ENHANCED STABILITY

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

[0001] This application claims benefit to U.S. Provisional Application 62/309,647 filed March 17, 2016, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

Field

[0002] Embodiments of the present disclosure generally relate to layered mixed-metal oxides, and specifically relate to mixed-metal oxide catalysts with high temperature stability.

Technical Background

[0003] The synthesis of supported metal or metal-oxide catalysts is of great industrial importance in heterogeneous catalysis. High activity, high selectivity, and long catalyst life are desirable characteristics of any industrial catalyst. Among the metal/metal oxide supported catalysts, the Cu/ZnO/Al ₂ 0 ₃ system and metal/metal oxide (Pt, Pd, Rh and Au) systems supported on various supports (alumina, silica, and carbon) have great industrial importance. Generally these catalytic systems are prepared by methods such as sol-gel, deposition-precipitation, deposition-reduction, and impregnation methods. These synthetic methods are challenged with problems such as uneven distribution, deposition of active metal species onto the support leading to the agglomeration of particles and sintering of active species at higher temperature, as well as during recycling.

[0004] Mixed-metal oxide materials can be obtained by thermally decomposing layered double hydroxides (LDH) materials. LDHs are also known as anionic clays and are inverse charge analogues of the widely used alumino silicate cationic clays in structure and properties. LDHs undergo thermal decomposition in three main steps: (a) from room temperature to 100 °C, adsorbed/physisorbed water is removed; (b) from 100 °C to 220 °C, intercalated water is removed; and (c) from 220 °C to 400 °C, intercalated anions are removed and mineral layers are dehydroxylated, leading to the formation of an amorphous mixed-metal oxide residue. Mixed-metal oxide materials formed from heating an LDH to the temperature range of 220 to 400 °C are typically both amorphous and composed of a single-metal oxide phase (M ⁿ O) and a spinel phase (Μ ^Π Μ ₂ ^ΙΠ 0 ₄ ). The anion that was present in the parent LDH material is generally no longer present in the mixed-metal oxide material or is present to such a small extent that it does not noticeably affect the properties of the mixed-metal oxide material. Unfortunately, further heating of an LDH to greater than 800 °C may result in the formation of a thermodynamically stable and irreversible spinel phase accompanied by phase segregation and sintering.

Summary

[0005] Accordingly, there is a continual need for mixed-metal oxide materials with better thermal stability, improved ability for catalyst regeneration, and improved resistance to sintering at higher temperatures, where particles irreversibly fuse together. Specifically, there is a need for mixed-metal oxide materials, which resist the irreversible formation of spinel phases when the mixed-metal oxide particles are subjected to higher temperatures.

[0006] Embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to metal oxides that are sinter free and reusable at high temperatures. Specifically, embodiments are directed to sintered free mixed-metal oxides from LDHs, which are recyclable by using adamantane as the guest anion. The anion confers a secondary advantage in preparing crystals with a larger aspect ratio than normally encountered in LDH crystal chemistry.

[0007] According to one embodiment, a method for preparing mixed-metal oxide particles is provided. The method comprises heating adamantane-intercalated layered double-hydroxide (LDH) particles up to a reaction temperature of from 400 °C to 800 °C to form mixed-metal oxide particles, where the adamantane-intercalated LDH particles have a general formula [Mi_ _x Al _x (OH) ₂ ](A) _x -mH ₂ 0, where x is from 0.14 to 0.33, m is from 0.33 to 0.50, M is chosen from Mg, Ca, Co, Ni, Cu, or Zn, and A is adamantane carboxylate. The adamantane-intercalated LDH particles have an aspect ratio greater than 100, where the aspect ratio is defined as the width of an adamantane-intercalated LDH particle divided by the thickness of the adamantane-intercalated LDH particle. The mixed- metal oxide particles comprise a mixed-metal oxide phase containing M, Al or Fe and carbon.

