HIGH ENERGY MATERIALS FOR A BATTERY AND METHODS FOR MAKING AND USE

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[001] The present invention is in the field of battery technology, and more particularly in the area of materials for making high-energy electrodes for batteries, including metal-fluoride materials.

[002] One type of battery consists of a negative electrode made primarily from lithium and a positive electrode made primarily from a compound containing a metal and fluorine. During discharge, lithium ions and electrons are generated from oxidation of the negative electrode while fluoride ions are produced from reduction of the positive electrode. The generated fluoride ions react with lithium ions near the positive electrode to produce a compound containing lithium and fluorine, which may deposit at the positive electrode surface.

[003] Metal fluoride based batteries are an attractive energy storage technology because of their extremely high theoretical energy densities. For example, certain metal fluoride active materials can have theoretical energy densities greater than about 1600 Wh/kg or greater than about 7500 Wh/L. Further, metal fluorides have a relatively low raw material cost, for example less than about $10/kg. However, a number of technical challenges currently limit their widespread use and realization of their performance potential.

[004] One challenge for certain metal fluoride materials is comparatively poor rate performance. Many metal fluoride active materials have electrochemical potentials greater than about 2.5 V because of their relatively large bandgap produced by the highly ionic bonding between the metal and fluorine, and in particular between a transition metal and fluorine. Unfortunately, one of the drawbacks to wide bandgap materials is the intrinsically low electronic conductivity that results from the wide bandgap. As a result of this low conductivity, discharge rates of less than 0.1 C are required in order to obtain full theoretical capacity. More typically, discharge rates of 0.05C to 0.02C are reported in the literature. Such low discharge rates limit the widespread use of metal fluoride active materials.

[005] Another challenge for certain metal fluoride active materials is a significant hysteresis observed between the charge and discharge voltages during cycling. This hysteresis is typically on the order of about 1 .0V to about 1 .5V. While the origin of this hysteresis is uncertain, current evidence suggests that kinetic limitations imposed by low conductivity play an important role. Further, asymmetry in the reaction paths upon charge and discharge may also play a role. Since the electrochemical potential for many of the metal fluorides is on the order of 3.0V, this hysteresis of about 1 .0V to about 1 .5V limits the overall energy efficiency to approximately 50%.

[006] Limited cycle life is another challenge for certain metal fluoride active materials. Although rechargeability has been demonstrated for many metal fluoride active materials, their cycle life is typically limited to tens of cycles and is also subject to rapid capacity fade. Three mechanisms are currently believed to limit the cycle life for the metal fluoride active materials: agglomeration of metallic nanoparticles and mechanical stress due to volume expansion. It is believed that metal fluoride active materials can cycle by virtue of the formation during lithiation of a continuous metallic network within a matrix of insulating LiF. As the number of cycles increases, the metal particles tend to accumulate together into larger, discrete particles. The larger agglomerated particles in turn create islands that are electrically disconnected from one another, thus reducing the capacity and ability to cycle the metal fluoride active materials. The second limitation to extended cycle life is the mechanical stress imparted to the binder materials by the metal fluoride particles as a result of the volume expansion that occurs during the conversion reaction. Over time, the binder is pulverized, compromising the integrity of the cathode. Notably, for the metal fluoride CuF ₂ , no demonstrations of rechargeability have been reported.

[007] For CuF ₂ , an additional challenge prevents rechargeability. The potential required to recharge a CuF ₂ electrode is 3.55V. However, in typical electrolytes for lithium ion batteries, Cu metal oxidizes to Cu ²⁺ at approximately 3.4 V vs. Li/Li ⁺ . The oxidized copper can migrate to the anode, where it is irreversibly reduced back to Cu metal. As a result, Cu dissolution competes with the recharge of Cu + 2LiF to CuF ₂ , preventing cycling of the cell. The Cu metal accumulating on the anode surface can increase the impedance and/or destroy the solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) on the anode.

[008] The following papers and patents are among the published literature on metal fluorides that employ mixed conductors that are not electrochemically active within the voltage window of the metal fluoride: Badway, F. et al., Chem. Mater., 2007, 19, 4129; Badway, F. et al., J. Electrochem. Soc,. 2007, 150, A1318; "Bismuth fluoride based nanocomposites as electrode materials" US 7,947,392; "Metal Fluoride And Phosphate Nanocomposites As Electrode Materials" US 2008/0199772; "Copper fluoride based nanocomposites as electrode materials" US 2006/0019163; and "Bismuth oxyfluoride based nanocomposites as electrode materials" US 8,039,149.

