CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This disclosure claims the benefit of priority to US Patent Application No.

16/585,175, filed 27 September 2019, and US Application No. 62/744,424, filed 11 October 2018, which are incorporated herein in their entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0002] Embodiments of the present invention generally relate to the mechanochemical modification of the surface of silicon metal.

BACKGROUND

[0003] Mechanochemical processes are those where an initial step in the chemical process is the breakage of atomic bonding by a function of mechanical force. While early studies on mechanochemical systems thought that the process was a conversion of mechanical into chemical energy, work developed since the 1960s has shown the nature of the process to be directly connected to the cleavage of chemical bonds and the rearrangement of the cleaved parts.

SUMMARY

[0004] A first embodiment is a process that includes admixing a hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticle with a reagent, the hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticle having silicon- hydride features on a silicon surface; wherein the reagent reacts adds to the silicon surface; and the product thereof.

[0005] A second embodiment is a process that includes shearing a silicon metal or alloy in the presence of a liquid alkane and/or liquid hetero-alkane by applying shear forces to the silicon metal to expose a sheared silicon surface, forming alkyl and hydride functionalizations on the sheared silicon surface; and continuing to shear the silicon metal or alloy in the presence of the alkane and/or hetero-alkane until the silicon metal is reduced to alkyl-hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticles; thereafter admixing the alkyl-hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticles with a reagent; where the reagent adds to the alkyl-hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticles and provides a plurality of bi-functionalized silicon nanoparticles; and the product thereof. [0006] A third embodiment is a bi-functionalized silicon nanoparticles that includes silicon nanoparticulates composed of silicon or a silicon alloy, the silicon nanoparticulates having a plurality of surfaces; the surfaces comprising silicon atoms; the silicon atoms carrying an alkyl or heteroalkyl functionality derived from an alkane or heteroalkane, and a second functionality.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

[0007] For a more complete understanding of the disclosure, reference should be made to the following detailed description and accompanying drawing figures wherein:

[0008] Figure 1 is a diagram of one embodiment of the process described herein;

[0009] Figure 2 is a diagram of a further embodiment of the process described herein;

[0010] Figure 3 is a stacked plot of 1-octene (FTIR, % transmittance), a bi-functionalized silicon nanoparticle as described herein (ATR, absorbance), and an alkyl-hydride functionalized silicon nanoparticle (ATR, absorbance);

[0011] Figure 4 shows photoemission spectra for the Si 2p bands for an alkyl-hydride functionalized silicon nanoparticle (Fig. 4A) and a bi-functionalized silicon nanoparticle (Fig. 4B); and

[0012] Figure 5 shows photoemission spectra for the C 1s bands for an alkyl-hydride functionalized silicon nanoparticle (Fig. 5A) and a bi-functionalized silicon nanoparticle (Fig. 5B).

[0013] While specific embodiments are illustrated in the figures, with the understanding that the disclosure is intended to be illustrative, these embodiments are not intended to limit the invention described and illustrated herein.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0014] Objects, features, and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description. It should be understood, however, that the detailed description and the specific examples, while indicating specific embodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description.

[0015] Herein, the use of the word“a” or“an” when used in conjunction with the term

“comprising” in the claims and/or the specification may mean“one,” but it is also consistent with the meaning of“one or more,”“at least one,” and“one or more than one.” The term“about” means, in general, the stated value plus or minus 5%. The use of the term“or” in the claims is used to mean“and/or” unless explicitly indicated to refer to alternatives only or the alternative are mutually exclusive, although the disclosure supports a definition that refers to only alternatives and“and/or.”

[0016] Herein are provided processes for and the products of the mechanochemical functionalization of silicon surfaces by an alkane or hetero-alkane. Preferably, the

mechanochemical functionalization of nanocrystalline silicon surfaces by an alkane or heteroalkane. More preferably, the mechanochemical functionalization of nanocrystalline silicon surfaces by an alkane. As used herein, mechanochemical means chemical processes initiated by the physical (mechanical) breakage of bonds, in some examples the physical breakage yields radicals that can recombine or carry out other reactions. As used herein nanocrystalline, nanocrystals, and nanoparticles refer to materials, crystals, or particles having dimensions on a nanometer scale, as crystal domains are a feature of this disclosure, crystal domains in nanocrystalline material, nanocrystals, and nanoparticles can have dimensions up to the dimensions of the respective material, crystal, or particles. When a crystal domain is on the same order as, for example, a nanocrystal, then the nanocrystal is single-crystalline.

[0017] In a first embodiment, the mechanochemically functionalizing silicon

nanoparticles with an alkane or hetero-alkane includes repeatedly applying sufficient shear forces to silicon metal in the presence of an alkane or hetero-alkane. Herein, the sufficiency of the shear forces is determined by the reduction in the size of the silicon metal, that is, the mechanical size reduction in the silicon metal in the presence of the alkane or hetero-alkane. In one instance, a sufficient shear force is a shear force that mechanically shears single crystalline silicon. In another instance, a sufficient shear force is a shear force that mechanically shears polycrystalline silicon. The silicon is thereby mechanochemically functionalized and an alkyl- functionalization is provided on the surface of the silicon. The process further includes continuing to apply the shear forces to the silicon in the presence of the alkane or hetero-alkane until the silicon metal is reduced to a plurality of functionalized silicon nanoparticles.

[0018] In one instance, the applied forces are impact and shear forces. As used herein, impact and shear forces differ in the symmetry of the force as applied to a solid. Impact or compressive force is analogous to indentation or collision between the solid and the object applying the force. That is, the impact force is typically a compressive force applied to the material and the mechanical breakage of the material propagates via a cleavage plane (in Si this it typically along a (111) plane). In one instance, the impact force is the aligned forces of two external bodies acting on the material. Alternatively, the shear force is the unaligned forces which separate the material into different parts in inverse directions. Importantly, this

embodiment fails to provide the functionalization of the silicon nanoparticles if the silicon metal is reduced in size by impact forces alone.

[0019] In another instance, the mechanochemical functionalization of the silicon includes shearing the silicon metal to expose silicon radicals on a shear surface and then reacting the silicon radicals with the alkane or hetero-alkane. Preferably, the silicon is sheared to expose a shear plane that includes silicon radicals. Then, prior to the reorganization of the silicon surface or other reactions, the silicon radicals react with the alkane or hetero-alkane. In one example, a silicon radical reacts with the alkane or hetero-alkane by cleaving a H-C bond and extracting a hydrogen radical from the alkane chain, thereby forming a silicon-hydride and leaving a carbon radical. This carbon radical can then react with a different silicon radical thereby providing alkane-functionalization of the silicon surface. In another example, the silicon radical reacts with the alkane or hetero-alkane by cleaving a C-C bond and forming a silicon alkyl functionalization and leaving a carbon radical that, then, can react with a second silicon radical. In another example, the shearing of the silicon metal provides a shear plane that is oriented between the (113) and (114) planes, that is, the shear plane is inclined relative to the silicon (111) plane. In still another example, the shear plane is not a silicon (111) plane. In yet another instance, the mechanochemical functionalization of the silicon includes fracturing the silicon metal to expose silicon radicals on a fracture surface. In one example, the fracturing of the silicon metal provides a fracture plane that is primarily aligned along the silicon (111) plane.

[0020] In still another instance, the silicon metal is reduced to a plurality of

functionalized silicon nanoparticles having a d ₉₀ of less than about 350 nm. Preferably, the functionalized silicon nanoparticles have a d ₉₀ of less than about 300 nm. Even more preferably, the d ₉ o is less than about 250 nm.