[0008] Another embodiment is directed to mixed-metal oxide particles. The mixed- metal oxide particles comprise at least one mixed-metal oxide phase containing M, Al or Fe, and carbon, where M is chosen from Mg, Ca, Co, Ni, Cu, or Zn. The oxide phase has a formula MO, and the mixed-metal oxide phase may be sandwiched between chains of the oxide phase. The mixed-metal oxide particles comprise less than 5 wt%, by total weight of the mixed-metal oxide particles, spinel-phase having a formula MA1 ₂ 0 ₄ or MFe ₂ 0 ₄ . In further embodiments, the mixed-metal oxide particles do not include any spinel-phase having a formula MA1 ₂ 0 ₄ or MFe ₂ 0 ₄ .

[0009] According to another embodiment, a method of removing constituents from a process stream is provided. The method comprises contacting the process stream with a catalyst, where the catalyst comprises the mixed-metal oxide particles described previously.

[0010] Additional features and advantages of the embodiments described will be set forth in the detailed description which follows, and in part will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art from that description or recognized by practicing the described embodiments, including the detailed description which follows, the claims, as well as the appended drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0011] FIG. 1 is a Powder X-Ray Diffraction (PXRD) graph of a Mg/Al-adamantoate LDH in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0012] FIG. 2 is an Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy graph of a Mg/Al-adamantoate LDH in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0013] FIG. 3 is a graph of the 1H solid-state Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectra of a Mg/Al-adamantoate LDH in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure; [0014] FIG. 4 is a graph of the ¹³ C solid-state NMR spectra of a Mg/Al-adamantoate LDH in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0015] FIGS. 5A and 5B are Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images of different magnifications of an Mg/Al-adamantoate LDH produced in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0016] FIG. 6 is a PXRD graph of mixed-metal oxide residues after thermal decomposition at 400 °C (curve a) and after thermal decomposition at 800 °C (curve b) in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0017] FIG. 7 is an IR spectroscopy graph of mixed-metal oxide residues after thermal decomposition at 400 °C (curve a) and after thermal decomposition at 800 °C (curve b) in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0018] FIG. 8 is a PXRD graph of mixed-metal oxide residues of a Mg/Al-adamantoate LDH after reconstruction from an oxide residue heated to 800 °C in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0019] FIGS. 9A and 9B are graphs of the ¹³ C solid-state NMR spectra of mixed-metal oxide residues after thermal decomposition at 400 °C (FIG. 9A) and after thermal decomposition at 800 °C (FIG. 9B) in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0020] FIGS. 10A-10D are SEM images of different magnifications of mixed-metal oxide residues after thermal decomposition at 400 °C in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0021] FIGS. 11A-12D are SEM images of different magnifications of mixed-metal oxide residues after thermal decomposition at 800 °C in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0022] FIG. 13 is another SEM image of mixed-metal oxide residues after thermal decomposition at 400 °C in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure; [0023] FIG. 14A is a Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) bright field image of mixed-metal oxide residues after thermal decomposition at 400 °C in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0024] FIGS. 14B and 14C are High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HRTEM) images of the mixed-metal oxide residues of FIG. 14A in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0025] FIG. 14D is a TEM image of a Selected Area Diffraction Pattern (SADP) of the mixed-metal oxide residues of FIG. 14A in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0026] FIGS. 15A-15C are TEM bright field images of mixed-metal oxide residues after thermal decomposition at 800 °C in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0027] FIG. 15D is a HRTEM images of the mixed-metal oxide residues of FIG. 15C in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0028] FIG. 16A is an Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy image of the MgO chains of the mixed-metal oxide residues at a temperature of 800 °C in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0029] FIG. 16B is an EDX image of the layers of the mixed-metal oxide residues at a temperature of 800 °C in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0030] FIGS. 17 A and 17B are TEM bright field images of MgO chains after thermal decomposition at 800 °C in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0031] FIG. 17C is an HRTEM image of the MgO chain of FIG. 17B in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure; [0032] FIG. 17D is a TEM image of an SADP of the MgO chain of FIG. 17C in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0033] FIGS. 18A-18D are SEM images of different magnifications of mixed-metal oxide residues from Mg/Al-N0 ₃ after thermal decomposition at 400 °C;