[009] Certain embodiments of the present invention can be used to form electrochemical cells having metal fluoride active material that exhibit improved rate performance, improved energy efficiency, and improved cycle life when compared to prior batteries. Thus, these and other challenges can be addressed by embodiments of the present invention described below.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[010] Certain embodiments of the invention include a method of making a composition for use in forming a cathode for a battery. The method includes milling a metal fluoride material with a metal complex and annealing the mixture, wherein at least a portion of the metal fluoride material and at least a portion of the metal complex undergo a phase change. The method can include forming a coating on at least a portion of the metal fluoride material. The metal fluoride material is preferably CuF ₂ . The metal complex can be a metal oxide selected from the group consisting of M0O3, M0O2, NiO, CuO, VO2, V ₂ O ₅ , T1O2, and combinations thereof. Preferably, the metal oxide is NiO. The annealing temperature is less than 450 degrees C, less than 400 degrees C, less than 325 degrees C, or less than 200 degrees C. Preferably, the annealing temperature is about 325 degrees C. The temperature is chosen such that it is sufficiently high for the metal complex to react with the metal fluoride, but not high enough to decompose the metal fluoride. Without such heat treatment and the resulting reaction, the material is not rechargeable, as is demonstrated by experiments described herein.

[011] Certain embodiments of the invention include a composition formed by the methods disclosed herein. The composition is characterized by having reversible capacity. The composition can include particles with a grain size greater than 100 nm, 1 10 nm, 120 nm, or 130 nm. The composition can include a particle having a first phase and a coating on the particle having a second phase. Preferably, the first phase includes the metal fluoride and the second phase includes the metal oxide. The coating can be covalently bonded to the particle.

[012] Certain embodiments of the invention include batteries having electrodes formed from the compositions disclosed herein, the method of making such batteries, and the method of use of such batteries.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS

[013] Figure 1 illustrates electrochemical characterization of different hybrid cathode formulations according to embodiments of the invention in which the content of a conductive matrix material is varied in the cathode.

[014] Figure 2 illustrates electrochemical characterization of a cathode formulation from Figure 1 in which the voltage of a hybrid cathode according to embodiments of the invention is plotted against the capacity for the first and second cycles. [015] Figure 3 illustrates electrochemical characterization of different hybrid cathode formulations according to embodiments of the invention in which the discharge is plotted as a function of cycle for 10 cycles.

[016] Figure 4 illustrates electrochemical characterization of a hybrid cathode formed from a metal fluoride and a reactant material according to certain embodiments. The cathode demonstrates rechargeability.

[017] Figure 5 illustrates a powder X-ray diffraction pattern of a material used to for a rechargeable metal fluoride cathode.

[018] Figure 6 illustrates second cycle discharge capacity for a variety of hybrid cathode materials used according to embodiments of the invention.

[019] Figure 7 illustrates second cycle discharge capacity for a hybrid cathode material used according to embodiments of the invention versus annealing temperature.

[020] Figure 8 illustrates second cycle the capacity retention and reversible capacity for cathode active materials formed from reacting 85 wt% CuF ₂ with 15 wt% of certain metal oxides (in this case NiO or ΤΊΟ2) at certain annealing temperatures.

[021] Figure 9 illustrates the second-cycle capacity retention and reversible capacity for cathode active materials formed from reacting 85 wt% CuF ₂ with 15 wt% of certain metal oxides (in this case NiO or ΤΊΟ2) for certain annealing times.

[022] Figure 10 illustrates the second-cycle capacity retention and reversible capacity for cathode active materials formed from reacting 85 wt%, 90 wt%, or 95 wt% CuF ₂ with 5 wt%, 10 wt%, 15 wt% of NiO.

[023] Figure 1 1 illustrates the second-cycle capacity retention and reversible capacity for cathode active materials formed from reacting 85 wt%, CuF ₂ with 15 wt% of NiO as a function of milling energy.

[024] Figure 12 illustrates the second-cycle capacity retention and reversible capacity for cathode active materials formed from reacting 85 wt%, CuF ₂ with 15 wt% of NiO as a function of milling time.

[025] Figure 13 illustrates the second cycle reversible capacity measured for various starting materials used to react with CuF ₂ .

[026] Figure 14 illustrates the second-cycle capacity retention and reversible capacity for cathode active materials formed from reacting CuF ₂ with nickel(ll) acetylacetonate using various processing conditions.

[027] Figure 15 illustrates the capacity as a function of cycle for cathode active materials formed from reacting 85 wt%, CuF ₂ with 15 wt% of NiO and for a control material.

