 20, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28

Trapaceae Trapa japonica 20

Complex tannins (flavono-ellagitannins) are characterized by a unique C-C condensed structure of C-glycosidic tannins (vescalagin-type or stachyurin-type) with flavan-3-ol (catechin or epicatechin). Unlike the C-glycosidic tannins, these tannins have been found in a rather limited number of plant species belonging to the Combretaceae, Myrtaceae, Melastomataceae, Fagaceae, and Theaceae families. Table 6 presents a representative list of complex ellagitannins.

Table 6. Representative Complex Ellagitannins

Acutissimin A Guajavin A Guajavin B Guavin A Guavin C Guavin D Malabathrin A Malabathrin E Malabathrin F Mongolicain A Mongolicain B Psidinin A Psidinin B Psidinin C Stenophyllanin A

Oligomeric ellagitannins are common among many plant families, including the Fagaceae, Rosaceae, Coriariaceae, Onagraceae, Melastomataceae, Myrtaceae, and Lythraceae. This class of tannins is divided into three sub-groups based on structural features: (1) oligomers that contain a valoneoyl group or its equivalent, formed by intermolecular C-0 bonds between an HHDP group and a galloyl group of a neighboring monomer; (2) macrocyclic oligomers formed by two C-0 bonds; and (3) C-glycosidic tannin oligomers produced by intermolecular C-C bond formation between C-1 of one monomer and the aromatic ring of another. Table 7 presents a representative list of oligomeric ellagitannins.

Table 7. Representative Oligomeric Ellagitannins

C-glycosidic Ellagitannin Dimers from Combretaceae

Anogeissinin Anogeissusin A Anogeissusin B Castamollinin

Other Ellagitannin Oligomers

Alienanin B Benzylcation Casuarictin Casuglaunin B Cowaniin Cuphiin Dl Cuphiin D2 Eugeniflorin Dl Eugeniflorin D2 Melasquanin A Melasquanin B Melasquanin C Melasquanin D Melastoflorin A Melastoflorin B Melastoflorin C Melastoflorin D Nobotanin B Nobotanin E Nobotanin F Nobotanin K Oenothein A Oenothein B Oenotherin Tl Oenotherin T2 Pterocaryanin C Reginin A Reginin B Reginin C Reginin D Stachyurin Woodfordin C

Woodfordin D

Table 8 provides a representative list of other ellagitannins.

Table 8. Representative Other Ellagitannins

Acalyphidin D 1

Agrimoniin

Ascorgeraniin (Elaeocarpusin)

Camelliatannin A

Camelliatannin B

Camelliatannin E

Camelliatannin F

Camelliin B

Coriariin A

Dehydrogeraniin

Eucalbanin B

Eucalbanin C

Euphorbin E

Eurobustin C