[0034] FIG. 19 is a PXRD graph of reconstructed oxide residues of a Mg/Al- adamantoate LDH after reconstruction from an oxide residue heated to 1100 °C in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0035] FIG. 20 is a X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) graph of reconstructed oxide residues of a Mg/Al-adamantoate LDH after reconstruction from an oxide residue heated to 400 °C in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure;

[0036] FIG. 21 is a X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) graph of reconstructed oxide residues of a Mg/Al-adamantoate LDH after reconstruction from an oxide residue heated to 800 °C in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure; and

[0037] FIG. 22 is a X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) graph of reconstructed oxide residues of a Mg/Al-adamantoate LDH after reconstruction from an oxide residue heated to 1100 °C in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0038] The dispersion of active reduced metal or metal-oxide particles on a stable support is a complex and laborious process. To achieve this, one needs to consider various parameters such as the synthesis conditions, nature of the support and appropriate ways of dispersing/distributing active catalyst on the support. Ongoing goals for design and synthesis of catalytic systems in general include providing catalysts that are free from limitations such as uneven distribution, agglomeration of particles, sintering of active species at higher temperature, and ability to recycle precious metals. [0039] Reference will now be made in detail to embodiments of mixed-metal oxide particles and specifically mixed-metal oxide particles produced from adamantane- intercalated layered double-hydroxide (LDH) particles.

[0040] The mixed-metal oxide particles may comprise at least one mixed-metal oxide phase containing M, Al or Fe, and carbon, where M is chosen from Mg, Ca, Co, Ni, Cu, or Zn. In a specific embodiment, the M is Mg. The mixed-metal oxide particles may also comprise an oxide phase having a formula MO. The mixed-metal oxide phase may be sandwiched between chains of the oxide phase. Additionally, the mixed-metal oxide particles comprise less than 5 weight percent (wt%), by total weight of the mixed-metal oxide particles, of spinel-phases having a formula MA1 ₂ 0 ₄ or MFe ₂ 0 ₄ . In various embodiments, the mixed-metal oxide particles comprise less than 3 wt.%, less than 2 wt.%, or less than 1 wt.%, by total weight of the mixed-metal oxide particles, of spinel- phases having a formula MA1 ₂ 0 ₄ or MFe ₂ 0 ₄ . The mixed-metal oxide particles may also comprise no spinel-phase having a formula MA1 ₂ 0 ₄ or MFe ₂ 0 ₄ . As shown in FIG. 6, the mixed-metal oxide particles may define a Powder X-Ray Diffraction (PXRD) profile having a signature peak at 13.0 +/- 0.5 at 800 °C. Without being bound by theory, the mixed-metal oxide particles retain a layered metal oxide structure up to 800 °C, and do not aggregate, even at up to 800 °C in the oxidizing atmosphere.

[0041] The method of producing the mixed-metal oxides comprises heating adamantane-intercalated layered double-hydroxide (LDH) particles from room temperature of approximately 25°C, such as 20 °C to 30 °C, to a reaction temperature of 400 °C to 800 °C to form mixed-metal oxide particles. In a further embodiment, the reaction temperature may be from 500 °C to 700 °C. Without wishing to be bound by theory, the heating rate of the adamantane-intercalated LDH particles is believed to be a factor in determining the nanocrystalline nature of the resultant oxide particles. For example, in one or more embodiments, the heating may occur at a heating rate of about 5 °C/min, such as 4 to 6 °C/min. It is contemplated that the heating step may be conducted at the reaction temperature for at least 4 hours.

[0042] Amorphous mixed-metal oxides are typically basic in nature and the basicity of the mixed-metal oxides can be tuned by varying the layer composition and nature of the anion in the LDH precursor. Additionally, many mixed-metal oxide materials have the ability to be regenerated back to the parent LDH material. For example, by treating many mixed-metal oxide materials with an aqueous solution of an anion such as the anion that was present in the parent LDH material, the mixed-metal oxide phase may transform back to the parent LDH in a process known as "reconstruction" or the "memory effect". Certain mixed-metal oxide materials characterized by a strong memory effect may be particularly desirable for catalyst applications, because such mixed-metal oxide materials are amenable to catalyst recycling processes. However, the memory effect of mixed-metal oxide materials may be limited by the formation of irreversible spinel phases at high temperatures, for example, 800 °C or greater. When irreversible spinel phases form, solution treatments of the mixed-metal oxide material become incapable of reconstructing the LDH material, because the atoms in the stable spinel phase no longer rearrange back to the layered structure of the LDH.

