CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This Application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application 62/480,898 filed on April 3, 2017, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

FIELD

[0002] Methods, devices, and systems are provided for separating components of aqueous mixtures and for generating energy.

BACKGROUND

[0003] Contaminated drinking water is one of the leading causes of health problems throughout the world. Various well known waterbome diseases are common in untreated water, caused by microbial agents including protozoan parasites that cause Giardiasis, viruses such as hepatitis A, and bacterium such as E. coli, Salmonella typhi, which causes Typhoid fever, and Vibrio cholerae, which causes cholera. In addition to untreated water, treated water supplies may also contain contaminants. While municipalities in developed countries have large piped water systems for continually transporting relatively high quality treated water to users, such water is only safe to drink if it has been fully treated and disinfected and if the water system is well operated and maintained. Possible chemical hazards include lead, arsenic and benzene, while physical hazards include glass chips and metal fragments.

[0001] In addition, sources of alternative energy are currently being actively pursued around the world as an alternative to fossil fuels. Wind and solar farms have been developed and energy from them complements conventional energy supply. Although considered to be a future solution to the worldwide energy problem, additional alternative energy sources are needed to meet the world's growing demand for energy in an environmentally sustainable manner.

[0004] Despite the advances made in the development of safer and more reliable drinking water supplies, there remains a need for improved and alternative techniques for separating non-aqueous components such as solutes, suspended particles, and biological organisms, from fluids, suspensions, and solutions for obtaining pure water and to collect and concentrate these non-fluid components. Such non-fluid components can also include a source of positive electrical charge present in, for example, fluids with very low pH.

Successful separation of this positive charge from a fluid could permit storage of the charge as a source of potential energy that could be released into an electrochemical cell or battery, thereby providing a relatively inexpensive and easily derivable source of alternative energy.

SUMMARY

[0005] Methods, devices, and systems are provided for separating components of aqueous mixtures and for generating energy. In one embodiment, an apparatus is provided and can include a housing having a fluid flow path extending therethrough between a fluid inlet and first and second fluid outlets. A hydrophilic surface can be positioned in the fluid flow path and it can be configured such that, when a polar fluid is passed through the fluid flow path, an exclusion zone is formed adj acent to the hydrophilic surface. In some embodiments, the hydrophilic surface can be disposed on a portion of the housing. A separator can be disposed within the fluid flow path and it can be configured to separate fluid within the exclusion zone from fluid outside of the exclusion zone such that fluid within the exclusion zone flows to the first fluid outlet, and fluid outside of the exclusion zone flows to the second fluid outlet. At least one spacer can be provided for maintaining the separator at a fixed position. In some embodiments, the apparatus can also have a vacuum source coupled to each of the first and second fluid outlets for drawing fluid through the fluid flow path and into the outlets.

[0006] In some embodiments, the spacer can maintain the separator at a fixed position relative to a portion of the housing. The spacer can also maintain the separator at a fixed position relative to the hydrophilic surface. In other embodiments, the housing can include a first plate having the first fluid outlet therein and a second plate having the second fluid outlet therein. The first and second plates can have a gap formed therebetween that defines the fluid flow path. The separator and the at least one spacer can be disposed between the first and second plates such that the spacer maintains the separator at a position that is effective to cause fluid within the exclusion zone generated by the hydrophilic surface to flow to the first fluid outlet in the first plate, and to cause fluid outside of the exclusion zone to flow to the second fluid outlet in the second plate.

[0007] In another embodiment, the hydrophilic surface can be located on the separator. The separator can include a plate having a plurality of cut-outs formed therein and configured such that fluid within the exclusion zone generated by the hydrophilic surface flows through the cut-outs to the first fluid out. In certain aspects, the plate can be substantially circular and the plurality of cut-outs formed in a circular pattern on the plate. The housing can include a first plate having the first fluid outlet extending therethrough and a second plate having the second fluid outlet extending therethrough. The first and second outlets can extend from a central opening in each of the first and second plates and can terminate at an outer perimeter of each of the first and second plates. The spacer can maintain the separator at a fixed distance from the second plate such that a gap is formed between the separator and the second plate. The gap can define the fluid flow path.

[0008] In other embodiments, the first and second plates having the separator and the at least one spacer therebetween can form a first separation apparatus, and the apparatus further can have at least one additional separation apparatus coupled to the first separation apparatus such that fluid flows from the second fluid outlet of the second plate into a fluid inlet of the at least one additional separation apparatus.

[0009] In other aspects, the hydrophilic surface can be formed on an outer surface of the separator, and the separator can include a plurality of cut-outs formed therein such that, when a polar fluid flows across the hydrophilic surface and an exclusion zone is formed adjacent to the hydrophilic surface, fluid in the exclusion zone flows through the cut-outs to the first outlet, and fluid outside of the exclusion zone is drawn away from the cut-outs and flows to the second outlet.

[00010] In another embodiment, the housing can include a first tubular structure having a first end with the fluid inlet formed therein and having an opposite second end and a second tubular structure having a first end at least partially disposed within the second end of the first tubular structure. The first end can include a plurality of recesses formed therein and having peaks and valley. The peaks can form the spacer and the valleys can form the separator. In certain aspects, the hydrophilic surface can be formed on an internal surface of the first tubular structure. The plurality of recesses can have a depth that is configured to separate fluid in the exclusion zone from fluid outside of the exclusion zone. An opening can be formed between the valleys and the first tubular structure such that fluid within the exclusion zone generated by the hydrophilic surface exits through the opening to the first fluid outlet, and fluid outside of the exclusion zone generated by the hydrophilic surface flows through the second tubular structure to the second fluid outlet. In some embodiments, the second end of the first tubular structure can extend over only a portion of a longitudinal length of the plurality of recesses. Each of the plurality of recesses can have a length that is greater than a length of a portion of the first tubular structure that is disposed over the second tubular structure. Each of the plurality of recesses can have a substantially elongate convex cavity extending along a length of the second tubular structure from the first end toward a second end. Each of the plurality of recesses can have a terminal end located opposite the first end of the first tubular structure, and each terminal end has a tapered configuration.

[0001 1] In other embodiments, the first and second tubular structures can form a first separation apparatus, and the apparatus further include at least one additional separation apparatus arranged in series with the first separation apparatus such that fluid flows from the second fluid outlet of the second tubular structure into a fluid inlet of the at least one additional separation apparatus. In other embodiments, the at least one additional separation apparatus can be arranged in parallel with the first separation apparatus.

[00012] In yet another embodiment, the housing can include first and second plates having the separator disposed therebetween and held at a fixed distance from each of the first and second plates by the at least one spacer. The at least one spacer can include a plurality of first spacers disposed between the separator and the first plate, and a plurality of second spacers disposed between the separator and the second plate. The hydrophilic surface can be a hydrophilic ring positioned between the separator and the second plate. The inlet can be an opening formed between an outer perimeter of the first and second plates and the fluid flow path can be a gap formed between the first and second plates. The first fluid outlet can extend internally through the first plate and the second fluid outlet extends internally through the second plate. In other aspects, the at least one spacer can include a plurality of protrusions formed on a surface of at least one of the first and second plates. The plurality of protrusions can maintain the separator at a fixed distance from the plate.

[00013] In other embodiments, at least one spacer can extend around at least a portion of a perimeter of the separator. The at least one spacer can include a first spacer disposed on a first side of the separator and extending around at least a portion of a perimeter of the separator for maintaining the separator at a fixed distance from an upper surface of the housing, and a second spacer disposed on a second side of the separator and extending around at least a portion of a perimeter of the separator for maintaining the separator at a fixed distance from the hydrophilic surface. [00014] In other embodiments, the housing can include a plurality of separators, each separator being held at a fixed distant apart from one another by at least one of the spacers. In other embodiments, the hydrophilic surface can include a plurality of raised surface features.