[0021] Preferably, the shear forces are applied to the silicon metal in the presence of a liquid alkane or liquid hetero-alkane. Notably, the application of shear forces adds heat to any system and the alkane or hetero-alkane can be solid at room temperature, only to melt as the shear forces add heat to the system. In another instance, the shear forces are applied to the silicon metal at a temperature above the melting point of the alkane or hetero-alkane. That is, any device carrying the silicon and the alkane or hetero-alkane can be heated to a temperature above the melting point of the alkane or hetero-alkane or held at a temperature above the melting point of the alkane or hetero-alkane. More preferably, the reaction is cooled to maintain a temperature that is above the melting point of the alkane or hetero-alkane, wherein the cooling and the heating by the application of the shear forces equilibrate to a selected temperature. In one example, the shear forces are applied at a temperature in the range of about 5-40 °C, about 5-25 °C, or about 5-20 °C, with the necessary heating or cooling to maintain said temperature.

[0022] The alkane is a saturated hydrocarbon that can be liner (n-alkane), branched

(single or multiple branches), cyclic, or a combination thereof. In one instance, the alkane has a molecular formula of C _x H _y , preferably wherein x is in the range of 4 to about 25 and, preferably, where y = 2x+2. In another instance, the alkane can be cyclic and, for example, have a molecular formula where y = 2x (monocyclic), 2x-2 (dicyclic), or 2x-4 (tricyclic); preferably monocyclic (e.g., cyclohexane). Preferably, x is in the range of 5-20, more preferably in the range of 6-18, and even more preferably in the range of 6-12. In one preferable example, the alkane is linear. In another preferable example, the alkane is branched. In another preferable example, the alkane has a melting point below about 150 °C, 140 °C, 130 °C, 120 °C, 110 °C, 100 °C, or 90 °C. Even more preferably, the alkane is liquid at room temperature (20-25 °C). In another example, the alkane is selected from pentane, hexane, heptane, octane, nonane, decane, undecane, dodecane, tridecane, tetradecane, pentadecane, hexadecane,

heptadecane, octadecane, nonadecane, icosane, cyclopentane, cyclohexane, cycloheptane, cyclooctane, cyclononane, and cyclodecane. In still another example, the alkane can be a cycloalkane (e.g., cyclopentane, cyclohexane, cycloheptane, or cyclooctane) having one or more alkyl chains extending therefrom, including a methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl chains.

[0023] The hetero-alkane is a saturated hydrocarbon that can be liner (n-alkane), branched (single or multiple branches), cyclic, or a combination thereof carrying a heteroatom functionality. Generally, the hetero-alkane can have the formula C _n H _m X _o , where n is an integer from about 3 to about 80, preferably about 3 to about 60, or about 3 to about 50, or about 3 to about 40, or about 4 to about 30, or about 4 to about 25; o is an integer selected from 1 , 2, and 3, preferably 1. In this formula X represents the heteroatom of the heteroatom functionality and can be selected from the group consisting of an oxygen atom, a nitrogen atom, a sulfur atom, a phosphorous atom, a fluorine atom, a chlorine atom, a boron atom, and a combination thereof (i.e., when o is greater than 1). More preferably, the heteroatom (X) is selected from the group consisting of an oxygen atom a nitrogen atom, and a combination thereof. The heteroatom functionality is preferably saturated or otherwise devoid of pi-bonding to other heteroatoms or carbon. Preferable heteroatom functionalities are 1 °, 2°, or 3° alcohols, ethers, 1 °, 2°, or 3° amines, or mixtures thereof. In another preferable example, the hetero-alkane has a melting point below about 150 °C, 140 °C, 130 °C, 120 °C, 1 10 °C, 100 °C, or 90 °C.

[0024] In one example, the hetero-alkane includes an alcohol functionality, that is, includes an alkanol (e.g., propanol, butanol, pentanol, hexanol, heptanol, octanol, nonanol, decanol, undecanol, dodecanol, tridecanol, tetradecanol, pentadecanol, hexadecanol, heptadicanol, octadecanol, nondecanol, and icosanol), preferably the alcohol functionality is tertiary (3°). The alkanol preferably has a molecular formula of C _x H _y O _z , preferably wherein x is in the range of 3 to about 25 or 4 to 25, where y = 2x+2, and where z is an integer selected from 1 , 2, or 3. In another instance, the alkanol can be cyclic and, for example, have a molecular formula where y = 2x (monocyclic), 2x-2 (dicyclic), or 2x-4 (tricyclic); preferably monocyclic (e.g., cyclohexanol). Preferably, x is in the range of 5-20, more preferably in the range of 6-18, and even more preferably in the range of 6-12; preferably z is 1.

[0025] In another example, the hetero-alkane include an ether functionality, that is, includes an alkyl-ether. The alkyl-ether preferably has a molecular formula of C _x H _y O _z , preferably wherein x is in the range of 4 to about 25, where y = 2x+2, and where z is in the range of 1 to about 5. In one instance, the alkyl-ether is a mono-ether where z=1 , the ether can be symmetric (e.g., diethylether, dipropylether, dibutylether, dipentylether, dihexylether) or asymmetric (e.g., methylpropylether, methylhexylether, isoproylhexylether, cyclohexylhexylether). Examples include a methylalkylether, ethylalkylether, propylalkylether, butylalkylether, pentylalkylether, hexylalkylether, heptylalkylether, octylalkylether, nonylalkylether, and decylalkylether; wherein the alkyl group can be the same or different, in some instances the alkyl group is selected from a propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl, or decyl group. In another instance, the alkyl- ether can be heterocyclic (i.e., where in the oxygen atom is part of the cycle) and, for example, have a molecular formula where y = 2x (monocyclic), 2x-2 (dicyclic), or 2x-4 (tricyclic);

preferably monocyclic (e.g., tetrahydrofuran (oxolane), tetrahydropyran (oxane), oxepane, oxocane, oxonane, oxecane, 1 ,4-dioxane). Preferably, x is in the range of 5-20, more preferably in the range of 6-18, and even more preferably in the range of 6-12; preferably z is 1.

[0026] In still another preferable example the hetero-alkane includes an amine functionality (i.e., an alkylamine). In instances wherein the amine is a secondary amine (i.e., a dialkylamine), or tertiary amine (i.e., a trialkylamine), the hydrocarbon groups affixed to the amine can be the same or different (i.e., both are saturated hydrocarbons). In one instance, the alkylamine is a primary amine and has a molecular formula of CxH _y (NH2)z, preferably wherein x is in the range of 4 to about 25, where y = 2x+2-z, and where z is in the range of 1 to about 5; preferably, z is 1 or 2; more preferably z is 1. Examples include butylamine, pentylamine, hexylamine, heptylamine, octylamine, nonylamine, decylamine, undecylamine, dodecylamine, tridecylamine, tetradecylamine, pentadecylamine, hexadecylamine, heptadicylamine, octadecylamine, nondecylamine, icosylamine, and the remainder of the homologous series for the range of x of 4 to about 25. In another instance, the alkylamine is a secondary amine and has a molecular formula of (C _x H _y ) ₂ (NH) _z , preferably wherein x is in the range of 3 to about 25, where y = 2x+1 , and where z is in the range of 1 to about 5;referably, where z is 1 or 2; more preferably where z is 1. In one instance, the secondary alkylamine is symmetric (i.e. , where the alkyl groups carried on the nitrogen atom are the same; e.g., diethylamine, dipropylamine, dibutylamine, dipentylamine, dihexylamine, diheptylamine, dioctylamine, dinonylamine, didecylamine, diundecylamine, didodecylamine, ditridecylamine, ditetradecylamine, dipentadecylamine, dihexadecylamine, diheptadicylamine, dioctadecylamine) or asymmetric (e.g., (R)(R ^' )NH where R and R ^' are different and selected from methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, tridecyl, tetradecyl, pentadecyl, hexadecyl, heptadicyl, octadecyl, nondecyl, and icosyl).