[0043] The adamantane-intercalated LDH particles may have a general formula [Mi_ _x Al _x (OH) ₂ ](A) _x -mH ₂ 0, where x is from 0.14 to 0.33, m is from 0.33 to 0.50, M is chosen from Mg, Ca, Co, Ni, Cu, or Zn, and A is adamantane carboxylate. The adamantane-intercalated LDH particles have an aspect ratio greater than 100. As defined, the aspect ratio is the width of the LDH particle divided by the thickness of the LDH particle. As defined, an aspect ratio less than 10 is considered low, an aspect ratio less than 100 is considered medium, and an aspect ratio of 100 or greater is considered a high aspect ratio. The LDH particles may be calculated from the SEM images. For example, referring to the embodiment of FIG. 2B, it is clear that the layered particles have a large surface area, but lack thickness, which results in a high aspect ratio. Similarly, atomic force microscopy (AFM) may be utilized to measure the layered particles and calculate the aspect ratio.

[0044] Methods for preparing adamantane-intercalated LDH particles may include the step of adding to an aqueous solution a first precursor and a second precursor to form an initial solution. In one embodiment, the aqueous solution may consist essentially of water. The first precursor may comprise Al(OH) ₃ or A1 ₂ 0 ₃ . The second precursor may include a metal containing compound, for example, a hydroxide M(OH) ₂ or an oxide MO, where M is a metal of oxidation state of +2. While various other metals are also contemplated, the M may be chosen from Mg, Ca, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, or combinations thereof. In one or more embodiments, the second precursor may include Mg(OH) ₂ , Ca(OH) ₂ , Co(OH) ₂ , Ni(OH) ₂ , Cu(OH) ₂ , Zn(OH) ₂ , or combinations thereof. In further embodiments, the second precursor is Mg(OH) ₂ or MgO. In one example, the second precursor is Mg(OH) ₂ and the first precursor is Al(OH) ₃ .

[0045] Moreover, in further embodiments, the initial solution may have an M/Al molar ratio of 1 to 5, or 1 to 3. Furthermore, the initial solution may have a solid loading of less than 10 weight % solids, based on a total weight of the initial solution, or a solids loading or less than 5 weight % solids.

[0046] Subsequently, the method includes adding to the initial solution an amount of adamantane to form a reaction mixture having an Al/adamantane molar ratio of 0.5 to 2. In one or more additional embodiments, the Al/adamantane molar ratio may be from 0.8 to 1.2, or may be 1 to 1. Various adamantane sources are contemplated. In one embodiment, the adamantane may be added in the form of a carboxylic acid. Optionally, the reaction may be stirred.

[0047] Generally, LDHs for conversion to mixed-metal oxides are prepared with inorganic guest anions, which may be easily removed under thermal treatment. When using an organic anion, such as carboxylic acid functionalized adamantane, improved properties for LDHs may be achieved. Adamantane has a structure characterized by high symmetry (T _d ), is free from intra-molecular strain and, as a result, it is extremely thermodynamically stable. At the same time, adamantane can be chemically functionalized. Adamantane has a melting point of 270 °C and it slowly sublimes even at room temperature. Adamantane is poorly soluble in water, but readily soluble in hydrocarbons.

[0048] Without being bound by theory, the use of thermally stable adamantane is a structure directing agent which allows for preferential growth of the LDH in the a and b crystallographic directions over the c cry stallo graphic axes. This results in the high aspect ratio particles observed. Moreover, the use of hydrothermal synthesis and metal hydroxide precursors carefully controls the growth conditions in terms of pH and kinetics.