[00015] In another embodiment, an apparatus for separating fluid is provided and can include a first plate having a first fluid outlet formed therein, a second plate having a second fluid outlet formed therein, a separator disposed between the first and second plates, and at least one spacer disposed between the separator and at least one of the first and second plates for maintaining the separator at a fixed distance apart from at least one of the first and second plates. A gap can be formed between the separator and at least one of the first and second plates for receiving fluid flow therethrough, and the apparatus can also include a hydrophilic surface disposed between the first and second plates and positioned such that, when a polar fluid flows into the gap, an exclusion zone is formed adjacent to the hydrophilic surface. The separator can be configured to separate fluid within the exclusion zone from fluid outside of the exclusion zone such that fluid within the exclusion zone flows to the first fluid outlet and fluid outside of the exclusion zone flows to the second fluid outlet.

[00016] In some embodiments, the first plate, second plate, separator, and at least one spacer are included in a first separation apparatus, and the apparatus further includes at least one additional separation apparatus coupled to the first separation apparatus. Each additional separation apparatus can include a fluid inlet that is configured to receive fluid from the second fluid outlet of the first separation apparatus. The hydrophilic surface can be a hydrophilic plate disposed between the first and second plates. In other embodiments, the hydrophilic surface can also be formed on at least a portion of the separator. The hydrophilic surface can be formed on at least a portion of the at least one spacer.

[00017] In other aspects, a method for separating fluid is provided. The method can include passing fluid through at least one fluid separation apparatus such that a hydrophilic surface disposed within the fluid separation apparatus causes the fluid to form a first region adjacent the hydrophilic surface and a second region spaced apart from the hydrophilic surface. At least one separator can be disposed within the fluid separation apparatus can maintained at a fixed position by at least one spacer such that the separator separates the fluid in the first region from the fluid in the second region. In some embodiments, fluid in the first region flows to a first fluid outlet, and fluid in the second region flows to a second fluid outlet. Fluid from the second fluid outlet can flow to a fluid inlet of at least one additional fluid separation apparatus.

[00018] In another aspect, a method for separating a solute from water is provided. The method can include passing water having a solute therein through a housing of at least one fluid separation apparatus. A hydrophilic surface in the housing can cause the water to separate into an inner contaminated region having the solute therein and an outer purified region being substantially free of the solute. A spacer can maintain a separator at a position within the housing that causes the inner contaminated region to flow to a first fluid outlet and the outer purified region to flow to a second fluid outlet.

[00019] In some embodiments, the solute can be one or more salts. Alternatively, the solute can be an organic material. The solute can be a pesticide or a fertilizer. The solute can also be a pathogen.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0002] The embodiments described above will be more fully understood from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. The drawings are not intended to be drawn to scale. For purposes of clarity, not every component may be labeled in every drawing. In the drawings:

[0003] FIG. 1 is a side cross-sectional view of one embodiment of an apparatus for separating fluid;

[0004] FIG. 2A is an exploded view of another embodiment of an apparatus for separating fluid;

[0005] FIG. 2B is a cross-sectional, partially cut-away view of the apparatus of FIG. 2A;

[0006] FIG. 2C is a side cross-sectional view of the apparatus of FIG. 2A;

[0007] FIG. 3A is a top perspective view of a portion of another embodiment of a fluid separation apparatus;

[0008] FIG. 3B is a perspective view of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 3 A; [0009] FIG. 3C is a side perspective view of another embodiment of an apparatus for separating fluid;

[00010] FIG. 4A is a side perspective view of another embodiment of an apparatus for separating fluid;

[00011] FIG. 4B is an end view of the apparatus of FIG. 4A;

[00012] FIG. 4C is another side perspective view of the apparatus of FIG. 4A

[00013] FIG. 5 A is a top view of another embodiment of a fluid separation apparatus;

[00014] FIG. 5B is a side transparent view of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 5A;

[00015] FIG. 5C is an exploded view of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 5 A;

[00016] FIG. 5D is a side cross-sectional view of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 5A;

[00017] FIG. 5E is an enlarged side cross-sectional view of a portion of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 5 A;

[00018] FIG. 6A is a top view of another embodiment of a fluid separation apparatus;

[00019] FIG. 6B is a side transparent view of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 6A;

[00020] FIG. 6C is an exploded view of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 6A;

[00021] FIG. 6D is a side cross-sectional view of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 6A;

[00022] FIG. 6E is an enlarged side cross-sectional view of a portion of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 6A;

[00023] FIG. 7A is a front view of yet another embodiment of a fluid separation apparatus; [00024] FIG. 7B is an exploded view of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 7 A; [00025] FIG. 7C is a side view of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 7A; [00026] FIG. 7D is a cross-sectional view of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 7A; [00027] FIG. 7E is an enlarged cross-sectional view of a portion of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 7A;

[00028] FIG. 8A is a front view of another embodiment of a fluid separation apparatus;

[00029] FIG. 8B is an exploded view of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 8 A;

[00030] FIG. 8C is a side view of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 8A;

[00031] FIG. 8D is a cross-sectional view of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 8A;

[00032] FIG. 8E is an enlarged cross-sectional view of a portion of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 8A;

[00033] FIG. 9A is a front view of yet another embodiment of a fluid separation apparatus;

[00034] FIG. 9B is an exploded view of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 9A;

[00035] FIG. 9C is a side view of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 9A;

[00036] FIG. 9D is a cross-sectional view of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 9A;

[00037] FIG. 9E is an enlarged cross-sectional view of a portion of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 9A;

[00038] FIG. 9F is a perspective view of an altemative embodiment of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 9A;

[00039] FIG. 9G is a perspective view of another altemative embodiment of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 9A;

[00040] FIG. 9H is a perspective view of yet another altemative embodiment of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 9A;

[00041] FIG. 91 is a perspective view of another alternative embodiment of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 9A;

[00042] FIG. 1 OA is a front view of yet another embodiment of a fluid separation apparatus; and [00043] FIG. 1 OB is an exploded view of the fluid separation apparatus of FIG. 10A. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[00044] Certain exemplary embodiments will now be described to provide an overall understanding of the principles of the structure, function, manufacture, and use of the devices and methods disclosed herein. One or more examples of these embodiments are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. Those skilled in the art will understand that the devices and methods specifically described herein and illustrated in the accompanying drawings are non-limiting exemplary embodiments and that the scope of the present invention is defined solely by the claims. The features illustrated or described in connection with one exemplary embodiment may be combined with the features of other embodiments. Such modifications and variations are intended to be included within the scope of the present invention.

[00045] Reference throughout the specification to "various embodiments," "some embodiments," "one embodiment," or "an embodiment", or the like, means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment. Thus, appearances of the phrases "in various embodiments," "in some embodiments," "in one embodiment," or "in an embodiment", or the like, in places throughout the specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment.

Furthermore, the particular features, structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments. Thus, the particular features, structures, or characteristics illustrated or described in connection with one embodiment may be combined, in whole or in part, with the features structures, or characteristics of one or more other embodiments without limitation.

[00046] In general, methods, devices, and systems are provided herein for separating components of fluids, suspensions, and solutions, and optionally for generating energy. In an exemplary embodiment, a separator is provided having at least one spacer for separating an exclusion zone formed adjacent to a hydrophilic surface from fluid flowing outside of the exclusion zone. Certain hydrophilic materials are known to produce a region of purified water adj acent to the hydrophilic surface. This region, referred to herein as an "exclusion zone" (EZ), is effective to partially or entirely exclude solutes or other non-fluid components. Likewise, a region of "concentrated solute" forms away from the hydrophilic surface. Thus, the gradient caused by the hydrophilic surface can be exploited to obtain a fraction of purified water or to obtain a fraction containing a higher concentration of a non-fluid component, such as a solute. Accordingly, the separation of fluid within the exclusion zone from fluid outside of the exclusion zone enables purified water to be collected. Repeated separation allows an exemplary process to exclude more types of solutes from an increasingly purer aqueous mixture. The succession can also improve the purification of a single material, e.g., to obtain a highly purified product.