[0027] In still another instance, the alkylamine is a tertiary amine and has a molecular formula (C _x H _y )3N, where x is in the range of 3 to about 30 and y = 2x+1. The tertiary amine [(R)(R ^' )(R ^" )N] can be symmetric (i.e., (R)=(R ^' )=(R ^" )) or asymmetric (e.g., (R) = (R ^' ) ¹ (R ^" ) or (R) ¹ (R ^' ) ¹ (R ^” ))), where (R) (R ^' ) and (R ^” ) are selected from propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, tridecyl, tetradecyl, pentadecyl, hexadecyl, heptadicyl, octadecyl, nondecyl, and icosyl. Some examples include dimethylhexylamine, and diethyloctylamine.

[0028] In still another instance, the alkylamine can be a cyclic secondary or cyclic tertiary amine wherein the nitrogen atom is part of the cycle. Examples include but are not limited to pyrrolidine, piperidine, morpholine, quinuclidine, DABCO, azocane, azonane, piperazine, and the alkyl-branched derivatives thereof.

[0029] In yet another instance, the functionalized silicon nanoparticles are

polycrystalline silicon nanocrystals. As used herein, a polycrystalline silicon nanocrystal is a discrete silicon nanocrystal that has more than one crystal domain. The domains can be of the same crystal structure and display discontinuous domains, or the domains can be of different crystal structures. In one example, the domains are all diamond-cubic silicon (e.g., having a lattice constant of 5.431 A). In another example, the domains include a diamond-cubic silicon and a diamond-hexagonal silicon. In still another example, the domains include a diamond-cubic silicon and amorphous silicon. In yet still another example, the domains include a diamond- cubic silicon, a diamond-hexagonal silicon, and amorphous silicon.

[0030] Another embodiment is a process that includes repeatedly applying sufficient shear forces to silicon metal in the presence of an admixture of an alkane or hetero-alkane (as described above) and an alkene or hetero-alkene thereby mechanochemically functionalizing the silicon and providing a functionalization on the surface of the silicon. In this embodiment, the shear forces are applied to the silicon in the presence of the alkane or hetero-alkane and the alkene or hetero-alkene until the silicon metal is reduced to a plurality of functionalized silicon nanoparticles. In one instance, the functionalization on the silicon surface is an admixture of an alkane-functionalization (derived from the alkane or hetero-alkane) and an alkene- functionalization (derived from the alkene or hetero-alkene).

[0031] The alkene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains one or more carbon- carbon double bonds (-C=C-), preferably one, two, or three double bonds, more preferably one double bond. In one instance, the alkene has a molecular formula of C _x H _y , where x is in the range of 5-25 and y = 2X (monoalkenes), preferably where x is in the range of 6-20, or 6-12.

The alkene can be linear, branched or cyclic. As used here, the alkene is free of heteroatom functionalities. In a preferable example, the alkene is linear. In another preferable example, the alkene is branched. In still another preferable example, the alkene is a primary alkene or secondary alkene, more preferably a primary alkene. In another example, the alkene is selected from pentene, hexene, heptene, octene, nonene, decene, undecene, dodecene, tridecene, tetradecene, pentadecene, hexadecene, heptadecene, octadecene, nonadecene, icosene, cyclopentene, cyclohexene, cycloheptene, cyclooctene, cyclononene, and cyclodecene. In still another example, the alkene can include a cycloalkane (e.g., cyclopentane, cyclohexane, cycloheptane, or cyclooctane) having an alkenyl chains extending therefrom, including a ethenyl, propenyl, butenyl, pentenyl, hexenyl, heptenyl, octenyl chains, preferably wherein the alkene functionality is primary (e.g., positioned at the distal end of the chain from the

cycloalkane).

[0032] Herein, a hetero-alkene is an alkene includes a heteroatom functionality, preferably where the hetero-alkene includes from about 3 to about 30, or from about 3 to about 25 carbon atoms. The hetero-alkene can have the formula C _n H _m X _o , where n is an integer from about 3 to about 80, preferably about 3 to about 60, or about 3 to about 50, or about 3 to about 40, or about 4 to about 30, or about 4 to about 25; o is an integer selected from 1 , 2, and 3, preferably 1. In this formula X represents the heteroatom of the heteroatom functionality and can be selected from the group consisting of an oxygen atom, a nitrogen atom, a sulfur atom, a phosphorous atom, a fluorine atom, a chlorine atom, a boron atom, and a combination thereof (i.e., when o is greater than 1). More preferably, the heteroatom is selected from an oxygen atom and a nitrogen atom. In instances wherein the alkene includes a heteroatom, the heteroatom is, preferably, saturated, or otherwise devoid of pi-bonding to other heteroatoms or carbon. Preferable functionalities that include a heteroatom are 1 °, 2°, or 3° alcohols, ethers, 1 °, 2°, or 3° amines, or mixtures thereof.

[0033] In one example, the hetero-alkene includes an alcohol functionality, that is, includes an alkenol (e.g., propenol, butenol, pentenol, hexenol, heptenol, octenol, nonenol, decenol, undecenol, dodecenol, tridecenol, tetradecenol, pentadecenol, hexadecenol, heptadecenol, octadecenol, nondecenol, and icosenol), in one preferable instance, the alkene functionality is primary and the alcohol functionality is tertiary (3°). The alkenol preferably has a molecular formula of C _x H _y (OH) _z , preferably wherein x is in the range of 4 to about 25, where y = 2x-z, and where z is an integer selected from 1 , 2, or 3. In another instance, the alkenol can be cyclic and, for example, have a molecular formula where y = 2x-2-z (monocyclic), 2x-4-z (dicyclic), or 2x-6-z (tricyclic); preferably monocyclic (e.g., cyclohexenol). Preferably, x is in the range of 5-20, more preferably in the range of 6-18, and even more preferably in the range of 6- 12; preferably z is 1.

[0034] In another example, the hetero-alkene includes an ether functionality, that is, includes an alkylalkenyl-ether or dialkenylether. An alkylalkenylethere can include an alkyl functionality selected from methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, tridecyl, tetradecyl, pentadecyl, hexadecyl, heptadicyl, octadecyl, nondecyl, and icosyl, or for example having a molecular formula or C _x H _y where x is in the range of 1 to about 25. Notably, the alkyl functionality can be linear, branched, and/or cyclic while the alkyl functionality is a saturated hydrocarbon functionality. The alkylalkenyl-ether and the

dialkenylether can, independently, include alkenyl functionality (or functionalities) independently selected from vinyl (ethenyl), allyl (propenyl), butenyl, pentenyl, hexenyl, heptenyl, octenyl, nonenyl, decenyl, undecenyl, dodecenyl, tridecenyl, tetradecenyl, pentadecenyl, hexadecenyl, heptadecenyl, octadecenyl, nondecenyl, and icosenyl. Notably, the alkenyl functionality can be linear, branched, and/or cyclic, preferably wherein the alkene is a primary alkene.

[0035] In another instance, the hetero-alkene is a cyclic alkene-ether. In this instance, the ether can be part of the cyclic portion of the hetero-alkene; whereas the alkene can be part of the cyclic portion or can be part of an alkenyl chain that is connected to the cyclic-ether. Examples include but are not limited to furan, pyran, alkylfuran, and alkylpyran.

