LI JOHN TIANCI (US)
WYSS KEVIN (US)
CHEN JINHANG (US)
CHEN WEIYIN (US)
EDDY LUCAS (US)
SCOTLAND PHELECIA (US)
WO2022067111A2 | 2022-03-31 |
US20210206642A1 | 2021-07-08 | |||
US20230064987W | 2023-03-27 |
AGNOLI, S ET AL., JOURNAL OF MATERIALS CHEMISTRY A, vol. 4, 2016, pages 5002 - 5025
AHAMED, A ET AL., J. HAZARD. MATER, vol. 390, 2020, pages 121449
J. APPL. PHYS., vol. 87, 2000, pages 4022
ALABDULLAH, F. T, EXFOLIATED HEXAGONAL BORON NITRIDE BASED ANTI-CORROSION POLYMER NANO-COMPOSITE COATINGS FOR CARBON STEEL IN A SALINE ENVIRONMENT, 2018, pages 391 - 425
STANFORD, M. G ET AL., ACS NANO, vol. 14, no. 10, 2020, pages 13691
ALKOY, S ET AL., J. EUR. CERAM. SOC, vol. 17, 1997, pages 1415
ARENAL, R ET AL., NANO LETT, vol. 6, no. 8, 2006, pages 1812 - 1816
ASHRAF, M. A ET AL., NANOSCALE RES. LETT, vol. 13, 2018, pages 214
CHEN, X ET AL., SCI. REP, vol. 7, no. 1, 2017, pages 45584 - 9
BAE, D. S ET AL., NANO CONVERG, vol. 9, no. 1, 2022, pages 20
BAZARGAN, A ET AL., CHEM. ENG. J, vol. 195, no. 196, 2012, pages 377
BECKHAM, J. L ET AL., ADV. MATER, vol. 34, no. 8, 2022, pages 2106970
BRAR, V. W ET AL., PHYS. REV. B, vol. 66, 2002, pages 155418
CAI, N ET AL., ENERGY CONVERS. MANAG, vol. 229, 2021, pages 113794
CAI, Q. R ET AL., NANOSCALE, vol. 9, 2017, pages 3059
CAROZO, V ET AL., NANO LETT, vol. 11, 2011, pages 4527
CARROLL, K. M ET AL., LANGMUIR, vol. 34, 2018, pages 73
CAO, C. C ET AL., 2D MATER, vol. 9, 2022, pages 015014
CHEN, W ET AL., ACS NANO, vol. 16, 2022, pages 6646
CHEN, W ET AL., ACS NANO, vol. 15, 2021, pages 11158
CHEN, X ET AL., APPL. PHYS. LETT., vol. 107, no. 25, 2015, pages 253105
CHEN, Y ET AL., CHEM. PHYS. LETT, vol. 299, no. 3-4, 1999, pages 260 - 264
CHIANG, W.-H ET AL., NAT. MATER., vol. 8, 2009, pages 882
CHOPRA, N. G ET AL., SCIENCE, vol. 269, no. 5226, 1995, pages 966 - 967
CI, L. J ET AL., NAT. MATER., vol. 9, 2010, pages 430
CONSTANTINESCU, G ET AL., PHYS. REV. LETT., vol. 111, 2013, pages 036104
DEMIRCI, U. B, ENERGIES, vol. 13, no. 12, 2020, pages 3071
DENG, B ET AL., NAT. COMMUN, vol. 13, no. 1, 2022, pages 262
DING, W ET AL., NAT. COMMUN., vol. 12, 2021, pages 5886
DING, W ET AL., ACS NANO, vol. 13, 2019, pages 10872 - 10878
EDGAR, J. H, PROPERTIES OF GROUP III NITRIDES, 1994
FATHALIZADEH, A ET AL., NANO LETT, vol. 14, no. 8, 2014, pages 4881 - 4886
FAN, M. M ET AL., ADV. MATER, vol. 31, 2019, pages 1805778
FENG, L ET AL., MATERIALS, vol. 7, 2014, pages 3919
FERRARI, A. C ET AL., NAT. NANOTECHNOL, vol. 8, 2013, pages 235
FOUQUET, M ET AL., PHYS. REV. B, vol. 85, 2012, pages 235411
FRUEH, S ET AL., INORG. CHEM, vol. 50, no. 3, 2011, pages 783 - 792
GLADKAYA, I. S ET AL., J. ALLOYS COMPD, vol. 117, 1986, pages 241
GONG, J ET AL., IND. ENG. CHEM. RES., vol. 52, 2013, pages 15578
GORBACHEV, R. V ET AL., SMALL, vol. 7, 2011, pages 465
GOVIND RAJAN, A ET AL., J. PHYS. CHEM. LETT, vol. 9, 2018, pages 1584
GUO, Y ET AL., SCI. REP, vol. 12, 2022, pages 2522
GUPTA, S ET AL., ACS APPL. NANO MATER, vol. 3, 2020, pages 7930
HAN, X ET AL., ACSNANO, vol. 12, no. 11, 2018, pages 11219
HONG, J ET AL., SCI. REP, vol. 3, 2013, pages 2700
HU, S.-Q ET AL., J. CHEM, vol. 2019, 2019, pages 8793282
HUANG, L ET AL., ACSNANO, vol. 14, 2020, pages 12045
HUANG, Y ET AL., NANOTECHNOLOGY, vol. 22, no. 14, 2011, pages 145602
HUNTER, R. D ET AL., J. MATER. CHEM. A, vol. 10, 2022, pages 4489
JAGODZINSKA, K ET AL., CHEM. ENG. J, vol. 446, 2022, pages 136808
JIA, M ET AL., MACROMOL. RAPID COMMUN, vol. 43, 2022, pages 2100835
JIA, Z ET AL., CATALYSTS, vol. 7, 2017, pages 256
JIE, X ET AL.: "3", NAT. CATAL, 2020, pages 902
KAKIAGEA, M ET AL., KEY ENG. MATER, vol. 534, 2013, pages 55
KHANNA, V ET AL., JOURNAL OF INDUSTRAL ECOLOGY, vol. 12, no. 3, 2008, pages 394 - 410
KIM, H.-S ET AL., NANOMATERIALS (BASEL,), vol. 12, no. 1, 2021, pages 11
KIM, J ET AL., ACTA MATER, vol. 59, no. 7, 2011, pages 2807 - 2813
MEDUPIN, R. O ET AL., SCI. REP, vol. 9, no. 1, 2019, pages 20146
KIM, J. H ET AL., NANO CONVERG, vol. 5, no. 1, 2018, pages 17
KIM, K. S ET AL., ACS OMEGA, vol. 6, no. 41, 2021, pages 27418 - 27429
KIM, K. S ET AL., ACS NANO, vol. 12, no. 1, 2018, pages 11756 - 893
KIM, M ET AL., CHEM. ENG. J, vol. 395, 2020, pages 125148
KOEPKE, J. C ET AL., CHEM. MATER, vol. 28, no. 12, 2016, pages 4169 - 4179
KOKEN, D ET AL., ACS APPL. NANO MATER, vol. 5, no. 2, 2022, pages 2137 - 2146
KOSYNKIN, D. V ET AL., NATURE, vol. 458, 2009, pages 872
KOU, L ET AL., NANO MICRO LETT, vol. 9, 2017, pages 51
KOUR, R ET AL., J. ELECTROCHEM. SOC., vol. 167, 2020, pages 037555
KOUTSIOUKIS, A ET AL., NANOMATERIALS, vol. 12, 2022, pages 447
KUMAR, S, CHEM. ENG. J, vol. 403, 2021, pages 126352
LAHIRI, D ET AL., ACTA BIOMATER, vol. 6, no. 9, 2010, pages 3524 - 3533
LANGENHORSTA, F ET AL., PHYS. CHEM. CHEM. PHYS., vol. 4, 2002, pages 5183
LEBEDEV, A. V ET AL., ECS J. SOLID. STATE. SCI. TECHNOL, vol. 9, 2020, pages 083004
LEE, C. H ET AL., MOLECULES, vol. 21, no. 7, 2016, pages 922
LEE, J.-K ET AL., IUCRJ, vol. 8, 2021, pages 1018 - 1023
YAN, Z ET AL., ACS NANO, vol. 8, 2014, pages 5061
LI, T, NAT. ENERGY, vol. 3, 2018, pages 148
LI, Y ET AL., E3S WEB CONF, vol. 260, 2021, pages 03027
LI, Y ET AL., EARTH ENVIRON. SCI, vol. 453, no. 1, 2020, pages 012091
LIAN, J. B ET AL., J. PHYS. CHEM. C, vol. 113, 2009, pages 9135
LIU, F ET AL., FRONT. CHEM, 2021, pages 9
LOURIE, O. R ET AL., CHEM. MATER, vol. 12, no. 7, 2000, pages 1808 - 1810
LUONG, D. X ET AL., NATURE, vol. 577, 2020, pages 647
MARTIN-LARA, M. A ET AL., J. CLEAN., PROD, vol. 365, 2022, pages 132625
MCGILVERY, C. M ET AL., MICRON, vol. 43, 2012, pages 450
MCLEAN, B ET AL., J. APPL. PHYS, vol. 129, 2021, pages 044302
MERLEN, A ET AL., COATINGS, vol. 7, 2017, pages 153
MUELLER, J. E ET AL., J. PHYS. CHEM. C, vol. 114, no. 10, 2010, pages 4340 - 4344
OWUOR, P. S ET AL., ACS NANO, vol. 11, 2017, pages 8944
PAKDEL, A ET AL., NANOTECHNOLOGY, vol. 23, no. 21, 2012, pages 215601
PARK, H. J ET AL., SCI. ADV, vol. 6, 2020, pages eaay4958
PLIMPTON, S, J. COMPUT. PHYS, vol. 117, 1995, pages 1
PUYOO, G ET AL., CARBON, vol. 122, 2017, pages 19
RATHINAVEL, S ET AL., MATER. SCI. ENG. B, vol. 268, 2021, pages 115095
REN, S. M ET AL., ACS APPL. MATER. INTERFACES, vol. 9, 2017, pages 27152
RESTIVO, J ET AL., PROCESSES, vol. 8, 2020, pages 1329
ROY, S ET AL., NANOTECHNOL. REV, vol. 7, 2018, pages 475
RUBIO, A ET AL., PHYS. REV. B CONDENS. MATTER, vol. 49, no. 7, 1994, pages 5081 - 5084
RUIZ-CORNEJO, J. C ET AL., REV. CHEM. ENG, vol. 36, 2020, pages 493
RYDBERG, H ET AL., PHYS. REV. LETT., vol. 91, 2003, pages 126402
SARKAR, N ET AL., IND. ENG. CHEM. RES, vol. 55, 2016, pages 2921
SHARMA, S. S ET AL., J. CHEM. TECHNOL. BIOTECHNOL, vol. 95, 2020, pages 11
SHI, C ET AL., SMALL, vol. 15, 2019, pages 1902348
SINGH, D. K ET AL., DIAM. RELAT. MATER, vol. 19, 2010, pages 1281
SHIRATORI, T ET AL., NANOMATERIALS (BASEL), vol. 11, no. 3, 2021, pages 651
SIMPSON, A. STUCKES, J. PHYS. C: SOLID STATE PHYS, vol. 4, 1971, pages 1710
SINGH, N. K ET AL., RSC ADV, vol. 8, 2018, pages 17237
SMITH, R. J ET AL., ADV. MATER, vol. 23, 2011, pages 3944
SONG, L ET AL., NANO LETT, vol. 10, 2010, pages 3209
SPAHR, M. E ET AL., FILLERS FOR POLYMER APPLICATIONS, 2017, pages 375 - 400
STEHLE, Y ET AL., ., CHEM. MATER, vol. 27, no. 23, 2015, pages 8041 - 8047
TAN, L. F ET AL., ADV. ELECTRON. MATER, vol. 1, 2015, pages 1500223
TAY, R. Y ET AL., CHEM. MATER, vol. 27, no. 20, 2015, pages 7156 - 7163
TAY, R. Y ET AL., J. MATER. CHEM. CMATER. OPT. ELECTRON. DEVICES, vol. 2, no. 9, 2014, pages 1650 - 1657
TEAH, H ET AL., ACS SUSTAINABLE CHEM. ENG, vol. 8, no. 4, 2020, pages 1730 - 1740
TEMIZEL-SEKERYAN, S ET AL., INT J LIFE CYCLE ASSESS, vol. 26, no. 4, 2021, pages 656 - 672
THAMBILIYAGODAGE, C. J ET AL., CARBON, vol. 134, 2018, pages 452
THOMAS, J ET AL., J. AM. CHEM. SOC., vol. 84, 1963, pages 4619
TOYOS-RODRIGUEZ, C ET AL., J. NANOMATER, 2019, pages 1 - 10
TRIPATHI, P. K ET AL., NANOMATERIALS, vol. 7, 2017, pages 284
TROMPETA, A.-F ET AL., JOURNAL OF CLEANER PRODUCTION, vol. 129, 2016, pages 384 - 394
VEDHANARAYANAN, B ET AL., NPG ASIA MATER, vol. 10, 2018, pages 107
VISWANATHA, R ET AL., JOHN WILEY & SONS, LTD, 2007, pages 139 - 170
WANG, B ET AL., J. AM. CHEM. SOC., vol. 129, 2007, pages 9014
WANG, C. X ET AL., J. AM. CHEM. SOC., vol. 139, no. 13997, 2017
WANG, J ET AL., CATAL. TODAY, vol. 351, 2020, pages 50
WANG, X ET AL., CHEMICAL SOCIETY REVIEWS, vol. 43, 2014, pages 7067 - 7098
WANG, Y ET AL., ACS SUSTAIN. CHEM. ENG., vol. 10, 2022, pages 2204
WANG, Y ET AL., J. NANOMATER, vol. 2008, 2008, pages 1 - 7
WANG, Z ET AL., NANOMATERIALS, vol. 9, 2019, pages 1045
WARNER, J. H ET AL., NANO LETT, vol. 9, 2009, pages 102
WILLIAMS, P. T, WASTE BIOMASS VALORIZATION, vol. 12, 2021, pages 1
XIE, H ET AL., SMALL METHODS, vol. 2, 2018, pages 1700371
WU, F ET AL., JOURNAL OF CLEANER PRODUCTION, vol. 270, 2020, pages 122465
WYSS, K. M ET AL., COMMUN. ENG, vol. 1, 2022, pages 1
ZHAO, M.-Q ET AL., ACS NANO, vol. 16, no. 5, 2012, pages 10759
WYSS, K. M ET AL., ACSNANO, vol. 15, 2021, pages 10542
WU, C ET AL., PROCESS SAF. ENVIRON. PROT, vol. 103, 2016, pages 107
XIA, K ET AL., PROCEDIA IUTAM, vol. 21, 2017, pages 94
XU, D ET AL., ANGEW. CHEM. INT. ED, vol. 57, 2018, pages 755
XU, H ET AL., JOURNAL OF ENERGY CHEMISTRY, vol. 27, 2018, pages 146 - 160
XU, Q ET AL., NANOSCALE, vol. 11, 2019, pages 1475
YANG, W ET AL., J. AM. CHEM. SOC, vol. 137, 2015, pages 1436
YAQOOB, L ET AL., ACS OMEGA, vol. 7, 2022, pages 13403
YAO, D ET AL., ACS SUSTAIN. CHEM. ENG, vol. 10, 2022, pages 1125
YAO, Y. G ET AL., SCIENCE, vol. 359, 2018, pages 1489
YAO, Y ET AL., NANO LETT, vol. 16, 2016, pages 7282
YOON, D ET AL.: "Raman Spectroscopy for Characterization of Graphene", 2012, SPRINGER-VERLAG
YU, D. P ET AL., APPL. PHYS. LETT, vol. 72, no. 16, 1998, pages 1966 - 1968
YUAN, D ET AL., NANO LETT, vol. 8, 2008, pages 2576
ZARE, Y, COMPOS. PART APPL. SCI. MANUF, vol. 84, 2016, pages 158
ZENG, X ET AL., ACSNANO, vol. 11, no. 5, 2017, pages 5167 - 5178
ZHAO, C ET AL., ADV. FUNCT. MATER, vol. 24, 2014, pages 5985
ZHI, C. ET AL., ADV. FUNCT. MATER, vol. 19, no. 12, 2009, pages 1857 - 1862
ZHI, C ET AL., . AM. CHEM. SOC, vol. 127, no. (46), 2005, pages 15996 - 15997
ZHI, C ET AL., SOLID STATE COMMUN, vol. 135, no. 1-2, 2005, pages 67 - 70
ZHONG, B. ET AL., MATER. DES, vol. 120, 2017, pages 266
ZHU, M ET AL., J. INORG. MATER, vol. 34, 2019, pages 817
ZHUANG, C ET AL., RSC ADV, vol. 6, no. 114, 2016, pages 113415 - 113423
ZHUO, C ET AL., J. APPL. POLYM. SCI., 2014, pages 131
ZOU, B. J ET AL., PROG. ORG. COAT, vol. 133, 2019, pages 139