[00047] The term "fluid," as used herein, refers to an aqueous mixture, suspension, or solution. In some embodiments, the fluid comprises or consists essentially of a polar liquid, such as, but not limited to, water. Exemplary fluids for use with the devices and methods disclosed herein include, without limitation, salt solutions, colloids, suspensions, waste water, bodily fluids, mining tailings, etc., that is, any combination of water and another non-aqueous compound or substance.

[00048] Many different types of solutes can be excluded from a region adjacent to hydrophilic surfaces. Examples of excluded solutes include, without limitations,

microspheres of various size, erythrocytes, proteins, salts, pathogens, and even small molecular weight dyes. Other non-aqueous solutes that are components of a fluid can include organic and inorganic salts, biomatter, pathogens, bacteria etc., and any other solid or semisolid material.

[00049] The exclusion zone can vary in size, but in one embodiment ranges from ten to several hundred micrometers wide, such as any of about 10 μιτι to about 500 μιτι in depth, such as any of about 10-500 μτη, 25-500 um, 50-400 um, 50-350 um, 50-300 um, 50-250 um, 50-200 um, 50-150 um, 50-10 um, 100-500 um, 100-450 um, 100-400 um, 100-300 um, 100-200 um, 200-500 um, 200-400 um, 200-300 um, 300-500 um, 300-400 um, 400-500 μιη in depth or any of about 50 μιτι, 75 μιτι, 100 μιτι, 125 μιτι, 150 μιτι, 175 μτη, 200 μιτι, 225 μιτι, 250 μπι, 275 μιη, 300 μιη, 325 μιη, 350 μιη, 375 μιη, 400 μιη, 425 μιη, 450 μιη, 475 μιη, or 500 μιτι in depth, inclusive of all ranges and values falling in between these numbers. Given the large size of this zone, and the exclusion of many solutes, the exclusion zone can contain "pure" water (when water is the fluid used in conjunction with the devices and methods disclosed herein), which is then able to be harvested and stored.

[00050] In general, negatively charged surfaces exclude negatively charged solutes, and positively charged surfaces exclude positively charged solutes. So, for many different solutes, a surface can be selected that will exclude solutes from a region of pure or purer water. Pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, etc., fall into size and charge domains as solutes that can also be excluded from the region of purified water. Biological specimens, such as red blood cells, can also be excluded from this region. It is worth noting that negatively charged surfaces do, in general, exclude negatively charged solutes; however, some positively charged solutes are excluded as well. Similarly, positively charged surfaces generally exclude positively charged solutes, but also some negatively charged solutes as well.

[00051] To collect fractions, the fluid is exposed to a hydrophilic surface, such as the inside of a hollow body made of or containing hydrophilic materials. When the fluid is water, a region corresponding to a "purified water" fraction forms near the hydrophilic surface in which one or more solutes or other non-aqueous components are partially or entirely excluded. Hence, the hydrophilic surface is also referred to herein as an "exclusion surface." Likewise, a region corresponding to a "concentrated solute" fraction forms "away from" the exclusion surface. Thus, the gradient caused by the exclusion surface can be exploited to obtain fractions of water such as purified water or a concentrated phase of a non-aqueous component.

[00052] In one embodiment, an exemplary device and method removes salts from water to obtain efficient desalination. The salts to be separated can include sodium chloride, seawater salts, components of buffer solutions, and many other salts and ionic compounds. Hence, exemplary devices and methods can separate ionic (charged) components from water mixtures, or can separate neutral, non-ionic species from water mixtures too. In a further embodiment, these charged components can be extracted as a form of electrical energy and released to a fuel cell, an electrochemical cell, or a battery for storage.

[00053] In another embodiment, devices and methods can concentrate dissolved or suspended solutes from aqueous solutions. That is, instead of pure water being the only desired product, exemplary devices and methods can be used to concentrate the non-aqueous components of an aqueous mixture. This can be useful in many manufacturing processes and in the clinical lab, e.g., for diagnosing medical conditions via blood work and other physiological tests that involve bodily or cellular fluids. The exemplary devices and methods described herein can be used to separate and/or concentrate salts, pathogens, contaminants, dyes, organic and inorganic species, sewage, pesticides, fertilizers, agricultural runoff, mine tailings, etc., from aqueous mixtures. Solute size can be as small as a few nanometers, such as any of about 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm, 4 nm, 5 nm, 6 nm, 7 nm, 8 nm, 9 nm, 10 nm, 15 nm, 20 nm, 25 nm, 30 nm, 35 nm, 40 nm, 45 nm, 50 nm, 55 nm, 60 nm, 65 nm, 70 nm, 75 nm, 80 nm, 85 nm, 90 nm, 95 nm, or 100 nm or more in size. Solute size can additionally have a molecular weight of at least about 300, such as any of about 325, 475, 400, 425, 450, 575, or 500, including all values and ranges falling in between these numbers.

[00054] Further information regarding separation of components in a polar fluid by exposure to hydrophilic surfaces can be found in U.S. Patent Nos. 7,793,788, 9,087,641, and

9,255,015, as well as U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2011/0097218, the disclosures of each of which are incorporated by reference herein by reference in their entireties.

[00055] FIG. 1 illustrates one embodiment of a separation apparatus for separating fluid 110 within an exclusion zone 112, i.e., exclusion zone fluid 118, from fluid 110 outside of the exclusion zone, i.e., bulk fluid 116. In general, the apparatus includes an elongate housing having a first tubular structure 102 having a first end that defines a fluid inlet 104 and having a second end that is coupled to a second tubular structure 106. While first 102 and second 106 tubular structures are shown, the apparatus can be formed from a single elongate structure. An internal surface of the first tubular structure 102 contains a hydrophilic material (EZ material) 108 that is effective to generate an exclusion zone 112 within fluid 110 flowing through the structure. A separator 114 is disposed within the second tubular structure 106 and extends at least partially into the first tubular structure 102. The separator 114 is in the form of a tube having an outer diameter that is less than an inner diameter of the first 102 and second 106 tubular structures. The diameter of the separator 114 is configured to correspond to an outer diameter of the exclusion zone fluid 118 and an inner diameter of the bulk fluid 116, i.e., the fluid 110 outside of the exclusion zone 112, namely the fluid 110 flowing through the center of the tube. As a result, the separator 114 will physically divide the exclusion zone fluid 118 from the bulk fluid 116, causing the exclusion zone fluid 118 to flow outside of the separator 114 and causing the bulk fluid 116 to flow into the separator 114. The exclusion zone fluid 118 can thus exit through a first outlet 120 for collection, and the bulk fluid 116 can flow through a second outlet 122. While not shown, the second outlet 122 can be coupled to an inlet 104 of a second separator apparatus for further separation.

[00056] While the embodiment of FIG. 1 enables exclusion zone fluid 118 to be separated from bulk fluid 116, positioning of the separator 114 at a precise location for separating the fluid 110 can be challenging. Depending on the size of the generated exclusion zone 112, the separator 114 must be placed so that the fluid 110 contacts the separator 114 either at or near the boundary of the exclusion zone 112 and the solute-containing bulk fluid 116, or on the side of the exclusion zone 112 that borders the hydrophilic material 108 used to generate the exclusion zone 112 (i.e. the side of the exclusion zone 112 farthest from the bulk fluid 116). As such, further embodiments of separation devices disclosed herein include a spacer for positioning the separator 114 at the EZ/bulk fluid boundary or at the EZ/hydrophilic material boundary. The spacer can be made of any acceptable material and can be of any shape sufficient to either maintain the separator 114 at a fixed position relative to a portion of the housing or at a fixed position relative to the EZ-generating hydrophilic surface. The spacer can be configured to adhere to the housing or can be formed from the housing itself, for example, by etching.

[00057] Accordingly, FIGS. 2A-9I illustrate additional embodiments of a separation apparatus in which one or more spacers are employed to facilitate proper positioning and alignment of the separator, thereby enabling more precise separation of the exclusion zone fluid from the bulk fluid.

