INTEGRATED METHODS FOR TREATING LIGNOCELLULOSIC MATERIAL

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No.

62/167,111, filed on May 27, 2015, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

[0002] All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. PCT/IL2012/050118 filed on April 2, 2012, PCT/US2013/039585 filed May 3, 2013, PCT/US2013/068824 filed November 6, 2013, PCT/US2014/053956 filed September 3, 2014, PCT/US2016/012384 filed January 6, 2016, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/091,319 filed on December 12, 2014, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/100,791 filed January 7, 2015, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.

62/167,111 filed May 27, 2015, are each incorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0003] Processes allowing for the production of cellulosic sugars from biomass at high purity and low cost that are competitive with sugars made from food and feed sources have yet to be developed, despite much effort directed toward this goal worldwide. Biomass is a complex composite material that requires varying degrees of severity to extract and hydrolyze the individual components, each having unique sensitivity to the reaction conditions employed. Thus, a one-step extraction cannot achieve both a high degree of extraction and a low degree of degradation, both essential to achieving high product yield. Furthermore, biomass contains high amounts of other components, including Klasson lignin, acid soluble lignin, inorganic ash compounds, organic extractives, and organic acids. The biorefinery products (i.e. sugars and lignin), are used as feedstock for further conversion processes. To be useful as fermentation or chemical catalysis feedstock, sugars need to be purified to a high degree concomitantly with the elimination of impurities known to be inhibitors of conversion processes. To be economically competitive, efficient low cost processes must be developed and scaled up at minimal capital investment. We disclose herein integrated industrial methods for treating biomass that facilitate the production of high purity sugars and lignin at competitive costs. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0004] In one aspect, provided herein is a process for the production of hemicellulosic mixed sugars, lignin and glucose from a biomass, comprising: (i) extracting hemicellulose sugars from the biomass, thereby obtaining a hemi-depleted remainder, wherein the hemi- depleted remainder comprises lignin and cellulose; (ii) contacting the hemi-depleted remainder with a lignin extraction solution to produce a lignin extract and a cellulosic remainder; wherein the lignin extraction solution comprises a limited-solubility solvent, a limited-solubility organic acid and water, wherein the limited-solubility solvent and water form an organic phase and an aqueous phase; (iii) separating the lignin extract from the cellulosic remainder, wherein the lignin extract comprises lignin dissolved in the limited- solubility solvent and the cellulosic remainder comprises cellulose and residual lignin; and (iv) contacting the cellulosic remainder with a cellulose hydrolysis solution to hydrolyze cellulose and extract residual lignin; wherein the cellulose hydrolysis solution comprises the limited-solubility solvent, the limited-solubility organic acid and water, wherein the limited- solubility solvent and water form an organic phase and an aqueous phase.

[0005] In practicing any of the methods described herein, the cellulosic remainder may be treated with the lignin extraction solution before contacting the cellulosic remainder with a cellulose hydrolysis solution to increase porosity and reduce crystallinity, wherein the treatment comprises contacting the cellulosic remainder with the lignin extraction solution at elevated temperature and pressure and releasing the pressure rapidly to create a solvent explosion effect.

[0006] In some embodiments of the process, the limited-solubility organic acid may be recycled by applying one, two, three, or four step(s) selected from: (i) contacting the aqueous stream(s) after phase separation with C0 ₂ at a pressure of at least 2 barg to convert calcium fumarate to fumaric acid and calcium carbonate; (ii) stripping the limited-solubility solvent from the aqueous phase comprising fumaric acid by evaporation to produce a solvent- depleted aqueous phase; (iii) concentrating the aqueous phase comprising glucose and fumaric acid; and (iv) cooling the solvent-depleted aqueous phase to less than 5 °C to cause precipitation of fumaric acid and filtering the precipitate to collect the fumaric acid for further use. In some embodiments, loss of the limited-solubility organic acid per kg of glucose produced may be less than 25 g.