[028] Figure 16 illustrates a galvanostatic intermittent titration technique measurement for cathode active materials formed from reacting 85 wt%, CuF ₂ with 15 wt% of NiO.

[029] Figure 17 illustrates the capacity of full cells and half cells as a function of cycle for cathode active materials formed from reacting 85 wt%, CuF ₂ with 15 wt% of NiO.

[030] Figure 18 illustrates voltage traces of the full cell and half cells prepared as described in relation to Figure 17.

[031] Figure 19 illustrates the capacity retention of full cells and half cells as a function of cycle for cathode active materials formed from reacting 85 wt%, CuF ₂ with 15 wt% of NiO.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[032] The following definitions apply to some of the aspects described with respect to some embodiments of the invention. These definitions may likewise be expanded upon herein. Each term is further explained and exemplified throughout the description, figures, and examples. Any interpretation of the terms in this description should take into account the full description, figures, and examples presented herein. [033] The singular terms "a," "an," and "the" include the plural unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to an object can include multiple objects unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

[034] The terms "substantially" and "substantial" refer to a considerable degree or extent. When used in conjunction with an event or circumstance, the terms can refer to instances in which the event or circumstance occurs precisely as well as instances in which the event or circumstance occurs to a close approximation, such as accounting for typical tolerance levels or variability of the embodiments described herein.

[035] The term "about" refers to the range of values approximately near the given value in order to account for typical tolerance levels, measurement precision, or other variability of the embodiments described herein.

[036] The terms "conductive," "conductor," "conductivity," and the like refer to the intrinsic ability of a material to facilitate electron or ion transport and the process of doing the same. The terms include materials whose ability to conduct electricity may be less than typically suitable for conventional electronics applications but still greater than an electrically-insulating material.

[037] The term "active material" and the like refers to the material in an electrode, particularly in a cathode, that donates, liberates, or otherwise supplies the conductive species during an electrochemical reaction in an electrochemical cell.

[038] The term "transition metal" refers to a chemical element in groups 3 through 12 of the periodic table, including scandium (Sc), titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), yttrium (Y), zirconium (Zr), niobium (Nb), molybdenum (Mo), technetium (Tc), ruthenium (Ru), rhodium (Rh), palladium (Pd), silver (Ag), cadmium (Cd), hafnium (Hf), tantalum (Ta), tungsten (W), rhenium (Re), osmium (Os), iridium (Ir), platinum (Pt), gold (Au), mercury (Hg), rutherfordium (Rf), dubnium (Db), seaborgium (Sg), bohrium (Bh), hassium (Hs), and meitnerium (Mt).

[039] The term "halogen" refers to any of the chemical elements in group 17 of the periodic table, including fluorine (F), chlorine (CI), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At).

[040] The term "chalcogen" refers to any of chemical elements in group 16 of the periodic table, including oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), and polonium (Po).

[041] The term "alkali metal" refers to any of the chemical elements in group 1 of the periodic table, including lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), cesium (Cs), and francium (Fr).

[042] The term "alkaline earth metals" refers to any of the chemical elements in group 2 of the periodic table, including beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and radium (Ra).

[043] The term "rare earth element" refers to scandium (Sc), yttrium (Y), lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), terbium (Tb), dysprosium (Dy), holmium (Ho), erbium (Er), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb), and lutetium (Lu).

[044] A rate "C" refers to either (depending on context) the discharge current as a fraction or multiple relative to a "1 C" current value under which a battery (in a substantially fully charged state) would substantially fully discharge in one hour, or the charge current as a fraction or multiple relative to a "1 C" current value under which the battery (in a substantially fully discharged state) would substantially fully charge in one hour.

[045] In certain embodiments, a novel active material, which may be referred to as a matrix material or a coated material or a hybrid material, is prepared for use in a cathode with metal fluoride (MeF _x ) active materials. In some embodiments, the novel active material is prepared by combining a metal fluoride and a metal complex, followed by heat treatment of the mixture under an inert atmosphere according to the Formula (I)

[046] According to certain embodiments, the heat treatment of the metal fluoride and metal complex causes a reaction to form a new phase according to the formula (II)

MeF _x + Me' _y Xz → Me _a Me' _b XcFd (II)

where x, y, z, a, b, and c depend on the identity and valence of the Me, Me', and X. In some instances, 0 < a≤ 1 , 0 < b < 1 , 0≤ c < 1 , and 0 < d < 1 . In other embodiments, the heat treatment causes the formation of covalent bonds between the metal fluoride and the metal complex, improving conductivity and passivating the surface.