[00058] FIGS. 2A-2C illustrate an embodiment of a separation apparatus for separating fluid within an exclusion zone from fluid outside of the exclusion zone. As shown in FIGS. 2 A and 2B, the apparatus has a circular housing 200 with a first plate 204 structure having a first outlet 206 that permits exclusion zone fluid to exit the apparatus and a second plate 208 structure having a second outlet 212 that permits bulk fluid to exit the apparatus. As detailed in FIG. 2B, the plate structures of the circular housing 200 can contain ports 210, which are channels formed internally within the plate and which originate on one side of the plate at its center. Specifically, the channels extend partially into the center of the plate, and have a substantially 90 degree turn and then further extend towards the outer perimeter of the plate where the first 206 and second 212 outlets are located in the outer sidewall of the plate structures. While first 204 and second 208 plate structures are shown, the apparatus can be formed from a single housing having a unitary configuration.

[00059] An internal plate 214 can be located between the first 204 and second 208 plates and can be made entirely of or coated with a hydrophilic material 216 that is effective to generate an exclusion zone within fluid flowing through the structure. The internal plate 214 can have a circular shape and a diameter that is same as, less than, or greater than a diameter of the first and second plates. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 2A-2C, the internal plate 214 acts as a separator that has one or more cut-outs 218 (for example, holes or slots) located within the internal plate 214 to facilitate fluid separation. The separator 214 is configured such that exclusion zone fluid flows though the cut-outs 218 and towards the first outlet 206 in the first plate structure 204 via the port 210 in the first plate structure 204 while bulk fluid flows towards the second outlet 212 in the second plate structure 208. While the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 2 A and 2B shows cut-outs 218 cut into the separator 214 in discrete semi-circular configurations positioned a distance inward of the outer perimeter, any number of cut-outs 218 (such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 50, or more, inclusive of numbers falling in between these values) having any shape (such as, without limitation, circular, square, rectangular, semi-circular, tear dropped, diamond, or triangular) can be used. For example, a single cut-out in a circular configuration can be used. Alternatively, a series of concentric rings of single or discrete cut-out semi-circular configurations can also be used.

[00060] As further shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B, one or more spacers 220 can be used to position the EZ-generating material of the central plate 214 at a predefined distance from the second plate structure 208. The spacers 220 can be adhered to the central plate 214 and/or the second plate structure 208, or they can be formed on the central plate 214 or the second plate structure 208. While the spacers 220 in the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 2A and 2B are in a tear-shaped configuration, any shape can be used as long as the shape is sufficient to ensure the positioning of the separator 214 at or near the boundary of the exclusion zone and bulk fluid layers. The spacers 220 can be any height sufficient to ensure the positioning of the separator 214 at or near the boundary of the exclusion zone and bulk fluid layers (such as any of 100 μπι, 200 μπι, 300 μπι, 400 μπι, 0.5 mm, 1 mm, 1.5 mm, 2 mm, 2.5 mm, 3 mm, 3.5 mm, 4 mm, 4.5 mm, 5 mm, 5.5 mm, 6 mm, 6.5 mm, 7 mm, 7.5 mm, 8 mm, 8.5 mm, 9 mm, 9.5 mm, or 10 mm or more, including numbers falling in between these values).

[00061] As shown in FIG. 2C, influent water 222 flows into the apparatus simultaneously from all sides (e.g. , around the entire perimeter) and into the space located between the central EZ-generating plate 214 and the second plate structure 208 which is formed by the spacers 222. Influent water can be directed into the apparatus via a pump or device capable of moving fluid via mechanical action. Alternatively, the apparatus can be submerged in water. An exclusion zone is generated when the influent water contacts the EZ-generating material 216. Exclusion zone fluid is drawn through the separator 214 and into the first outlet 206 located in the first plate structure 204. Bulk fluid is drawn up and into the second outlet 212 which, as illustrated in FIG. 2B, can be a channel located within the second plate structure 208. The exclusion zone fluid can thus exit through a first outlet 206 for collection and the bulk fluid can flow through a second outlet 212. In some embodiments, the first outlet 206 that permits exclusion zone fluid to exit the apparatus and/or the second outlet 212 that permits bulk fluid to exit the apparatus are configured to connect to a pump or other mechanical device for forcibly drawing fluid though one or both outlets. The force exerted by the pump or pumps can be varied in order to maximize the amount of exclusion zone fluid that is drawn through the separators 214 and into the first outlet 206. Specifically, the force exerted by the pump drawing bulk fluid through the second fluid outlet 212 can be optimized to ensure that no bulk fluid is drawn into the first fluid outlet 206. At the same time, the force exerted by the pump drawing bulk fluid through the first fluid outlet 206 can be optimized to ensure that no EZ fluid is drawn into the second fluid outlet 212.

[00062] While not shown, the second outlet 212 can be coupled to an inlet 222 of a second separator apparatus for additional separation using a series containing multiple apparatuses. Additionally, multiple units of the apparatus shown in FIG. 2A-2C can be placed in a stacked configuration to increase the efficiency of exclusion zone fluid separation. FIG. 3A illustrates such a stacked configuration. As shown in FIG. 3A, the central EZ-generating plate contains multiple discrete semi-circular separators 302 in a concentric ring

configuration to further increase the quantity and efficiency of exclusion zone fluid separation. The apparatus of FIG. 3 A can further be scaled up into the apparatus embodied in FIG. 3B to generate even larger amounts of exclusion zone fluid. In this configuration, a module 304 containing multiple stacks of circular separation apparatuses is submerged in a tube containing water. Though not shown in FIG. 3B, the centrally-located channel 212 in each circular apparatus is connected to the second outlet 212 that permits bulk fluid to exit the apparatus. Each of the centrally-located channels 212 is configured to connect to a manifold which is used to draw the bulk fluid out of the module 304.

[00063] The apparatus of FIG. 3 A can additionally be scaled up into the apparatus embodied in FIG. 3C. In this configuration, sheets of modules 306 containing multiple stacks of separation apparatuses are submerged in a vessel 312 containing water. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 3C, the vessel 312 is square, however the vessel 312 can have any shape capable of accommodating the sheets of modules 306. In use, water can enter the separation apparatus from all sides and is separated into EZ and bulk fluid. The EZ fluid is drawn into a centrally located channel 212 which exits the apparatus via multiple EZ outlets 308.

Similarly, the bulk fluid is drawn into a different channel and exits the apparatus via the bulk outlet 310. One or more pumps or similar suction devices can be used to control the amount of EZ and/or bulk fluid exiting the apparatus. The force exerted by the pump or pumps can be varied in order to maximize the amount of EZ fluid that is drawn through the separators and into the first outlet. Specifically, the force exerted by the pump drawing bulk fluid through the second fluid outlet can be optimized to ensure that no bulk fluid is drawn into the first fluid outlet. At the same time, the force exerted by the pump drawing bulk fluid through the first fluid outlet can be optimized to ensure that no EZ fluid is drawn into the second fluid outlet.