WHAT IS CLAIMED IS: 1. A method comprising flash Joule heating a mixture of a material and a catalyst to form a 1-dimensional structure. 2. The method of Claim 1, wherein (a) the flash Joule heating is a process comprising applying a voltage across the mixture, which drives a current through the mixture to form the 1-dimensional structure; (b) the voltage is applied in one or more voltage pulses; and (c) duration of each of the one or more voltage pulses is for a duration period. 3. The method of any of Claim 1-2, wherein the material is a carbon material that is substantially not graphene. 4. The method of any of Claims 1-3, wherein the 1-dimensionnal structure is a graphitic 1D and/or hybrid material nanomaterial. 5. The method of any of Claims 1-4, wherein the method further comprises forming the 1-dimensional structure forms along with one or more other dimensional structures selected from the group consisting of 0-dimensional structures, 2-dimensional structures, and mixtures thereof. 6. The method of any of Claims 1-5, wherein the 1-dimensional structure and the one or more other dimensional structures are conjoined covalently or non-covalently. 7. The method of Claim 6, wherein the 1-dimensional structure and the one or more other dimensional structures are conjoined to form a 3-dimensional network. 8. The method of any of Claims 1-7, wherein the material is a carbon material comprising a polymer. 9. The method of Claim 8, wherein the mixture is formed by loading the polymer with particles of the catalyst through surface wetting. 10. The method of Claim 8, wherein the mixture is formed by loading the polymer with particles of the catalyst through melt mixing. 11. The method of any of Claims 1-10, wherein the materials is a waste product comprising carbon. 12. The method of any of Clams 1-11, wherein the catalyst is selected from the group consisting of iron(II) chloride, nickel(II) chloride, cobalt(II) chloride, and ferrocene. 13. The method of any of Claims 1-11, wherein the catalyst is selected from the group consisting of any transition metal or main group metal or transition metal or main group metal complex, salt, oxide, halide, or combinations thereof. 14. The method of any of Claims 1-13, wherein the mixture further comprising a conductive carbon additive. 15. The method of Claim 14, wherein the conductive carbon additive is selected from the group consisting of graphene, flash graphene, turbostratic graphene, anthracite coal, coconut shell-derived carbon, higher temperature-treated biochar, activated charcoal, calcined petroleum coke, metallurgical coke, coke, shungite, carbon nanotubes, asphaltenes, acetylene black, carbon black, ash, carbon fiber, and mixtures thereof. 16. The method of Claim 14, wherein the conductive carbon additive comprises carbon black and/or metallurgical coke. 17. The method of any of Claims 14-16, wherein the method further comprises that, after the flash Joule heating, separating at least some of the conductive carbon additive from the formed the 1-dimensional structure. 18. The method of Claim 17, wherein the step of separating is based grain size of the conductive carbon additive and size of the 1-dimensional structure formed. 19. The method of Claim 18, wherein the step of separating comprising sieving to separate the small 1-dimensional structure from the large grain conductive carbon additive. 20. The method of 19, wherein, after the step of separating, % yield of 1-dimensional structure formed in the method is at least 80%. 21. The method of Claim 19, wherein, after the step of separating % yield of the 1- dimensional structure formed in the method is between 80% and 90%. 22. The method of any of Claims 1-19, wherein % yield of 1-dimensional structure formed in the method is at least 65%. 23. The method of any of Claims 1-19, wherein % yield of the 1-dimensional structure formed in the method is at least 80%. 24. A 1-dimensional structure that is made by any of the methods of Claims 1-23. 25. The 1-dimensional structure of Claim 24, wherein the 1-dimensional structure is any form of nanostructure or microstructure in which length of the 1-dimensional structure is at least 3 times longer than the width of the 1-dimensional structure. 26. The 1-dimensional structure of Claim 24, wherein the 1-dimensional structure is not a single atomic sheet thick. 27. A composite comprising the 1-dimensional structure of any of Claims 24-26. 28. The composite of Claim 27, wherein the composite comprises the 1-dimensional structure and a vinyl ester. 29. The composite of Claim 27, wherein the composite is a 1-dimensional structure reinforced vinvl ester resin nanocomposite. 30. A structure or network that is made by any of the methods of Claims 1-23. 31. The structure or network of Claim 30, wherein the 1-dimensional structure of the structure or network is any form of nanostructure or microstructure in which length of the 1- dimensional structure is at least 3 times longer than the width of the 1-dimensional structure. 32. The structure or network of Claim 30, wherein the 1-dimensional structure of the structure or network is not a single atomic sheet thick. 33. A method comprising flash Joule heating a mixture to form boron nitride nanotubes, wherein the mixture comprises (i) a material comprising boron, (ii) a material comprising nitrogen and (iii) a catalyst. 34. The method of Claim 33, wherein (a) the flash Joule heating is a process comprising applying a voltage across the mixture, which drives a current through the mixture to form the boron nitride nanotubes; (b) the voltage is applied in one or more voltage pulses; and (c) duration of each of the one or more voltage pulses is for a duration period. 35. The method of any of Claims 33-34, wherein the material comprising the boron and the material comprising the nitrogen are different materials. 36. The method of any of Claims 33-34, wherein the material comprising the boron and the material comprising the nitrogen are the same material. 37. The method of Claim 36, wherein the same material is ammonia borane. 38. The method of any of Claims 33-37, wherein the catalyst is Ni(acac)2 and/or Fe(acac)3. 39. The method of any of Claims 33-37, wherein the catalyst comprises Ni and/or Fe. 40. The method of any of Claims 33-39, wherein the mixture further comprises a conductive carbon source. 41. The method of Claim 40, wherein the conductive carbon source is selected from the group consisting of graphene, flash graphene, turbostratic graphene, anthracite coal, coconut shell-derived carbon, higher temperature-treated biochar, activated charcoal, calcined petroleum coke, metallurgical coke, coke, shungite, carbon nanotubes, asphaltenes, acetylene black, carbon black, ash, carbon fiber, and mixtures thereof. 42. The method of Claim 40, wherein the conductive carbon source comprises carbon black and/or metallurgical coke. 43. The method of any of Claims 40-42, wherein the mixture comprises (i) the material comprising the boron and the material comprising the nitrogen and (b) the conductive carbon source in a weight ratio between 1:2 and 2:1. 44. The method of any of Claims 40-43, wherein the method further comprises that, after the flash Joule heating, separating at least some of the conductive carbon source from the boron nitride nanotubes formed. 45. The method of Claim 44, wherein the step of separating is based grain size of the conductive carbon source and size of the boron nitride nanotubes formed. 46. The method of Claim 45, wherein the step of separating comprising sieving to separate the small boron nitride nanotubes from the large grain conductive carbon source. 47. The method of Claim 46, wherein, after the step of separating, % yield of boron nitride nanotubes formed in the method is at least 45%. 48. The method of Claim 46, wherein, after the step of separating, % yield of the 1- dimensional structure formed in the method is at least 60%. 49. The method of Claims 40-46, wherein % yield of the boron nitride nanotubes formed in the method is at least 45%. 50. The method of any of Claims 40-46, wherein % yield of the boron nitride nanotubes formed in the method is at least 60%. 51. The method of any of Claims 40-50, wherein products of the method comprise the boron nitride nanotubes and a sheet-like structure. 52. The method of Claim 51, wherein at least 30% of the products of the method are boron nitride nanotubes. 53. A composition comprising boron nitride nanotubes made by any of the methods of Claims 33-52. 54. A method comprising flash Joule heating a mixture to form turbostratic nanomaterial comprising (a) boron, (b) nitrogen, and a (c) third element selected from the group consisting of carbon, tungsten, or iron, wherein the mixture comprises (i) a material comprising boron, (ii) a material comprising nitrogen, and (iii) a material comprising the third element. 55. The method of Claim 54, wherein (a) the flash Joule heating is a process comprising applying a voltage across the mixture, which drives a current through the mixture to form the turbostratic nanomaterial; (b) the voltage is applied in one or more voltage pulses; and (c) duration of each of the one or more voltage pulses is for a duration period. 56. The method of any of Claims 54-55, wherein the third element is carbon, and the turbostratic nanomaterial is turbostratic BCN. 57. The method of any of Claims 54-55, wherein the third element is tungsten, and the turbostratic nanomaterial is turbostratic BN-W. 58. The method of any of Claims 54-55, wherein the third element is iron, and the turbostratic nanomaterial is turbostratic BN-Fe. 59. The method of any of Claims 54-58, wherein the mixture comprises (i) the material comprising the boron and the material comprising the nitrogen and (b) the material comprising the third element are in a weight ratio above 4:1. 60. The method of any of Claims 54-58, wherein the mixture comprises (i) the material comprising the boron and the material comprising the nitrogen and (b) the material comprising the third element in a weight ratio between 1:2 and 2:1. 61. The method of any of Claims 54-60, wherein % yield of the turbostratic nanomaterial formed in the method is at least 20%. 62. The method of any of Claims 54-60, wherein % yield of the turbostratic nanomaterial formed in the method is at least 30%. 63. A composition comprising a turbostratic nanomaterial comprising (a) boron, (b) nitrogen, and (c) a third element selected from the group consisting of carbon, tungsten, and iron, wherein the composition is made by any of the methods of Claims 54-62. 64. A method to form doped or substituted graphene, wherein the method comprises: (a) performing a first flash Joule heating process using a first mixture to form a first formed graphene, wherein the first mixture comprises (i) a carbon source that is substantially not graphene and (ii) a catalyst; (b) mixing one or more heteroatom doping compounds with the first formed graphene to form a second mixture; and (c) performing a second flash Joule heating process using the second mixture to form the doped or substituted graphene. 65. The method of Claim 64, wherein (a) the first flash Joule heating process comprises applying a first voltage across the first mixture, which drives a first current through the first mixture to form the first formed graphene; (b) the first voltage is applied in one or more first voltage pulses; (c) duration of each of the one or more first voltage pulses is for a first duration period; (d) the second flash Joule heating process comprises applying a second voltage across the second mixture, which drives a second current through the second mixture to form the doped or substituted graphene; (e) the second voltage is applied in one or more second voltage pulses; and (f) duration of each of the one or more second voltage pulses is for a second duration period. 66. The method of any of Claims 64-66, wherein the first formed graphene is a 1- dimensional structure. 67. The method of Claim 66, wherein the 1-dimensional structure is formed by a method of any of Claims 1-23. 68. The method of any of Claims 64-66, wherein the first formed graphene is holey and wrinkled graphene. 69. The method of any of Claims 64-66, wherein the first formed graphene is turbostratic graphene. 70. The method of any of Claims 64-69, wherein the carbon material comprises a polymer. 71. The method of any of Claims 64-69, wherein the carbon material is a waste product comprising carbon. 72. The method of any of Claims 64-69, wherein the carbon material is a plastic. 73. The method of any of Claims 64-69, wherein the carbon material is selected from the group consisting of graphene, flash graphene, turbostratic graphene, anthracite coal, coconut shell-derived carbon, higher temperature-treated biochar, activated charcoal, calcined petroleum coke, metallurgical coke, coke, shungite, carbon nanotubes, asphaltenes, acetylene black, carbon black, ash, carbon fiber, and mixtures thereof. 74. The method of any of Claims 64-69, wherein the conductive carbon material comprises metallurgical coke and/or bituminous activated charcoal. 75. The method of any of Clams 64-74, wherein the catalyst is selected from the group consisting of iron(II) chloride, nickel(II) chloride, cobalt(II) chloride, and ferrocene. 76. The method of any of Claims 64-74, wherein the catalyst is selected from the group consisting of any transition metal or main group metal or transition metal or main group metal complex, salt, oxide, halide, or combinations thereof. 77. The method of any of Claims 64-76, wherein the method further comprises that, after the first flash Joule heating process, separating at least some of the carbon material from the formed the first formed graphene. 78. The method of Claim 77, wherein the step of separating is based grain size of the carbon material and size of the first formed graphene. 78. The method of Claim 77, wherein the step of separating comprising sieving to separate the small first formed graphene from the large grain carbon material. 