[0036] In still another preferable example the hetero-alkene includes an amine functionality (i.e. , an alkenylamine). In instances wherein the amine is a secondary amine (i.e., a alkylalkenylamine or a dialkenylamine), or tertiary amine (i.e., a dialkylalkenylamine, a alkyldialkenylamine, or a trialkenylamine), the alkyl and alkenyl groups affixed to the amine can be, individually, the same or different. Here, the alkyl functionality (or functionalities) can be independently selected from methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, tridecyl, tetradecyl, pentadecyl, hexadecyl, heptadicyl, octadecyl, nondecyl, and icosyl, or for example having a molecular formula or C _x H _y where x is in the range of 1 to about 25. Notably, the alkyl functionality can be linear, branched, and/or cyclic while the alkyl functionality is a saturated hydrocarbon functionality. The alkenyl functionality (or functionalities) can be independently selected from vinyl (ethenyl), allyl (propenyl), butenyl, pentenyl, hexenyl, heptenyl, octenyl, nonenyl, decenyl, undecenyl, dodecenyl, tridecenyl, tetradecenyl,

pentadecenyl, hexadecenyl, heptadecenyl, octadecenyl, nondecenyl, and icosenyl. Notably, the alkenyl functionality can be linear, branched, and/or cyclic, preferably wherein the alkene is a primary alkene.

[0037] In one instance, the alkenylamine is a primary amine and a primary alkene (the two functionalities are on opposing ends of a hydrocarbon chain). Examples include

butenylamine, pentenylamine, hexenylamine, heptenylamine, octenylamine, nonenylamine, decenylamine, undecenylamine, dodecenylamine, tridecenylamine, tetradecenylamine, pentadecenylamine, hexadecenylamine, heptadicenylamine, octadecenylamine,

nondecenylamine, icosenylamine, and the remainder of the homologous series having from 4 to about 25 carbon atoms.

[0038] In another instance, the secondary amine (i.e., the alkylalkenylamine or dialkenylamine) can have an alkyl functionality selected from methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, tridecyl, tetradecyl, pentadecyl, hexadecyl, heptadicyl, octadecyl, nondecyl, and icosyl, or for example having a molecular formula or C _x H _y where x is in the range of 1 to about 25. Notably, the alkyl functionality can be linear, branched, and/or cyclic while the alkyl functionality is a saturated hydrocarbon functionality. The alkenyl functionality (or functionalities) can be independently selected from vinyl (ethenyl), allyl

(propenyl), butenyl, pentenyl, hexenyl, heptenyl, octenyl, nonenyl, decenyl, undecenyl, dodecenyl, tridecenyl, tetradecenyl, pentadecenyl, hexadecenyl, heptadecenyl, octadecenyl, nondecenyl, and icosenyl. Notably, the alkenyl functionality can be linear, branched, and/or cyclic, preferably wherein the alkene is a primary alkene.

[0039] In yet another instance, the tertiary amine (i.e. , a dialkylalkenylamine, a alkyldialkenylamine, or a trialkenylamine) can have an alkyl functionality (or functionalities) independently selected from methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, tridecyl, tetradecyl, pentadecyl, hexadecyl, heptadicyl, octadecyl, nondecyl, and icosyl, or for example having a molecular formula or C _x H _y where x is in the range of 1 to about 25. Notably, the alkyl functionality can be linear, branched, and/or cyclic while the alkyl functionality is a saturated hydrocarbon functionality. The alkenyl functionality (or functionalities) can be independently selected from vinyl (ethenyl), allyl (propenyl), butenyl, pentenyl, hexenyl, heptenyl, octenyl, nonenyl, decenyl, undecenyl, dodecenyl, tridecenyl, tetradecenyl,

pentadecenyl, hexadecenyl, heptadecenyl, octadecenyl, nondecenyl, and icosenyl. Notably, the alkenyl functionality can be linear, branched, and/or cyclic, preferably wherein the alkene is a primary alkene.

[0040] In still another embodiment, the process includes repeatedly applying sufficient shear forces to silicon metal in the presence of an admixture of an alkane or hetero-alkane (as described above) and an aldehyde, ketone, carboxylate, imide, nitrile, cyanate, isocyanate, thiocyanate, isothiocyanate, amide, silyl, or compound that includes a mixtures thereof.

[0041] In still yet another instance, the functionalized silicon nanoparticles are polycrystalline silicon nanocrystals. As used herein, a polycrystalline silicon nanocrystal is a discrete silicon nanocrystal that has more than one crystal domain. The domains can be of the same crystal structure and display discontinuous domains, or the domains can be of different crystal structures. In one example, the domains are all diamond-cubic silicon (e.g., having a lattice constant of 5.431 A). In another example, the domains include a diamond-cubic silicon and a diamond-hexagonal silicon. In still another example, the domains include a diamond-cubic silicon and amorphous silicon. In yet still another example, the domains include a diamond- cubic silicon, a diamond-hexagonal silicon, and amorphous silicon.

[0042] Still another embodiment is a process that includes shearing silicon metal and exposing a silicon surface having a Miller index other than a (111) plane or a (100) plane.

Notably, the impact fracture of silicon metal (silicon crystal) by, for example, ball milling or grinding, predominately provides a silicon surface having a (111) Miller index. In part, this is driven by the fracture propagation in the silicon lattice being preferential in the (111) plane. Herein, shear forces are applied to the silicon surface and these forces provide shear propagation that is inclined relative to the (111) plane. Accordingly, the shearing of the silicon metal exposes silicon surfaces (shear surfaces or shear planes) that are inclined relative to the (111) plane. In one instance, the exposed silicon surface is oriented between the (113) and (114) planes. The exposed silicon surface can have other Miller indices, and preferentially have a plurality of exposed silicon surface that each have their own Miller indices. In one preferred instance, the silicon metal has a substantial portion that exists in a diamond-cubic crystal structure. Preferably, at least 10 atom%, 20 atom%, 25 atom%, 30 atom%, 35 atom%, 40 atom%, 45 atom%, 50 atom%, 55 atom%, 60 atom%, 65 atom%, 70 atom%, 75 atom%, 80 atom%, 85 atom%, 90 atom%, or 95 atom% of the silicon metal has a diamond-cubic crystal structure. Notably, the silicon metal can be single crystalline or can be polycrystalline.

Additionally, the silicon metal can include alloying elements as long as the crystal structure maintains a substantial portion of diamond-cubic structure.

[0043] As a product of the shearing, the exposed silicon surface will carry at least one silicon radical. That is, the silicon metal that makes up the silicon surface will include at least one silicon radical, preferably, the silicon surface will carry a plurality of silicon radicals. More preferably, the as herein provided silicon radical is of sufficient energy to react with an alkane or saturated hydrocarbon (e.g., an alkyl group). That is, the silicon radical has sufficient energy to break a H-C or a C-C bond of an alkane or alkyl group.

[0044] This process further includes mechanochemically functionalizing the silicon surface by reacting the silicon radical with an organic coating agent. The reaction with the organic coating agent, preferably, covalently bonds the organic coating agent to the silicon surface (e.g., though a Si-C sigma bond). As used herein, an organic coating agent is an organic compound having a molecular weight less than about 600 amu, 500 amu, 400 amu, 300 amu, or 200 amu that reacts with a silicon radical to form a Si-C bond.