[00064] FIGS. 4A-4C illustrate another embodiment of an apparatus for separating fluid that includes a housing 400 with a first tubular structure 402 and a second tubular structure 408. The first tubular structure 402 has a fluid-flow lumen extending between a fluid inlet 404 end and a first fluid outlet 406 end. The second tubular structure 408 also has a fluid-flow lumen that extends between a fluid inlet end and a second fluid outlet 414 end as well as a plurality of recesses 410 formed around the fluid inlet end. The first fluid outlet 406 end of the first tubular structure 402 is disposed around the plurality of recesses 410 formed around the fluid inlet end of the second tubular structure 408. "Recesses," as used herein, means any depression, crenellation, scalloping, groove, etc. which does not penetrate the walls of the tubular structure and which are formed in a "peak and valley" configuration. While they can have a variety of shapes, the recesses in the illustrated embodiment shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B are elongate convex cavities that extend along a length of the second tubular structure 408 from the fluid inlet end toward the second fluid outlet 414 end. Recesses 410 can be any of about 50 μιτι to about 500 μιτι in depth, such as any of about 50-400 μιτι, 50-350 μιτι, 50-300 μιη, 50-250 μιη, 50-200 μιη, 50-150 μιη, 50-10 μιη, 100-500 μιη, 100-450 μιη, 100-400 μιη, 100-300 μιη, 100-200 μιη, 200-500 μιη, 200-400 μιη, 200-300 μιη, 300-500 μπι, 300-400 μιη, 400-500 μπι in depth or any of about 50 μπι, 75 μπι, 100 μπι, 125 μπι, 150 μπι, 175 μπι, 200 μπι, 225 μπι, 250 μπι, 275 μπι, 300 μπι, 325 μπι, 350 μτη, 375 μπι, 400 μπι, 425 μτη, 450 μπι, 475 μτη, or 500 μτη in depth, inclusive of all ranges and values falling in between these numbers. In further embodiments, the recesses 410 have a depth configured to separate a fluid in an exclusion zone from a solute-containing fluid that is formed outside of the exclusion zone and towards the center lumen of a tubular structure. While the recesses 410 can have a variety of sizes, in the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 4A and 4B, the recesses 410 have a length that is greater than the length of the portion of the first tubular structure 402 that is disposed around the second tubular structure 408. Moreover, in the illustrated embodiment, each of the recesses 410 has a terminal end located opposite the fluid inlet end of the second tubular structure 408 which adopts a tapered configuration.

[00065] The inner surface of the first 402 and/or second tubular structure 408 is hydrophilic (i.e. is made of or is coated with a hydrophilic material capable of generating an EZ layer). The "valleys" of the recesses 410 formed around the fluid inlet end of the second tubular structure 408 form a separator 410 which shunts EZ water away from bulk water, which remains in the fluid-flow lumen. The "peaks" of the recesses 410 form a spacer 412 which positions the second tubular structure 408 at a fixed position relative to the first tubular structure 402. In the illustrated embodiment of FIGS. 4A-4C, as fluid flows through the tubular structure, solutes contained in the fluid migrate from the walls of the tubular structure towards the fluid-flow lumen forming an inner region of fluid, while an outer region of fluid (e.g., an exclusion zone) containing purified fluid (i.e. containing zero or near zero amounts of solute) remains near the inner surface of the first tubular structure 402. The purified fluid of the exclusion zone enters the recesses 410 disposed around the end of the second tubular structure 408 thereby separating the purified exclusion zone fluid from the solute-containing bulk fluid which remains in the fluid-flow lumen of the structure.

[00066] FIG. 4B illustrates an end view of the apparatus of FIG. 4A. The inner surface of the fluid outlet 406 end of the first tubular structure 402 and the plurality of recesses 410 formed around the fluid inlet end of the second tubular structure 408 define a fluid exit region that is configured to receive an outer region of fluid flowing from the fluid outlet 406 in the first tubular structure 402 into the fluid inlet in the second tubular structure 408 to thereby separate the outer region of the fluid (e.g., an exclusion zone) from an inner region of the fluid. The solute-containing inner region of fluid then continues into the fluid-flow lumen of the second tubular structure. FIG. 4C illustrates a side perspective view of the apparatus of FIG. 4A.

[00067] In some embodiments, the first tubular structure 402 and the second tubular structure 408 can be press fit together in order to form a seal between the two structures. This basic unit can then be combined with similarly configured structures to form long chains (comprising any of about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 80, or 100 or more repeating units) for generating highly purified fluids, concentrated solutes, highly positively charged fluids, or fluids with very low pH. Long or short chains of the combination can be connected in parallel to create larger amounts of purified fluids or concentrated solutes. In further embodiments, the purified fluid from one series of chains is connected in series with another series of chains to increase the production rate and/or quantity of purified fluid generated by the apparatus.

[00068] In some embodiments, a collection system is designed to interface with the fluid outlet 406 end of the first tubular structure 402. A collection member, such as, but not limited to, thin-walled tubing made of an inert substance (for example, stainless steel) can be configured to collect the purified fluid formed in the exclusion zone that passes through the plurality of recesses 410 formed around the fluid inlet 404 end of the first tubular structure 402. An inner tube or "waste outlet" connected to the fluid outlet end 406 of the first tubular structure 402 can be used to collect the solute-containing fluid, which is either discarded or saved for recycling. Further information describing apparatus and methods for collecting and storing purified fluids can be found in U.S. Patent No. 7,793,788, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein.

[00069] FIGS. 5A-5E illustrate another embodiment of an apparatus for separating fluid within an exclusion zone from fluid outside of the exclusion zone. As shown in FIGS. 5A and 5C, the apparatus has a circular housing 500 with a first plate 508 structure having a first outlet 502 that permits exclusion zone fluid to exit the apparatus and a second plate 510 structure having a second outlet 504 that permits bulk fluid to exit the apparatus. As detailed in FIGS. 5B and 5C, the plate structures of the circular housing 500 can contain ports 506, which are channels formed internally within the plate and which originate on one side of the plate at its center. Specifically, they extend partially into the center of the plate, and have a substantially 90 degree turn and then further extend towards the outer perimeter of the plate where the first 502 and second 504 outlets are located in the outer sidewall of the plate structures.

[00070] FIG. 5C shows an exploded view of the separator apparatus. A separator 520 is disposed between the first 508 and second 510 plate structures at a fixed distance that is mediated by two sets of spacers: one or more EZ spacers 512 (located on the side of the separator 520 nearest to the first fluid outlet 502) and one or more core spacers 514 (located on the side of the separator 520 nearest to the second fluid outlet 504). While the spacers illustrated in FIGS. 5A and 5C are in an asterisk or flower petal configuration, the spacers can adopt any shape and positioned at any location sufficient to maintain the separator 520 at a fixed position relative to the first 508 and second 510 plate structures. As is further illustrated in FIG. 5C, a ring-shaped hydrophilic (e.g. an EZ -generating) surface 516 can be adhered to the inner surface of the first plate 508 structure via a suitable adhesive 518 (such as, without limitation, double-sided adhesive tape). The width of the hydrophilic surface 516 portion of the ring is sufficient to permit the formation of an exclusion zone in fluid passing over the hydrophilic surface 516. As is also shown in FIG. 5C, the second plate 510 structure, hydrophilic surface 516, adhesive layer 518, and first plate 508 structure have one or more holes which are configured to receive one or more fasteners 524 (such as, without limitation, screws) for holding the components of the apparatus together.

[00071] As shown in FIG. 5A, FIG. 5D, and FIG. 5E, the fluid inlet 522 in the apparatus is an opening formed around the outer perimeter between the first 508 and second plate 510 structures. In particular, FIG. 5E shows that fluid flows into the apparatus from all sides through a gap formed between the first 508 and second plate 510 structures. An EZ layer is formed when the fluid encounters the hydrophilic surface 516 adhered to the surface of the first plate 508 structure. The EZ layer and the bulk fluid layer then encounter the separator 520, which is held in position by the spacers and which is configured to interact with the fluid at the boundary between the EZ and bulk fluid layers. This interaction separates the EZ layer from the bulk layer, directing the EZ layer through the internal port 506 and towards the first fluid outlet 502 in the first plate 508 structure while sending the bulk layer through the internal port 506 and towards the second fluid outlet 504 in the second plate 510 structure.

[00072] FIGS. 6A-6E illustrate yet another embodiment of an apparatus for separating fluid within an exclusion zone from fluid outside of the exclusion zone. As shown in FIGS. 6 A and 6C, the apparatus has a circular housing 600 with a first plate 604 structure having a first outlet 602 that permits exclusion zone fluid to exit the apparatus and a second plate 606 structure having a second outlet 620 that permits bulk fluid to exit the apparatus. As detailed in FIGS. 6B and 6C, the plate structures of the circular housing can contain ports 608, which are channels formed internally within the plate and which originate on one side of the plate at its center. The channels extend into the center of the plate, and have a substantially 90 degree turn and then further extend towards the outer perimeter of the plate where the first 602 and second 620 outlets are located in the outer sidewall of the plate structures.