79. The method of any of Claims 64-78, wherein the step of mixing to form the second mixture comprise mixing exactly one heteroatom doping compound with the first formed graphene. 80. The method of any of Claims 64-78, wherein the step of mixing to form the second mixture comprise mixing two or more heteroatom doping compounds with the first formed graphene. 81. The method of any of Claims 64-80, wherein the one or more heteroatom doping compounds each comprises at least one heteroatom selected from the group consisting of boron, nitrogen, sulfur, and fluorine. 82. The method of any of Claims 64-80, wherein the one or more heteroatom doping compounds are each selected from the group consisting of boric acid, melamine resin, polyphenylene sulfide, perfluorooctanoic acid. 83. The method of any of Claims 64-80, wherein the one or more heteroatom doping compounds comprise an organic powder having a low melting point. 85. The method of any of Claims 64-83, wherein ratio of (i) one or more heteroatom doping compounds and (ii) the first formed graphene is in a weight ratio between 1:8 and 1:2. 86. The method of any of Claims 64-85, wherein the second flash Joule heating process is performed under an argon atmosphere. 87. The method of any of Claims 64-86, wherein the carbon source has a large grain size. 88. The method of any of Claim 64-86, wherein (a) the second flash Joule heating process is performed using a first second-flash- Joule-heating voltage and a second-flash-Joule-heating voltage; and (b) the second second-flash-Joule-heating voltage is greater than the first second- flash-Joule-heating voltage. 89. The method of Claim 88, wherein the second second-flash-Joule-heating voltage is at least twice the first second-flash-Joule-heating voltage. 90. The method of Claim 88, wherein the second second-flash-Joule-heating voltage is at least five times the first second-flash-Joule-heating voltage. 91. The method of any of Claims 64-90, wherein the second flash Joule heating process is performed with a pulse width modulated DC electrical pulse from a capacitor bank discharge. 92. The method of any of Claims 64-90, wherein the second flash Joule heating process is performed with a modulated or non-modulated AC and DC current source. 93. The method of any of Claims 64-92, wherein (a) the first flash Joule heating process is performed in a first cylindrical reactor having a first diameter; (b) the second flash Joule heating process is performed in a second cylindrical reactor having a second diameter; and (c) the first dimeter is greater than the second reactor. 94. The method of any of Claims 64-93, wherein the doped or substituted graphene comprises heteroatoms doped into the graphene lattice. 95. The method of any of Claims 64-93, wherein the doped or substituted graphene comprises heteroatoms above or below the graphene lattice. 96. The method of any of Claims 64-93, wherein the doped or substituted graphene comprises heteroatoms doped into the graphene lattice and heteroatoms above or below the graphene lattice. 97. The method of any of Claims 64-96, wherein doping ratio of the doped or substituted graphene is at least 10%. 98. The method of any of Claims 64-96, wherein doping ratio of the doped or substituted graphene is at least 20%. 99. Doped or substituted graphene that is made by any of the methods of Claims 64-98. 100. A method comprising mixing the doped or substituted graphene of Claim 99 in a concrete to increase mechanical strength of the concrete. 101. A concrete comprising the doped or substituted graphene of Claim 99. 102. A method comprising mixing the doped or substituted graphene of Claim 99 in a epoxy to increase mechanical strength of the epoxy. 103. An epoxy comprising the doped or substituted graphene of Claim 99. 104. A battery having a battery electrode comprising the doped or substituted graphene of Claim 99. |
[0219] The literature average for cradle-to-gate energy demand to form 1 kg of graphitic 1D materials is 4,855 MJ, while the average global warming potential is 355 kg of CO 2 equivalent, represent 86-92% decreased in cumulative energy demand and 92-94% decreased global warming potential for the FJH route. Further Applicability [0220] FJH can rapidly and controllably synthesize a variety of high value graphitic 1D or hybrid materials using earth-abundant simple salts and waste plastic, with demonstrated value, in an inexpensive, sustainable, and efficient manner. Further the F1DM can be doped or functionalized. Boron Nitride Nanotubes (BNNTs) Synthesis By FJH [0221] In embodiments, the present invention further relates to the synthesis of BNNT by using flash Joule heating (FJH) processes. The processes are carried in a solid-phase and under moderate reaction pressure (1 atm Ar) and temperature (~1800 K) and no solvent was used. Ammonia borane(AB) and nickel(II) bis(acetylacetonate) (Ni(acac) 2 ) can be used as the precursor and catalyst, respectively. The products, mainly BNNT and h-BN, can be directly separated from the conductive additives after the synthesis. [0222] Boron nitride nanotubes (BNNTs), known as the structure analog of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), have attracted significant attention for their exceptional intrinsic properties and wide- ranging applications. Despite their potential, rapid synthesis of BNNTs with high yield and quality remains challenging to attain, which limits their development of practical applications. Using an all-solid-state catalytic flash Joule heating method (a catalytic growth process), BNNTs can be synthesized within 1 second, resulting in high yield and selectivity of BNNT and BN nanosheets. The products can be directly separated from the conductive additives, such as carbon or metal powders. This further provides for a continuous, scalable synthesis of BNNTs using the FJH method and provides potential catalytic synthesis of other materials. [0223] f-BCN with various chemical compositions and turbostratic characteristics can be synthesized from BH 3 NH 3 and carbon black in <1 s using the ultrafast and solvent-free FJH method. The atomic percentage of carbon can be controlled from ~0% to ~100% and spectroscopic analyses show the VBM can be correspondingly tuned. At the lower percentages of carbon, the f-BN is very close to t-BN in its spectroscopic characteristics. Calculations support the existence of turbostratic structures along with the energy barriers that impede conversion to the well-aligned counterparts. The obtained f-BCN layers with disordered orientation are easily exfoliated. Compared to commercial h-BN nanoplates, f-BCN samples demonstrate stable dispersibility in aqueous Pluronic (F-127, 1 wt% in deionized water). [0224] Furthermore, the addition of f-BCN as barrier fillers in PVA nanocomposites shows better compatibility and they confer higher corrosion protection efficiency. The turbostratic morphology of f-BCN is difficult to reproduce by common bottom-up methods, such as CVD and hydrothermal methods, whose cooling rates are 100-1000× lower than that of FJH. The FJH method offers a high-yield process to synthesize bulk quantities of turbostratic materials. Synthesis of BNNT by FJH [0225] To synthesized BNNT by FJH, ammonia borane (AB) was chosen as the representative precursor because its decomposition at different temperatures has been studied and both B and N are provided at a stoichiometric ratio. AB has been extensively studied as the monolayer h- BN precursor in CVD. [Tay 2014; Stehle 2015; Koepke 2016]. Suib et al. demonstrated that decomposition of AB yields semi-crystalline h-BN. [Frueh 2011] Prior to h-BN growth, it is common practice to perform low-temperature decomposition of AB to generate polymeric radical species and borazine, which are more reactive in CVD. B-N bonds are maintained during the decomposition while H 2 experienced a stepwise loss. The FJH system that can be utilized (and parameters) can be based on the system set forth and described in the Tour ’642 Application and the Tour ’111 PCT Application with the modifications as discussed below. [See also Luong 2020; Chen 2022; Deng 2022]. [0226] In embodiments of the present invention, the device diagram and temperature curve are shown in FIGS. 11A-11B. In a typical FJH process, the mixture of AB, Fe(acac) 3 /Ni(acac) 2 catalyst, and metallurgic coke (metcoke) is compressed inside a quartz tube between two graphite rods. The two graphite electrodes were connected to a capacitor bank with a total capacitance of 60 mF. Then the current passing through the sample was measured after the rapid discharge under different voltages. The real-time temperature can be measured using an infrared sensor as plotted (FIG.11B). The heating rate is up to 5×10 3 K/s. To reduce the carbon content in the product, metcoke (12-20 mesh, or 840-1680 μm) was used as the conductive additive instead the carbon black powder. The large particle size of metcoke allows for a convenient separation by sieving and weight loss of metcoke at reaction temperature is negligible. AB and its decomposed species are susceptible to oxidation at high temperature. To reduce the oxygen contamination, O-ring sealing was used on both electrodes in the quartz tube and Ar was used as the protective atmosphere. AB, Ni(acac) 2 were mixed and heated to 110 °C to ensure a uniform melt-mixing (FIG.11C). Two types of tubes can be used in the FJH process (FIGS.11D-11E). [0227] For example, in a typical experiment, ammonia borane was mixed and ground with 3 wt% Ni(acac) 2 and 3 wt% Fe(acac) 3 and heated to 120 °C for 10 min. Then the mixture was mixed with metcoke at a mass ratio of 1:1. The reactant was added into a quartz tube (inner diameter of 8 mm and outer diameter of 12 mm). Graphite rods were used as the electrode on both sides of the quartz tube and copper wool was used between the graphite rods and the electrodes. The tube was sealed by two O-rings and loaded into the jig. Ar gas ( 1 atm) was used as an inert atmosphere to avoid sample oxidation during the FJH reaction. The capacitor bank with a total capacitance of 60 mF was charged by a DC supply. The discharge time was controlled by the Arduino controller relay with programmable millisecond-level delay time. The optimized condition for BNNT synthesis is 90 V 500 ms for twice. After the FJH reaction, the apparatus was allowed to vent and cool to room temperature. The flashed products were sieved from a 40-mesh sieve (425 μm metric) to separate metcoke and BNNT/BN products. The mass yield is ~45% of the theoretical BN yield in the quartz tube and ~60% in the PEEK tube. ~30% the products are in tubular structure and the rest are sheet-like structure. Characterization of BNNT [0228] Spectroscopic analysis and imaging techniques were used to confirm the formation of BNNT in the flashed product. FIGS. 12A-12D. In the FTIR spectra, the flashed product showed a B-N stretching peak at 1317 cm -1 and a B-N-B bending peak at 780 cm -1 . FIG.12A (with plots 1201-1202 for AB precursor and flashed product, respectively). The peaks are in accordance with those in commercial h-BN. Some peaks are consistent with the peaks of AB precursor, which indicates a small mount of AB presence. [0229] The Raman peaks for AB precursors are absent in flashed product. FIG.12B (with plots 1211-1212 for AB precursor and flashed product, respectively). The characteristic E 2g peak appears at ~1361 cm -1 in plot 1212, which is lower than the E 2g peak in the h-BN (~1368 cm- 1 ). The blueshift can be ascribed to the strain in the tubular structure and hardening of E 2g mode. [Arenal 2006]. [0230] In XRD patterns, the AB precursor peaks disappeared in the products. FIG.12C (with plots 1221-1222 for AB precursor and flashed product, respectively). In plot 1222, the peak at 26.0° corresponds to the characteristic (002) diffraction peak of BN and peaks at 43.4° and 44.5° correspond the (100) and (001) diffraction peaks. The broadened peaks suggest the formed BN sheets and BNNT are not highly crystallized. BNNTs also showed broadened (002) peaks compared to h-BN materials in previous reports. [Lee J 2021; Kim H 2021]. [0231] The B 1s spectra confirmed the purity of BN