[0049] The adamantane carboxylate ions, which are intercalated between the metal hydroxide layers, may act as thermally stable templates for growing nano-MgO chains and also act as a barrier against the formation of a spinel phase. The resulting MgO chains have grain boundaries, which may show greater catalytic activity and higher thermal stability than conventional MgO or LDHs. Moreover, the thermal stability of the adamantane acid means that it does not decompose simultaneously to the layers, resulting in the interlayer and charge-balancing being retained. This appears to hinder the conversion process of the mixed-metal oxide to spinel phases, and as a result demonstrates a layered structure at higher temperatures.

[0050] As stated previously, the mixed-metal oxide particles are effective when utilized in a catalyst. Specifically, this catalyst comprising mixed-metal oxide particles may be used to remove carbon dioxide from a gas stream. Further, this catalyst comprising mixed- metal oxide particles may be used as a sorbent to remove toxic ions from a process stream. For example, removal of phosphates, arsenates, chromates, bromides, iodides, and sulfides from a gas stream or a water stream. Additionally, an adamantane-intercalated layered LDH precursor may be regenerated from the mixed-metal oxides. In one example, mixed- metal oxides obtained after decomposition at 800 °C were subjected to reconstruction by using sodium carbonate solution in an amount sufficient to provide a 3 times molar excess of C0 ₃ ^2" .

[0051] Additionally, LDHs are environmentally benign and economically viable layered materials. Due to their readily varied composition, well-dispersed substitutions, and layered nature, these materials have previously found use in various applications. Thermal decomposition of LDHs will result in mixed-metal oxides, which are basic in nature. These oxides have use as heterogeneous catalysts in various catalyzed reactions, including the water gas shift reaction and photocatalytic applications. In addition, these oxides are suitable for capturing C0 ₂ from coal fired power plants, which emit large amounts of C0 ₂ into the environment. In one or more applications, mixed-metal oxide materials obtained from LDHs have been found to be suitable sorbents for capturing acidic C0 ₂ gas, and are capable of adsorbing toxic ions from industrial effluents and drinking water.

EXAMPLES

[0052] The described embodiments will be further clarified by the following examples. [0053] Example 1: Preparation of Adamantane-Intercalated Layered Double Hydroxides

[0054] To prepare an adamantane-intercalated layered double hydroxide material according to an embodiment described previously, a 5% wt/wt solution of Mg(OH) ₂ was prepared by dissolving 5 grams (g) of Mg(OH) ₂ in 95 g of de-ionized water. To the resultant solution, 3.36 g of Al(OH) ₃ was added in an amount sufficient to provide an Mg/Al molar ratio of 2. Then, 9.31 g of adamantane carboxylic acid was added to the solution in an amount sufficient to provide an Al/adamantane molar ratio of 1: 1 in the resultant reaction mixture. The pH of the reaction mixture was measured and was found to be 9.5.

[0055] The reaction mixture was then stirred vigorously for 1 hour at room temperature. The stirred reaction mixture was transferred to a Teflon-lined autoclave and was heated at 150 °C for 24 hours (h). A layered double hydroxide material was filtered from the mixture. The pH of the filtrate was measured and was found to be 8.6. In another set of experiments, the previously discussed procedure was repeated by using an Mg/Al molar ratio of 5. After the reaction was over, the products were washed thoroughly with water and dried at 65 °C.

[0056] The PXRD pattern of the as- synthesized LDH is given in FIG. 1, and shows that the basal reflection (001) at 20.84 A corresponds to a bilayer arrangement of adamantane ions in the interlayer. The submultiples of (001) are seen at higher 2Θ values. Referring to FIG. 2, intercalation of adamantoic acid was further characterized with IR spectra. The vibrations at 1517 cm ^-1 and 1395 cm ^-1 correspond to anti-symmetric and symmetric stretching vibrations of the COO- group. The vibrations at 2901 cm ^-1 and 2847 cm ^-1 are for the C-H vibrations. The 4302 cm ^-1 vibration is due to hydrogen bonding of layer metal hydroxide groups with intercalated water molecules in the interlayer.

