SEQUENCE -CONTROLLED POLYMER-BASED STORAGE

BRIEF SUMMARY

[0001] Embodiments of the present disclosure relate to sequence-controlled polymer storage, and more specifi cally, to sequence-controlled polymer storage in encapsu lated materials. Further embodiments relate to methods for manufacturing a data containing feedstock, to methods for recovering information from a 3 D object and to data storage media.

[0002] According to embodiments of the present disclo sure, methods and systems for sequence-controlled polymer encoding (1 ^st aspect), decoding (2 ^nd aspect), and storage (3 ^rd aspect) are provided. Accordingly, methods and sys tems for sequence-controlled polymer encoding, decoding, and storage are provided. In various embodiments, input data is encoded into one or more sequence controlled pol ymer, wherein encoding the input data comprises applying an error-correction code. The one or more sequence-controlled polymer are synthesized. The synthesized one or more sequence- controlled polymer are encapsulated in a plurality of particles. The plurality of particles are embedded into a feedstock. The feedstock is converted into a 3D object, preferably by 3D printing. In embodi ments, these aspects are linked together by the special technical feature of a sequence controlled polymer comprising data and an error-correction code.

[0003] In a first aspect of the present disclosure, input data is encoded into one or more sequence controlled pol ymer, wherein encoding the input data comprises applying an error- correction code. The one or more sequence-con trolled polymer are synthesized. The synthesized one or more sequence-controlled polymer are encapsulated in a plurality of particles. The plurality of particles are embedded into a feedstock. [0004] In some embodiments, the feedstock comprises a filament adapted for 3D printing. In some embodiments, an object is 3D printed using the filament. In some embodi ments, the data comprises a 3D model of the object. In some embodiments, the one or more sequence-controlled polymer comprises DNA. In some embodiments, encoding the input data further comprises applying a fountain code. In some embodiments, encoding the input data further com prises applying DNA Fountain encoding. In some embodiments, encoding the input data further comprises applying a Reed-Solomon code. In some embodiments, the plurality of particles comprises silica beads. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of particles has a diameter of at most lOOOnm. In some embodiments, the plurality of parti cles are homogeneously distributed within the feedstock. In some embodiments, the plurality of particles have a concentration of at most lOOmg/kg within the feedstock.

In some embodiments, the plurality of particles have a concentration of at most 2mg/g of DNA. In some embodi ments, encapsulating the synthesized one or more se quence- controlled polymer comprises sol-gel synthesis.

In some embodiments, the feedstock comprises thermo-poly mer, i.e. a polymer having thermosoftening properties. In some embodiments, the feedstock comprises polycaprolac- tone (PCL) , polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) , polylactic acid (PLA), acrylonitrile butadien styrene (ABS) or poly ( lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) or combination thereof; specifically PCL.

[0005] In a second aspect, a plurality of particles are released from a thermo-polymer. One or more sequence-con- trolled polymer are extracted from the plurality of par ticles. The one or more sequence-controlled polymer are sequenced. Output data from the one or more sequence- controlled polymer are decoded, wherein the output data comprises a payload and an error correction code. The er ror correction is applied to the payload. [0006] In some embodiments, releasing the plurality of particles comprises applying tetrahydrofuran to the thermo-polymer . In some embodiments, extracting the one or more sequence-controlled polymer comprises applying a buffered oxide etch to the plurality of particles. In some embodiments, the one or more sequence-controlled polymer comprises DNA. In some embodiments, the error correction code comprises a fountain code. In some embod iments, the error correction code comprises DNA Fountain encoding. In some embodiments, the error correction code comprises a Reed-Solomon code. In some embodiments, the plurality of particles comprises silica beads. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of particles has a di ameter of at most lOOOnm. In some embodiments, the plu rality of particles are homogeneously distributed within the thermo-polymer. In some embodiments, the plurality of particles have a concentration of at most lOOmg/kg within the thermo-polymer. In some embodiments, the plurality of particles have a concentration of at most 2mg/g of DNA.

In some embodiments, the thermo-polymer contains poly- caprolactone (PCL) , polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) , pol- ylactic acid (PLA), acrylonitrile butadien styrene (ABS) or poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) or combination thereof; specifically PCL.

[0007] In a third aspect, a data storage medium is pro vided. The data storage medium comprises a plurality of particles embedded in a thermo-polymer, and one or more sequence- controlled polymer encapsulated in the plural ity of particles, wherein the one or more sequence- con trolled polymer encodes predetermined data, the predeter mined data comprising a payload and an error correction code .

[0008] In some embodiments, the data storage medium has a predetermined shape, wherein the predetermined data com- prises a 3D model of the predetermined shape. In some em bodiments, the one or more sequence-controlled polymer comprises DNA. In some embodiments, the error correction code comprises a fountain code. In some embodiments, the error correction code comprises DNA Fountain. In some em bodiments, the error correction code comprises a Reed- Solomon code. In some embodiments, the plurality of par ticles comprises silica beads. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of particles has a diameter of at most lOOOnm. In some embodiments, the plurality of particles are homogeneously distributed within the thermo-polymer.

In some embodiments, the plurality of particles have a concentration of at most lOOmg/kg within the thermo-poly mer. In some embodiments, the plurality of particles have a concentration of at most 2mg/g of DNA. In some embodi ments, the thermo-polymer contains polycaprolactone

(PCL), polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), polylactic acid (PLA), acrylonitrile butadien styrene (ABS) or poly(lac- tic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) or combination thereof; spe cifically PCL.

Brief Description of the Drawings

[0009] Fig. 1 is a plot of the robustness of encapsulated DNA (left block) and free DNA (right block) against vari ous external factors (I both blocks from left to right: Reference, 60°C, ROS, Bleach) according to embodiments of the present disclosure, y-axis: Fraction of DNA recov ered, logarithmic scale.

[0010] Fig. 2 is a visualization of the DNA of things (DoT) process according to embodiments of the present disclosure .

[0011] Fig. 3 is a visual comparison of the DoT process and parthenogenesis according to embodiments of the pre sent disclosure. (1) Sequencing of DNA Library (2) Foun tain code transformation of library into stl file; (3) 3D printing of identical object based on stl file, (4) inte gration of DNA into printing filament.

[0012] Figs. 4 A-C are schematics of a sequence design for the DoT process according to experiments of embodi ments of the present disclosure.

[0013] Figs. 5A-B are electron microscopy images of sil ica particle encapsulated DNA ( SPED) according to embodi ments of the present disclosure.

[0014] Fig. 6 is a visualization of the hierarchical ar chitecture of a 3D printed bunny containing information within its DNA according to embodiments of the present disclosure. From left to right:

• 105 bunny file units / g PCL

• 100 ppm particles in PCL

• 0.2 wt% DNA loading

• DNA library 12000 oligos * 145 nt (top) ; stl file size lOOkB (bottom)

[0015] Fig. 7 is a visualization of a step in a DoT pro cess according to embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0016] Fig. 8 is a visualization of the DoT process ac cording to embodiments of the present disclosure.

(a) timing 10 min, hand-on time 10 min

(c) timing 4 days, hand-on time 3 h

(d) timing 2 h, hand-on time 2 h

(e) timing 2 h, hand-on time 20 min

(g) timing 1 h, hand-on time 1 h

(h; i) timing 20 h , hand-on time 3 h

[0017] Fig. 9 is a visualization of a step in a DoT process according to embodiments of the present disclosure. Top: Parent (P), Bottom: Identical Progeny (IP). [0018] Fig. 10 is a plot of the file corruption rate for various generations of a DoT object according to embodi ments of the present disclosure, x-axis: Generation ; y- axis: file corruption rate (%) ; dotted line: maximum re- storable corruption rate

[0019] Fig. 11 is a plot of the oligo coverage frequency for a generation of a DoT object according to embodiments of the present disclosure, x-axis: correct reads per ol igo per million reads (0PM); y-axis: Frequency; Overdis persion 1.0; Mean 16.3

[0020] Fig. 12 is a plot of the oligo coverage frequency for a generation of a DoT object according to embodiments of the present disclosure, x-axis: correct reads per ol igo per million reads (OPM); y-axis: Frequency; Overdis persion 2.27; Mean 11.0

[0021] Fig. 13 is a plot of the thermal stability of an encapsulated DNA file for different processes and temper atures according to embodiments of the present disclo sure. x-axis: Process temperature (°C); y-axis: recovered DNA (ng/g of polymer)

[0022] Fig. 14 is a plot of the qPCR cycle threshold for various SPED concentrations according to embodiments of the present disclosure, x-axis: log concentration (g/L) ; y-axis: cycle threshold; y = -3.563x + 3.685; R ² =

0.99946.