products. FIG.12D (with plots 1231-1232 for AB precursor and flashed product, respectively). Slight oxidation can be observed in AB precursor (~10%) since AB absorbs water rapidly in air. In flashed product, only B-N bonds present and no obvious B-O and B-C bond formed. The B/N ratio is ~1.06. [0232] The formed BNNT structure can be seen in the SEM images. FIGS.13A-13I. BNNT can be found both in quartz tube (FIGS. 13A-13C) and PEEK tube (FIGS. 13D-13F), revealing the tube growth is not dependent on the outer container. The multi-walled BNNTs showed both hollow and non-hollow morphology in the sample. However, the formed tubular structure in the PEEK exhibited higher hollow ratio likely due to higher pressure can be maintained in the PEEK tube. The high pressure promotes the BNNT selectivity to BN sheets and BNNT crystallinity. [Bae 2022]. The length and diameter of BNNT were 20-50 μm and 50-100 nm, respectively. It was observed in the flashed product with a selectivity of ~30% and the rest of the product are sheet-like BN structure. FIGS.13H-13I. [0233] Two types of BNNTs morphology could be distinguished in the TEM images. The tube without an obvious hollow structure exhibited a diameter of 30-50 nm while the hollow tube showed a diameter of 50-100 nm. TEM analysis showed crystalline domains on the outer region of BNNTs. The interlayer spacing of 0.353 nm was slightly larger than that of crystallized h- BN (0.333 nm). The result is consistent well with the broadened (002) and shifted peak in the XRD pattern. An increased lattice spacing would result in resulting the diffraction peaks to higher angle. [0234] BN sheets (lateral size of ~100 nm) were also noticed in the FIGS.14A-14B. The clear edge fringes suggest the good crystallinity of the few-layer BN nanosheets. The bright-field (BF) and high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM) images, together with elemental mapping, indicate the existence of B, N in BNNTs and BN nanosheets (FIGS.13G-13I), which is consistent with XPS results. Catalyst Effect [0235] The catalyst effect in the FJH technique is discussed above with regard to the synthesis of 1D carbon materials. The usage of proper catalyst enabled promotion of the reaction rate and selectivity. To investigate the catalyst effect in the catalytic decomposition and BNNT growth process, various types of catalyst were used in the synthesis. No obvious tubular structure formations were observed in the reactions using metal borides, metal chlorides, metal powders as the catalysts, which suggested the catalyst effect might be different from the BNNT growth process in the CVD method. [0236] It has been found that the combined Ni(acac) 2 /Fe(acac) 3 catalyst showed an enhanced selectivity towards tubular structure over sheets. The presence of Ni/Fe catalyst was confirmed in the elemental mapping of HAADF-STEM images. FIG. 14K. The major decomposition product of Fe(acac) 3 is Fe 2 O 3 /Fe 3 O 4 at ~400 °C. [Kim H 2021; Toyos-Rodríguez [0237] ]The metal oxide particles can be found in the heads of the BNNT. The growth mode is accordance with the typical VLS mechanism in CVD. The growth mechanism of BNNT during the FJH process is believed to be as follows: Active B-N species first forms and evaporates during the rapid dehydrogenation process over 200°C, followed by the decomposition of Ni(acac) 2 /Fe(acac) 3 into metal oxide particles at ~400°C. The last dehydrogenation step from NHBH(s) to BN(s) require a high temperature of over 1200K. [Demirci 2020]. Semi-crystalline h-BN was found to form at ~1500K [Frueh 2011] and the h- BN morphology is similar to the BN sheets in our flashed products. BNNTs started to grow at the temperature window of 1500-1800K. The rapid dehydrogenation and high local B-N species concentration enabled the selectivity towards BNNTs instead of h-BN. The comparison of FJH-synthesized BNNT between other BNNT synthesizing methods are listed in TABLE III. FJH method reduces the cost of producing BNNT in a large scale by decreasing the reaction temperature, pressure, and duration. TABLE III Comparison of Recent BNNT Synthesizing Methods Turbostratic Boron-Carbon-Nitrogen (BCN) Synthesis By FJH [0238] In embodiments, the present invention further relates the synthesizes of BCN with turbostratic structures and high in-plane crystallinity via an all-solid-state flash Joule heating (FJH) system. It provides short pulses of high electrical energy followed by rapid cooling (10 3 ~10 4 K s -1 ), all in <1 s. Starting from BH 3 NH 3 and carbon black, the FJH-product is named flash BCN (f-BCN-x, where x is the carbon percentage in the reactants). Other conductive powder additives, such as iron and tungsten can also be used to replace the carbon black. [0239] The atomic percentage of carbon can be controlled from ~0% to ~100% as determined via X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) by changing the carbon content in the reactants. At the lower percentage of carbon, closely aligned spectroscopic features to those of pure turbostratic h-BN (t-BN) are observed. [0240] The f-BCN has a turbostratic arrangement, which facilitates its exfoliation by different mechanical methods, such as adhesive tape exfoliation, monodirectional mechanical shearing, and bath sonication. Calculation results show the existence of turbostratic structures and the energy barriers converting to well-aligned counterparts. [0241] Hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) and graphene are two common layered materials whose interlayer interactions are ~26 meV atom -1 (~2.5 kJ mol -1 ) [Rydberg 2003], while the in-plane binding energy is ~450 kJ mol -1 , more than two orders of magnitude higher than the interlayer interactions. Therefore, the formation of turbostratic materials with high in-plane crystallinity can be kinetically controlled by a thermal annealing followed by an ultrafast cooling process. The thermal annealing facilitates the formation of ordered in-plane structures, [2] and the ultrafast cooling process preserves the misaligned stacking sequences in local, rather than global energy minima. This can be extended to doped graphene as well. [21] [0242] Compared to commercial h-BN and graphene, f-BCN has better temporal stability when dispersed in aqueous Pluronic (F-127, 1 wt% in deionized water). Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) nanocomposites containing 10 wt% f-BCN that are coated on copper foils confer improved corrosion resistance when subjected to 0.5 M sulfuric acid or 3.5 wt% saline solution. Synthesis of f-BCN [0243] FIG 15A illustrates the ultrafast all-solid-state preparation process based on FJH to synthesize the f-BCN in <1 s. As discussed previously herein, the FJH system that can be utilized (and parameters) can be based on the system set forth and described in the Tour ’642 Application and the Tour ’111 PCT Application with the modifications as discussed below. [0244] In a typical flash process, a mixture of BH 3 NH 3 and commercial carbon black is slightly compressed inside a quartz tube between two copper electrodes. BH 3 NH 3 is chosen as the reactant since it serves as both a boron and nitrogen source, and there are preformed B-N bonds in the precursor. Carbon black simultaneously acts as the carbon source and the conductive agent during the reaction. The capacitor banks in the circuit are used to provide electrothermal energy to the reactants. [0245] By changing the carbon content in the mixture, the FJH process can be used to synthesize f-BCN with various compositions and turbostratic structures. During a typical flash reaction with a voltage of 150 V and a sample resistance of ~40 Ω, the current passing through the sample reaches ~15 A in ~600 ms discharge time. The total amount of electrical energy is 3.1 kJ g -1 and the energy cost for converting 1-ton BH 3 NH 3 precursor into flash product is presently ~$19. The real-time temperature can be measured using an infrared sensor as plotted in FIG.15B. The temperature reaches ~1220 K within ~600 ms with a ramp rate in the heating stage that is estimated to be ~1300 K s -1 , followed by rapid cooling at ~1600 K s -1 . [0246] Other carbon-free conductive additives, such as tungsten and iron, were also tried, and the flash products are named f-BN-W and f-BN-Fe, respectively. Specifically, iron powder can be collected by a magnet and reused. This resulted in the formation of BN without obvious carbon signal. [0247] Due to the possible catalytic effect of Cu during the reaction, the graphite spacers were used as the alternatives of the Cu wool plugs. To facilitate the outgassing and avoid the explosion of the tube, the diameter of the graphite spacer was ~1 mm smaller than the quartz tube. BN was prepared using such graphite spacers. [0248] Previous pyrolytic dehydrogenation analysis has reported that there are three thermal decomposition steps to form BN-based structures from the BH 3 NH 3 precursor [Frueh 2011], and that the overall reaction is highly exothermic (-171 kJ mol -1 ). This drives the reaction to completion, even though the third step, dehydrogenation, NHBH(s) to BN(s), has a high kinetic barrier and generally requires a higher temperature of 1200 ~ 1400K. [Demirci 2020; Frueh 2011]. The thermochemical equation is shown in Eq (3), [0249] There are three stepwise thermal decompositions (shown in Eqs (4)-(6)) to form the BN crystals from the BH 3 NH 3 precursor [Frueh 2011], and the overall reaction is highly exothermic. The third step dehydrogenation, NHBH(s) to BN(s) in Eq (6), is the rate-limiting step and generally requires a higher temperature of 1200 ~ 1400 K. BH 3 NH 3 (s) = H 2 (g) + H 2 B=NH 2 (s) (343K-373K) (4) H2B=NH2 (s) = H2 (g) + HBNH (g) (393K-403K) (5) HBNH (g) = H 2 (g) + BN (s) (1200K-1400K) (6) [0250] Compared to other bottom-up methods, such as CVD [Xu D 2018; Tan 2015] and hydrothermal methods [Ding 2021; Ding 2019], which usually involve a much slower cooling rate of <10 K s -1 and result in the formation of well-aligned stacking morphologies, the FJH method has a 100-1000× faster cooling rate and generates turbostratic BCN (t-BCN) as shown in FIG. 15C. Simulations were performed using the finite element method (FEM), and the temperatures reached in the bulk of the sample are found to be sufficient for driving the third decomposition step since the timescale of the uniform energy input is relatively short compared to that of heat diffusion. [0251] Nudged elastic band (NEB) simulations were performed to study the thermodynamic stability against in-plane rotation by using h-BN as an example. FIG 15D (with plots 1501- 1507 for 1.3x1.3 nm 2 , 1.7x1.7 nm 2 , 2.0x2.2 nm 2 , 2.5x2.6 nm 2 , 4.3x4.5 nm 2 , 5.6x5.8 nm 2 , and 6.8x6.9 nm 2 , respectively) shows the potential energy profiles of h-BN sheets with different sizes along the rotational minimum energy pathways from AA’- to AB-stacking. All potential energies were normalized by the total number of atoms in the small h-BN sheets and were relative to the most stable AA’ stacking mode. The calculations indicate that: (1) t-BN is generally ~0.5 kJ mol' 1 higher in energy than AA’-stacked h-BN. The energy difference may be larger when the h-BN sheet is very small; (2) except for the smallest h-BN sheet (1.3 X 1.3 nm 2 ), all other energy profiles exhibit an energy barrier realigning from turbostratic (rotation angle 0° or 60°) stacking to AA’- or AB-stacking. This energy barrier of realignment accounts for t-BN’s is metastability; (3) the slope of the energy profile near 0° is steeper for larger h-BN sheets. This results because a larger h-BN sheet has a higher chance of interlayer misalignment (e.g., N on top of N or B on top of B, leading to large electrostatic repulsion), even when the rotation angle is small. The energy barrier of realignment per atom is nearly size-independent (-0.054 kJ mol' 1 = 0.56 eV to AA’, and -0.039 kJ mol' 1 = 0.40 eV to AB) as listed in TABLE IV. (In other words, the energy barrier of realignment for the whole h-BN sheet scales as the total number of atoms and scales as the sheet area.) Therefore, the formation of BN-based turbostratic structure is kinetically possible, which can be achieved by the FJH method with the ultrafast heating and cooling process.