[00073] FIG. 6C shows an exploded view of the separator apparatus. A separator 610 is disposed between the first 604 and second 606 plates at a fixed distance mediated by two sets of spacers 612. The spacers 612 are etched or otherwise formed from the inner surfaces of the first 604 and second 606 plate structures and can take the form of protrusions that extend towards the center of the apparatus. While the spacers 612 illustrated in FIGS. 6A and 6C are in an asterisk or flower petal configuration, any shape and any location can be used for the spacers 612 so long as it is sufficient to maintain the separator 610 at a fixed position relative to the first 604 and second 606 plate structures. As is further illustrated in FIG. 6C, a ring- shaped hydrophilic (e.g. an EZ-generating) surface 614 is adhered to the inner surface of the first plate 604 structure via a suitable adhesive 616 (such as, without limitation, double-sided adhesive tape). The width of the hydrophilic surface 614 portion of the ring is sufficient to permit the formation of an exclusion zone in fluid passing over the hydrophilic surface 614. As is also shown in FIG. 6C, the second plate 606 structure, hydrophilic surface 614, adhesive layer 616, and first plate 604 structure have one or more holes which are configured to receive one or more fasteners 618 (such as, without limitation, screws) for holding the components of the apparatus together.

[00074] As shown in FIGS. 6 A, 6D, and 6E, the fluid inlet 622 in the apparatus is an opening formed around the outer perimeter between the first 604 and second 606 plate structures. In particular, FIG. 6E shows that fluid flows into the apparatus from all sides through a gap formed between the first 604 and second 606 plate structures. An EZ layer is formed once the fluid encounters the hydrophilic surface 614 adhered to the surface of the first plate 604 structure. The EZ layer and the bulk fluid layer then encounter the separator 610, which is held in position by the spacers 612 and configured to interact with the fluid at the boundary between the EZ and bulk fluid layers. This interaction separates the EZ layer from the bulk layer and directs the EZ layer through the internal port 608 and towards the first fluid outlet 602 in the first plate 604 structure while sending the bulk layer through the internal port 608 and towards the second fluid outlet 620 in the second plate 606 structure.

[00075] FIGS. 7A-7E illustrate a further embodiment of an apparatus for separating fluid within an exclusion zone from fluid outside of the exclusion zone. As shown in FIGS. 7 A and 7B, the apparatus has a rectangular housing with a first plate 702 structure having a first outlet 704 that permits exclusion zone fluid to exit the apparatus and a second plate 708 structure having a second outlet 710 that permits bulk fluid to exit the apparatus. While the housing illustrated in FIG. 7A and FIG. 7B is rectangular in shape, any shape may be utilized, for example, square, oval, triangular, circular, diamond, etc. As detailed in FIG. 7B, the plate structures of the housing can contain ports 706, which are channels formed internally within the plate and which originate on one side of the plate. The apparatus shown in FIG. 7B shows that the ports 706 originate on the side of the plate farthest from the fluid inlet 712 (see FIGS. 7A and 7E). However, the ports 706 can be at any location on the plates, so long as they are located a sufficient distance from the fluid inlet 712 to permit an exclusion layer to form once the fluid contacts a hydrophilic (e.g. an EZ-generating) surface 720. The channels extend into the center of the plate, and have a substantially 90 degree turn and then further extend towards the outer perimeter of the plate where the first 704 and second 710 outlets are located in the outer sidewall of the plate structures.

[00076] FIG. 7B shows an exploded view of the separator apparatus. A separator 714 is disposed between the first 702 and second 708 plates at a fixed distance which is mediated by two sets of spacers: an EZ spacer 716 (located on the side of the separator 714 nearest to the first fluid outlet 704) and a core spacer 718 (located on the side of the separator 714 nearest to the second fluid outlet 710). The spacers illustrated in FIG. 7B are "U" shaped and extend around the entirety of the perimeter of the plate structure with the exception of the fluid inlet 712 side. However, any shape can be used for the spacers so long as it is sufficient to maintain the separator 714 at a fixed position relative to the first 702 and second 708 plate structures. As is further illustrated in FIG. 7B, a rectangular-shaped hydrophilic (e.g. an EZ- generating) surface 720 is adhered to the inner surface of the first plate 702 structure via a suitable adhesive 722 (such as, without limitation, double-sided adhesive tape). The length of the hydrophilic surface 720 is sufficient to permit the formation of an exclusion zone in fluid passing over the hydrophilic surface 720.

[00077] As shown in FIG. 7E, the fluid inlet 712 in the apparatus is an opening formed between the first 702 and second 708 plate structures on the side of the plates farthest from the ports 706 which lead to the first 704 and second 710 fluid outlets. In particular, FIG. 7E shows that fluid flows into the device through a gap formed between the first 702 and second 708 plate structures. An EZ layer is formed once the fluid encounters the hydrophilic surface 720 adhered to the surface of the first plate 702 structure. The EZ layer and the bulk fluid layer then encounter the separator 714, which is held in position by the spacers and configured to interact with the fluid at the boundary between the EZ and bulk fluid layers. This interaction separates the EZ layer from the bulk layer and directs the EZ layer through the internal port 706 and towards the first fluid outlet 704 in the first plate 702 structure while sending the bulk layer through the internal port 706 and towards the second fluid outlet 710 in the second plate 708 structure. As further illustrated in FIG. 7B, both the hydrophilic surface 720 as well as the adhesive layer 722 contain holes in order to permit a channel containing the EZ fluid to extend from the separator 714 to the port 706 on the surface of the first plate 702 structure.

[00078] Another embodiment of the separation apparatus is shown in FIGS. 8A-8E. This apparatus can include multiple separators, thereby increasing the amount of separation of EZ fluid from bulk fluid relative to an apparatus having only one separator.

[00079] In the embodiment shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B, the apparatus has a rectangular housing with a first "EZ sandwich" plate structure 802 having a first outlet 804 that permits exclusion zone fluid to exit the apparatus and a second "bulk" plate structure 806 having a second fluid outlet 808 that permits bulk fluid to exit the apparatus. While the housing illustrated in FIG. 8A and FIG. 8B is rectangular in shape, any shape may be utilized, for example, square, oval, triangular, circular, diamond, etc. As further detailed in FIGS. 8 A and 8B, the plate structures of the housing contain ports 810, which are channels formed internally within the plates. The representation of the apparatus shown in FIG. 8B shows that the ports originate on the side of the plate farthest from the fluid inlet 812 {see FIGS. 8B and 8E). However, the ports can be at any location on the plates, so long as they are located a sufficient distance from the fluid inlet 812 to permit an exclusion layer to form once the fluid contacts a hydrophilic (e.g. an EZ-generating) surface. The channels extend partially into the center of the plate, and have a substantially 90 degree turn and then further extend towards the outer perimeter of the plate where the first 804 and second 808 outlets are located in the outer sidewall of the plate structures. Additionally, the first "EZ sandwich" plate structure 802 possesses a fluid inlet port 812 which extends into the plate and then makes a substantially 90 degree turn to form an opening on a side of the inner surface of the first "EZ sandwich" plate structure 802 (see FIG. 8B). The inner surface of the first "EZ sandwich" plate 802 is coated with a hydrophilic (e.g. an EZ-generating) material 814. [00080] FIG. 8B shows an exploded view of the separator apparatus. This embodiment has two separators 816 and 822. However, any number of separators can be employed (such as any of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more) for purposes of increasing the quantity of EZ fluid capable of being generated by the separator apparatus. In FIG. 8B, a first separator 816 is disposed between the first and second plates at a fixed distance which is mediated by two sets of spacers: an EZ spacer 818 (located on the side of the first separator nearest to the first fluid outlet) and a first core spacer 820 (located on the side of the first separator nearest to the second fluid outlet). The spacers illustrated in FIG. 8B are generally "U" shaped with arms on both sides of a separator extending towards the fluid inlet 812. The area between the arms of the spacers shown in FIG. 8B permits inlet fluid to contact the hydrophilic surface located below the spacer, thereby permitting the establishment of EZ and bulk fluid layers in fluid passing over the underlying hydrophilic surface.