[0045] Herein, the organic coating agent is selected from the group consisting of an alkane (as described above), a hetero-alkane (as described above), an alkene (as described above), a hetero-alkene (as described above), an alkyne, a hetero-alkyne, an arene, an aryl halide, an aldehyde, a ketone, an ester, an amide, a nitrile, and a mixture thereof. In one instance, the organic coating agent is selected from the group consisting of an alkane (as described above), a hetero-alkane (as described above), an alkene (as described above), a hetero-alkene (as described above), an alkyne, a hetero-alkyne, and a mixture thereof. In a preferably instance, the organic coating agent includes at least one alkene (as described above), hetero-alkene (as described above), alkyne, or hetero-alkyne. Herein, the alkyne is an unsaturated hydrocarbon with at least one carbon-carbon triple bond. The alkyne can be linear, branched or cyclic. As used here, the alkyne is free of heteroatom functionalities (has the molecular formula C _x H _y ) and can include between 5 and 25 carbon atoms (x is in the range of 5 to 25). In a preferable example, the alkyne is linear. In another preferable example, the alkyne is branched. In still another preferable example, the alkyne is a primary alkyne or secondary alkyne, more preferably a primary alkyne. In another example, the alkyne is selected from pentyne, hexyne, heptyne, octyne, nonyne, decyne, undecyne, dodecyne, tridecyne, tetradecyne, pentadecyne, hexadecyne, heptadecyne, octadecyne, nonadecyne, icosyne, cyclooctyne, cyclononyne, and cyclodecyne.

[0046] Herein, the hetero-alkyne includes a carbon-carbon triple bond and a heteroatom functionality, preferably where the hetero-alkyne includes from about 3 to about 30, or from about 3 to about 25 carbon atoms. In once example, the hetero-alkane has a molecular formula of C _n H _m X _o where n is in the range of 3 to about 25 and where X (the heteroatom) is selected from the group consisting of an oxygen atom, a nitrogen atom, a sulfur atom, a phosphorous atom, a fluorine atom, a chlorine atom, a boron atom, and a combination thereof. More preferably, the heteroatom is selected from an oxygen atom and a nitrogen atom. In instances wherein the alkyne includes a heteroatom, the heteroatom is, preferably, saturated, or otherwise devoid of pi-bonding to other heteroatoms or carbon. Preferable functionalities that include a heteroatom are 1 °, 2°, or 3° alcohols, ethers, 1 °, 2°, or 3° amines, or mixtures thereof. The variations of the hetero-alkyne are analogous to those of the hetero-alkene as described above and the variations are understood to be included in their entirety. Particularly preferable hetero- alkynes include 1° amine alkynes wherein the nitrogen atom and the carbon-carbon triple bonds are on opposing ends of a hydrocarbon; and alkynyl-ethers where the ether is symmetric (dialkynyl) or asymmetric (alkyl-alkynyl).

[0047] In another instance, the organic coating agent is an admixture of at least two different compounds, each individually selected from an alkane, an alkene, an alkyne, an arene, an alkyl halide, an aryl halide, an aldehyde, a ketone, an ester, an amide, an amine, and a nitrile. Herein, the general classifications of the organic coatings agents further include combinations thereof. For example, the alkene and the alkyl halide classifications, each, include 8-chloro-octene. In one instance, the organic coating agent includes an alkane. In another instance, the organic coating agent consists essentially of an alkane. In yet another instance, the organic coating agent includes an alkene, an alkyne, or an aryl. In yet still another instance, the organic coating agent is free of a hydroxyl (-OH) functionality, i.e. the organic coating agent is preferably free of any alcohol. In another instance, the organic coating agent is free of hydroxyl and ether functionalities. In still yet another instance, the organic coating agent is free of any functionality that includes an oxygen atom. In a preferable instance, the organic coating functionality, that is the organic component bound to the surface of the silicon nanoparticle, preferably through a Si-C sigma bond, is free of Si-O-R bonding (wherein R is an organic functionality) to the silicon nanoparticle.

[0048] Furthermore, the reaction of the silicon radical with the organic coating agent provides an organic radical (e.g., by extraction of a hydrogen atom for the organic coating agent, by the cleavage of a C-C bond in the organic coating agent, or by the reaction of an unsaturated functionality, for example an alkene, and the migration of the radical to a position on the organic coating agent). The organic radical, either carried on the silicon surface or within a reaction solution, is preferably, thereafter, quenched. The quenching can be, for example, by the reaction with other reagents within the reaction solution (e.g., by hydride extraction from another moiety) or by further reaction with the silicon surface.

[0049] Preferably, the silicon metal is repeatedly (e.g., continuously) sheared in the presence the organic coating agent until the silicon metal is reduced to a plurality of

functionalized silicon nanoparticles. Herein, the functionalized silicon nanoparticles include an organic coating functionality covalently bound to the silicon surface. As used herein, the organic coating functionality is understood to include the radical addition of the organic coating agent to the silicon surface and the quenching of any resultant organic radical and/or a portion of the organic coating agent bound to the silicon surface (e.g., by the radical reaction of the organic coating agent with the silicon surface or by the addition of an organic radical with a silicon radical). Preferably, the plurality of functionalized silicon nanoparticles having a d ₉₀ of less than about 350 nm, less than about 300 nm, or, more preferably, less than about 250 nm.

[0050] A preferred embodiment are those materials made by the processes described above. In one instance, this is a material which includes functionalized silicon nanoparticles made by shearing a silicon metal or alloy in the presence of a liquid alkane and/or liquid hetero alkane by applying shear forces to the silicon metal to expose a sheared silicon surface, forming an alkyl-functionalization on the sheared silicon surface; and continuing to shear the silicon metal or alloy in the presence of the alkane and/or hetero-alkane until the silicon metal is reduced to a plurality of functionalized silicon nanoparticles. Notably, shearing the silicon metal or alloy exposes silicon radicals on the sheared silicon surface, these silicon radicals then react with the alkane and/or hetero-alkane to provide the alkyl-functionalization. In one preferable example, the process includes the silicon metal or alloy which has a composition of greater than about 90 wt.% silicon. Another instance is an alkane-functionalized silicon nanoparticle made by exposing a silicon surface having a Miller index other than a (111) plane or a (100) plane, the silicon surface carrying at least one silicon radical; where the silicon radical is of sufficient energy to react with an alkane; and reacting the silicon radical with an organic coating agent having a molecular weight of less than about 600 amu, thereby covalently bonding the organic coating agent to the silicon surface via a Si-C sigma bond. Preferably, the organic coating agent includes, consists essentially of, or consists of an alkane.

[0051] Yet another embodiment is a functionalized silicon nanoparticle that includes a silicon nanoparticulate carrying and covalently affixed to hydride and alkyl or heteroalkyl functionalities derived from an alkane or heteroalkene. Preferably, the silicon nanoparticulate is composed of silicon or a silicon alloy and has a plurality of surfaces. The surfaces include, consist essentially of, or consist of silicon atoms. In this embodiment, the silicon atoms carry hydride and alkyl or heteroalkyl functionalities derived from an alkane or heteroalkane.

Preferably, the silicon atoms are affixed to the alkyl or heteroalkyl functionalities via Si-C sigma bonds; and the silicon atoms are affixed to the hydride functionalities via Si-H sigma bonds.

[0052] The plurality of surfaces, preferably, include surfaces having Miller index other than (111) and (100). Further, the silicon nanoparticulate is preferably the result of a trituration process and thereby has a morphology consistent with milling, grinding, shearing, and/or fracturing and does not have a morphology consistent with nanoparticle growth mechanisms (e.g., Ostwald ripening). Specifically, the silicon nanoparticulate has a morphology other than spherical and, preferably, has a plate-like morphology.

[0053] Still further, the silicon nanoparticulate is, preferably, polycrystalline. While the above methods can utilize single crystalline or polycrystalline silicon materials, the resultant silicon nanoparticulate is polycrystalline. Furthermore, the functionalized silicon nanoparticle, preferably, has a mean diameter in the range of about 20 nm to about 500 nm, or about 50 nm to about 300 nm.