TABLE IV
Energy Barriers Of Realignment Of Different Sizes Of H-BN Sheets From Turbostratic To AA’ Or To AB Stacking Spectroscopic Analysis And Crystal Structure Of f-BCN [0252] When a mixture of BH 3 NH 3 and 20 wt% carbon black is used as the reactant, the flash product showed similar spectroscopic features as h-BN. Therefore, f-BCN-20 (or any f-BCN-x in which x is less than or equal to 20) is also called flash BN (f-BN) in this context. BH 3 NH 3 and f-BN can be analyzed by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR); it is noted that there were no interfering peaks of carbon black or flash graphene (FG) [Luong 2020] in the IR. There were no obvious N-H or B-H stretching band in the f-BN product as shown in FIG.16A (with plots 1601-1603 for BH 3 NH 3 , f-BN, and h-BN, respectively), which indicated the complete conversion of BH 3 NH 3 [Frueh 2011]. The f-BN product showed a B-N stretching peak (E 1u mode, ~1353 cm -1 ) and a B-N-B bending peak (A 2u mode, ~782 cm -1 ) [Zou 2019] in the IR spectrum, which is similar to the spectrum of commercial h-BN. The shoulder peak at ~1074 cm -1 is ascribed to the B-C band. [0253] FTIR result is consistent with the Raman spectra in Figure FIG.16B (with plots 1611- 1612 for BH 3 NH 3 and f-BN, respectively). There were many Raman peaks for BH 3 NH 3 between 500 and 1200 cm -1 , whereas these peaks are absent in f-BN and the characteristic E 2g peak appears. Compared to bulk h-BN, the E 2g peak in the Raman spectrum showed a blue shift as the number of layers decreased and there was a ~4 cm -1 blue shift in isolated monolayer h-BN due to the shorter BN bonds and the hardening of E 2g mode. [Gorbachev 2011; Cai 2017]. [0254] From representative high-resolution Raman spectra shown in FIG. 16C (with plots 1621-1622 for f-BN and h-BN, respectively), there was a ~3 cm -1 blue shift of the characteristic E 2g peak and a lower integrated intensity I(E 2g ) for the f-BN, which resembled features of few- layer h-BN sheets and indicated the weakened coupling interaction between adjacent layers. [Gorbachev 2011]. [0255] The E 2g peak positions of 100 different spots on f-BN and h-BN were studied in FIG. 16D (with circles 1631-1632 for f-BN and h-BN, respectively). Commercial h-BN belongs to bulk h-BN, whose E 2g peaks were centered at 1365.3 cm -1 with a narrow distribution (~0.2 cm- 1 , red shadow region). The f-BN had a higher average E 2g peak (~1368.7 cm -1 ) with a broader distribution (~2.6 cm -1 ), and ~72% of the region showed a blue shift of the E 2g peak, which indicated the prevailing decoupling effect in the f-BN sample. [0256] The scheme in FIG. 16E displayed a normal in-plane lattice constant ~0.25 nm and interlayer spacing ~0.33 nm in well-aligned h-BN crystals 1641. There were random translational and rotational orientations of individual sheets in t-BN crystals 1642 with larger average interlayer distances. [0257] The turbostratic nature of the f-BN sample was further explored by X-ray diffraction (XRD) in FIG. 16F (with circles 1651-1652 for f-BN and h-BN, respectively). The (002) diffraction peak became broader but less intense and shifted toward a lower angle from ~26.7° to 26.1°, indicating the expansion of the interlayer spacing by ~2.3%. The (100) and (101) peaks merged into a broad (10) peak in f-BN and the long-range order diffraction peaks, such as (110) and (004), were absent. These results support the absence of an ordered structure of basal planes, and the existence of a turbostratic structure. [Alkoy 1997; Thomas 1963; Gladkaya 1986]. [0258] Elemental analyses carried out by XPS indicated the atomic ratio of B to N is ~1.05 and the existence of 6.7 wt% C. See TABLE V. TABLE V Element Content As Determined By XPS Spectral Analysis [0259] High-resolution B 1s and N 1s spectra indicated the dominance of typical B-N bonds (~190.5 eV) and N-B bonds (~398.2 eV). FIG.16G (with plots 1661-1662 for f-BN and h-BN, respectively); FIG. 16H (with plots 1671-1672 for f-BN and h-BN, respectively). [Ba 2017; Hu 2019]. A small B-C peak (~187.3 eV) was observed, which was consistent with the B-C band as shown in FTIR in FIG. 16A. The valence band of f-BN shows the valence band maximum (VBM) is -3.10 eV, which slightly downshifts compared with that of commercial h- BN (-2.70 eV), with this downshift caused by introducing some O and C atoms in f-CN. UV- vis spectra of commercial h-BN and f-BN indicated the optical bandgap of ~6.0 eV (Figure S10, Supporting Information). [Ba 2017]. Thus, FJH synthesis could become an effective method to tune the VBM by introducing heteroatoms [0260] The Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) method showed that the specific surface area of f-BN (~143 m 2 g -1 ) was ~7 fold larger than that of commercial h-BN (~22 m 2 g -1 ). The larger surface area of f-BN was likely the result of small flake sizes and average layer numbers. The larger nanopore size distribution can come from the gaps between the small flakes. On the other hand, the commercial h-BN samples were composed of the thick microplates with >10 layers and well-aligned structure. [0261] The f-BN sheets can reach up to ~4.3 µm in lateral size with a wrinkled structure. High- resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM) analysis showed two stacking f-BN layers. Corresponding fast Fourier transform (FFT) patterns indicated the existence of two sets of six-fold diffraction patterns close to each other with a rotational mismatch of ~12 o , which resultsed from the turbostratic structure of the f-BN. FIG. 16I (with inset 1681 showing the FFT patterns, and the scale bar is 5 nm -1 ). [0262] Polycrystalline materials are composed of many crystalline domains with various sizes and orientations, which also give multiple sets of diffraction patterns. For the polycrystalline films, the in-plane crystal boundaries separate the individual domains in the real space and the films show multiple sets of diffraction patterns in the reciprocal space. The turbostratic materials are the solids whose basal planes have misalignments. Each individual sheet has its own translational and rotational orientation in the real space, and it shows one set of diffraction patterns in the reciprocal space. Therefore, the diffraction patterns for polycrystalline films comes from the in-plane domains, while the diffraction patterns for turbostratic materials is caused by out-of-plane domains (each individual sheets). [0263] This means there are several solutions to distinguish polycrystalline materials and turbostratic materials by TEM, namely (1) The inverse Fourier transform can be carried out for each set of diffraction patterns in the reciprocal space, and the reconstructed images in the real space reflect the relative association among the different sets of spots. Specifically, if the reconstructed images show the crystal structures from different areas of the same sheets, it belongs to polycrystals. Otherwise, it is the turbostratic materials. (2) The HR-TEM can be carried out from the top view. The Moiré patterns can be observed for the turbostratic materials, while there are no Moiré patterns for polycrystals. There are many different types of the Moiré patterns. The Moiré patterns generated by only one rotational stacking fault is the simplest type with the period λ and rotation angle Ɵ. With more than two rotational orientations, more complex Moiré patterns can be observed (3) The Fourier transform can be carried out at different position of the sample in the same images and the as-obtained diffraction patterns can be compared in the reciprocal space. Specifically, if all the diffraction patterns are not the same (orientation and spot number), then it belongs to polycrystals. Otherwise, it is the turbostratic materials. [0264] Solutions (2) and (3) were used to demonstrate the turbostratic feature of flash samples. [0265] To identify the turbostratic structure [Ci 2010; Warner 2009], top-view atomic HR- TEM images were carried out. The in-plane Moiré patterns were observed from few layers area. The clear fringes and FFT patterns indicated good crystallinity of the flash products. The FFT patterns were compared at different positions atop the same sheets. Due to the unchanged orientations and spot numbers of the diffraction spots, the possibility of polycrystals in this area was excluded. Therefore, the various sets of diffraction spots were resulted from the turbostratic structure. [0266] The bright-field (BF) and high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM) images, together with elemental mapping, indicated the existence of B, N, and a small amount of C in f-BN sheets (FIG.16J), which was consistent with the XPS results. [0267] Plate-like f-BN with lateral sizes of 20~50 nm was also observed. HR-TEM images showed the crystallinity of f-BN nanoplates with the majority of these nanoplates only several layers thick. Corresponding FFT images showed there were at least three sets of six-fold diffraction patterns. The estimated mass yield of f-BN was ~34%. The conductive carbon additive could be removed from f-BN by thermal treatment under air. However, oxidation would occur simultaneously on the surface. See TABLE VI. There are small amounts of B-C and B-O bonds in f-BN, which is reasonable since previous studies have shown that the oxidation of B-C bonds starts at ~600 °C. [Hu 2019; Li 2014]. TABLE VI Element Content After Thermal Treament Mechanical exfoliation tests of f-BN [0268] The turbostratic characteristics of f-BN facilitates its exfoliation by various mechanical methods, such as adhesive tape exfoliation, monodirectional mechanical shearing, and bath sonication. TABLE VII. Table VII Results Of Mechanical Exfoliation Tests [0269] Few-layer f-BN sheets obtained by adhesive tape exfoliation can be distinguished from top-view scanning electron microscopy (SEM) as shown in FIG.17A. In contrast, due to the strong coupling between adjacent layers in commercial h-BN, there was no obvious exfoliation and only thick nanoplates of several hundred nanometers were observed in FIG. 17B. The average lateral size of f-BN and commercial h-BN, obtained from the tape exfoliation method, were 0.40 and 0.34 µm, respectively. FIG. 17C (with circles 1701-1702 for f-BN and h-BN, respectively). The size distribution results showed that the majority of the f-BN flakes have the lateral size no more than 1.0 µm, which makes it difficult to be applied in electronic devices, such as field effect transistors. [Gupta 2020]. [0270] However, the merits of f-BN, such as the nanoscale feature and good dispersibility, show the potential applications of f-BN as the nano-fillers to enhance the mechanical properties and to improve the electrochemical anticorrosion performance as discussed below. [0271] The same exfoliation phenomena can be observed by applying monodirectional shearing force. The mechanical exfoliation of f-BN sheets is demonstrated in FIG. 17D, representing exfoliated f-BN sheets with the same edge feature (delineated by the white dashed lines 1711 outlining each sheet). The direction of the monodirectional shearing force is shown by arrow 1712 in FIG.17D. The atomic force microscopy (AFM) profile showed the bilayer to few-layer features of the exfoliated f-BN sheets. These results indicated effective exfoliation of f-BN. In contrast, few-layer BN sheets cannot be directly prepared from commercial h-BN by monodirectional shearing under the same conditions (FIG. 17E). The average lateral size of f-BN and commercial h-BN, obtained from the mechanical shearing method, were 0.47 and 0.40 µm, respectively. FIG.17F (with circles 1721-1722 for f-BN and h-BN, respectively). [0272] Compared to commercial h-BN nanoplates with >10 layers, few layer f-BN flakes of several hundred nanometers with ripple-like structures were obtained by bath sonication in ethanol without surfactant. FIGS. 17G-17H. The layer number distributions of the f-BN, obtained by the bath sonication treatment showed that ~80% of the f-BN sheets have 3-5 layers. FIG. 17I. In some regions, small black particles can be found, presumably from the carbon conductive additives. HR-TEM images and corresponding FFT patterns demonstrate the high quality of the turbostratic f-BN sheets and the well-aligned structure of commercial h-BN nanoplates. Electrochemical Anticorrosion Tests Of F-BN Composites [0273] The turbostratic feature improves the dispersibility and stability of f-BN in aqueous solution. After dispersal in aqueous Pluronic (F-127) (1 wt% in deionized water), the concentration of f-BN can reach up to ~18 wt% higher than that of commercial h-BN. The percentage of commercial h-BN and f-BN still in solution were ~6% and 77% after 21 days, respectively, which indicates the f-BN dispersion has a higher temporal stability. Good dispersibility of f-BN makes it possible to prepare stable nanocomposites with f-BN as a compatible additive. [0274] A prerequisite is the dispersion and distribution of the nano-fillers inside polymer matrices, since strengthening of the composite relies on the interactions between the polymer and the surface area of the fillers. [Luong 2020; Albdullah 2018]. PVA has been studied as a surface coating model system for testing additives to reduce chemical and electrochemical metal corrosion. [Sarkar 2016; Owuor 2017]. The barrier films provide tortuous diffusion pathways for corrosive electrolytes, delaying the metal corrosion process. Likewise, they prevent metal ions from migrating, thus building up a local Nernst potential at the polymer- metal interface. The addition of appropriate nano-fillers can occupy the free volume within the polymer matrix and improve the film’s blocking properties. [Sarkar 2016]. [0275] Since f-BN has shown good dispersibility in aqueous solution, further demonstrations of f-BN as fillers in PVA composites, which act as an electrochemical anticorrosion coating, are shown in FIGS.18A-18D. [0276] Before the