[047] Suitable metal complexes, which can act as precursors for the reaction described herein, for use in synthesizing the matrix, coating, or active material include, but are not limited to, MoO ₃ , MoO ₂ , NiO, CuO, VO ₂ , V ₂ O ₅ , TiO ₂ , AI ₂ O ₃ , SiO ₂ , LiFePO ₄ , LiMejPO ₄ (where Mej is one or more transition metal(s)), metal phosphates, and combinations thereof. According to embodiments of the invention, these oxides can be used in Formula (I).

[048] It is understood that the synthetic route for achieving the matrix, coating, hybrid, or active matrix material may vary, and other such synthetic routes are within the scope of the disclosure. The material can be represented by Me _a Me' _b X _c F and in the examples herein is embodied by a Cu ₃ Mo ₂ O9 matrix. Other matrices and coatings are within the scope of this disclosure. For example, NiCuO ₂ , Ni ₂ CuO ₃ , and Cu ₃ TiO ₄ .

[049] The matrix and coating materials disclosed herein provide rechargeability to otherwise non-rechargeable metal fluoride matrix materials. Without being bound by a particular theory or mechanism of action, the rechargeability may be due to the electrochemical properties of the novel matrix, the coating of the metal fluoride to prevent copper dissolution, or a more intimate interface between the metal fluoride and the matrix material as a result of the heat treatment and reaction. Further, the novel matrix material may provide a kinetic barrier to the Cu dissolution reaction, or to similar dissolution reactions for other metal fluoride materials to the extent such dissolution reactions occur in the cycling of electrochemical cells.

[050] In the case of oxide-based matrices (such matrices include those generated according to Formula II), intimate mixing of the metal fluoride and the metal complex (or other suitable precursor material) and moderate heat treatment can be used to generate rechargeable electrode materials. Other suitable precursors include materials that decompose to form metal oxides (and in particular, transition metal oxides) as opposed to using a metal oxide to directly react with the metal fluoride. Examples of such precursors include, but are not limited to, metal acetates, metal acetylacetonates, metal hydroxides, metal ethoxides, and other similar organo-metal complexes. In either event, the final rechargeable matrix material is not necessarily a pure oxide or a purely crystalline material. The reaction of Formula II predicts that there would not be a pure oxide or a purely crystalline material. In some instances, the metal oxide precursor or metal oxide material can form a coating, or at least a partial coating, on the metal fluoride active material. Without being bound by a particular theory or mechanism of action, the reaction of the metal oxide precursor or metal oxide material with the surface of the metal fluoride (and in particular copper fluoride) active material is important for generating a rechargeable electrode active material.

EXAMPLES

[051] The following examples describe specific aspects of some embodiments of the invention to illustrate and provide a description for those of ordinary skill in the art. The examples should not be construed as limiting the invention, as the examples merely provide specific methodology useful in understanding and practicing some embodiments of the invention. Example 1 - Fabrication of Matrix and/or Coated Electrodes for Rechargeable Cells

[052] Materials and Synthetic Methods. All reactions were prepared in a high purity argon filled glove box (M-Braun, O2 and humidity contents <0.1 ppm). Unless otherwise specified, materials were obtained from commercial sources (e.g., Sigma-Aldrich, Advanced Research Chemicals Inc., Alfa Aesar, Strem) without further purification.

[053] Preparation of CuF ₂ /Matrix. Milling vessels were loaded with CuF ₂ at from about 85 wt% to about 95 wt% and reactant (metal oxide or metal oxide precursor) at from about 5 wt% to about 15 wt%, and the vessels were sealed. The mixture was milled. After milling, samples were annealed at from about 200 degrees C to about 575 degrees C for 1 to 12 hours under flowing N ₂ . Specific matrix reactants were processed as described below.

[054] Preparation of CUF2/CU3M02O9. Milling vessels were loaded with CuF ₂ (85 wt%) and M0O3 (15 wt%), sealed, and then milled. After milling, samples were annealed at 450 degrees C for 6 hours under flowing N ₂ .

[055] Preparation of CuF ₂ /NiO. Milling vessels were loaded with CuF ₂ (85 wt%) and NiO (15 wt%), sealed, and then milled. After milling, samples were annealed at 325 degrees C for 6 hours under flowing N ₂ .