[0023] Fig. 15 depicts a computing node according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0024] Figs. 2, 7 - 12 are also post - published in Koch et al, nature biotechnology, 38, Jan 2020, 39 -43, fig ures 1 and 2; the content thereof being incorporated by reference .

Description [0025] DNA storage offers substantial information density and exceptional half-life. The present disclosure pro vides for a storage architecture, dubbed the DNA of things (DoT) , which creates materials with memory, which in some embodiment is immutable. The DoT framework rec ords data directly onto DNA molecules, encapsulates them in nanometer silica beads, and fuses the beads into a feedstock, such as a filament containing (i.e. comprising or consisting of thermo-polymer, e.g. a Polycaprolactone (PCL) filament. The filament containing thermos-polymer, e.g the PCL filament, is used as a 3D printing feedstock to create objects with embedded data in any desired shape. Suitable objects include custom manufactured engi neering parts, medical and dental implants, transparent or translucent windows, or packaging materials. In some embodiments, DoT is used to create a 3D-printed Stanford Bunny with its own digital stereolithography information embedded into its DNA. This self-replicating property may be used to perfectly create six generations of the same object, where each new generation obtains its DNA memory from the previous generation without additional DNA syn thesis. DoT can be used for multiple applications such as steganography, where data is concealed in common objects, development of anti-counterfeit material, supply chain tracking, and the advancement of research in self-repli cating machines.

[0026] The world's data is growing at exponential rates. However, attempts to further miniaturize traditional storage architectures, such as hard-drives and magnetic tapes, are difficult. These devices have reached their physical limitations and cannot keep pace with digital storage requirements . Due to these challenges, DNA mole cules may be used as an architecture for long term cold storage. DNA storage may reach three orders of magnitude higher physical densities than traditional devices and can have a half-life of thousands of years. [0027] In addition to having exceptional density and en durance, DNA storage is virtually the only storage archi tecture that can take any shape. This stands in stark contrast to traditional storage architectures such as tapes or hard-drives, where the actual shape of device is often critical to its functionality. Studies of DNA stor age have largely overlooked the virtue of the absence of shape constraints. However, this property allows the re alization of new storage architectures beyond today's conventional designs.

[0028] The present disclosure provides for a storage ar chitecture, dubbed the DNA of Things (DoT), in which DNA molecules are fused to a functional material to create objects with immutable memory. According to embodiments of the present disclosure, the DoT architecture starts with encoding the data in DNA molecules in a manner that is robust to errors. Due to the low density of the DNA molecules in the embedding material, it is possible that some DNA fragments will not be recovered from the object, creating fragment dropouts. To ameliorate that, various data encoding schemes may be employed, such as fountain coding. One example of a suitable encoding scheme is DNA Fountain, described in U. S. Patent Application No.

16/032,946, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. This scheme provides high flexibility in setting virtually any redundancy level that can correct dropout errors and perfectly retrieves data from minute quantities of material.

[0029] DNA is not soluble in many materials, so mixing is not possible. Where mixing DNA is possible, simply mixing the DNA with the functional material results in quickly degraded DNA due to hydrolysis stress and elevated tem peratures during the preparation of the mixture. To miti gate that, the DoT architecture first encapsulates the DNA in silica nanoparticles, resulting with silica parti cle encapsulated DNA (SPED) . The SPED sequesters the DNA molecules, prolonging their half-life, and facilitating the mixing of DNA with the embedding material. The encap sulation enables mixing processes, as encapsulation mate rials (e.g. , silica nanoparticles) allow better miscibil ity in a wide range of materials. In addition, chemi cal/thermal stability is introduced due to the encapsula tion .

[0030] Referring to Fig. 1, a plot of the robustness of encapsulated DNA and free DNA against various external factors according to embodiments of the present disclo sure is shown. The chemical and thermal stability of en capsulated DNA compared to non-encapsulated DNA is indi cated by the fraction of DNA recovered under various con ditions. In various experiments, for the thermal stabil ity assessment, solid state DNA and SPED encapsulated DNA were stored at 60°C for one week at 50% relative humid ity. For stability against aggressive chemical species, DNA and encapsulated DNA were treated with bleach and re active oxygen species (ROS) in aqueous solution. * de notes values < 10' 5. Error bars represent standard er rors of experimental triplicates. A wide range of embed ding materials can be used for the DoT architecture. In various embodiments, the SPED beads are embedded in poly- caprolactone (PCL). PCL is a biodegradable thermoplastic polyester that offers low melting temperature and high solubility in various organic solvents, which make it an ideal material for blending and printing under mild con ditions. To prepare 3D printing filaments, the SPED cap sules may be mixed with dissolved PCL and the mixture may be extruded into 2.85 mm filaments that are compatible with desktop 3D printers.

[0031] Referring to Fig. 2, a visualization of the DNA of things (DoT) process according to embodiments of the pre sent disclosure is shown. The digital file is encoded into a DNA oligo library using DNA Fountain encoding. The synthesized library is encapsulated by a sol-gel synthe sis method into small glass particles and blended into PCL, which is extruded into standard 3D-printing fila ment. The object, as defined by the initial digital file, is printed with the DNA comprising filament. The DNA li brary can be extracted from any part of the printed ob ject and amplified by PCR. By sequencing the DNA and de coding the DNA Fountain, the original . stl file can be retrieved to 3D print new objects.

[0032] To empirically test data storage using the DoT ar chitecture, 3D object 201 may be created that holds its own digital information within its embedded DNA. This configuration is similar to parthenogenesis in biological systems in which the instructions of making objects re side within the matter itself and transmitted (as shown in the visual comparison of Fig. 3.).

[0033] Referring to Fig. 3, a visual comparison of the pathogenesis (left) and DoT process according to embodi ments of the present disclosure (right) is shown. The crustacean p. Virginalis [Phenotype] can reproduce asexu- ally, generating identical (female) clones [New genera tion of identical clones] , and uses DNA [Genotype] to transmit information from one generation to the next. In the same manner, clones of the DoT Stanford Bunny [New generation of identical clones] can be generated from the synthetic DNA [Genotype] within the paternal object [Phe notype] . Apparently, biological system comprises all pro cesses for self-replication. The replication of the DoT object according to this invention requires external de vices, such as DNA sequencer, thermal cycler, extruder,

3D printer, for successful cloning.

[0034] In various experiments, the Stanford Bunny, which is a common computer graphics 3D test model, was selected as the object. First, the binary stereolithography (stl) file of the bunny was compressed from 100 kB to 45 kB. Next, DNA Fountain was used to encode the file in 12,000 DNA oligos, which is the maximal number of oligos pro duced by a single CustomArray chip. With this number of oligos compared to the file size, DNA Fountain encoding yields a redundancy level of 5.2x, a dropout of even 80% of the DNA oligos can be tolerated while still allowing the correct decoding of the file.

[0035] Referring to Figs. 4A-C, schematics of a sequence design for the DoT process according to experiments of embodiments of the present disclosure are shown. Fig. 4A shows a primer design of sequencing adapters as used in experiments of the present disclosure. Fig. 4B shows a list of primer and index sequences used in experiments of the present disclosure. Fig. 4C shows oligo architecture for each of 12,000 features Oligonucleotide sequences as used in various experiments of the present disclosure.