[00081] Like the surface of the first "EZ sandwich" plate structure 802, the first separator 816 is also coated with a hydrophilic (e.g. an EZ-generating) surface on the side nearest to the second fluid outlet 808. A second separator 822 is positioned between the first core spacer 820 and a second core spacer 824 (see FIG. 8B). FIG. 8B and FIG. 8E shows that fluid flows though the fluid inlet 812 and onto the surface of the first "EZ sandwich" plate 802. A first EZ layer is formed once the fluid encounters the hydrophilic material coating the surface of the first plate structure. The EZ layer and the bulk fluid layer then encounter the first separator 816, which is held in position by the EZ spacer 818 and the first core spacer 820 and which is configured to interact with the fluid at the boundary between the EZ and bulk fluid layers. This interaction separates the EZ layer from the bulk layer and directs the EZ layer through the internal port 810 and towards the first fluid outlet 804 in the first plate structure while directing the bulk layer towards the second fluid outlet 808 where it then makes contact with the hydrophilic surface on the first separator 816, resulting in the formation of a second EZ fluid layer. The second EZ layer and the bulk fluid layer then encounter the second separator 822, which is held in position by the first core spacer 820 and the second core spacer 824 and which is configured to interact with the fluid at the boundary between the EZ and bulk fluid layers. This interaction again separates the EZ layer from the bulk layer and directs the EZ layer into a channel running perpendicular to the surface of apparatus and which passes though the first separator 816 and EZ spacer 818 via holes. This channel connects to the port located on the surface of first "EZ sandwich" plate 802 thereby permitting the EZ fluid to exit the apparatus via the first fluid outlet 804. The bulk fluid layer is directed by the second separator 822 towards second fluid outlet 808 located on the second "bulk" plate structure 806.

[00082] FIGS. 9A-9I illustrate another embodiment of an apparatus for separating fluid within an exclusion zone from fluid outside of the exclusion zone. As shown in FIGS. 9 A and 9B, the apparatus has a rectangular housing with a first plate structure 902 having a first outlet 904 that permits exclusion zone fluid to exit the apparatus and a second plate structure 906 having a second outlet 908 that permits bulk fluid to exit the apparatus. While the housing illustrated in FIGS. 9A and 9B is rectangular in shape, any shape may be utilized, for example, square, oval, triangular, circular, diamond, etc. As detailed in FIGS. 9 A and 9B, the plate structures of the housing contain ports 910, which are channels formed internally within the plates and which originate on one side of the plate. The representation of the apparatus shown in FIG. 9A and 9B shows that the ports originate on the side of the plate farthest from the fluid inlet 912 {see FIGS. 9A and 9E). However, the ports can be at any location on the plates, so long as they are located a sufficient distance from the fluid inlet 912 to permit an exclusion layer to form once the fluid contacts a hydrophilic (e.g. an EZ-generating) surface. The channels extend partially into the center of the plate, and have a substantially 90 degree turn and then further extend towards the outer perimeter of the plate where the first 904 and second 908 outlets are located in the outer sidewall of the plate structures.

[00083] FIG. 9B shows an exploded view of the separator apparatus. A separator 914 is disposed between the first plate structure 902 and the second plate structure 906 at a fixed distance mediated by a spacer located between the separator 914 and the second plate structure 906. The spacer 916 illustrated in FIG. 9B is "U" shaped and extends around the entirety of the perimeter of the plate structure with the exception of the fluid inlet side.

However, any shape can be used for the spacer so long as it is sufficient to maintain the separator at a fixed position relative to the first and second plate structure. As is further illustrated in FIG. 9B, the surface of the first plate structure 902 closest to the fluid inlet has multiple pillars 918 made of or coated with a hydrophilic (e.g. an EZ-generating) material. The pillars 918 can have any shape, such as, without limitation, circular (FIG. 9F), cross hatched (FIG. 9G), straight channels (FIG. 9H), or staggered diamond-shaped (FIG. 91). The length of the pillars can be sufficient to permit the formation of an exclusion zone in fluid passing over and around the surface of the pillars. [00084] As shown in FIG. 9E, the fluid inlet 912 in the apparatus is an opening formed between the first and second plate structures on the side of the plates farthest from the ports which lead to the first 904 and second 908 fluid outlets. In particular, FIG. 9E shows that fluid flows into the device through a gap formed between the first and second plate structures. An EZ layer is formed once the fluid encounters the hydrophilic surface coating the pillars 918 on the surface of the first plate structure. The EZ layer and the bulk fluid layer then encounter the separator, which is held in position by the spacer and which is configured to interact with the fluid at the boundary between the EZ and bulk fluid layers. This interaction separates the EZ layer from the bulk layer and directs the EZ layer through the internal port and towards the first fluid outlet 904 in the first plate structure 902, while sending the bulk layer through the internal port and towards the second fluid outlet 908 in the second plate structure.

[00085] FIGS. 10A-10B illustrate an embodiment of a separation apparatus for separating fluid within an exclusion zone from fluid outside of the exclusion zone. As shown in FIGS. 10A and 10B, the apparatus has a rectangular housing with a first plate structure 1002 having a first outlet 1004 that permits exclusion zone fluid to exit the apparatus and a second plate structure 1006 having a second outlet 1008 that permits bulk fluid to exit the apparatus. As detailed in FIG. 10B, the plate structures of the rectangular housing can contain ports 1010, which are channels formed internally within the plate and which originate on one side of the plate at its center. Specifically, the channels extend partially into the center of the plate, and have a substantially 90 degree turn and then further extend towards the outer perimeter of the plate where the first 1004 and second 1008 outlets are located in the outer sidewall of the plate structures. While first 1002 and second 1006 plate structures are shown, the apparatus can be formed from a single housing having a unitary configuration.

[00086] An internal plate can be located between the first 1002 and second 1006 plates and can be made entirely of or coated with a hydrophilic material that is effective to generate an exclusion zone within fluid flowing through the structure. The internal plate can have a rectangular shape and an area that is the same as, less than, or greater than the area of the first and second plates. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 10A-10B, the internal plate 1012 acts as a separator that has one or more cut-outs 1014 (for example, holes or slots) located within the internal plate to facilitate fluid separation. The separator is configured such that exclusion zone fluid flows though the cut-outs 1014 and towards the first outlet 1004 in the first plate structure 1002 via the port 1010 in the first plate structure 1002 while bulk fluid flows towards the second outlet 1008 in the second plate structure 1006. While the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 10A and 10B shows cut-outs cut into the separator in groups of discrete linear cuts extending parallel to one another and formed through the surface of the interior plate, any number of cut-outs 1014 (such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 50, or more, inclusive of numbers falling in between these values) having any shape (such as, without limitation, circular, square, rectangular, semi-circular, tear dropped, diamond, or triangular) can be used. For example, a series of concentric rings of single or discrete cut-out semi-circular configurations can also be used.

[00087] As further shown in FIGS. 10A and 10B, spacers 1016 can be used to position the EZ-generating material of the central plate 1012 at a predefined distance from the first 1002 and second 1006 plate structures. The spacers 1016 can be adhered to the central plate 1012 and/or the second plate structure 1006, or they can be formed on the central plate 1012 or the second plate structure 1006. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 10B, the spacer 1016 located between the first plate structure 1002 and the central plate 1012 is in a rectangular configuration and borders the entire perimeter of the first plate structure 1002 and the central plate 1012. There are two spacers 1016 located between the central plate 1012 and the second plate structure 1006 shown in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 10B. These spacers 1016 are located in parallel along the long edges of the rectangular first plate structure 1002, thereby permitting fluid access to the structure through an inlet 1018 formed on one side of the structure, as shown in FIG. 10A. The spacers 1016 can be any height sufficient to ensure the positioning of the separator at or near the boundary of the exclusion zone and bulk fluid layers (such as any of 100 μπι, 200 μπι, 300 μπι, 400 μπι, 0.5 mm, 1 mm, 1.5 mm, 2 mm, 2.5 mm, 3 mm, 3.5 mm, 4 mm, 4.5 mm, 5 mm, 5.5 mm, 6 mm, 6.5 mm, 7 mm, 7.5 mm, 8 mm, 8.5 mm, 9 mm, 9.5 mm, or 10 mm or more, including numbers falling in between these values).