electrochemical tests, the coating thickness was characterized by cross- sectional SEM images. The average thickness of the coating layer was ~ 9 µm. The electrochemical linear polarization resistance (LPR) tests of bare Cu, PVA coated Cu (Cu- PVA), commercial h-BN and PVA composite coated Cu (Cu-PVA-h-BN), and f-BN and PVA composite coated Cu (Cu-PVA-f-BN) in 3.5 wt% saline solution are shown in FIGS. 19A- 19D. The Cu-PVA-f-BN showed the largest polarization resistance (R p ) ~22.8 kΩ cm 2 , which was ~47% higher than Cu-PVA. [0277] The open circuit potential (E corr ) represents the thermodynamic tendency of the electrode to lose electrons to the solution. [Warner 2009; Li 2014]. According to the Nernst equation, the metal surface remains relatively stable when the measured potential is lower than E corr . The potentiodynamic polarization measurements in FIG.18A (with plots 1801-1804 for bare Cu, Cu-PVA, Cu-PVA-h-BN, and Cu-PVA-f-BN, respectively) and FIG.18B (with plots 1811-1814 for bare Cu, Cu-PVA, Cu-PVA-h-BN, and Cu-PVA-f-BN, respectively) demonstrate that Cu-PVA-f-BN had the more positive E corr (-188 mV vs Hg/Hg 2 SO 4 ), thus there is less tendency for the surface metal to take part in the electrochemical oxidation process. Compared with pure PVA and PVA-h-BN composite coatings, the PVA-f-BN composite has higher corrosion protection efficiency (>92%) and better anti-corrosion performance as shown in TABLE VIII. TABLE VIII Electrochemical Parameters Determined From Potentiodynamic Polarization For Bare Cu, Cu-PVA, Cu-PVA-h-BN, And Cu-PVA-f-BN In 3.5 Wt% NaCl (Aq) [0278] The same enhanced anti-corrosion trend is also observed in 0.5 M H 2 SO 4 as shown in FIG. 18C (with plots 1821-1824 for bare Cu, Cu-PVA, Cu-PVA-h-BN, and Cu-PVA-f-BN, respectively) and FIG.18D (with plots 1831-1834 for bare Cu, Cu-PVA, Cu-PVA-h-BN, and Cu-PVA-f-BN, respectively). The Cu-PVA-f-BN showed the largest polarization resistance (R p ) ~10.0 kΩ cm 2 , which is >20 fold higher than Cu-PVA. The corrosion protection efficiency for Cu-PVA-f-BN is >97% vs 68% for Cu-PVA-h-BN as shown in TABLE IX. This further shows to the superior dispersibility and compatibility of f-BN in the polymer matrix. TABLE IX Electrochemical Parameters Determined From Potentiodynamic Polarization For Bare Cu, Cu-PVA, Cu-PVA-h-BN, And Cu-PVA-f-BN In 0.5 M H2SO4 [0279] The optical and microscopic morphology after electrochemical testing indicated that the Cu under the PVA-f-BN composite coating is least affected, and surface elemental analyses also showed there is no obvious formation of the oxides for Cu-PVA-f-BN. These results are consistent with the highest corrosion protection efficiency from the electrochemical tests and demonstrates one potential application of f-BN as a filler for nanocomposites. [0280] Mechanical performance, such as hardness and Young’s modulus of epoxy resin with 1 wt% f-BN additive shows ~54% and ~70% increase, respectively, compared to pure epoxy resin. These improvements cannot be achieved by replacing f-BN with equal amounts of commercial h-BN. Synthesis Of f-BCN With Different Chemical Compositions [0281] The atomic ratios of carbon can be tuned by directly changing the weight percent of carbon black in the reactants. If a mixture of BH 3 NH 3 and 30 wt% carbon black is used as the reactant, the flash product is called f-BCN-30. The same naming convention is used herein for the other f-BCN samples prepared. As the weight percent of carbon increases, the atomic percentage of carbon in flash products can be controlled from ~0% to ~100% as determined by XPS results. FIG. 20A (with illustrations 2001-2004 for f-BN-W, f-BN, f-BCN-50, and f- BCN-100, respectively). The elemental analyses demonstrated the monotonic decrease of B and N from f-BN to f-BCN-100. FIG.20B. High resolution XPS of C 1s spectra showed the existence of C-B and C-N bonds in f-BCN samples. As the mass ratios of the carbon increased, the C-B and C-N ratios also increased. High resolution XPS of B 1s and N 1s spectra also confirmed the existence of B-C and N-C bonds. [0282] The presence of B-C and N-C bonds confirmed the formation of in-plane hybrid structures instead of the out-of-plane stacked heterostructures, the latter being often more thermodynamically stable. This can be attributed to an ultrafast heating and cooling rate (~10 4 K s -1 ) of the FJH reaction. [0283] There are several possibilities for the flash products after the reaction between carbon black and BH 3 BH 3, namely: (1) The mixture of BN and carbon black. (2) The mixture of NC, BC, BN and graphene or carbon black. (3) Boron-carbon-nitrogen ternary compound and carbon black. [0284] The high-resolution XPS results reflected the existence of B-C, B-N and C-N bonds, which exclude the possibility that the product is just the mixture of BN and carbon black. [0285] For NC and BC, there are two possibilities. At first, BC and NC might be boron carbide and carbon nitride. The boron carbide has a covalent B 4 C part at ~187.4 eV in B 1s spectrum and it has characteristic XRD peaks (Powder Diffraction File 35-0798, B 4 C). However, the deconvolution result of the B 1s spectrum showed no peak at ~187.4 eV, and there was no characteristic XRD peaks, which excluded the possibility of the boron carbide. Similarly, there was no characteristic XRD peaks of carbon nitride (Powder Diffraction File 50-1250, C 3 N 4 ), which excluded the possibility of the carbon nitride. The other possibility of BC and NC is the co-doped graphene, which can be regarded as the carbon-rich boron-carbon-nitrogen components. [0286] From TEM images, existence of the conductive carbon materials was seen with some graphitic structures in the flash products. Use f-BCN-30 as an example, the conductive carbon materials had an average size of ~25 nm, which made it distinguishable from f-BCN-30. This observation indicated that the flash product had unconverted carbon materials. Therefore, the flash products are the mixture of boron-carbon-nitrogen ternary compound and carbon black. Due to the existence of the conductive carbon materials in the products, the carbon ratios determined by the XPS analysis can be overestimated. [0287] Due to the thermal stability difference of the conductive carbon materials and substitutional carbon species chemically bonded with boron and nitrogen, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) can be used to oxidize the conductive carbon materials. The first-order derivative of thermogravimetric curve showed 2 peaks starting from ~540°C and ~750°C, and the first peak is mainly attributed to the oxidation of conductive carbon materials. Therefore, the conductive carbon materials can be removed from the flash products by control the temperature at ~675 °C under air condition (i.e., the carbon contents for the carbon-rich boron- carbon-nitrogen ternary compounds can be underestimated). XPS results of various f-BCN samples before and after thermal treatment reflected the existence of the substitutional carbon species and the ratio of carbon contents can reach 35.7 at% in f-BCN-70 after thermal treatment at ~675 °C under air condition for 30 min. [0288] The carbon ratio of the in-plane hybrid structure affects the electronic structures and changes the VBM. As the atomic ratios of carbon increase, the VBM of f-BCN changes from -3.10 eV to -1.85 eV. FIG.20C. The Raman spectra of different f-BCN samples showed the appearance of the G peak (~1580 cm -1 , single resonance), D peak (~1350 cm -1 , intervalley double resonance), 2D peak (~2695 cm -1 , second order zone boundary phonons), D+G peak (~2930 cm -1 , a combination of scattering peak), 2D’ (~3250 cm -1 ) and G* (~2450 cm -1 ). [Huang 2020; Hong 2013; Yoon 2012]. As the carbon ratio increased in the reactants, the intensity of D+G peak decreased and 2D peak increased. The intensity ratio between D and G peaks for f-BCN-70 is ~1.10, which is similar to boron and nitrogen co-doped graphene, which belongs to the carbon rich BCN. f-BCN-100 (FG) shows a high 2D to G ratio (~8) and a low D peak, which is similar with Luong 2020. The introduction of carbon to the f-BCN sample also confers magnetic properties [Sarkar 2016], which is different from commercial h-BN. [0289] h-BN shows a diamagnetic response since boron is bonded with nitrogen and the total magnetic moment is ~0. However, f-BCN-50 has B-C/O and N-C/O bonds, which can contribute to the total magnetic moment. f-BCN-50 shows a ferrimagnetic response with a small coercivity of ~22 Oe. The saturation magnetic moment of f-BCN-50 is 0.115 emu g -1 . Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) confirmed the negligible contribution from magnetic metals, such as Fe, Co and Ni, and other d-block metals. [Fan 2019; Zhao 2014]. (HNO 3 (67–70 wt%, TraceMetalTM Grade, Fisher Chemical), HCl (37 wt%, 99.99% trace metals basis, Millipore-Sigma), and water (Millipore-Sigma, ACS reagent for ultratrace analysis) were used for sample digestion. All the samples were digested using a dilute aqua regia method. The samples were soaked in HNO3/HCI (I M each) solution at 85°C for 6 h. The acidic solution was filtered to remove any undissolved particles. The solution was then diluted to the appropriate concentration range using 2 wt% HNO3 within the calibration curve. ICP-MS was conducted using a Perkin Elmer Nexion 300 ICP-MS system). [0290] The boron-carbon-nitrogen ternary phase diagram in FIG. 21 shows the chemical compositions (boron, carbon, and nitrogen) of different f-BCN products before thermal treatments, showing broad accessibility to varied BCN materials via FJH methods. In FIG. 21, spheres 2101 and dots 2102 refer to the classic compounds and the experimental results for embodiments as described herein, representatively. The atomic ratios were determined by XPS results.
[0291] All of these f-BCN samples have turbostratic structures with larger interlayer spacings, since (002) diffraction peaks shift to lower angles with broad (10) peaks by XRD. The interlayer spacing of f-BCN was 3 to 6% larger than in commercial h-BN and f-BCN-50 had the largest interlayer spacing, which was -6.1% larger than in commercial h-BN. FIG. 20D; see also TABLE X.
TABLE X Crystal Structure Of f-BCN Samples
1 The values show the percentage change of interlayer spacing compared with commercial h- BN, where Eq (7) is used to calculate the percentage change.
[0292] There are larger surface areas for f-BCN samples (110-310 m 2 g' 1 ) and they have abundant micropores as well as mesopores. FIG. 20D. The Moire patterns can be seen from the HR-TEM image of f-BCN samples (FIG. 20E), which indicates the existence of turbostratic stacking structure. Corresponding FFT patterns reflect multiple sets of the diffraction spots from [002] direction. FIG. 20F. Atom-scale HR-TEM image shows the complex Moiré patterns and good in-plane crystallinity. FIG.20G. STEM images confirm the nonaligned edges and elemental mapping results demonstrate the existence of B, C and N for f-BCN-30 samples. FIG.20H. [0293] To confirm the existence of substitutional carbon species in the structure and exclude the hydrocarbon contamination resulted in fake positive carbon signal, electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) was carried out and the C K-edge spectrum showed the existence of 1s-π* and 1s-σ* peaks, which indicates the existence of substitutional carbon atoms in the conjugated structure and excludes the possibility that the carbon signal is sorely from amorphous hydrocarbon contamination. [Langenhorsta 2002; McGilvery 2012]. Heteroatom Doped (Substituted) Re-Flashed Graphene [0294] In embodiments, the present invention further relates to utilizing already synthesized flash graphene for the flash doping process. Thus, a carbon feedstock is initially flashed to convert it to turbostratic flash graphene. Then, the flash graphene is mixed with a heteroatom doping compound(s) before undergoing a second flash. This new method achieves doping ratios higher than those achieved by the previously referenced single flash doping method. A schematic of this process is illustrated in FIGS.22A-22B. Synthesis Of Heteroatom-Substituted Re-Flash Graphene by FJH [0295] The FJH system that can be utilized (and parameters) to synthesize heteroatom- substituted re-flash graphene can be based on the system set forth and described in the Tour ’642 Application and the Tour ’111 PCT Application with the modifications as discussed below. [See also Luong 2020; Chen 2022; Deng 2022]. Parameters/declarations for heteroatom-substituted re-flashed graphene can include the following: (1) Flash graphene can be converted into doped flash graphene after it has already been flashed once. (2) This method can be performed in varying degrees with multiple different carbon feedstocks, as well as multiple different doping compounds. (3) The doping ratio can generally be maximized when the doping compound-flash graphene weight ratio is 1:4. (4) Lower surface area amorphous carbon feedstocks can generally have higher doping ratios. (5) Organic powders with low melting points can, in some embodiments, be the most effective doping compounds. (6) Performing the doping flash reaction under argon atmosphere can, in some embodiments, be needed for higher doping ratios. (7) Smaller grain size amorphous carbon feedstocks can, in some embodiments, be less effective for initial graphene conversion but can be more effective for subsequent doping. (8) The doping flash can, in some embodiments, yield the highest doping ratios when ref-lashed once at around 3 kJ/g and then again at around 16 kJ/g. (9) This re-flash method can be performed with a pulse width modulated DC electrical pulse from a capacitor bank discharge, and can also be performed with modulated or non-modulated AC and DC current sources. [0296] The synthesize heteroatom-substituted re-flash graphene uses flash graphene as an initial reactant instead of amorphous