[0057] The 1H and ¹³ C solid-state NMR spectra of Mg/Al-adamantoate LDH were recorded and are given in FIGS. 3 and 4, respectively. The 4 sharp peaks in the 1H spectra of FIG. 3 at lower ppm values are due to the hydrogens present in the adamantane ring. The peak at 3.8 ppm and 4.8 ppm are due to hydrogens of the intercalated water and metal hydroxide respectively. Referring to FIG. 4, the 13 C NMR spectra of Mg/Al-adamantoate shows 4 peaks at 29.5 ppm, 37.3 ppm, 40.6 ppm and 42.8 ppm are due to 4 different carbons present in the adamantane molecule. The peak at 186.98 ppm is due to the carbon of the carboxylate group. Referring to FIGS 5A and 5B, SEM images of the as- synthesized LDH show platelet morphology typical of layered materials.

[0058] Example 2: Preparation of Mixed-Metal Oxide Material

[0059] Mixed-metal oxides were obtained by heating the Example 1 samples from room temperature up to a maximum of 800 °C in an air atmosphere for 4 h with a 5 °C/min heating rate. In another set of experiments, mixed-metal oxides were obtained from heating the Example 1 samples from room temperature to 400 °C in air atmosphere for 4 h with a heating rate of 5 °C/min. Mixed-metal oxides obtained after decomposition at 800 °C were subjected to reconstruction by using sodium carbonate solution in an amount sufficient to provide a 3 times molar excess of C0 ₃ .

[0060] The prepared Mg/Al-adamantoate LDH was thermally decomposed at 400 °C and 800 °C for 4 h under an air atmosphere. Upon thermal decomposition, LDHs yield mixed-metal oxides, which are basic in nature. In the case of Mg/Al-adamantoate LDH, MgO and MgAl ₂ 0 ₄ oxides are expected.

[0061] PXRD patterns of both the decomposed oxides show reflections due to MgO at 43° 2Θ and 61° 2Θ (FIG. 6). The broad reflection around 13° 2Θ is surprising and unexpected for oxides based on LDHs as the layered structure is always lost upon thermal treatment at greater than 400 °C. As demonstrated further by IR analysis, the reflection is due to the formation of a layered oxide type of layered material.

[0062] Here, the IR spectra of the decomposed samples were recorded and are shown in FIG. 7. The IR spectra of the 800 °C sample shown in curve (b) did not show any peaks that could be correlated with the LDH starting material, thus indicating that the LDH phase is not present. The IR spectra of 400 °C shows a peak at 1405 cm ^-1 , but it is not due to the LDH phase, as shown earlier. This peak is possibly due to the CH bending vibrations of the adamantoate ion. [0063] Surprisingly, the PXRD pattern of the decomposed oxide residue (at 800 °C) does not show reflections due to an MgAl ₂ 0 ₄ or MgFe ₂ 0 ₄ spinel phase. As shown in FIG. 8, this oxide residue upon treatment with aqueous solution of sodium carbonate gives the depicted carbonate intercalated LDH (See FIG. 8). PXRD is utilized to characterize the solids and any crystalline material present in the sample will show characteristic reflections in the PXRD pattern. Absence of the reflections due to MgAl ₂ 0 ₄ or MgFe ₂ 0 ₄ spinel in the PXRD pattern is taken as its absence in the sample. Moreover, spinel is a more thermodynamically stable phase than the hydroxide or LDH and hence will not revert back to the LDH phase. This further confirms the absence of the MgAl ₂ 0 ₄ or MgFe ₂ 0 ₄ spinel phase in the oxide residue, as the extremely stable post- segregation spinel would not reconstruct into the LDH.

[0064] In summary, the PXRD evidences that for the Mg/Al-adamantoate LDH precursor, a layered material still exists at 800 °C, a temperature at which every LDH material previously reported, to our knowledge, has not only lost its layer structure but has also started to sinter and segregate into spinel phases. From IR spectroscopy, it is clear that the layered phase is not due to any residual LDH material, but due to another phase.