[056] Preparation of CuF ₂ /Nickel(ll) acetylacetonate. A fine dispersion of CuF ₂ was prepared by milling in the presence of THF (40 - 120 mg CuF ₂ / ml_ THF). The dispersed sample was then added to a solution of Ni(AcAc)2 in THF such that Nickel(ll) acetylacetonate accounted for 15 wt% of the solids in the solution. The solution was then agitated by either shaking, sonication, or low energy milling for from about 1 to about 12 hours. The solution was then dried at room temperature under vacuum and the resulting solid was annealed at 450 degrees C for 6 hours under dry air.

[057] Electrode Formulation. Cathodes were prepared using a formulation composition of 80 : 15 : 5 (active material : binder : conductive additive) according to the following formulation method: 133 mg PVDF (Sigma Aldrich) and about 44 mg Super P Li (Timcal) was dissolved in 10 mL NMP (Sigma Aldrich) overnight. 70 mg of coated composite powder was added to 1 mL of this solution and stirred overnight. Films were cast by dropping about 70 ί of slurry onto stainless steel current collectors and drying at 150 degrees C for about 1 hour. Dried films were allowed to cool, and were then pressed at 1 ton/cm ² . Electrodes were further dried at 150 degrees C under vacuum for 12 hours before being brought into a glove box for battery assembly.

Example 2 - Electrochemical Characterization of Electrochemical Cells

Containing Rechargeable Electrodes

[058] All batteries were assembled in a high purity argon filled glove box (M- Braun, O2 and humidity contents <0.1 ppm), unless otherwise specified. Cells were made using lithium as an anode, Celgard 2400 separator, and 90 ί of 1 M LiPF ₆ in 1 :2 EC:EMC electrolyte. Electrodes and cells were electrochemically characterized at 30 degrees C with a constant current C/50 charge and discharge rate between 4.0 V and 2.0 V. A 3 hour constant voltage step was used at the end of each charge. In some instances, cathodes were lithiated pressing lithium foil to the electrode in the presence of electrolyte (1 M LiPF ₆ in 1 :2 EC:EMC) for about 15 minutes. The electrode was then rinsed with EMC and built into cells as described above, except graphite was used as the anode rather than lithium.

[059] Figure 1 illustrates the results of electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein. Specifically, the second cycle discharge capacity of three different cathode formulations containing a LiFePO ₄ matrix is plotted as a function of LiFePO ₄ content (labeled LFP) in the cathode in Figure 1 . The dotted line depicts the theoretical capacity of LiFePO ₄ . One cathode formulation is 100% LiFePO ₄ . Another cathode formulation is a combination of CuF ₂ and LiFePO ₄ in which the content of LiFePO ₄ was varied from 10% to 50% of the total weight of conductive material. The third cathode formulation is a combination of CuF ₂ and the conventional conductive oxide M0O3 and LiFePO ₄ in which the content of LiFePO ₄ was varied from 10% to 50% of the total weight of conductive material. As this is second cycle data, Figure 1 demonstrates that all of the CuF ₂ / LiFePO ₄ matrices are rechargeable. In addition, the (CUF2/M0O3)/ LiFePO ₄ hybrid cathode containing 50% LiFePO ₄ is also able to recharge. Figure 1 further demonstrates a direct relationship between the capacity and the percent content of LiFePO ₄ .

[060] Figure 2 illustrates the results of electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein. Specifically, the voltage of a hybrid cathode is plotted against the capacity for the first and second cycles. The dashed line indicates the expected theoretical capacity from the LiFePO ₄ content in cathode. The cathode formulation is the CuF ₂ (70%) / LiFePO ₄ (30%) hybrid cathode from Figure 1 . During the first cycle, very little discharge capacity is observed, indicating that the LiFePO ₄ material is not capable of accepting charge on this cycle. Without being bound to a particular theory or mechanism of action, the LiFePO ₄ material may not accept charge as a result of defects introduced during milling. This data suggests that all of the capacity observed during the first and second cycles can be attributed solely to the CuF ₂ .

[061] Figure 3 illustrates the results of electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein. Specifically, the discharge capacity for cells with a range of LiFePO ₄ content is plotted as a function of cycle for 10 cycles. The cathode formulation is CuF ₂ with LiFePO ₄ content ranging from 10% to 50% of the total weight of conductive material. Figure 4 demonstrates that the hybrid cathode is able to consistently recharge across a number of cycles. Based on data from Figure 2, it is expected that the discharge capacity is contributed solely by CuF ₂ and not LiFePO ₄ . This is a significant finding because CuF ₂ has not been previously shown to have such significant reversible capacity. The combination of conductive matrix materials with CuF ₂ renders the CuF ₂ cathode material rechargeable.