[0036] Referring to Figs. 5A-B, electron microscopy im ages of silica particle encapsulated DNA (SPED) according to embodiments of the present disclosure are shown. Fig. 5A and Fig. 5B show scanning and scanning transmission electron microscopy images of the SPEDs, respectively, which are about 160nm large particles comprising each ca. 60 DNA strands (DNA not visible) . The scale bar is 200nm.

[0037] Referring to Fig. 6, a visualization of the hier archical architecture of a 3D printed bunny containing information within its DNA according to embodiments of the present disclosure is shown. The bunny contains its building instructions within its DNA.

[0038] In various experiments, the length of the oligos was 145nt, consisting of 104nt of payload and 41nt for PCR annealing sites (as shown in Figs. 4A-C) . Next, the PCR-amplified oligos were loaded into SPED beads (as shown in Figs. 5A-B) and embedded in a PCL filament. The filament contained SPED beads in a concentration of 100 mg/kg (=100ppm) , which does not create any detectable changes to the mechanical properties, weight, or color of the filament. The DNA loading within SPED was 2mg of DNA per gram of SPED beads, which corresponds to a DNA con centration of 0.2mg/kg (=0.2ppm) of PCL filament (as shown in Fig . 6) , well below the concentration of DNA in biological organism compared to their body weight (-1000 ppm in E.coli ). Finally, the Stanford Bunny was3D printed using the same file stored in the DNA containing PCL filament.

[0039] Results of experiments according to the present disclosure show that the data can be perfectly and rap idly retrieved from the 3D object by consuming a minute quantity of material using a portable sequencer.

[0040] Referring to Fig. 7, a visualization of a step in a DoT process according to embodiments

of the present disclosure is shown. In various experi ments, -10 mg of the printed PCL was clipped from the ear of bunny 701, which is 0.3% of the total material of bunny 701 that weighted 3.2 g . The lOmg 702 of the par ent 3D printed object 701 was sufficient to recover enough DNA with accurate building instructions ( . stl file) to generate identical progeny. Next, the SPED beads from the embedding PCL were released using tetrahy- drofuran (THF) , the DNA from the SPED beads was extracted using buffered oxide etch (BOE) , and the library was pu rified using a standard PCR cleaning kit.

[0041] Referring to Fig. 8, a visualization of the DoT process according to embodiments of the present disclo sure is shown. Fig 8 shows handling and overall process timing for the individual steps in the formation and reading of the DoT objects. In various experiments, the recovered DNA library weighed 25pg in 50pL volume, corre- sponding to about 14,000 copies of the encoded file, in cluding the 5.4x redundancy. This entire process took 4 hours end-to-end. IpL of the recovered DNA, equivalent to 1/50 of the recovered DNA, was then amplified using 10 PCR cycles and the library was sequenced using an iSeq, a portable Illumina sequencer. This process took 17 hours and yielded 1,046,118 reads. Finally, the data was pro cessed using the DNA Fountain decoder and the stored . stl file was perfectly retrieved despite missing 5.9% of the original oligos and sequencing errors, which took a few minutes on a standard laptop (as shown in Fig. 8) .

[0042] Multi-round replication experiments were conducted using the DoT architecture. In the first replication round, the PCR-amplified DNA from the parent Stanford Bunny (P) was fused to a nascent PCL filament using the DoT procedure. Referring to Fig. 9, a visualization of a step in a DoT process according to embodiments of the present disclosure is shown. In Fig. 9, the initial "par ent" bunny and three "children" printed with the DNA in structions embedded in the parent DNA are shown. The progeny also hold DNA instructions using the original DNA library. In various experiments, three offspring 3D structures (FI) were created using the PCL filament and the retrieved .stl file (as shown in Fig. 9) . Subse quently, about 10 mg was clipped from one of the FI, the DNA was extracted, and the library was sequenced with iSeq to retrieve the .stl file, and 3D object was printed as the next generation. The same procedure was repeated for five generations, where in each generation a new PCL filament was created by fusing the PCR amplified DNA mol ecules of the previous experiment.

[0043] Referring to Fig. 10, a plot of the file corrup tion rate for various generations of a DoT object accord ing to embodiments of the present disclosure is shown.

The file was perfectly retrieved from all five genera tions of progeny. However, in nearly each replication round, an increase in the fraction of drop-out molecules was recorded from a level of 5.9% for P to a level of 25.6% in F5. For every new generation, the file corrup tion rate increased, yet for the 6 experimentally imple mented generations, it remained well below the file cor ruption rate that the Fountain error correction code al lowed. To better demonstrate the effect of replication on the library composition, w the number of correct sequence reads per oligo was modeled using a negative binomial distribution. Figs. 11 and 12 show plots of the oligo coverage frequency for the parent (P) and 5th descendant (F5) generations, respectively, of a DoT object according to embodiments of the present disclosure. Figs. 11 and 12 show an escalation in the negative binomial over-disper sion parameter (1/size) from 1.0 in P (Fig. 11) to 2.27 in F5 (Fig. 12) . This increase in over-dispersion means that the oligos become less equally represented with suc cessive generations, which may be ascribed to the added thermal stress during polymer extrusion/printing and in creasing numbers of PCR rounds. Yet, the DNA Fountain strategy easily dealt with these issues and retrieved the file correctly for all generations using the same proce dure .

[0044] The economy of the DoT architecture is consistent with mass production of goods with memory at negligible per-unit costs. Each replication consumes only 0.3% from each bunny and yields sufficient DNA material to create 29 offspring bunnies. Therefore, even if the number of replications are restricted to five generations, it is theoretically possible to create at least (29/0.003) ⁶ = 8.15x1 023 of bunnies without resynthesizing the DNA li brary. Moreover, if the linear trend of increase in drop out continues with each progeny (as seen in Fig. 10) , generation F15 will be well within the maximal tolerance to dropouts of 80%. Thus, it is possible to create

(29/0.003) ¹⁵ _ 6x1 059 copies without resynthesizing the DNA library, which exceeds the amount atoms available on earth to create these bunnies, and 29 ¹⁵ 86x1020 bunnies if only the tip of the ear is allowed to be clipped, and not any other part of the bunny. Thus, despite the relatively high upfront costs to synthesize the file for the first time, the per-unit costs of storing data is negligible, as mass production requires only one synthesis event.

[0045] The DoT architecture is compatible with a wide range of embedding materials beyond PCL. For such compat- ability, the DNA library survives the melting temperature of the embedding material and the material formation chemistry, which may include radical oxygen species (RoS) or other types of aggressive chemical reactions. Refer ring to Fig. 13, a plot of the thermal stability of an encapsulated DNA file for different processes and temper atures according to embodiments of the present disclosure is shown. The thermal stability of an encapsulated DNA file in PCL filament for different 3D printing (1301) and filament extrusion (1302) process temperatures is shown. Error bars represent standard errors of experimental triplicates. Lines 1302 and 1301 represent a nonlinear regression for the filament extrusion and 3D printing processes, respectively, according to Arrhenius law for a first order decay reaction (see below).

[0046] To test the robustness of the present architec ture, qPCR was used to measure the amount of DNA re trieved from the SPED beads in PCL using various extru sion and 3D printing temperatures. The amount of recov ered DNA followed Arrhenius expression trends. For the extrusion process, with each 30C increase in temperature, there is a drop of approximately one order of magnitude in the recovered DNA. On the other hand, only a rela tively slow decline in the recovered DNA was observed with the increase of the 3D printing temperature, as this process is much faster than extrusion and therefore ex poses the library to high heat only for a short amount of time. It is also possible to use elevated temperatures for short cycle times during polymer processing while suffering some losses of DNA, which may be compensated by loading more DNA into the polymer preforms. Such tempera tures allow the use of DoT for selected polymer injection molding processes, and pre-impregnated carbon fiber com posite autoclaving.