[0065] To check the possibility of the presence of an adamantane moiety, which has possibly played a crucial role in forming layered phase combining mixed-metal oxide and

13 13

MgO, the resultant product was further characterized with C solid-state NMR. The C NMR spectra of both the 400 °C and 800 °C oxide residue are shown in FIGS. 9 A and 9B, respectively. Referring to FIG. 9A, the oxide residue obtained at 400 °C shows two peaks at 25 ppm and 64 ppm, indicating the presence of two different kinds of carbon environment. The peaks at 110 ppm and 190 ppm are due to the Teflon capsule used for the measurement. Referring to FIG. 9B, the peaks at 25 ppm and 64 ppm were enhanced in intensity in the oxide residue obtained at 800 °C. A peak at 25 ppm is characteristic of an sp hybridized carbon and the peak at 64 ppm is characteristic of an sp hybridized carbon. Thus, these results clearly indicate the presence of two different kinds of carbon.

[0066] To see the possible growth of mixed-metal oxides along with MgO, SEM analysis of the oxide phases formed was undertaken. FIGS. 10A- 10D show the SEM images of the oxide residue obtained at 400 °C. The oxide residue is layered in structure as shown in FIGS. 10A and 10B. The growth of oxide chains along with the layers is depicted in FIG. IOC and the SEM of FIG. 10D demonstrates that adamantane is acting as a template or growth directing agent for the oxide residue. SEM images of the oxide residue obtained at 800 °C are provided in FIGS. 11A-12D.

[0067] Referring to FIG. 13, the formation mechanism of high temperature layered oxides in the present case can be explained on the basis of SEM images of the mixed- metal oxide residue obtained from Mg/Al-adamantoate LDH decomposed at 400 °C for 4 h. The SEM depicts the MgO chains on the edges and as well as on the basal surface of the oxide residue. The adamantane moiety present in the interlayer of LDH is acting as a growth template for MgO chains, which in turn prevents the agglomeration of layers, thus leading to the suppression of spinel phase formation.

[0068] The oxide residue was further characterized by TEM, and HRTEM to analyze the layer-by-layer assembly of the mixed-metal oxides and MgO chains. FIGS 14A and 14B show TEM images of the oxide residue obtained at 400 °C. The HRTEM image of FIG. 14C and its selected area electron diffraction pattern of FIG. 14D further demonstrate the layering structure depicted in FIGS. 14C and 14D. Referring to the TEM images of FIGS. 15A-15C and the HRTEM image of FIG. 15D, the oxide residue at 800 °C maintains a similar layer structure to the layer structures depicted in FIGS. 14A-14D.

[0069] In the present embodiments, carbon is present in sheet-like structures, even at 800 °C, due to the polymerization of adamantane ions. To prove this point qualitatively, the EDX spectra of mixed-metal oxides is provided in FIG. 16B. FIG. 16A is an EDX spectra which isolates one of the chains from the 800 °C mixed-metal oxide samples. EDX spectra of the chain-like structures reveals the presence of Mg and O indicating it was made up from MgO, rather than carbon as anticipated. However, EDX spectra of the layered material surprisingly showed the presence of C, O, Mg, and Al indicating the presence of carbon in the oxide residue, even at 800 °C.

[0070] TEM, and HRTEM analysis and selected area diffraction patterns of the MgO chains is provided in FIGS. 17A-17D. The MgO oxide chains have grown by connecting one mixed-metal oxide particle with another, as shown in FIG. 17C. This kind of growth has resulted in the generation of grain boundaries between two oxide particles, which are expected to show high catalytic activity. [0071] In order to probe the stability of the material at a raised temperature, surface characterization (using BET) of the oxide phase obtained from Mg/Al-adamantane LDH (400 °C) was undertaken; this showed a surface area of 200 m /g with a type IV isotherm indicating that the formed oxide was mesoporous in nature.