[062] Figure 4 illustrates the results of electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein. Specifically, the first and second cycle voltage traces for a cell containing a cathode formed from a metal fluoride and the new matrix material. In this case, the metal fluoride active material is CuF ₂ and the matrix material is CU3M02O9. Figure 4 demonstrates that the cell has about 140 mAh/g of reversible capacity. Previously known cathodes containing CuF ₂ have not demonstrated such significant reversible capacity.

[063] Figure 5 illustrates the results of structural characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein. Specifically, the powder X-ray diffraction pattern of the material forming the cathode tested in Figure 4 is shown along with the powder X-ray diffraction patterns of CuF ₂ and CU3M02O9. Figure 5 demonstrates that the material contains phases rich in CuF ₂ and phases rich in CU3M02O9. Thus, Figure 5 demonstrates a new matrix material in combination with a metal fluoride active material. Further, grain size analysis of this powder X-ray diffraction data shows that the CuF ₂ has a grain size greater than 130 nm. This is a significant finding since such comparatively large particles were thought to be too large to provide good electrochemical performance.

[064] For many of the rechargeable matrices described herein (and in particular for matrices including Mo, Ni, or Ti), the reactions described herein yield a new matrix material at least at the surface of the particles of the metal fluoride active material. The novel material present at least at the surface of the particles of the metal fluoride active material is believed to provided many of the benefits disclosed herein.

[065] Figure 6 illustrates the results of electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein. Specifically, the second cycle discharge capacity of CuF ₂ with various matrices and annealing temperatures. Figure 6 shows many oxide matrices that provide recharge capability, demonstrated by capacities greater than 100 mAh/g.

[066] Table 1 presents the results of further electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein. Table 1 shows that many metal oxide and metal oxide precursor starting materials can be used in the reactions described herein to yield rechargeable metal fluoride electrode materials. The materials in Table 1 include metal oxides, metal phosphates, metal fluorides, and precursors expected to decompose to oxides. In particular, nickel oxide showed excellent performance.

Electrochemical Characterization of Various Precursor Materials as a

Function of Anneal Temperature

Initial Capacity Reversible

Matrix/Coating Annealing Temp (0.02C, Cy1, Capacity (0.05C, Precursor (C) mAh/g) Cy2, mAh/g)

NiO 375 260 123

NiO 400 371 200

NiO 425 361 186

NiO 450 386 183

NiO 500 308 150

NiO 575 319 1 12

None 200 181 30

None 325 394 216

None 450 247 61

Sb2O3 200 1 1 1 34

Sb2O3 325 147 37

Sb2O3 400 223 104

Sc2O3 200 359 159

Sc2O3 325 293 159

Sc2O3 400 84 33

Sc2O3 450 150 68

Sc2O3 575 55 17

ScF3 200 400 178

ScF3 325 387 174

ScF3 400 243 100

SiO2 200 1 1

SiO2 325 1 14 28

SiO2 400 230 92

SnO2 200 210 48

SnO2 325 182 68

SnO2 400 133 65

SrO 200 152 12

SrO 325 66 16

SrO 400 134 48 Initial Capacity Reversible

Matrix/Coating Annealing Temp (0.02C, Cy1, Capacity (0.05C, Precursor (C) mAh/g) Cy2, mAh/g)

ZrO2 200 302 122

ZrO2 325 288 129

[067] Figure 7 illustrates the results of electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein. Specifically, the second cycle discharge capacity for cells containing a cathode formed from a metal fluoride and the matrix material treated at different temperatures. In this case, the metal fluoride active material is CuF ₂ and the matrix material is NiO. Figure 7 shows a peak for cycle 2 capacity at about 325 degrees C for NiO matrices, with nearly 250 mAh/g discharge capacity.

[068] Figure 8 illustrates the results of electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein, specifically, the second-cycle capacity retention and reversible capacity for cathode active materials formed from reacting 85 wt% CuF ₂ with 15 wt% of certain metal oxides (in this case NiO or T1O2) at certain annealing temperatures. The mixtures were milled at high energy for about 20 hours. The anneal temperatures ranged from about 225 degrees C to about 450 degrees C and the anneal time was 6 hours. The 325 degree C anneal temperature for the NiO starting material generated the best performance. The cells used a Li anode and an electrolyte containing 1 M LiPF ₆ in EC:EMC. The testing was performed at a rate of 0.02C and over a voltage range of 2.0 V to 4.0 V.