carbon, allowing higher doping ratios to be achieved. The flash graphene that is used for re-flashing can be the flash graphene synthesized from FJH, including, but not limited to, the flash graphene described hereinabove for the 1D carbon nanomaterials, the flash graphene described in the Tour ’642 Patent, and the holey and wrinkled flash graphene described in the Tour ‘987 PCT Application. [0297] For example, in embodiments, the desired carbon feedstock for graphene conversion is selected. The two feedstocks for the graphene that have been discovered to achieve high doping ratios, are metallurgical coke (MC) and bituminous activated charcoal (BAC) are described here, but this can vary and include plastic derived flash graphene, holey and wrinkled flash graphene (HWFG) or graphene obtained from any source and any method. A schematic for the reaction vessel for both is illustrated in FIG.23. In FIG.23, the graphite electrodes 2302, the copper electrodes 2301, and the feedstock 2304 (in quartz tube 2303) are all conductive enough to allow for the passage of electrical current necessary for Joule heating. The graphite and the copper are sufficiently more conductive than the feedstock such that most of the heat is expended in the feedstock. The copper helps provide a more even electrical contact and keeps smaller grains of feedstock in more effectively. [0298] In an example process utilizing metallurgical coke, several kilograms of metallurgical coke chunks were obtained from Suncoke. This metallurgical coke was then ground and sieved until the grain size diameters were between 0.84 and 1.68 mm. The coke was then placed into a fused quartz tube with an inner diameter of 16 mm and a length of approximately 10 cm and the tube was closed on either end by two graphite electrodes. The sample was then compressed until it reaches 1.3 Ω. The metallurgical coke was reacted in this vessel via flash Joule heating with batch sizes of 5.7 g at 7.5 kJ/g using a pulse-width modulated signal divided into 3 duty cycles of 10% for 1 s, 20% for 0.5 s, and 50% for 5 s. The resulting flash graphene was determined via Raman spectroscopy analysis to be ~99% converted to turbostratic flash graphene. [0299] In an example process utilizing bituminous activated charcoal, bituminous activated charcoal was obtained already with grain sizes between roughly 1 and 2 mm in diameter. It was then filled into flashing vessels in 4.2-gram batches, compressed to 1.0 Ω, and flashed at 7.5 kJ/g with the same duty cycle pattern as were used with metallurgical coke. The graphene conversion was also measured at ~99 %. [0300] Once the flash graphene is made, it initially remained in grains that are too large for effective mixing. Hence, it was placed in a planetary ball mill among steel balls for 60 min to reduce its size to grains less than 0.2 mm in diameter. [0301] Thereafter, a heteroatom compound or a combination of different compounds (for co- doping) was then mixed by mortar and pestle with the flash graphene in a 1:4 weight ratio in batches of 200 mg. Boric acid was used for boron doping, melamine resin was used for nitrogen doping, polyphenylene sulfide was used for sulfur doping, and perfluorooctanoic acid was used for fluorine doping. These compounds were chosen for the testing as described herein based upon their low decomposition temperature as well as the high doping ratios they achieve compared to other tested doping compounds. However, there is no particular limitation on the dopant material that can be used, and the dopant used in the present invention is not limited to the dopant selected for testing. [0302] 200 mg of this mixture was then loaded into a quartz tube ~4 cm long and with an inner diameter of 8 mm. Fine copper wool was then rolled into small electrodes 8 mm in diameter and ~4 mm thick on either end, in electrical contact with the feedstock. Small graphite cylinders 8 mm in diameter and ~8 mm long were then placed in the quartz tube on either end and in electrical contact with the copper electrodes. The resulting vessel was placed between two electrodes attached to a flash Joule heating system and compressed until measuring below 5 Ω. The vessel was then placed under an argon atmosphere. [0303] Thereafter, flash Joule heating was then performed in two steps to maximize yield. The first pretreating flash was performed at ~3.1 kJ/g and the second, primary flash was performed at ~15.6 kJ/g. The flash reactions were performed using a pulse width modulated discharge with a 3-step duty cycle pattern of 10% for 1 s, 20 % for 0.5 s, and 50 % for 5 s. The difference between this flash and the one performed in step one is illustrated in FIGS.24A-24B. Characterization of Heteroatom Substituted Re-flash Graphene [0304] Standard characterization tools were utilized to verify both that the resulting product was converted to graphene and that the graphene is doped with heteroatoms. FIGS.25A-25C show Raman and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analyses of N-doped BAC-derived reflash graphene. The presence of the D, G, and 2D Raman peaks, as illustrated in FIG.25A, as well as the height of the 2D peak relative to that of the G peak, indicate that this sample was converted into high quality graphene (the high 2D peak is a positive indicator of graphene). FIG.25B demonstrates the presence of the TS 1 and TS 2 Raman peaks, which further indicate that the stacking of the layers of graphene is turbostratic (not ordered) in nature. The doping of nitrogen in the graphene lattice is demonstrated in FIG. 25C (with plots 2501-2504 for N1a, graphitic, pyrrolic, and pyridinic, respectively), which further elaborates on the chemical bonding character of the nitrogen bonds. From this XPS spectroscopic analysis, it was calculated that the N doping percentage in this sample was ~5%, meaning that 5% of the atoms present in the sample were nitrogen. [0305] The morphology and elemental composition of the product was further verified by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), as shown in FIGS. 26A-26C, which displays N-doped BAC-derived reflash graphene. The EDX analysis demonstrated that the N atoms are distributed evenly across the face of the graphene (carbon) sample. The fading colors around the edges of the sample were due to the sample being out of focus outside the center. Using these methods, this verified that the product, which was confirmed to be graphene via Raman spectroscopic analysis, was primarily composed of C but also exhibits N atoms near the surface. This analysis served as confirmation in addition to the XPS analysis of the presence of nitrogen in the product. [0306] FIGS.27A-27B demonstrated the analysis of N-doped MC-derived reflash graphene. The graphene character of the product is again confirmed by Raman spectroscopy analysis (again the high 2D peak is a positive indicator of graphene), and the XPS spectroscopy analysis of FIG. 27B (with with plots 2701-2703 for N1a, graphitic, and pyrrolic, respectively) confirmed that this sample has a particularly high doping ratio of almost 28%. [0307] In the embodiments tested, the results of the best doping ratios achieved are summarized in FIG. 28, which includes the results from co-doping experiments during in several different heteroatoms were doped into the graphene lattice at once. (The right part FIG. 28 (marked “BACFG”) shows the co-doping of multiple different types of heteroatoms). In the embodiments tested, the doping reactions were generally more successful with metallurgical coke derived flash graphene than with bituminous activated charcoal derived flash graphene. Applications [0308] Various applications for this process and the resulting product exist. The method solves the difficulty of effectively achieving high doping ratios well above 10% in heteroatom doped graphene. In addition, this process is easily scalable and can be used to create doped graphene in bulk. In addition, the low price of feedstocks that are required to produce this heteroatom doped graphene allows this method to effectively compete with other methods of producing doped graphene. [0309] Further, possible applications of the resulting heteroatom substituted re-flash graphene include use as concrete and epoxy additives to increase mechanical strength as well is use in battery electrode materials to increase performance. [0310] Still further, the ability to dope graphene using varied heteroatom compounds also provides the opportunity for the upcycling of organic waste sources via FJH (as described above) into heteroatom-substituted re-flash graphene. [0311] While embodiments of the invention have been shown and described, modifications thereof can be made by one skilled in the art without departing from the spirit and teachings of the invention. The embodiments described and the examples provided herein are exemplary only, and are not intended to be limiting. Many variations and modifications of the invention disclosed herein are possible and are within the scope of the invention. The scope of protection is not limited by the description set out above, but is only limited by the claims which follow, that scope including all equivalents of the subject matter of the claims. [0312] The disclosures of all patents, patent applications, and publications cited herein are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety, to the extent that they provide exemplary, procedural, or other details supplementary to those set forth herein. [0313] Amounts and other numerical data may be presented herein in a range format. It is to be understood that such range format is used merely for convenience and brevity and should be interpreted flexibly to include not only the numerical values explicitly recited as the limits of the range, but also to include all the individual numerical values or sub-ranges encompassed within that range as if each numerical value and sub-range is explicitly recited. For example, a numerical range of approximately 1 to approximately 4.5 should be interpreted to include not only the explicitly recited limits of 1 to approximately 4.5, but also to include individual numerals such as 2, 3, 4, and sub-ranges such as 1 to 3, 2 to 4, etc. The same principle applies to ranges reciting only one numerical value, such as “less than approximately 4.5,” which should be interpreted to include all of the above-recited values and ranges. Further, such an interpretation should apply regardless of the breadth of the range or the characteristic being described. [0314] Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood to one of ordinary skill in the art to which the presently disclosed subject matter belongs. Although any methods, devices, and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the presently disclosed subject matter, representative methods, devices, and materials are now described. [0315] Following long-standing patent law convention, the terms “a” and “an” mean “one or more” when used in this application, including the claims. [0316] Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities of ingredients, reaction conditions, and so forth used in the specification and claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term “about.” Accordingly, unless indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in this specification and attached claims are approximations that can vary depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by the presently disclosed subject matter. [0317] As used herein, the term “about” and “substantially” when referring to a value or to an amount of mass, weight, time, volume, concentration or percentage is meant to encompass variations of in some embodiments ±20%, in some embodiments ±10%, in some embodiments ±5%, in some embodiments ±1%, in some embodiments ±0.5%, and in some embodiments ±0.1% from the specified amount, as such variations are appropriate to perform the disclosed method. [0318] As used herein, the term “substantially perpendicular” and “substantially parallel” is meant to encompass variations of in some embodiments within ±10° of the perpendicular and parallel directions, respectively, in some embodiments within ±5° of the perpendicular and parallel directions, respectively, in some embodiments within ±1° of the perpendicular and parallel directions, respectively, and in some embodiments within ±0.5° of the perpendicular and parallel directions, respectively. [0319] As used herein, the term “and/or” when used in the context of a listing of entities, refers to the entities being present singly or in combination. Thus, for example, the phrase “A, B, C, and/or D” includes A, B, C, and D individually, but also includes any and all combinations and subcombinations of A, B, C, and D. REFERENCES [0320] U.S. Patent Appl. Publ. No. 2021/0206642, entitled “Flash Joule Heating Synthesis Method And Compositions Thereof,” filed March 2, 2021, published July 8, 2021 to Tour et al. (the “Tour ’642 Application”). [0321] PCT International Patent Publication No. WO 2022/067111, entitled “Ultrafast Flash Joule Heating Methods And System For Performing Same,” to J. M. Tour, et al., filed September 24, 2021 (the “Tour ’111 PCT Application”). [0322] PCT International Patent Appl. No. PCT/US/64987, entitled “Ultrafast Synthesis Of Holey And Wrinkled Graphene, to J. M. Tour, et al., filed March 27, 2023 (the “Tour ‘987 PCT Application”). [0323] Advincula, P. A., et al., Carbon, 2021, 178, 649 (“Advincula 2021”). [0324] Agnoli, S, et al., Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2016, 4, 5002-5025 (“Agnoli 2016”). [0325] Ahamed, A., et al., J. Hazard. Mater., 2020, 390, 121449 (“Ahamed 2020”). [0326] Ahn, J., et al., J. Appl. Phys., 2000, 87, 4022 (“Ahn 2000”). [0327] Ajayan, P. M., et al., in Carbon Nanotub. Synth. Struct. Prop. Appl. (Eds.: M. S. Dresselhaus, G. Dresselhaus, P. Avouris), Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2001, pp. 391–425 (“Ajayan 2001”). [0328] Alabdullah, F. T., Exfoliated Hexagonal Boron Nitride Based Anti-corrosion Polymer Nano-composite Coatings for Carbon Steel in a Saline Environment, Colorado School of Mines (2018) (“Alabdullah 2018”). [0329] Algozeeb, W. A., et al., ACS Nano, 2020, 14, 15595 (“Algozeeb 2020”). [0330] Alkoy, S., et al., J. Eur. Ceram. Soc., 1997, 17, 1415 (“Alkoy 1997”). [0331] Arenal, R., et al., Nano Lett., 2006, 6(8), 1812–1816 (“Arenal 2006”). [0332] Ashraf, M. A, et al., Nanoscale Res. Lett., 2018, 13, 214 (“Ashraf 2018”). [0333] Ba, K., et al., Sci. Rep., 2017, 7, 45584 (“Ba 2017”). [0334] Bae, D. S., et al., Nano Converg., 2022, 9(1), 20 (“Bae 2022”). [0335] Bazargan, A, et al., Chem. Eng. J.2012, 195–196, 377 (“Bazargan 2012”). [0336] Beckham, J. L., et al., Adv. Mater., 2022, 34, 2106506 (“Beckham 2022”). [0337] Brar, V. W., et al., Phys. Rev. B, 2002, 66, 155418 (“Brar 2002”). [0338] Cai, N., et al., Energy Convers. Manag., 2021, 229, 113794 (“Cai 2021”). [0339] Cai, Q. R., et al., Nanoscale, 2017, 9, 3059 (“Cai 2017”). [0340] Carozo, V., et al., Nano Lett., 2011, 11, 4527 (“Carozo 2011”). [0341] Carroll, K. M, et al., Langmuir, 2018, 34, 73 (“Carroll 2018”). [0342] Cao, C. C., et al., 2D Mater., 2022, 9, 015014 (“Cao 2022”). [0343] Chen, W., et al., ACS Nano, 2022, 16, 6646 (“Chen 2022”). [0344] Chen, W., et al., ACS Nano, 2021, 15, 11158 (“Chen I 2021”). [0345] Chen, W., et al., ACS Nano, 2021, 15, 1282 (“Chen II 2021”). [0346] Chen, X., et al., Sci. Rep., 2017, 7(1), 1–9 (“Chen 2017”). [0347] Chen, X., et al., Appl. Phys. Lett., 2015, 107(25), 253105 (“Chen 2015”). [0348] Chen, Y., et al., Chem. Phys. Lett., 1999, 299(3–4), 260–264 (“Chen 1999”). [0349] Chiang, W.