[0054] Yet another embodiment is a material that includes a plurality of silicon nanoparticles each carrying an alkyl-functionalization derived from an alkane. As used herein, the alkyl-functionalization can have a molecular formula of C _X H2X _+I (wherein the alkane has a molecular formula of C _x H2X ₊ 2) wherein x is in the range of 4 to about 25. Preferably, x is in the range of 5-20, more preferably in the range of 6-18, and even more preferably in the range of 5- 12 or 6-12. Herein, the alkyl-functionalization can be liner, branched (single or multiple branches), cyclic, or a combination thereof. In one preferable example, the alkyl- functionalization is linear. In another preferable example, the alkyl-functionalization is branched. Still further, the alkyl-functionalization can have a non-specific chain length and orientation on the silicon surface. That is, the alkyl-functionalization can have a molecular formula of C _X H ₂ X _+I where x is not a single integer but is a range of integers from 1 to about 25 in those examples where the alkane had a molecular formula wherein x ranged up to 25. In instances wherein the silicon nanoparticles carry alkyl-functionalizations, each silicon nanoparticle can further carry a hydride functionalization (e.g., the silicon surface carries both alkyl and hydride groups bound to silicon atoms).

[0055] In one instance, the silicon nanoparticles include polycrystalline silicon nanocrystals. As used herein, a polycrystalline silicon nanocrystal is a discrete silicon nanocrystal that has more than one crystal domain. The domains can be of the same crystal structure and display discontinuous domains, or the domains can be of different crystal structures. In another instance, the silicon nanoparticles include silicon nanocrystals having dislocated diamond-cubic crystal structures. In still another instance, the silicon nanoparticles include silicon nanocrystals having diamond-cubic and diamond-hexagonal crystal structures. In still yet another instance, the silicon nanoparticles include silicon nanocrystals each having a plurality of crystal domains.

[0056] In another instance, the plurality of silicon nanoparticles has a dgo of less than about 350 nm. Herein, the dgo is the size distribution of the nanoparticles wherein for dgo 90% of the particles have a size smaller than the represented value. Herein, the dgo can be or be less than about 350 nm, 300 nm, 250 nm, or 200 nm.

[0057] In still another instance, each silicon nanoparticle further carries a

functionalization derived from an alkene. Typically, the functionalization derived from an alkene has the same molecular formula as the alkene, for example a functionalization derived from octene (CsHi ₆ ) bridges two neighboring silicon atoms on the surface and the functionalization has the formula CsHi ₆ . The functionalization derived from the alkene can have a molecular formula of C _x H ₂ x wherein x is in the range of 5 to about 25. Preferably, x is in the range of 6-20, more preferably in the range of 6-18, and even more preferably in the range of 6-12. Herein, the functionalization derived from the alkene can be liner, branched (single or multiple branches), cyclic, or a combination thereof. In one preferable example, the functionalization derived from the alkene is linear. In another preferable example, the functionalization derived from the alkene is branched. In yet another instance, the functionalization derived from the alkene can include a heteroatom functionality. Preferably, the heteroatom functionality is selected from an alcohol and an amine. In other examples, the heteroatom functionality can be selected from an alcohol, an aldehyde, a ketone, a carboxylate, an amine, an imide, a nitrile, a cyanate, an isocyanate, a thiocyanate, an isothiocyanate, an amide, a silyl, or a mixture thereof.

[0058] In still yet another instance, each silicon nanoparticle further carries a

functionalization derived from an alkyne. Typically, the functionalization derived from an alkyne has the same molecular formula as the alkyne, for example a functionalization derived from octyne (C _S H _M ) bridges two neighboring silicon atoms on the surface and the functionalization has the formula C _S H _M . The functionalization derived from the alkyne can have a molecular formula of C _x H2X-2 wherein x is in the range of 5 to about 25. Preferably, x is in the range of 6- 20, more preferably in the range of 6-18, and even more preferably in the range of 6-12. Herein, the functionalization derived from the alkyne can be liner, branched (single or multiple branches), cyclic, or a combination thereof. In one preferable example, the functionalization derived from the alkyne is linear. In another preferable example, the functionalization derived from the alkyne is branched. In yet another instance, the functionalization derived from the alkyne can include a heteroatom functionality. Preferably, the heteroatom functionality is selected from an alcohol and an amine. In other examples, the heteroatom functionality can be selected from an alcohol, an aldehyde, a ketone, a carboxylate, an amine, an imide, a nitrile, a cyanate, an isocyanate, a thiocyanate, an isothiocyanate, an amide, a silyl, or a mixture thereof.

[0059] Herein, shear force or shear forces can be applied to the silicon metal by the application of a mill, mixer, or grinder that is capable of the high shearing mixing/milling of the silicon metal. Mechanical shearing methods may employ homogenizers, extruders, injection molding machines, roller blade mixers, Banbury® type mixers, Brabender® type mixers, pin- mixers, rotor/stator mixers, and the like. In one instance, shearing can be achieved by introducing the silicon and alkane at one end of an extruder (single or double screw) and receiving the sheared material at the other end of the extruder. The temperature of the materials entering the extruder, the temperature of the extruder, the concentration of materials added to the extruder, the amount of solvent (alkane) added to the extruder, the length of the extruder, residence time of the materials in the extruder, and the design of the extruder (single screw, twin screw, number of flights per unit length, channel depth, flight clearance, mixing zone, etc.) are several variables which control the amount of shear applied to the materials. In another instance, shearing can be achieved by passing an admixture of the silicon metal and alkane through a rotor-stator (e.g., a rotor-stator mixer, a rotor-stator homogenizer, or a rotor-stator mill). The rotor-stator can employ a pin-mill design, a conical pass designs, disk design, or the like. In some instances, the rotor-stator can include a bead mill. Notably, the application of the shear force(s) can be accomplished as a batch, a semi-batch, or a circulating flow, or a continuous flow process.

[0060] As used herein, the processes and products are described relative to silicon metal. In one example, the silicon metal is analytically pure silicon, for example, single crystal silicon (e.g., platters) used in the semiconductor/computer industry. In another example, the silicon metal is recycle or scrap from the semiconductor or solar industries. In still another example, the silicon metal is a silicon alloy. A silicon alloy can be a binary alloy (silicon plus one alloying element), can be a tertiary alloy, or can include a plurality of alloying elements. The silicon alloy is understood to be a majority silicon. A majority silicon particle means that the metal has a weight percentage that is greater than about 50% (50 wt.%) silicon, preferably greater than about 60 wt.%, 70 wt.%, 80 wt.%, 90 wt.%, or 95 wt.% silicon; these can include silicon alloys that comprise silicon and at least one alloying element. The alloying element can be, for example, an alkali metal, an alkaline-earth metal, a Group 13 to 16 element, a transition element, a rare earth element, or a combination thereof, but not Si. The alloying element can be, e.g., Li, Na, Mg, Ca, Sc, Y, Ti, Zr, Hf, V, Nb, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Re, Fe, Ru, Os, Co, Rh, Ir, Ni, Pd, Pt, Cu, Ag, Au, Zn, Cd, B, Al, Ga, In, Ge, Sn, P, As, Sb, Bi, S, Se, Te, or a combination thereof. In one instance, the alloying element can be lithium, magnesium, aluminum, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, or a mixture thereof. In another instance, the silicon alloy can be selected from SiTiNi, SiAIMn, SiAIFe, SiFeCu, SiCuMn, SiMgAI, SiMgCu, or a combination thereof.

[0061] In still another example, the herein described processes and products can utilize germanium and/or indium, without or without silicon. Accordingly, the processes and products describe above can be include Ge or In in replacement of the Si. Still further, the processes and products can utilize alloys of Ge or In.