[069] Figure 9 illustrates the results of electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein, specifically, the second-cycle capacity retention and reversible capacity for cathode active materials formed from reacting 85 wt% CuF ₂ with 15 wt% of certain metal oxides (in this case NiO or T1O2) for certain annealing times. The mixtures were milled at high energy for about 20 hours. The anneal temperature was 325 degrees C and the anneal time was 1 hour, 6 hours, or 12 hours. The 6 hour anneal time yielded the best results for both the NiO and ΤΊΟ2 starting materials, and the NiO starting material generated better performance. The cells used a Li anode and an electrolyte containing 1 M LiPF ₆ in EC:EMC. The testing was performed at a rate of 0.02C and over a voltage range of 2.0 V to 4.0 V.

[070] Figure 10 illustrates the results of electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein, specifically, the second-cycle capacity retention and reversible capacity for cathode active materials formed from reacting 85 wt%, 90 wt%, or 95 wt% CuF ₂ with 5 wt%, 10 wt%, 15 wt% of NiO. The mixtures were milled at high energy for about 20 hours. The anneal temperature was 325 degrees C and the anneal time was 6 hours. Using 10 wt% or 15 wt% of the NiO starting material generated better performance. The cells used a Li anode and an electrolyte containing 1 M LiPF ₆ in EC:EMC. The testing was performed at a rate of 0.02C and over a voltage range of 2.0 V to 4.0 V.

[071] Figure 1 1 illustrates the results of electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein, specifically, the second-cycle capacity retention and reversible capacity for cathode active materials formed from reacting 85 wt%, CuF ₂ with 15 wt% of NiO. The mixtures were milled at various energies comparable to milling on a Fritch Pulverisette 7 Planatery Mill at 305, 445, 595, and 705 RPM for about 20 hours. The anneal temperature was 325 degrees C and the anneal time was 6 hours. Performance improves with increasing milling energy, suggesting that intimate physical interaction of the materials is required. The cells used a Li anode and an electrolyte containing 1 M LiPF ₆ in EC:EMC. The testing was performed at a rate of 0.05C and over a voltage range of 2.0 V to 4.0 V.

[072] Figure 12 illustrates the results of electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein, specifically, the second-cycle capacity retention and reversible capacity for cathode active materials formed from reacting 85 wt%, CuF ₂ with 15 wt% of NiO. The mixtures were milled for various times (3 hours, 20 hours, or 40 hours) at a high energy (comparable to 705 RPM on Fhtch Pulverisette 7). The anneal temperature was 325 degrees C and the anneal time was 6 hours. Performance does not improve after 20 hours of milling. The cells used a Li anode and an electrolyte containing 1 M LiPF ₆ in EC:EMC. The testing was performed at a rate of 0.05C and over a voltage range of 2.0 V to 4.0 V.

[073] Figure 13 illustrates the results of electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein. Specifically, Figure 13 shows the second cycle reversible capacity measured for various starting materials used to react with CuF ₂ . The starting materials include NiO, nickel(ll) acetylacetonate, nickel acetate, nickel hydroxide, NiCO ₃ ^* Ni(OH) ₂ , Ni(C ₂ O ₂ ), Ni(CP) ₂ , and Ni. In some instances, the starting materials react to form a new phase. The materials react with the surface of the CuF ₂ particles. Additionally, the anneal atmosphere was either N ₂ or dry air. The precursor-type starting materials decompose to NiO (although this depends on the atmosphere for some precursors) at or below the annealing temperatures used for the reaction. The precursors that are soluble or have low boiling points can enable solution or vapor deposition processing methods. The cells used a Li anode and an electrolyte containing 1 M LiPF ₆ in EC:EMC. The testing was performed at a rate of 0.05C and over a voltage range of 2.0 V to 4.0 V. Several materials show similar performance to the NiO baseline.

[074] Figure 14 illustrates the results of electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein, specifically, the second-cycle capacity retention and reversible capacity for cathode active materials formed from reacting CuF ₂ with nickel(ll) acetylacetonate using various processing conditions. In some cases, the CuF2 was dispered using methods described herein. The coatings were applied using mill coating techniques (that is, agitating the mixture in a milling apparatus) or by solution coating techniques (including solution coating driven by physisorption). All samples were annealed under dry air. The cells used a Li anode and an electrolyte containing 1 M LiPF ₆ in EC:EMC. The testing was performed at a rate of 0.05C and over a voltage range of 2.0 V to 4.0 V. Testing demonstrates that solution coating methods can provide similar performance to the mill coating techniques.