[00088] As shown in FIG. 10A, influent water flows into the apparatus from one side and into the space located between the central EZ-generating plate 1012 and the second plate structure 1006 which is formed by the spacers 1016. Influent water can be directed into the apparatus via a pump or device capable of moving fluid via mechanical action. Alternatively, the apparatus can be submerged in water. An exclusion zone is generated when the influent water contacts the EZ-generating material 1012. Exclusion zone fluid is drawn through the separator and into the first outlet 1004 located in the first plate structure 1002. Bulk fluid is drawn up and into the second outlet 1008 which, as illustrated in FIG. 10B, can be a channel located within the second plate structure 1006. The exclusion zone fluid can thus exit through a first outlet 1004 for collection and the bulk fluid can flow through a second outlet 1008. In some embodiments, the first outlet 1004 that permits exclusion zone fluid to exit the apparatus and/or the second outlet 1008 that permits bulk fluid to exit the apparatus are configured to connect to a pump or other mechanical device for forcibly drawing fluid though one or both outlets. The force exerted by the pump or pumps can be varied in order to maximize the amount of exclusion zone fluid that is drawn through the separators and into the first outlet 1004. Specifically, the force exerted by the pump drawing bulk fluid through the second fluid outlet 1008 can be optimized to ensure that no bulk fluid is drawn into the first fluid outlet 1004. At the same time, the force exerted by the pump drawing bulk fluid through the first fluid outlet 1004 can be optimized to ensure that no EZ fluid is drawn into the second fluid outlet 1008.

[00089] While not shown, the second outlet 1008 can be coupled to an inlet of a second separator apparatus for additional separation using a series containing multiple apparatuses. Additionally, multiple units of the apparatus shown in FIG. 10A-10B can be placed in a stacked configuration to increase the efficiency of exclusion zone fluid separation.

[00090] HYDROPHILIC MATERIAL

[00091] As used herein, the term "hydrophilic surface" refers to a surface of a material having a contact angle less than 90 degrees for water. The hydrophilic surfaces may be charged or uncharged. The charged hydrophilic surfaces may be mixed charge surfaces. The charged hydrophilic surfaces may have a net positive charge or a net negative charge.

[00092] Any hydrophilic material can be used to construct or coat the inner surfaces of any of the tubular structures described herein. Suitable materials having hydrophilic surfaces for use in the present invention include hydrophilic gels (e.g., polyacrylic acid gels, polyvinyl alcohol gels, polyacrylamide gels, polyHEMA gels, collagen gels, actin gels, polyethylene diacrylate (PEDGA) gels and agarose gels), biological materials (e.g., muscle tissue, vascular endothelium, xylem, oxtail tendon, seaweed, and plant root), self-assembled monolayers including carboxyl group-containing monolayers and polyethylene gly col -containing monolayers (e.g., supported on metal surfaces such as gold), polymeric surfaces (e.g., ionomer surfaces) including sulfonic acid-containing polymer surfaces (e.g., sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene copolymer surface also known as NAFION), inorganic surfaces (e.g., surfaces containing titanium dioxide, silicon, zinc, lead, tungsten, aluminum, tin, and mica), and ion exchange resins and materials.

[00093] Suitable materials having hydrophilic surfaces may have a variety of shapes. In one embodiment, the hydrophilic material is a sheet having a rectangular hydrophilic surface. In another embodiment, the hydrophilic material is a particle (e.g., microsphere or nanosphere). In other embodiments, the hydrophilic material includes a plurality of hydrophilic beads (e.g., mixed charged beads, negatively charged beads, positively charged beads). In one embodiment, the hydrophilic material is ice. Exclusions zones have been observed for each of the hydrophilic materials noted above.

[00094] SIZE OF EZ AND POSITION OF SEPARATOR

[00095] The size and shape of the exclusion zone formed varies greatly depending on the nature of the hydrophilic surface, its size and shape, the nature of the volume of water, and the energy applied. The size of the exclusion zone is variable and dependent on the applied energy: the greater the applied energy, the greater the size of the exclusion zone. When energy is applied, the exclusion zone can extend up to a meter or more from the hydrophilic surface. The exclusion zone can therefore extend from the hydrophilic surface any distance from about 1 nm to a meter or more. In certain embodiments, the exclusion zone can extend a distance of from one to two millimeters from the hydrophilic surface. In other

embodiments, the exclusion zone can extend a distance of from about 200 μηι to about 700 μηι from the hydrophilic surface. The shape of the exclusion zone is also variable. For example, when the hydrophilic surface is a sheet positioned against a wall of the vessel containing the volume of water, the exclusion zone extends into the volume of water away from the surface of the hydrophilic surface. A person skilled in the art will thus appreciate that the spacers disclosed herein can be sized to position the separator at a height that will align with the junction between the EZ water and the bulk water.

[00096] PARALLEL/SERIES STRUCTURES

[00097] In some embodiments, individual units of the separation apparatuses described herein can then be combined with similarly configured apparatuses to form long chains (comprising any of about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 80, or 100 or more repeating units) for generating highly purified fluids, concentrated solutes, highly positively charged fluids, or fluids with very low pH. Long or short chains of the combination can be connected in parallel to create larger amounts of purified fluids or concentrated solutes. In further embodiments, the purified fluid from one series of chains is connected in series with another series of chains to increase the production rate and/or amount of purified fluid generated by the apparatus. For effective exclusion, different solutes may require different physical and geometric exclusion parameters. However, it may turn out that a particular set of parameters is acceptable for the exclusion of a particular solute. In such a case, it may be possible to remove the solute in a single filtration pass, without requiring multiple stages or one or more series of chains.

[00098] DESALINATION

[00099] The devices and methods described herein can be used to remove salts from water to obtain efficient desalination. The salts to be separated can include sodium chloride, seawater salts, components of buffer solutions, and many other salts and ionic compounds. Hence, exemplary methods can separate ionic (charged) components from water mixtures, or can separate neutral, non-ionic species from water mixtures too. The subject matter described herein can additionally concentrate dissolved or suspended species from aqueous solutions. That is, instead of pure water being the only desired product, an exemplary method can be used to concentrate the non-aqueous components of an aqueous mixture.

[000100] ENERGY GENERATION

[000101] In further aspects, the present invention provides a method and system for generating electrical energy from a volume of water. In one embodiment, electrical energy is extracted from the volume of water that is subj ect to or has been subject to applied energy, such a radiant energy from the sun or the local environment. As such, provided herein are methods for generating electrical energy from a volume of water. In one embodiment of the method, a volume of water is contacted with a hydrophilic surface, such as any of the hydrophilic surfaces coating any of the apparatus or devices described above, and subjected to the application of energy to provide an exclusion zone at the interface of the hydrophilic surface and the water. A bulk zone in the volume of water is formed outside of the exclusion zone. Charge separation is induced in the volume of water by applying energy to the volume of water. Electrical energy is extracted from the volume of water by providing a first electrode in the exclusion zone and a second electrode in the bulk zone, and connecting a load across the electrodes.

[000102] Application of energy to the volume of water in contact with the hydrophilic surface results in the formation of the exclusion zone. In the process, charge separation is induced in the volume of water. As used herein, the term "charge separation" refers to the physical separation of negative charges (e.g., solutes, particles, ions) from positive charges (e.g., solutes, particles, ions) in the volume of water. In general, the exclusion zone is a region of negative charge and the bulk zone is a region of positive charge (e.g., hydronium ions, free protons).

[000103] One skilled in the art will appreciate further features and advantages of the invention based on the above-described embodiments. Accordingly, the invention is not to be limited by what has been particularly shown and described, except as indicated by the appended claims. All publications and references cited herein are expressly incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.