[0072] Comparative Example: Mixed-Metal Oxides from Mg/Al-NC>3 Layered Double Hydroxide Formed by Ammonia Precipitation

[0073] An Mg/Al-NC>3 (Mg/Al = 2) layered double-hydroxide was synthesized by a conventional ammonia precipitation method starting from metal nitrates and thermally decomposed at 400 °C for 4 h. SEM images of the decomposed Mg/Al-NC>3 LDH are provided in FIGS. 18A-18D. These illustrate how, generally, upon decomposition, LDHs lose their layered structure to give amorphous oxides. As shown in the SEM micrographs, the layered structure has been lost and that the particles are starting to fuse together.

[0074] Comparative Example: Reconstruction of Mixed-Metal Oxides from Mg/Al-N0 ₃ Layered Double Hydroxide Formed by Ammonia Precipitation and Adamantane- Intercalated Layered Double Hydroxides

[0075] Repeated reconstruction experiments using oxides generated from the LDH of the present disclosure were compared with the oxides obtained from the conventional LDHs. The LDH used for the reconstruction studies was Mg/Al-C0 ₃ (Mg/Al = 2) and was prepared using a coprecipitation technique at pH 10. The mixed metal oxides were obtained by heating the oxides at 400, 800, and 1100 °C and then reconstructed back to LDHs using Na ₂ C0 ₃ solution. The PXRD patterns of the oxide formed from the coprecipitated LDH at 1100 °C shows the material was converted to a spinel phase, with very little reconstruction back to the parent LDH upon rehydration. During the mixed metal oxide formation the Al ³⁺ changes its coordination geometry from octahedral (O _h ) to tetrahedral (T _d ) coordination and reverts back to octahedral coordination upon reconstruction. The measurement of Al ³⁺ in these geometries at different steps (mixed metal oxide phase and reconstructed phase) provides a direct measure of the recyclability or phase segregation of these oxides. Using solid state NMR techniques, the amount of Al ³⁺ present in the O _h and T _d during oxide formation and reconstruction steps was quantified. Oxides were formed by heating the LDH of the present disclosure and conventional LDHs up to a desired temperature and back to room temperature. The Al ³⁺ will revert back to the O _h coordination upon reconstruction and any Al ³⁺ left in the T _d coordination is accounted for the phase segregated/non-recyclable phase. As illustrated in Tables 1 and 2, the oxides obtained from the LDH of the present disclosure exhibit better reconstruction than the oxide obtained from conventional mixed metal oxides. The first column (Oxide T _d %) shows the tendency of Al in hydroxide to go to spinel phase. Whereas, the second column (Reconstruction T _d %) shows the residual Al after reconstruction. Data from both the columns clearly shows that adamantane intercalated LDH has the ability to reduce migration of Al from hydroxide phase (to spinel) during thermal treatment and as well as has the ability to reconstruct back leaving a smaller amount of Al in spinel phase (segregated phase) compared to conventional LDH particles.

[0076] Table 1 - adamantane-intercalated LDH particles

Temperature Cycle Oxide T _d % Reconstruction Td %

400°C 22.4

(1 cycle)

800°C 27.2 4.4

(1 cycle)

800°C 27.4 6.0

(4 cycles)

800°C 24.9 8.3

(8 cycles)

[0077] Table 2 - conventional LDH particles

[0078] The presence and nature of the carbon support to the mixed metal oxides were further characterized by XPS spectra. The XPS spectra of the parent LDH shows a single peak with a binding energy centered around 285.3 eV. This peak has carbon components due to C-C and 0-C=0 bonds characteristic of adamantane carboxylate. The mixed metal oxides obtained by heating the sample at 400, 800 and 1100 °C (FIGS. 20, 21, and 22 respectively) shows the two binding energy peaks centered around 285 and 289.5 eV. The peak at 285 eV is similar to that observed in the parent LDH and is due to adamantane carboxylate. The peak at 289.5 eV is due to the carbon made of organic polymeric chains and in this case is due to adamantane chains. Based on the XPS spectra, it may be concluded that the mixed metal oxides are anchored on the long chains of nano diamondoids (adamantanes).

[0079] It should be apparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications and variations can be made to the described without departing from the spirit and scope of the claimed subject matter. Thus it is intended that the specification cover the modifications and variations of the various described embodiments provided such modification and variations come within the scope of the appended claims and their equivalents.