[0047] The robustness of the library to reactive oxygen species (RoS) was evaluated using the Fenton-like copper reaction and bleach oxidation. The encapsulation of the DNA is sufficient to protect against these extreme condi tions without any detectable change in the amount of DNA. As such, this robustness to RoS and oxidation agents ena bles DoT to be embedded in materials manufactured by rad ical polymerization, such as polystyrene, polyacrylates and acrylamides. Thus, a wide range of materials can be used to embed the DNA library.

[0048] The DoT architecture is useful in applications where blueprint level information is required to be ac cessible. For example, in the field of 3D medical or den tal implants, each structure is unique and customized for the price anatomical structure of the patient. As SPED beads are non-toxic, DoT allows the storage of the design of the implant together with other medical background in formation in the implant, offering a long-range back-up alternative to traditional electronic medical records (EMR) that are usually required to be kept only for 5-10 years. Similarly, DoT is applicable for building materi als, pharmaceutical products, and electronic components. All of these are areas that require product control in formation, which is not available at the point of usage. Having relevant information directly integrated via DoT into the product in an invisible, distributed, and non removable manner allows for tighter and better controlled product quality measures. This requires fast DoT re trieval protocols and ubiquitous DNA sequencers. [0049] The DoT architecture is also applicable in infor mation steganography . For example, information steganog- raphy may be provided by hiding data in DNA as a form of microdots. The DoT architecture extends this concept and enables to turn a wide range of everyday objects, from a keychain to a bottle lid, into concealed storage devices that can secretly carry data. An adversary trying to in tercept the data faces multiple barriers: first, the SPED beads do not change the properties of the material, thus, the adversary will have to test multiple objects to re veal the concealing object. Second, the DNA is seques tered in the SPED, so regular DNA sensing techniques such as UV light are not helpful. Third, even if the library is recovered, the adversary will have to know the anneal ing sites to PCR amplify the message. Accordingly, DoT is highly resistant to malicious interception.

[0050] Another application of DoT is in the area of self- replicating devices. One DoT library has sufficient rep licating capacity to produce storage material for virtu ally unlimited supply of objects. This simplifies blue print transmission in self-replicating devices. With tra ditional storage architectures, the self-replicating de vice needs to ab-initio build a data storage

compartment (e.g. , hard-drive), which requires a large number of components and environmentally controlled con ditions. With DoT, a self-replicating device can transmit its blueprint via a PCR procedure, which can be achieved with a limited number of components. It will be appreci ated that the DoT architecture requires a small variety of components. More generally, increasing data flow leads to increased dependency on delocalized data storage and large-scale data centers. The DoT approach provides a powerful alternative for localized and off-the-grid stor age technology, capable of storing sensitive and precious data for multiple generations. It may be used as well for integrating fabrication plans and conditions into complex products such as houses or art installations, as a way of preserving information for later generations.

[0051] In an exemplary experiment, DNA Decoding was achieved as follows. The original binary stereolithogra phy (stl) file was downloaded from graphics.stanford.edu and was reduced in resolution from 22 MB to 100 kB by re ducing the vertex count of the mesh with Blender 2.79b (Blender Foundation) . Next, the file was compressed using gzip and the data was encoded using the DNA Fountain software with the following parameters: —maxhomopolymer 3 —gc 0.05 —rs 2 —size 20 —delta 0.001 —c dist 0.025nt of 50%+5%, 2 bytes of Reed-Solomon error correcting code, 20 bytes of data in each oligo, and Robust Soliton Distribu tion parameters of c=0.025 and 5=0.001, and 12,000 oli- gos, respectively.

[0052] In this example, the library synthesis was

achieved as follows. The DNA Fountain output was a li brary with 12,000 oligos of length 104nt. The following PCR annealing seguences were added to flank each oligo:

5 ' -ACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCT-3 ' (20nt) and 5'- AGATCGGAAGAGCAC

ACGTCT-31 (21nt) , so the resulting oligos were of length 145nt. The oligos were synthesized with CustomArray Inc. (Bothell, WA) . 47 ng from the synthesized library was

PCR amplified using the following primers: 5- ' ACACGACGCTC TTCCGATCT-3 ' and 5 ' -AGACGTGTGCTCTTCCGATCT-3 ' and KAPA SYBR® FAST qPCR Master Mix (KAPA Biosystems) using the following cycling parameters: 95°C for 15s, 54°C for 30s, 72°C for 30s for 30 cycles.

[0053] Referring to Fig. 14, a plot of the qPCR cycle threshold for various SPED concentrations according to embodiments of the present disclosure is shown. In this example, 12.2pg of DNA was loaded onto 1.75 g silica na noparticles, functionalized with N-trimethoxysilylpropyl- N , N , -trimethylammonium chloride (TMAPS) and subsequently coated with an additional silica layer by adding tetra- ethoxysilane (TEOS) .

[0054] In this example, the incorporation into polymer and 3D-printing was done as follows. 2 mg of SPED were centrifuged at 15,000 rpm for 3 min and the supernatant was removed. The particles were then washed and centri fuged 2x in 2 mL Eppendorf tubes with 2 mL acetone

(>99.8%, ProLabo) . The particles were then suspended in 2 mL THF (VWR >99.5%) and added to THF-dissolved PCL (Mak- erBot, 20 wt% PCL in THF) . To distribute the particles in the polymer, the suspension was mixed with a high speed mixer ( Speed ixer DAC 150 FVZ). After solvent evaporation under a fume hood, the solid polymer was extruded (Fi- lastruder) at 60°C to a 2.85 mm filament. Objects were then printed with a commercial 3D-printer (Ultimaker 2+, Ulti aker) modified with a geared direct drive extruder and a V6 hotend ( E3D) . The parts were printed onto a heated build-plate (45°C) that was coated with a layer of adhesive spray (3DLac) at a speed of 20 iran/s and forced convection was applied to cool the extrudate. The Stan ford bunny was printed with a nozzle temperature of

100°C. An open-source FDM sheer (Cura, Ultimaker) was used to generate the print paths.

[0055] In this example, sequencing and product cycle gen eration was done as follows. ~10 mg was clipped from the bunny ear using a scalpel. This piece was dissolved in 250 pL THF (VWR International) before 10 pL of buffered oxide etch (BOE) solution were added. The BOE was added in order to release the DNA molecules from the SPED beads. The DNA was then purified by PCR Purification Kit (Qiagen) and PCR using the same qPCR protocol as for the library synthesis. The different DNA samples from each generation were pooled and diluted to 1 nM and mixed with an additional 2% spike of PhiX, added for base diversity. Finally, the DNA pool was sequenced with Illumina iSeqlOO using the 150nt paired-end protocol. A detailed procedure on sequencing preparation is provided below.

[0056] In this example, decoding was done as follows: For each generation, the paired-end sequencing data was stitched together using Pear. Sequence reads whose length was not equal to original design length 104nt were re moved using awk. Next, a decoding strategy similar to the DNA Fountain scheme was used. Reads were first collapsed and sorted based on their appearance from the most abun dant to the least abundant, breaking ties lexicograph ically. Then, the file was decoded back using the DNA Fountain that employs a message passing algorithm scheme. The input SHA256 of the compressed stl file

( 314d00155dcbc259683cfc02fbe9edbbf205a978 f573569c79 b2dlb 5e6bdc53) was compared to the SHA256 of the retrieved file of each generation. In all cases, the SHA256 signa tures were identical. Subsequently, the extracted file was printed as described in the previous section. Fitting the negative binomial distribution was done in R using the tdistr command.

[0057] In this example, thermal and chemical stability assays were done as follows: DNA- infused PCL was ex truded and 3D-printed at temperatures ranging from 60°C to 120°C. Assessing long-term stability, dried pure and SPED DNA libraries were stored at 60°C for 10 days and then re-suspended and quantified by qPCR. Chemical sta bility was tested by a radical treatment stability assay, where a combination of ascorbic acid, H202, and CuCh pro duce reactive oxidative species and test the protective properties of SPED (see below for details) .

[0058] Further details of these experimental steps are provided below.