-H, et al., Nat. Mater., 2009, 8, 882 (“Chiang 2009”). [0350] Chilkoor, G., et al., ACS Nano, 2020, 14, 14809 (“Chilkoor 2020”). [0351] Chopra, N. G., et al., Science, 1995, 269(5226), 966–967 (“Chopra 1995”). [0352] Ci, L. J., et al., Nat. Mater., 2010, 9, 430 (“Ci 2010”). [0353] Constantinescu, G., et al., Phys. Rev. Lett., 2013, 111, 036104 (“Constantinescu 2013”). [0354] Demirci, U. B., Energies, 2020, 13(12), 3071 (“Demirci 2020”). [0355] Deng, B., et al., Nat. Commun., 2022, 13(1), 262 (“Deng 2022”). [0356] Deng, B., et al., Nat. Commun., 2021, 12, 5794 (“Deng 2021”). [0357] Ding, W., et al., Nat. Commun.2021, 12, 5886 (“Ding 2021”). [0358] Ding, W., et al., ACS Nano, 2019, 13, 1694 (“Ding 2019”). [0359] Edgar, J. H., Properties of group III nitrides (1994) (“Edgar 1994”). [0360] Fathalizadeh, A., et al., Nano Lett., 2014, 14(8), 4881–4886 (“Fathalizadeh 2014”). [0361] Fan, M. M., et al., Adv. Mater., 2019, 31, 1805778 (“Fan 2019”). [0362] Feng, L., et al., Materials, 2014, 7, 3919 (“Feng 2014”). [0363] Ferrari, A. C., et al., Nat. Nanotechnol., 2013, 8, 235 (“Ferrari 2013”). [0364] Fouquet, M, et al., Phys. Rev. B, 2012, 85, 235411 (“Fouquet 2012”). [0365] Frueh, S., et al., Inorg. Chem., 2011, 50(3), 783–792 (“Frueh 2011”). [0366] Gladkaya, I. S., et al., J. Alloys Compd., 1986, 117, 241 (“Gladkaya 1986”). [0367] Gong, J, et al., Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 2013, 52, 15578 (“Gong 2013”). [0368] Gorbachev, R. V., et al., Small, 2011, 7, 465 (“Gorbachev 2011”). [0369] Govind Rajan, A., et al., J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 2018, 9, 1584 (“Govind Rajan 2018”). [0370] Guo, Y., et al., Sci. Rep., 2022, 12, 2522 (“Guo 2022”). [0371] Gupta, S., et al., ACS Appl. Nano Mater., 2020, 3, 7930 (“Gupta 2020”). [0372] Han, X., et al., ACS Nano, 2018, 12, 11, 11219 (“Han 2018”). [0373] Hong, J., et al., Sci. Rep., 2013, 3, 2700 (“Hoon 2013”). [0374] Hu, S.-Q., et al., J. Chem., 2019, 2019, 8793282 (“Hu 2019”). [0375] Huang, L., et al., ACS Nano, 2020, 14, 12045 (“Huang 2020”). [0376] Huang, Y., et al., Nanotechnology, 2011, 22(14), 145602 (“Huang 2011”). [0377] Hunter, R. D, et al., J. Mater. Chem. A, 2022, 10, 4489 (“Hunter 2022”). [0378] Jagodzińska, K, et al., Chem. Eng. J., 2022, 446, 136808 (“Jagodzińska 2022”). [0379] Jia, M., et al., Macromol. Rapid Commun., 2022, 43, 2100835 (“Jia 2022”). [0380] Jia, Z., et al., Catalysts, 2017, 7, 256 (“Jia 2017”). [0381] Jie, X., et al., Nat. Catal., 2020, 3, 902 (“Jie 2020”). [0382] Kakiagea, M., et al., Key Eng. Mater., 2013, 534, 55 (“Kakiagea 2013”). [0383] Khanna, V., et al., Journal of Industral Ecology, 2008, 12(3), 394-410 (“Khanna 2008”). [0384] Kim, H.-S., et al., Nanomaterials (Basel,) 2021, 12(1), 11 (“Kim H 2021”). [0385] Kim, J., et al., Acta Mater., 2011, 59(7), 2807–2813 (“Kim 2011”). [0386] Kim, J. H., et al., Sci. Rep., 2019, 9(1), 15674 (“Kim 2019”). [0387] Kim, J. H., et al., Nano Converg., 2018, 5(1), 17 (“Kim J 2018”). [0388] Kim, K. S., et al., ACS Omega, 2021, 6 (41), 27418–27429 (“Kim K 2021”). [0389] Kim, K. S., et al., ACS Nano, 2018, 12 (1), 884–893 (“Kim K 2018”). [0390] Kim, M., et al., Chem. Eng. J., 2020, 395, 125148 (“Kim 2020”). [0391] Koepke, J. C., et al., Chem. Mater., 2016, 28(12), 4169–4179 (“Koepke 2016”). [0392] Köken, D., et al., ACS Appl. Nano Mater., 2022, 5 (2), 2137–2146 (“Köken 2022”). [0393] Kosynkin, D. V., et al., Nature, 2009, 458, 872 (“Kosynkin 2009”). [0394] Kou, L., et al., Nano-Micro Lett., 2017, 9, 51 (“Kou 2017”). [0395] Kour, R., et al., J. Electrochem. Soc., 2020, 167, 037555 (“Kour 2020”). [0396] Koutsioukis, A., et al., Nanomaterials, 2022, 12, 447 (“Koutsioukis 2022”) [0397] Kumar, S., et al., Chem. Eng. J., 2021, 403, 126352 (“Kumar 2021”). [0398] Lahiri, D., et al., Acta Biomater., 2010, 6(9), 3524–3533 (“Lahiri 2010”). [0399] Langenhorsta, F., et al., Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2002, 4, 5183 (“Langenhorsta 2002”). [0400] Lebedev, A. V., et al., ECS J. Solid. State. Sci. Technol., 2020, 9, 083004 (“Lebedev 2020”). [0401] Lee, C. H., et al., Molecules, 2016, 21(7), 922 (“Lee 2016”). [0402] Lee, J.-K., et al., IUCrJ, 2021, 8(Pt 6), 1018–1023 (“Lee J 2021”) [0403] Lee, S.-H., et al., Carbon, 2021, 173, 901 (“Lee S 2021”). [0404] Li, L., et al., ACS Nano, 2014, 8, 1457 (“Li 2014”). [0405] Li, T., et al., Nat. Energy, 2018, 3, 148 (“Li 2018”). [0406] Li, Y., et al., E3S Web Conf., 2021, 260, 03027 (“Li 2021”). [0407] Li, Y., et al., Earth Environ. Sci., 2020, 453 (1), 012091 (“Li 2020”). [0408] Lian, J. B., et al., J. Phys. Chem. C, 2009, 113, 9135 (“Lian 2009”). [0409] Liu, F., et al., Front. Chem., 2021, 9 (“Liu 2021”). [0410] Lourie, O. R., et al., Chem. Mater., 2000, 12(7), 1808–1810 (“Lourie 2000”). [0411] Luong, D. X., et al., Nature, 2020, 577, 647 (“Luong 2020”). [0412] Martín-Lara, M. A, et al., J. Clean., Prod.2022, 365, 132625 (“Martín-Lara 2022”). [0413] McGilvery, C. M., et al., Micron, 2012, 43, 450 (“McGlvery 2012”). [0414] McLean, B., et al., J. Appl. Phys., 2021, 129, 044302 (“McLean 2021”). [0415] Medupin, R. O, et al., Sci. Rep., 2019, 9, 20146 (“Medupin 2019”). [0416] Merlen, A., et al., Coatings, 2017, 7, 153 (“Merlen 2017”). [0417] Mueller, J. E, et al., J. Phys. Chem. C, 2010, 114, 4939 (“Mueller 2010”). [0418] Owuor, P. S., et al., ACS Nano, 2017, 11, 8944 (“Owuor 2017”). [0419] Pakdel, A., et al., Nanotechnology, 2012, 23(21), 215601 (“Pakdel 2012”). [0420] Park, H. J., et al., Sci. Adv., 2020, 6, eaay4958 (“Park 2020”). [0421] Plimpton, S., J. Comput. Phys., 1995, 117, 1 (“Plimpton 1995”). [0422] Puyoo, G., et al., Carbon, 2017, 122, 19 (“Puyoo 2017”). [0423] Rao, R., et al., ACS Nano, 2018, 12, 11756 (“Rao 2018”). [0424] Rathinavel, S., et al., Mater. Sci. Eng. B, 2021, 268, 115095 (“Rathinavel 2021”). [0425] Ren, S. M., et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2017, 9, 27152 (“Ren 2017”). [0426] Restivo, J., et al., Processes, 2020, 8, 1329 (“Restivo 2020”). [0427] Roy, S, et al., Nanotechnol. Rev., 2018, 7, 475 (“Roy 2018”). [0428] Rubio, A., et al., Phys. Rev. B Condens. Matter, 1994, 49(7), 5081–5084 (“Rubio 1994”). [0429] Ruiz-Cornejo, J. C., et al., Rev. Chem. Eng., 2020, 36, 493 (“Ruiz-Cornejo 2020”). [0430] Rydberg, H., et al., Phys. Rev. Lett., 2003, 91, 126402 (“Rydberg 2003”). [0431] Sarkar, N., et al., Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 2016, 55, 2921 (“Sarkar 2016”). [0432] Sharma, S. S., et al., J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 2020, 95, 11 (“Sharma 2020”). [0433] Shi, C., et al., Small, 2019, 15, 1902348 (“Shi 2019”). [0434] Singh, D. K., et al., Diam. Relat. Mater., 2010, 19, 1281 (“Singh 2010”). [0435] Shiratori, T., et al., Nanomaterials (Basel), 2021, 11 (3), 651 (“Shiratori 2021”). [0436] Simpson, A. Stuckes, J. Phys. C: Solid State Phys., 1971, 4, 1710 (“Simpson 1971”). [0437] Singh, N. K., et al., RSC Adv., 2018, 8, 17237 (“Singh 2018”). [0438] Smith, R. J., et al., Adv. Mater., 2011, 23, 3944 (“Smith 2011”). [0439] Song, L., et al., Nano Lett., 2010, 10, 3209 (“Song 2010”). [0440] Spahr, M. E., et al., Fillers for Polymer Applications., 375-400 (2017) (“Spahr 2017”). [0441] Stanford, M. G., et al., ACS Nano, 2020, 14(10), 13691 (“Stanford 2020”). [0442] Stehle, Y., et al., Chem. Mater., 2015, 27(23), 8041–8047 (“Stehle 2015”). [0443] Tan, L. F., et al., Adv. Electron. Mater., 2015, 1, 1500223 (“Tan 2015”). [0444] Tay, R. Y., et al., Chem. Mater., 2015, 27(20), 7156–7163 (“Tay 2015”). [0445] Tay, R. Y., et al., J. Mater. Chem. C Mater. Opt. Electron. Devices, 2014, 2 (9), 1650– 1657 (“Tay 2014”). [0446] Teah, H., et al., ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng., 2020, 8(4), 1730-1740 (“Yeah 2020”). [0447] Temizel-Sekeryan, S., et al., Int J Life Cycle Assess, 2021, 26(4), 656-672 (“Temizel- Sekeryan 2021”). [0448] Terao, T., et al., J. Phys. Chem. C, 2010, 114(10), 4340–4344 (“Tetao 2010”). [0449] Thambiliyagodage, C. J., et al., Carbon, 2018, 134, 452 (“Thambiliyagodage 2018”). [0450] Thomas, J., et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1963, 84, 4619 (“Thomas 1963”). [0451] Toyos-Rodríguez, C., et al., J. Nanomater., 2019, 1–10 (“Toyos-Rodríguez 2019”). [0452] Tripathi, P. K., et al., Nanomaterials, 2017, 7, 284 (“Tripathi 2017”). [0453] Trompeta, A.-F., et al., Journal of Cleaner Production, 2016, 129, 384-394 (“Trompeta 2016”). [0454] Vedhanarayanan, B., et al., NPG Asia Mater., 2018, 10, 107 (“Vedhanarayanan 2018”). [0455] Viswanatha, R, et al., John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2007, pp. 139–170 (“Viswanatha 2007”). [0456] Wang, B, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2007, 129, 9014 (“Wang 2007”). [0457] Wang, C. X., et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2017, 139, 13997 (“Wang 2017”). [0458] Wang, J., et al., Catal. Today, 2020, 351, 50 (“Wang 2020”). [0459] Wang, X., et al., Chemical Society Reviews, 2014, 43, 7067-7098 (“Wang 2014”). [0460] Wang, Y., et al., ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng., 2022, 10, 2204 (“Wang 2022”). [0461] Wang, Y., et al., J. Nanomater., 2008, 2008, 1–7 (“Wang 2008”). [0462] Wang, Z., et al., Nanomaterials, 2019, 9, 1045 (“Wang 2019”). [0463] Warner, J. H., et al., Nano Lett., 2009, 9, 102 (“Warner 2009”). [0464] Williams, P. T., Waste Biomass Valorization, 2021, 12, 1 (“Williams 2021”). [0465] Wolfram Research, Inc., Mathematica, Version 11.3, Champaign, IL (2018) (“Wolfram 2018”). [0466] Wu, F., et al., Journal of Cleaner Production, 2020, 270, 122465 (“Wu 2020”). [0467] Wyss, K. M., et al., Adv. Mater., 2022, 34(8), 2106970 (“Wyss I 2022”). [0468] Wyss, K. M., et al., Commun. Eng., 2022, 1, 1 (“Wyss II 2022”). [0469] Wyss, K. M, et al., ACS Nano, 2022, 16(5), 7804 (“Wyss III 2022”) [0470] Wyss, K. M., et al., Carbon, 2021, 174, 430 (“Wyss I 2021”). [0471] Wyss, K. M., et al., ACS Nano, 2021, 15, 10542 (“Wyss II 2021”). [0472] Wu, C., et al., Process Saf. Environ. Prot., 2016, 103, 107 (“Wu 2016”). [0473] Wu, N., et al., Carbon, 2021, 176, 88 (“Wu 2021”). [0474] Xia, K., et al., Procedia IUTAM, 2017, 21, 94 (“Xia 2017”). [0475] Xie, H., et al., Small Methods, 2018, 2, 1700371 (“Xie 2018”). [0476] Xu, D., et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2018, 57, 755 (“Xu D 2018”). [0477] Xu, H., et al., Journal of Energy Chemistry, 2018, 27, 146-160 (“Xu H 2018”). [0478] Xu, Q., et al., Nanoscale, 2019, 11, 1475 (“Xu 2019”). [0479] Yang, W., et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2015, 137, 1436 (“Yang 2015”). [0480] Yaqoob, L., et al., ACS Omega, 2022, 7, 13403 (“Yaqoob 2022”). [0481] Yan, Z., et al., ACS Nano, 2014, 8, 5061 (“Yan 2014”). [0482] Yao, D., et al., ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng., 2022, 10, 1125 (“Yao 2022”). [0483] Yao, Y. G., et al., Science, 2018, 359, 1489 (“Yau 2018”). [0484] Yao, Y., et al., Nano Lett., 2016, 16, 7282 (“Yao 2016”). [0485] Ye, R., et al., ACS Nano 2019, 13, 10872-10878 (“Ye 2019”). [0486] Yoon, D., et al., Raman Spectroscopy for Characterization of Graphene, Springer- Verlag Berlin Heidelberg (2012) (“Yoon 2012”). [0487] Yu, D. P., et al., Appl. Phys. Lett., 1998, 72(16), 1966–1968 (“Yu 1998”). [0488] Yuan, D., et al., Nano Lett., 2008, 8, 2576 (“Yuan 2008”). [0489] Zare, Y., Compos. Part Appl. Sci. Manuf., 2016, 84, 158 (“Zare 2016”). [0490] Zeng, X., et al., ACS Nano, 2017, 11(5), 5167–5178 (“Zeng 2017”). [0491] Zhao, C., et al., Adv. Funct. Mater., 2014, 24, 5985 (“Zhao 2014”). [0492] Zhao, M.-Q., et al., ACS Nano, 2012, 6, 10759 (“Zhao 2012”). [0493] Zhi, C., et al., Adv. Funct. Mater., 2009, 19(12), 1857–1862 (“Zhi 2009”). [0494] Zhi, C., et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2005, 127(46), 15996–15997 (“Zhi 2005”). [0495] Zhi, C., et al., Solid State Commun., 2005, 135(1–2), 67–70 (“Zhi II 2005”). [0496] Zhong, B., et al., Mater. Des., 2017, 120, 266 (“Zhong 2017”). [0497] Zhu, M., et al., J. Inorg. Mater., 2019, 34, 817 (“Zhu 2019”). [0498] Zhuang, C., et al., RSC Adv., 2016, 6(114), 113415–113423 (“Zhuang 2016”). [0499] Zhuo, C., et al., J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2014, 131, DOI 10.1002/app.39931 (“Zhou 2014”). [0500] Zou, B. J., et al., Prog. Org. Coat., 2019, 133, 139 (“Zou 2019”).
Next Patent: ANTIOXIDANT DERIVATIVE OF HYALURONIC ACID