[0062] In some instances, the silicon alloy can include: (i) heavily (and“ultra-heavily”) doped silicon; (ii) group IV elements; (iii) binary silicon alloys (or mixtures) with metals; (iv) ternary silicon alloys (or mixtures) with metals; and (v) other metals and metal alloys that form alloys with metal ions such as lithium.

[0063] Heavily and ultra-heavily doped silicon include silicon doped with a high content of Group II elements, such as boron (B), aluminum (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In), or thallium (TI), or a high content of Group V elements, such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), or bismuth (Bi). By“heavily doped” and“ultra-heavily doped,” it will be understood that the content of doping atoms is typically in the range of 3,000 parts per million (ppm) to 700,000 ppm, or approximately 0.3% to 70% of the total composition.

[0064] Group IV elements used to form higher capacity anode materials may include

Ge, Sn, Pb, and their alloys, mixtures, or composites, with the general formula of Si _a -Ge _b -Sn _c - Pb _d -C _e -D _f , where a, b, c, d, e, and f may be zero or non-zero, and where D is a dopant selected from Group III or Group V of the periodic table.

[0065] For binary silicon alloys (or mixtures) with metals, the silicon content may be in the range of approximately 20% to 99.7%. Examples of such as alloys (or mixtures) include, but are not limited to: Mg-Si, Ca-Si, Sc-Si, Ti-Si, V-Si, Cr-Si, Mn-Si, Fe-Si, Co-Si, Ni-Si, Cu-Si, Zn- Si, Sr-Si, Y-Si, Zr-Si, Nb-Si, Mo-Si, Tc-Si, Ru-Si, Rh-Si, Pd-Si, Ag-Si, Cd-Si, Ba-Si, Hf-Si, Ta-Si, and W-Si. Such binary alloys may be doped (or heavily doped) with Group III and Group V elements. Alternatively, other Group IV elements may be used instead of silicon to form similar alloys or mixtures with metals. A combination of various Group IV elements may also be used to form such alloys or mixtures with metals.

[0066] For ternary silicon alloys (or mixtures) with metals, the silicon content may also be in the range of approximately 20% to 99.7%. Such ternary alloys may be doped (or heavily doped) with Group III and Group V elements. Other Group IV elements may also be used instead of silicon to form such alloys or mixtures with metals. Alternatively, other Group IV elements may be used instead of silicon to form similar alloys or mixtures with metals. A combination of various Group IV elements may also be used to form such alloys or mixtures with metals.

[0067] A further preferred embodiment, as depicted in Fig. 1 , is a process, and product thereof, that includes admixing a hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticle with a reagent, wherein the reagent reacts adds to the silicon surface. Herewith, the hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticle is preferably an alky-hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticle having hydride and alkyl surface features derived from an alkane (e.g., those alky-hydride- functionalized silicon nanoparticles described above). In one example, the alky-hydride- functionalized silicon nanoparticle is the product of the process of milling silicon in an aliphatic solvent (e.g., hexane). In another example where the hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticle is an alky-hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticle, the alky-hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticle includes a silicon nanoparticulate (core) having a composition of silicon or a silicon alloy, and having a plurality of surfaces, each surface comprising silicon atoms (that are part of the core) covalently affixed to hydride and alkyl or heteroalkyl functionalities derived from an alkane or heteroalkane. In one example, the silicon atoms are affixed to hydride and alkyl functionalities; in another example, the silicon atoms are affixed to hydride and heteroalkyl functionalities; and in another example, the silicon atoms are affixed to hydride, alkyl, and heteroalkyl functionalities.

[0068] In one instance, the reagent covalently binds to the silicon surface. For example, the addition of the reagent to the surface can be by a thermal addition. In another example, the addition of the reagent to the surface can be by a photochemical addition. The addition is preferably to the hydride functionalities (silicon hydride addition) or by addition to a silicon radical generated by the activation of a hydride functionality on the silicon surface (e.g., thermolytic Si-H bond cleavage or photolytic Si-H bond cleavage). Preferably, the addition of the reagent to the silicon surface decreases the concentration of hydride functionalities on the surface without decreasing the concentration of alkyl functionalities.

[0069] The reagent preferably has a functionality that reacts with the silicon (preferably, the silicon-hydride) surface. In one instance, the reagent is selected from an alkene, an alkyne, an aldehyde, and a mixture thereof. Preferably, the reagent is selected from a 1 -alkene, a 1- alkyne, an aldehyde, and a mixture thereof. In one example, the addition of the alkene yields an alkyl-functionality on the silicon nanoparticle. In another example, the addition of the alkyne yields an alkenyl-functionality on the silicon nanoparticle. In still another example the addition of the aldehyde yields an alkoxy-functionality on the silicon nanoparticle. Preference is given to primary functionalities, for example, primary alkenes and primary alkynes as these are the easiest to sterically approach the silicon surface.

[0070] Here, the reagent can be an alkene or hetero-alkene as described above, preferably with the exclusion of those hetero-alkenes that include hydrogen atoms carried on the heteroatom (e.g., alcohols, amines, thiols) which would compete with the alkene for addition to the silicon hydride functionality. Specific examples of alkenes include but are not limited to ethene (ethylene), propene, butene, pentene, hexene, heptene, octene, nonene, decene, undecene, dodecene, tridecene, tetradecene, pentadecene, hexadecene, heptadecene, octadecene, nonadecene, icosene, cyclopentene, cyclohexene, cycloheptene, cyclooctene, cyclononene, and cyclodecene; either linear, branched, cyclic, or polycyclic while preferably having a primary alkene. Further, the alkene can be an oligomer or polymer that includes alkene-functionalities, preferably terminal alkene functionalities. For example, linear polymers with pendant vinyl groups. [0071] The reagent can be an alkyne or hetero-alkyne, as described above, preferably with the exclusion of those hetero-alkynes that include hydrogen atoms carried on the heteroatom (e.g., alcohols, amines, thiols) which would compete with the alkyne for addition to the silicon hydride functionality. Specific examples of alkynes include but are not limited to ethyne (acetylene), propyne, butyne, pentyne, hexyne, heptyne, octyne, nonyne, decyne, undecyne, dodecyne, tridecyne, tetradecyne, pentadecyne, hexadecyne, heptadecyne, octadecyne, nonadecyne, icosyne, cyclooctyne, cyclononyne, and cyclodecyne; either linear, branched, cyclic, or polycyclic while preferably having a primary alkyne. Further, the alkyne can be an oligomer or polymer that includes alkyne-functionalities, preferably terminal alkyne functionalities. For example, linear polymers with pendant acetylenic groups.

[0072] The reagent can be an aldehyde. Specific examples of aldehydes include but are not limited to methanal, ethanal, propanal, butanal, pentanal, hexanal, heptanal, octanal, nonanal, decanal, undecanal, dodecanal, tridecanal, tetradecanal, pentadanal, hexadecanal, heptadecanal, octadecanal, nonadecanal, icosanal: either linear, branched, cyclic or polycyclic. Further, the aldehyde can be an oligomer or polymer that includes aldehyde-functionalities. For example, linear polymers with pendant -C(H)=0 groups.

[0073] Still further, the reagent can be selected from an alcohol, a thiol, an amine, a carboxylate, a carboxylic acid, or a mixture thereof. Preferably, wherein the alcohol, thiol, amine, carboxylate, and/or carboxylic acid includes between about 1 (e.g., methanol, methane thiol, methylamine, formic acid) and about 25 carbon atoms. Further, the reagent can be an oligomer or polymer with an alcohol, thiol, amine, carboxylate, and/or carboxylic acid functionality.