[ 0059 ] DNA synthe sis [0060] The 12,000 DNA sequences were synthesized by Cus- tomArray Inc. (Bothell, WA) on a 12K chip. The DNA was received in ssDNA form at a concentration of 46.93 ng/pL. The oligo pool was first amplified by PCR in order to dilute any fragmented features and to have sufficient mate rial for silica encapsulation. For this, the DNA was di luted 1:46 and a standard PCR was performed with the fol lowing reaction mixture in each 96-well: 10 pL master mix (Roche, Lightcycler 480 SYBR Green I Master Mix) , 8 pL of MilliQ grade water, 1 pL of primer mix (primers F0 and R0 (Microsynth AG), each at lOpM) and 1 pL diluted DNA pool. Cycling parameters were 95°C for 15s, 54°C for 30s,

72°C for 30s for 30 cycles. Once finished, 4 wells were pooled together (80pL) and purified by QIAGEN QIAquick PCR Purification Kit with 150pL elution buffer used per column. This yielded 1050pL of lOng/pL DNA solution.

[0061] Particle synthesis

[0062] The synthesis of SPED was achieved as follows: 50 mg silica nanoparticles (microparticles GmbH, 0 1 50nm) in 1 rtiL ethanol were surface functionalized with 10 pL N- trimethoxysilylpropyl-N, N, N - trimethylammonium chloride (TMAPS , 50% MeOH, ABCR GmbH) for 12 h. The surface poten tial of the functionalized silica particles was measured to be +47 mV by a zeta potential analyzer (Zetasizer Nano, Malvern) . To produce 1 batch of 1.75 SPED, 35pL of particles (50 g/mL) were added to 1050 pL of double stranded DNA (10-12 ng/pL) . The amount of unbound DNA was determined by NanoDrop 2000c Spectrophotometer (0.7-1 ng/pL) . On top of the DNA layer, silica was grown through Stober synthesis. 0.5 pL of TMAPS and 0.5 pL of tetrae thyl orthosilicate (TEOS, >90%, Aldrich) were added be fore shaking for 5 h. Then, 4 pL TEOS was added and the batch was shaken for 4 days. The DNA loading was deter mined by QEIBIT Fluorometer DNA assay (ThermoFisher Sci entific) . To 100 pL of a particle suspension with known concentration, 3 pL of BOE were added. The DNA concentra tion of 5 pL of this suspension was then measured by QEIBIT Fluorometer (0.744 ng/pL DNA in 0.35 g/L particle suspension, 0.2wt% DNA loading on particles).

[0063] Sequencing

[0064] Six DNA libraries from FO to F5 were sequenced.

The DNA was isolated by clipping 10 mg of PCL and dis solved in 250 pL THF and 10 pL BOE. The DNA was then pu rified by PCR Purification Kit (Qiagen) . All libraries were first diluted to equal concentrations. This was done so that each sample went through the same number of PCR cycles and had the same amount of amplification errors introduced. The DNA was then amplified with FI and Rl primer with the following mix: 10 pL master mix, 8 pL of MilliQ water, 1 pL primer stock (FI and Rl (Microsynth, Switzerland) , 10 pM each) , 1 pL DNA sample) . The cycling parameters were as follows: 95°C for 15 s, 54°C for 30 s, 72°C for 30 s, 25 cycles. The DNA was extracted by gel electrophoresis. The band slightly below 200nt was cut out and purified with QIAquick Gel Extraction Kit

(QIAGEN, Germany) . Each library was indexed by a second PCR with the general forward primer 2FU and an indexed reverse primer. The qPCR mix with the following mix: 10 pL master mix, 8 pL of MilliQ water, 1 pL primer stock ( 2FE1 and indexed primer, 10 pM each), 1 pL of 1:10 di luted DNA sample) . The cycling parameters were as fol lows: 95°C for 15 s, 53°C for 30 s, 72°C for 30 s, 10 cy cles. Each qPCR product was purified by gel electrophore sis and the DNA concentration was measured by Qubit as say. All samples were pooled to a 1 nM library and then further diluted to 20 pM. Prior to sequencing 2x1 50bp on the iSeq 100 (illumina, San Diego CA) , 3% of PhiX were added to ensure call diversity

[0065] Comparison to biology [0066] The DoT Stanford Bunny demonstrates remarkable similarities to biological organisms by carrying its 'blueprint' within its DNA. In multicellular organisms, the genomic DNA is distributed throughout the biological systems in small compartments. As such, the replication of the DoT object can be compared to asexual biological reproduction such as budding and parthenogenesis. Multi cellular budding as observed in hydra comes from the fact that any small part of the original system can be uti lized to generate daughter clones. The comparison with parthenogenesis, as shown in Fig. 3, emphasizes that a reproduction machinery is required to generate identical clones. Parthenogenesis, as observed in the invasive crayfish speciesp. Virginalis, but also reported for many other crustaceans, insects, squamata and several other animal phyla, is a form of asexual reproduction, where offspring develop directly from a unfertilized egg. In biology, the reproduction machinery of an adult, there fore, requires the formation of an egg cell containing a full genome copy, and the outgrowth of offspring from this egg via cell division and differentiation facili tated by DNA transcription and translation. In compari son, the presented DoT system reproduction machinery re quires a DNA sequencer to read the genome, a computer to translate the DNA sequence to a . stl file and a 3D printer to physically generate the offspring from raw ma terial. In order to ensure that the offspring also con tains the full genome, the original DNA is amplified via PCR and mixed into the raw material.

[0067] Mass of copy

[0068] An oligo consists of 145 base pairs and the full file is stored on 12' 000 oligos. Taking 650 g/mol as the average weight per base pair, the minimum amount of DNA needed for one full copy can be determined: ((650 g/mol) /6.022e23)*145nt*12'000 = 1.88e-15 g DNA per copy. [0069] DNA quantification

[0070] Quantitative PCR was used to quantify DNA content and degradation. A dilution series from E-l to E-4 g/L of SPED was measured to serve as a standard curve. To each dilution step, 10 pL BOE was added to 10 pL sample analogous to 10 mg of PCL . The DNA was then purified by QIAGEN QIAquick PCR Purification Kit with 50 pL elution buffer used per column. The reported values are averaged over triplicates.

[0071] Thermal stability assays

[0072] DNA-infused PCL was extruded and 3D-printed at temperatures ranging from 60°C to 120°C. Of this extruded or printed material, 10 mg were clipped and dissolved in 250 pL THF, followed by purification with QIAGEN QIAquick PCR Purification Kit with 50 pL elution buffer used per column. Assessing long-term stability, 0.492 pg DNA and 3.5 pg SPED were dried in a vacuum centrifuge (Eppendorf Concentrator plus) and stored at 60°C and 50 %RH for 10 days and then re-suspended in 100 pL and quantified by qPCR (10 pL master mix (Roche, Lightcycler 480 SYBR Green I Master Mix) , 8 pL of MilliQ grade water, 1 pL of primer mix (primers FO and RO (Microsynth AG) , each at 10 pM) , 1 pL diluted DNA pool, Cycling parameters were 95°C for 15 s, 54°C for 30 s, 72°C for 30 s for 30 cycles) .

Table 1

[0073] Chemical stability assays [0074] Encapsulated and non-encapsulated DNA were sub jected to radical treatment stability assay, where a com bination of ascorbic acid, H202, and CuCb produce reac tive oxidative species and test the protective properties of SPED towards DNA oxidation. 5 pL of DNA/encapsulated DNA were added to 2.5 pL L-ascorbic acid (20 mM) , 12.5 pL H202 (20 mM) and 17.5 pL CuCh (500 pM) . After 10

minutes, the reaction was quenched by adding 17.5 pL of 100 mM EDTA and 20 pL of BOE. To measure the total amount of DNA, 50 pL of water and 20 pL BOE were added to 5 pL of DNA/encapsulated DNA. The DNA concentration of treated and untreated samples was measured by QUBIT assay. All reported values are averaged over quintuplets.