[075] Figure 15 illustrates the results of electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein, specifically, the capacity as a function of cycle for cathode active materials formed from reacting 85 wt%, CuF ₂ with 15 wt% of NiO and for a control material. The NiO/CuF ₂ mixture was milled at high energy for about 20 hours. The anneal temperature was 325 degrees C and the anneal time was 6 hours. The cells used a Li anode and an electrolyte containing 1 M LiPF ₆ in EC:EMC. The testing was performed at a cycle 1 rate of 0.02C, a cycle 2 rate of 0.05C, and a cycle 3 through cycle 25 rate of 0.5C and over a voltage range of 2.0 V to 4.0 V. With the reacted NiO/CuF ₂ as the active material, the cell cycles reversibly for extended cycling with capacity greater than 100 mAh/g for 25 cycles. Further, the reacted NiO/CuF ₂ active material demonstrates retention of 80% of cycle 3 capacity as far out as cycle 15. The control material, which was prepared according to the process described in Badway, F. et al., Chem. Mater., 2007, 19, 4129, does not demonstrate any rechargeable capacity. Thus, the material prepared according to embodiments described herein is significantly superior to known materials processed according to known methods.

[076] Figure 16 illustrates the results of electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein, specifically, a galvanostatic intermittent titration technique (GITT) measurement for cathode active materials formed from reacting 85 wt%, CuF ₂ with 15 wt% of NiO and for a control material. The NiO/CuF ₂ mixture was milled at high energy for about 20 hours. The anneal temperature was 325 degrees C and the anneal time was 6 hours. The cells used a Li anode and an electrolyte containing 1 M LiPF ₆ in EC:EMC. The testing was performed over a voltage range of 2.0 V to 4.0 V at a rate of 0.1 C and with a 10 hour relaxation time. The GITT measurement relaxation points show low voltage hysteresis (about 100 mV), which indicate that the overpotential and/or underpotential are likely caused by kinetic and not thermodynamic limitations. This is consistent with other properties and characteristics observed for the reacted NiO/CuF ₂ active material.

[077] Figure 17 illustrates the results of electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein, specifically, the capacity of full cells and half cells as a function of cycle for cathode active materials formed from reacting 85 wt%, CuF ₂ with 15 wt% of NiO. The NiO/CuF ₂ mixture was milled at high energy for about 20 hours. The anneal temperature was 325 degrees C and the anneal time was 6 hours. The label "Cu+2LiF" indicated that the NiO/CuF ₂ electrode was lithiated by pressing Li foil to CuF2 electrode in the presence of electrolyte as described above. The other half cell was lithiated electrochemically in the initial cycles. The cells used a Li anode and an electrolyte containing 1 M LiPF ₆ in EC:EMC. The testing was performed over a voltage range of 2.0 V to 4.0 V. Half cell performance is essentially identical between the two lithiation methods after cycle 2, while full cell shows additional irreversible capacity loss as compared to the half cells but similar capacity retention.

[078] Figure 18 illustrates the results of electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein, specifically, the voltage traces of the full cell and half cells prepared as described in relation to Figure 17. The full cell has similar charge capacity to the half cells, but larger irreversible capacity loss and lower discharge voltage (which can indicate increased cell impedance). Figure 18 demonstrates that the full cell has about 250 mAh/g of reversible capacity and about 500 mV hysteresis between charge and discharge plateau voltages.

[079] Figure 19 illustrates the results of electrochemical characterization of certain embodiments disclosed herein, specifically, the capacity retention of full cells and half cells as a function of cycle for cathode active materials formed from reacting 85 wt%, CuF ₂ with 15 wt% of NiO. The results from a control material are also depicted. The full cell and half cells were prepared as described in relation to Figure 17. The cells used a Li anode and an electrolyte containing 1 M LiPF ₆ in EC:EMC. The testing was performed at a cycle 1 rate of 0.1 C and over a voltage range of 2.0 V to 4.0 V. The capacity retention is essentially identical for the full and half cells of the NiO/CuF ₂ active material. The control material shows essentially no rechargeable capacity.

[080] While the invention has been described with reference to the specific embodiments thereof, it should be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes may be made and equivalents may be substituted without departing from the true spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. In addition, many modifications may be made to adapt a particular situation, material, composition of matter, method, or process to the objective, spirit and scope of the invention. All such modifications are intended to be within the scope of the claims appended hereto. In particular, while the methods disclosed herein have been described with reference to particular operations performed in a particular order, it will be understood that these operations may be combined, sub-divided, or re-ordered to form an equivalent method without departing from the teachings of the invention. Accordingly, unless specifically indicated herein, the order and grouping of the operations are not limitations of the invention.