[0074] In a preferable instance, the addition of the reagent to the silicon surface affects the z-potential of the silicon nanoparticulate. In one example, the hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticles (preferably, the alkyl-hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticles) have a z- potential of about ±35 to 0, about ±30 to 0, about ±25 to 0, about ±20 to 0, about ±15 to 0, about ±10 to 0, or about ±5 to 0 mV. Notably, the z-potential is a quantification of a magnitude of a charge and the specific value (negative or positive) is not relevant to degree of electrostatic repulsion between similarly charged particles in a dispersion. Preferably, the bi-functionalized silicon nanoparticles (e.g., the product produced by the addition of a reagent to an alky-hydride- functionalized silicon nanoparticle) have a z-potential absolute value that is at least about 5, 10, 15, 20, or 25 mV larger than the absolute value of the z-potential of the silicon nanoparticle to which the reagent was added. In a specific example, the bi-functionalized silicon nanoparticles can have a z-potential larger (absolute value) than about ±30, about ±35, about ±40, about ±45, about ±50, about ±55, or about ±60 mV. Herewith, comparisons between the hydride- functionalized silicon nanoparticles and the bi-functionalized silicon nanoparticles are comparisons of the absolute values of the respective z-potentials, wherein the z-potential of the bi-functionalized silicon nanoparticle is greater than the z-potential of the hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticle.

[0075] A still further preferred embodiment, as depicted in Fig. 2, is a process, and product thereof, that includes shearing a silicon metal or alloy in the presence of a liquid alkane and/or liquid hetero-alkane by applying shear forces to the silicon metal to expose a sheared silicon surface, thereby forming alkyl and hydride functionalizations on the sheared silicon surface. The process further includes continuing to shear the silicon metal or alloy in the presence of the alkane and/or hetero-alkane until the silicon metal is reduced to alkyl-hydride- functionalized silicon nanoparticles. Thereafter, the process includes admixing the alkyl-hydride- functionalized silicon nanoparticles with a reagent; where the reagent adds to the alkyl-hydride- functionalized silicon nanoparticles and provides a plurality of bi-functionalized silicon nanoparticles. The liquid alkane and/or liquid hetero-alkane can be removed from the alkyl- hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticles; and thereafter the reagent can be admixed with the alkyl-hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticles. That is, the one organic liquid can be removed from the silicon and thereafter another added. Preferably, the liquid alkane and/or liquid hetero alkane is removed from an admixture of the alkyl-hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticles and reagent. That is, the process includes adding the reagent to an admixture of the alkyl- hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticles in the liquid alkane and/or hetero-alkane and thereafter the alkane and/or hetero-alkane is removed. This process preferably prevents the alkyl-hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticles from agglomerating. More preferably, this process allows the reagent to facilely interact with all surfaces of the nanoparticles. As described above, the reagent can be selected from an alkene, an alkyne, an aldehyde, or a mixture thereof. When the reagent is an alkene, the bi-functionalized silicon nanoparticles are bis-alkyl-functionalized silicon nanoparticles. When the reagent is an alkyne, the bi- functionalized silicon nanoparticles are alkyl-alkenyl-functionalized silicon nanoparticles. When the reagent is an aldehyde, the bi-functionalized silicon nanoparticles are alkyl-alkoxyl- functionalized silicon nanoparticles.

[0076] Yet another preferred embodiment is bi-functionalized silicon nanoparticles. The bi-functionalized silicon nanoparticles preferably include silicon nanoparticulates coated or carrying an alkyl or heteroalkyl functionality derived from an alkane or heteroalkane and a second functionality (e.g., derived from the reagents described above). In one instance, the silicon nanoparticulates are composed of silicon or a silicon alloy, have a plurality of surfaces; where the surfaces comprising silicon atoms. Therein, the silicon atoms on the surface(s) of the nanoparticulates are covalently affixed (bonded) to an alkyl or heteroalkyl functionality derived from an alkane or heteroalkane, and a second functionality. In one instance, the second functionality is derived from an alkene and the bi-functionalized silicon nanoparticles are bis- alkyl-functionalized. In a second instance, the second functionality is derived from the alkyne and the bi-functionalized silicon nanoparticles are alkyl-alkenyl-functionalized. In a third instance, the second functionality is derived from the aldehyde and the bi-functionalized silicon nanoparticles are alkyl-alkoxyl-functionalized. Further instances can include secondary functionalities derived from alcohols, thiols, amines, carboxylates, carboxylic acids, or a mixture thereof. Still further instances can include secondary functionalities derived from oligomers or polymers (e.g., those having functionalities described above for reagents). Yet still further instances can include a secondary functionality derived from a reduced carbon (e.g., graphene, graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, carbon nanorods, or other carbon allotropes).

EXAMPLES

[0077] Non-Shear Example

[0078] Silicon metal was processed for 12 hours in a high-energy ball mill in accordance to the descriptions provided in US Pat. No. 7,883,995. The non-shear product was analyzed by FTIR, SEM, and TEM. The non-shear product showed no alkane functionalization of the silicon metal.

[0079] High-Shear Example

[0080] A silicon metal feed stock was prepared from silicon wafer (single crystal) by pre crushing and sieving the silicon metal to less than 250 mhi. Then 250 g of the sieved silicon metal and about 1000 g of n-hexane were admixed and the silicon continuously suspended in the n-hexane by application of a paddle-type (non-shear) mixer. The suspension was recirculated through a rotor-stator mill for 3-6 hours. Aliquots were removed about every 30 min and the particle size was determined. After the silicon is reduced to nanoparticles, the slurry was removed from the rotor-stator system and the hexane evaporated. The resulting product was processed to provide a free-flowing powder and then dried in a vacuum oven. The high- shear product was analyzed by FTIR, SEM, and TEM. The high-shear product showed alkane functionalization on the silicon and a different morphology by SEM and TEM.

[0081] General Procedure for Secondary Functionalization

[0082] The 100 ml of the slurry prepared above in the High-Shear Example was transferred under inert atmosphere into a reaction vessel. Excess of a reagent (e.g., an aldehyde, alkene, alkyne, or alcohol) was added to the slurry. In instances where the reagent had a boiling point greater than the hexane in the slurry, the hexane solvent was removed by distillation (vacuum distillation or direct distillation provided similar results). The resultant slurry was then heated to reflux for 12 hours, the liquids removed by vacuum distillation and the solids analyzed by ATR, SEM, and TEM. Results showed addition of the reagent(s) to the silicon and reduction of the Si-H functionalities. In one instance, a hexyl-hydride-functionalized silicon nanoparticle was functionalized with 1-octene under thermal conditions. Figure 3 shows stack spectra of the starting materials and a resultant material, having incomplete functionalization. Notably, the ethylenic CH stretching (a) and C=C stretching (b) features are absent from the resultant bi-functionalized silicon nanoparticle while S1-CH2 deformation (c) and Si-C stretching (d) are observed in a greater relative intensity in the product than in the hexyl-hydride- functionalized silicon nanoparticle. Figures 4 and 5 compare the Si 2p and the C 1s emissions for the materials in Fig. 3; notably figures show the change in the ratios of the Si-Si to Si-C and Si-C to C-C/C-H where there is a large increase in emissions from Si-C and C-C/C-H in the bi- functionalized silicon nanoparticle.

[0083] While the compositions and methods of this invention have been described in terms of preferred embodiments, it will be apparent to those of skill in the art that variations may be applied to the compositions and/or methods in the steps or in the sequence of steps of the method described herein without departing from the concept, spirit and scope of the invention. More specifically, it will be apparent that certain agents that are both chemically and physically related may be substituted for the agents described herein while the same or similar results would be achieved. All such similar substitutes and modifications apparent to those skilled in the art are deemed to be within the spirit, scope and concept of the invention as defined by the appended claims.