Table 2

[0075] The DNA stability was also evaluated by subjecting it to household bleach. A bleach stock was prepared with 8.57 mL NaCIO (14% activity), 1.164 mL NaOH 10 M and 30.266 mL H20. 143 pL of 100-fold diluted bleach stock was added to 143 pL of DNA (10 ng/ml) or SPED suspension (0.1 pg/mL) and incubated for 10 min. The reaction was quenched by adding 5 pL of thiosulfate (1.46 M) . The un protected DNA is directly measured by qPCR whereas for the SPED samples, 10 pL of BOE were added and then puri fied by QIAGEN QIAquick PCR Purification Kit with 50 pL elution buffer. The samples were quantified by qPCR (10 pL master mix (Roche, Lightcycler 480 SYBR Green I Master Mix) , 8 pL of MilliQ grade water, 1 pL of primer mix (primers F0 and R0 (Microsynth AG) , each at 10 pM) , 1 pL diluted DNA pool, Cycling parameters were 95°C for 15 s, 54°C for 30 s, 72°C for 30 s for 30 cycles) . All reported values are averaged over triplicates.

Table 3

[0076] Arrhenius fitting function for Fig 3

[0077] For DNA decay, a first order chemical degradation reaction can be assumed, where the relative concentration (A/Ao) depends on the reaction rate (k) and reaction time (t) ,

Equation 1

[0078] The temperature (T) dependence of the reaction rate is given by the Arrhenius law, involving a pre-expo nential factor ko, the activation energy (Ea) and the gas constant (R) :

g

= k _Q e RT Equation 2

[0079] The final equation for the relative concentration as a function of reaction temperature is obtained by in serting the Arrhenius law into the rate equation:

Equation 3

[0080] Nonlinear curve regression was performed for A/Ao vs. T assuming constant ko, Ea and reaction time t.

[0081] Half life calculation at room temperature

[0082] Again, first order kinetics for DNA degradation is assumed with the relative DNA concentration (A/Ao) , the reaction rate (k) and time (t) . Equation 4

[0083] After storing the library at 60°C for 10 days, 65% of the initial DNA was recovered, allowing the calcula tion k at T=60°C. By using the Arrhenius law and an acti vation energy of 158 kJ/mol, kO can be calculated with the pre-exponential factor (ko), activation energy (Ea) and the gas constant (R) .

Ja

k = k ₀ e RT Equation 5

[0084] Assuming a storage temperature of 20°C, the rate constant with Arrhenius law can be calculated. Finally the half life of encapsulated DNA at t=20°C is found by:

_ ln(2)

~w>

Equation 6

[0085] Various examples provided herein use DNA or RNA. However, it will be appreciated that any sequence-derived polymer may be used as described herein. In general, a sequence-controlled polymer is a macromolecule in which the sequence of monomers is controlled. A sequence-con trolled polymer can be uniform (with dispersity equal to one) or non-uniform (with dispersity greater than one).

An alternating copolymer synthesized by radical polymeri zation is a sequence-controlled polymer, even if it is non-uniform polymer. A biopolymer (for example a protein) with a perfectly-defined primary structure is also a se quence-controlled polymer. In the case of uniform macro molecules, the term sequence-defined polymer can also be used. The composition of sequence-controlled polymers can be defined via chemical synthetic methods, such as multi- component reactions or click reactions. DNA, RNA, and proteins are examples of sequence-controlled polymers. [0086] Referring now to Fig. 15, a schematic of an exam ple of a computing node is shown. Computing node 10 is only one example of a suitable computing node and is not intended to suggest any limitation as to the scope of use or functionality of embodiments described herein. Regard less, computing node 10 is capable of being implemented and/or performing any of the functionality set forth hereinabove .

[0087] In computing node 10 there is a computer sys tem/server 12, which is operational with numerous other general purpose or special purpose computing system envi ronments or configurations. Examples of well-known compu ting systems, environments, and/or configurations that may be suitable for use with computer system/server 12 include, but are not limited to, personal computer sys tems, server computer systems, thin clients, thick cli ents, handheld or laptop devices, multiprocessor systems, microprocessor-based systems, set top boxes, programmable consumer electronics, network PCs, minicomputer systems, mainframe computer systems, and distributed cloud compu ting environments that include any of the above systems or devices, and the like.

[0088] Computer system/server 12 may be described in the general context of computer system-executable instruc tions, such as program modules, being executed by a com puter system. Generally, program modules may include rou tines, programs, objects, components, logic, data struc tures, and so on that perform particular tasks or imple ment particular abstract data types. Computer sys

tem/server 12 may be practiced in distributed cloud com puting environments where tasks are performed by remote processing devices that are linked through a communica tions network. In a distributed cloud computing environ ment, program modules may be located in both local and remote computer system storage media including memory storage devices.

[0089] As shown in Fig. 15, computer system/server 12 in computing node 10 is shown in the form of a general-pur pose computing device. The components of computer sys tem/server 12 may include, but are not limited to, one or more processors or processing units 16, a system memory 28, and a bus 18 that couples various system com ponents including system memory 28 to processor 16.

[0090] Bus 18 represents one or more of any of several types of bus structures, including a memory bus or memory controller, a peripheral bus, an accelerated graphics port, and a processor or local bus using any of a variety of bus architectures. By way of example, and not limita tion, such architectures include Industry Standard Archi tecture (ISA) bus, Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) bus, Enhanced ISA (EISA) bus, Video Electronics Standards As sociation (VESA) local bus, Peripheral Component Inter connect (PCI) bus, Peripheral Component Interconnect Ex press (PCIe) , and Advanced Microcontroller Bus Architec ture (AMBA) .

[0091] Computer system/server 12 typically includes a va riety of computer system readable media. Such media may be any available media that is accessible by computer system/server 12, and it includes both volatile and non volatile media, removable and non-removable media.

[0092] System memory 28 can include computer system read able media in the form of volatile memory, such as random access memory (RAM) 30 and/or cache memory 32. Computer system/server 12 may further include other removable/non removable, volatile/non-volatile computer system storage media. By way of example only, storage system 34 can be provided for reading from and writing to a non-removable, non-volatile magnetic media (not shown and typically called a "hard drive") . Although not shown, a magnetic disk drive for reading from and writing to a removable, non-volatile magnetic disk (e.g., a "floppy disk"), and an optical disk drive for reading from or writing to a removable, non-volatile optical disk such as a CD-ROM, DVD-ROM or other optical media can be provided. In such instances, each can be connected to bus 18 by one or more data media interfaces. As will be further depicted and described below, memory 28 may include at least one pro gram product having a set ( e.g., at least one) of pro gram modules that are configured to carry out the func tions of embodiments of the disclosure.

[0093] Program/utility 40, having a set (at least one) of program modules 42, may be stored in memory 28 by way of example, and not limitation, as well as an operating sys tem, one or more application programs, other program mod ules, and program data. Each of the operating system, one or more application programs, other program modules, and program data or some combination thereof, may include an implementation of a networking environment. Program mod ules 42 generally carry out the functions and/or method ologies of embodiments as described herein.

[0094] Computer system/server 12 may also communicate with one or more external devices 14 such as a keyboard, a pointing device, a display 24, etc.; one or more de vices that enable a user to interact with computer sys tem/server 12; and/or any devices (e.g., network card, modem, etc.) that enable computer system/server 12 to communicate with one or more other computing devices.

Such communication can occur via Input/Output (I/O) in terfaces 22. Still yet, computer system/server 12 can communicate with one or more networks such as a local area network (LAN) , a general wide area network (WAN) , and/or a public network ( e.g., the Internet) via network adapter 20. As depicted, network adapter 20 communicates with the other components of computer system/server 12 via bus 18. It should be understood that although not shown, other hardware and/or software components could be used in conjunction with computer system/server 12. Exam ples, include, but are not limited to: microcode, device drivers, redundant processing units, external disk drive arrays, RAID systems, tape drives, and data archival storage systems, etc.

[0095] The present disclosure may be embodied as a sys tem, a method, and/or a computer program product. The computer program product may include a computer readable storage medium (or media) having computer readable pro gram instructions thereon for causing a processor to carry out aspects of the present disclosure.

[0096] The computer readable storage medium can be a tan gible device that can retain and store instructions for use by an instruction execution device. The computer readable storage medium may be, for example, but is not limited to, an electronic storage device, a magnetic storage device, an optical storage device, an electromag netic storage device, a semiconductor storage device, or any suitable combination of the foregoing. A non-exhaus- tive list of more specific examples of the computer read able storage medium includes the following: a portable computer diskette, a hard disk, a random access memory (RAM) , a read-only memory (ROM) , an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM or Flash memory) , a static random access memory (SRAM), a portable compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM) , a digital versatile disk (DVD) , a memory stick, a floppy disk, a mechanically encoded device such as punch-cards or raised structures in a groove having instructions recorded thereon, and any suitable combina tion of the foregoing. A computer readable storage me dium, as used herein, is not to be construed as being transitory signals per se, such as radio waves or other freely propagating electromagnetic waves, electromagnetic waves propagating through a waveguide or other transmis sion media {e.g., light pulses passing through a fiber optic cable) , or electrical signals transmitted through a wire .

[0097] Computer readable program instructions described herein can be downloaded to respective computing/pro cessing devices from a computer readable storage medium or to an external computer or external storage device via a network, for example, the Internet, a local area net work, a wide area network and/or a wireless network. The network may comprise copper transmission cables, optical transmission fibers, wireless transmission, routers, firewalls, switches, gateway computers and/or edge serv ers. A network adapter card or network interface in each computing/processing device receives computer reada ble program instructions from the network and forwards the computer readable program instructions for storage in a computer readable storage medium within the respective computing/processing device.

[0098] Computer readable program instructions for carry ing out operations of the present disclosure may be as sembler instructions, instruction-set-architecture (ISA) instructions, machine instructions, machine dependent instructions, microcode, firmware instructions, state setting data, or either source code or object code writ ten in any combination of one or more programming lan guages, including an object oriented programming language such as Smalltalk, C++ or the like, and conventional pro cedural programming languages, such as the "C" program ming language or similar programming languages. The com puter readable program instructions may execute entirely on the user' s computer, partly on the user' s computer, as a stand-alone software package, partly on the user's com puter and partly on a remote computer or entirely on the remote computer or server. In the latter scenario, the remote computer may be connected to the user' s computer through any type of network, including a local area net work (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN) , or the connec tion may be made to an external computer (for example, through the Internet using an Internet Service Provider) . In some embodiments, electronic circuitry including, for example, programmable logic circuitry, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA) , or programmable logic arrays (PLA) may execute the computer readable program instructions by utilizing state information of the computer readable pro gram instructions to personalize the electronic cir cuitry, in order to perform aspects of the present dis closure .

[0099] Aspects of the present disclosure are described herein with reference to flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams of methods, apparatus (systems), and com puter program products according to embodiments of the disclosure. It will be understood that each block of the flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams, and combinations of blocks in the flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams, can be implemented by computer readable program instructions.

[0100] These computer readable program instructions may be provided to a processor of a general purpose computer, special purpose computer, or other programmable data pro cessing apparatus to produce a machine, such that the in structions, which execute via the processor of the com puter or other programmable data processing apparatus, create means for implementing the functions/acts speci fied in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. These computer readable program instructions may also be stored in a computer readable storage medium that can direct a computer, a programmable data processing ap paratus, and/or other devices to function in a particular manner, such that the computer readable storage medium having instructions stored therein comprises an article of manufacture including instructions which implement as pects of the function/act specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks.

[0101] The computer readable program instructions may also be loaded onto a computer, other programmable data processing apparatus, or other device to cause a series of operational steps to be performed on the computer, other programmable apparatus or other device to produce a computer implemented process, such that the instructions which execute on the computer, other programmable appa ratus, or other device implement the functions/acts spec ified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks .

[0102] The flowchart and block diagrams in the Figures illustrate the architecture, functionality, and operation of possible implementations of systems, methods, and com puter program products according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. In this regard, each block in the flowchart or block diagrams may represent a module, segment, or portion of instructions, which comprises one or more executable instructions for implementing the specified logical function (s). In some alternative imple mentations, the functions noted in the block may occur out of the order noted in the figures. For example, two blocks shown in succession may, in fact, be executed sub stantially concurrently, or the blocks may sometimes be executed in the reverse order, depending upon the func tionality involved. It will also be noted that each block of the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, and combinations of blocks in the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, can be implemented by special purpose hardware-based systems that perform the specified functions or acts or carry out combinations of special purpose hardware and computer instructions. [0103] As used herein, particles are homogeneously dis tributed when approximately the same number of points oc curs in any spherical region of a given volume. More par ticularly, for homogeneously distributed particles in a materials, samples of a material of equivalent volume will have the same number of particles ±10%.

[0104] In another exemplary application, storage of movie in a transparent PMMA lens was achieved

[0105] Storage and retrieval of the Oneg Shabbat video

[0106] The video published by UNESCO on YouTube was enti tled 'The incredible and moving story of Oneg Shabbat' (https : //www . youtube . com/watch?v=yqcLlTbSXUg) . It was ac cessed 14 May 2019 and was reformatted (AAC, H.264) to a resolution of 240 pixels at 12 frames per second with 60 kilobase mono audio yielding an mp4 video file of 1.4MB. The digital bitstream was encoded in DNA using DNA Fountain software with the same parameters as for the bunny experiment with two exceptions: first, we let the DNA Fountain software generate 300,000 DNA oligos. Sec ond, we allowed a slightly larger GC content of 50+20%. After appending adapter information, 300,000 DNA se quences (length 145 nt) were ordered from Twist Biosci ence. The DNA sample (6pg) was dissolved in 120 mΐ of Milli-Q grade water to reach a concentration of 50ngpl-l and stored at -20 °C.

[0107] Incorporation of Oneg Shabbat library into a PMMA cast

[0108] SPED (2mg), which was manufactured from the DNA library using published methods (Paunescu et al. Nat. Protocols. 2012), was centrifuged at 15,000r.p.m. for 3min and the supernatant aqueous solution was removed. The particles were then washed and centrifuged twice in 2-ml Eppendorf tubes with 2 ml of acetone (>99.8%, Pro- Labo) . The particles were then suspended in 2 ml of ace tone by ultrasonication . For casting one pair of PMMA glasses, 0.66mg of particles were added to 7 ml of methyl methacrylate (SKresin 1702, S u. K Hock). The suspension was mixed in a 150-ml polypropylene beaker with a high speed mixer (SpeedMixer DAC 150 FVZ) for 30s at

3,500r.p.m. To initiate the radical polymerization, 70mg of Peroxan (PM25S, S u. K Hock) was added before mixing again for 30s at 3,500r.p.m. with the high-speed mixer. The reaction mixture was left overnight in the beaker, resulting in a transparent PMMA disk. With a scalpel, the form of the glasses lens was cut out of the disk and in serted into the eyeglass frame. For comparing the visi bility of PMMA with and without SPED, the same procedure was used to produce a PMMA glass without adding SPED.

[0109] Sequencing of Oneg Shabat movie file

[0110] 10 g of the PMMA-SPED glass was clipped and dis solved in 500 pL acetone (>99.8%, ProLabo) . The sample is centrifuged at 15,000 rpm for 3 min and the supernatant is removed. The remaining SPED particles are resuspended in 500 pL acetone by vortexing and ultrasound for 1 min. The sample is again centrifuged at 15,000 rpm for 3 min, followed by removing the supernatant. This washing step is repeated once. Finally the particles are suspended in 50 pL MilliQ grade water and dissolved by adding 50 pL BOE . The DNA was then amplified with FI and R1 primer with the following mix: 10 pL master mix, 8 pL of MilliQ water, 1 pL primer stock (FI and Rl (Microsynth, Switzer land) , 10 pM each) , 1 pL DNA sample) . The cycling parame ter were as follows: 95°C for 15 s, 54°C for 30 s, 72°C for 30 s, 25 cycles. The DNA was extracted by gel elec trophoresis. The band slightly below 200nt was cut out and purified with QIAquick Gel Extraction Kit (QIAGEN, Germany) . The oligo pool was indexed by a second PCR with the general forward primer 2FU and an indexed reverse primer (TrueSeq, GCCAAT) . The qPCR mix with the following mix: 10 pL master mix, 8 pL of MilliQ water, 1 pL primer stock (2FU and indexed primer, 10 mM each), 1 pL of 1:10 diluted DNA sample) . The cycling parameter were as fol lows: 95°C for 15 s, 53°C for 30 s, 72°C for 30 s, 10 cy cles. The qPCR mix was purified by gel electrophoresis and the DNA concentration was measured by Qubit assay.

The resulting DNA pool was diluted to a 1 nM library for storage. The final sequencing concentration was 20 pM. Prior to sequencing 2xl50bp on the iSeq 100 (illumina,

San Diego CA) , 2% of PhiX were added to ensure call di versity .

[0111] Decoding of the Oneg Shabbat video

[0112] Very similar steps to those used for decoding the bunny experiment were used to decode the Oneg Shabbat video. The only exception was that during the first round of decoding we noticed that a large number of oligos were sequenced from both their forward and reverse strands.

The source of this issue remained unclear but might have stemmed from a parsing error in obtaining the reverse and forward strands from the sequencer. To overcome this is sue and to find the correct orientation for each read, we reverse-complemented each sequence read and generated a tandem of two reads sorted lexicographically. For exam ple, if the original read was TTTA then we created the reverse complement, which is AAAT, and then stitched the two reads together in a lexicographical order, resulting in the tandem read AAAT-TTTA. We carried out this process for all reads in the file after the stitching step. Then, we continued with the normal preprocessing steps of col lapsing the tandem reads and sorting them based on their appearances. Next, we took each part of the tandem read and evaluated the Reed-Solomon code. We then moved the part that showed zero errors based on the Reed-Solomon code to the decoder. If both parts showed zero errors, it signified that we could not distinguish the orientation and so we discarded the entire tandem read. If none of the parts showed zero errors, we also discarded the en tire tandem read. For example, if AAAT showed zero errors based on the Reed-Solomon code and TTTA showed one error, we progressed the AAAT to the decoder and discarded the TTTA. This process resulted in 287,344 unique oligos for decoding. Finally, we decoded the file back using the 287 , 344 oligos .

[0113] The input SHA256 of the video (ef819b4f0fe855 becb53a3a39183d6b8544f24c9c5963f474ec019bbdffe913c) was compared with the SHA256 of the retrieved file, which was identical. It was also possible to play the video using QuickTime player on a standard Mac laptop.

[0114] The result shown in the above examples convinc ingly show how robust and versatile the inventive methods are .

[0115] The descriptions of the various embodiments of the present disclosure have been presented for purposes of illustration, but are not intended to be exhaustive or limited to the embodiments disclosed. Many modifications and variations will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the described embodiments. The terminology used herein was chosen to best explain the principles of the embodiments, the practical application or technical im provement over technologies found in the marketplace, or to enable others of ordinary skill in the art to under stand the embodiments disclosed herein.

[116] The invention may be summarized by the following clauses #1 - #41:

#1. A method comprising: encoding input data into one or more sequence-controlled polymer, wherein encoding the input data comprises applying an error correction code; synthesizing the one or more sequence-controlled polymer; encapsulating the synthesized one or more sequence-con trolled polymer in a plurality of particles; embedding the plurality of particles into a feed-stock.

#2. The method of clause #1, wherein the feedstock com prises a filament adapted for 3D printing.

#3. The method of claim 1, wherein the one or more se quence-controlled polymer comprises DNA.

#4. The method of clause #1, wherein encoding the input data further comprises applying a fountain code.

#5. The method of clause #1, wherein encoding the input data further comprises applying DNA Fountain encoding.

#6. The method of clause #1, wherein encoding the input data further comprises applying a Reed-Solomon code.

#7. The method of clause #1, wherein the plurality of particles comprises silica beads.

#8. The method of clause #1, wherein each of the plural ity of particles has a diameter of at most 1000 nm.

#9. The method of clause #1, wherein encapsulating the synthesized one or more sequence-controlled polymer com prises sol-gel synthesis.

#10. The method of clause #1, wherein the feedstock com prises thermos-polymer.

#11. The method of clause #1, wherein the feedstock com prises polycaprolactone .

#12. The method of clause #1, wherein the plurality of particles are homogeneously distributed within the feed stock.

#13. The method of clause #1, wherein the plurality of particles have a concentration of at most lOOmg/kg within the feedstock.

#14. The method of clause #1, wherein the plurality of particles have a concentration of at most 2mg/g of DNA. #15. The method of clause #2, further comprising: 3D printing an object using the filament.

#16. The method of clause #15, wherein the data comprises a 3D model of the object. #17. A method comprising: releasing a plurality of parti cles from a thermo-polymer; extracting one or more se quence-controlled polymer from the plurality of parti cles; sequencing the one or more sequence-controlled pol ymer; decoding output data from the one or more sequence- controlled polymer, wherein the output da-ta comprises a payload and an error correction code; and applying the error correction to the payload.

#18. The method of clause #17, wherein releasing the plu rality of particles comprises applying tetrahydrofuran to the thermo-polymer.

#19. The method of clause #17, wherein extracting the one or more sequence-controlled polymer comprises applying a buffered oxide etch to the plurality of particles.

#20. The method of clause #17, wherein the one or more sequence-controlled polymer comprises DNA.

#21. The method of clause #17, wherein the error correc tion code comprises a fountain code.

#22. The method of clause #17, wherein the error correc tion code comprises DNA Fountain encoding

#23. The method of clause #17, wherein the error correc tion code comprises a Reed-Solomon code.

#24. The method of clause #17, wherein the plurality of particles comprises silica beads.

#25. The method of clause #17, wherein each of the plu rality of particles has a diameter of at most 1000 nm.

#26. The method of clause #17, wherein the thermo-polymer comprises polycaprolactone .

#27. The method of clause #17, wherein the plurality of particles are homogeneously distributed within the thermo-polymer .

#28. The method of clause #17, wherein the plurality of particles have a concentration of at most 100 mg/kg within the thermos-polymer.

#29. The method of clause #17, wherein the plurality of particles have a concentration of at most 2mg/g of DNA. #30. A data storage medium, comprising: a plurality of particles embedded in a thermo-polymer; one or more se quence-controlled polymer en-capsulated in the plurality of particles, wherein the one or more sequence-controlled polymer en-codes predetermined data, the predetermined data comprising a payload and an error correction code. #31. The data storage medium of clause #30, having a pre determined shape, wherein the predetermined data com prises a 3D model of the predetermined shape.

#32. The data storage medium of clause #30, wherein the one or more sequence-controlled polymer comprises DNA.

#33. The data storage medium of clause #30, wherein the error correction code comprises a fountain code.

#34. The data storage medium of clause #30, wherein the error correction code comprises DNA Fountain.

#35. The data storage medium of clause #30, wherein the error correction code comprises a Reed-Solomon code.

#36. The data storage medium of clause #30, wherein the plurality of particles comprises silica beads.

#37. The data storage medium of clause #30, wherein each of the plurality of particles has a diameter of at most 1000 nm.

#38. The data storage medium of clause #30, wherein the thermo-polymer comprises polycaprolactone .

#39. The data storage medium of clause #30, wherein the plurality of particles are homogeneously distributed within the thermo-polymer.

#40. The data storage medium of clause #30, wherein the plurality of particles have a concentration of at most 100 g/kg within the thermo-polymer.

#41. The data storage medium of clause #30, wherein the plurality of particles have a concentration of at most 2mg/g of DNA.