[0007] In another aspect, provided herein is a highly purified glucose product characterized by one or more, two or more, three or more, four or more, five or more, or six or more characteristics selected from: (i) monosaccharides in a ratio to total dissolved sugars > 0.50 weight/weight; (ii) glucose in a ratio to total monosaccharides > 0.90 weight/weight; (iii) xylose in a ratio to total monosaccharides < 0.10 weight/weight; (iv) fructose in a ratio to total monosaccharides < 0.10 weight/weight; (v) fructose in a ratio to total monosaccharides

> 0.01 weight/weight; (vi) furfurals in amounts up to 0.01% weight/weight; (vii) phenols in amounts up to 500 ppm; (viii) hexanol in amounts up to 500 ppm; (ix) C ₄ carboxylic acid in a ratio to total saccharides < 0.05 weight/weight; and (x) fumaric acid in a ratio to total saccharides < 0.05 weight/weight. In some embodiments, the highly purified glucose product may comprise fumaric acid in an amount less than 0.05% weight/weight. The highly purified glucose product may be used as feed for a fermentation process or chemical conversion process to produce a product.

[0008] In still another aspect, provided herein is a process for the hydrolysis of cellulose pulp, comprising: (i) contacting the cellulose pulp with water, a limited-solubility solvent, and a limited-solubility acid; and (ii) heating the cellulose pulp to a temperature of about 200-400 °C. In some embodiments, the limited-solubility acid may be a dicarboxylic acid. In some embodiments, the limited-solubility acid may have at least one pKa value between 1.9 and 3.5 in water. In some embodiments, the solubility of the limited-solubility acid in water at 4 °C may be less than 1% wt/wt. In some embodiments, the limited-solubility acid may be fumaric acid. In some embodiments, the limited-solubility solvent may comprise a 4- to 8-carbon ketone. In some embodiments, the limited-solubility solvent may be methylethyl ketone. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the limited-solubility acid may be recovered by precipitation.

[0009] In practicing any of the methods described herein, the cellulose pulp may be subjected to a pretreatment step. In some embodiments, the pretreatment step comprises: (i) contacting the cellulose pulp with water, solvent, and a limited-solubility organic acid; (ii) heating the cellulose pulp to a temperature of about 160-220 °C in a closed system; and (iii) opening the closed system to rapidly release pressure.

[0010] The present disclosure provides a process for the hydrolysis of cellulose pulp.

In some embodiments, the process comprises: (i) contacting the cellulose pulp with water, a limited-solubility solvent, and a limited-solubility acid, thereby forming a slurry; (ii) heating the slurry to a temperature of about 200-400 °C, thereby forming a treated slurry; and (iii) recovering a cellulosic hydrolysate from the treated slurry. Optionally, the process further comprises, prior to the contacting step: (a) extracting hemicellulose sugars from a lignocellulosic biomass, thereby obtaining a hemi-depleted remainder, the hemi-depleted remainder comprising lignin and cellulose; (b) treating the hemi-depleted remainder with a limited-solubility solvent, a limited-solubility acid, and water, wherein the limited-solubility solvent and the water form an organic phase and an aqueous phase; and (c) separating the organic phase from the aqueous phase, wherein the aqueous phase comprises the cellulose pulp.

[0011] In one aspect, the present disclosure provides a process for the hydrolysis of cellulose pulp. In some embodiments, the process comprises: (i) extracting hemicellulose sugars from a lignocellulosic biomass, thereby obtaining a hemi-depleted remainder, the hemi-depleted remainder comprising lignin and cellulose; (ii) treating the hemi-depleted remainder with a limited-solubility solvent, a limited-solubility acid, and water, wherein the limited-solubility solvent and the water form an organic phase and an aqueous phase; (iii) separating the organic phase from the aqueous phase, wherein the aqueous phase comprises the cellulose pulp; (iv) contacting the cellulose pulp with water, the limited-solubility solvent, and the limited-solubility acid, thereby forming a slurry; (v) heating the slurry to a

temperature of about 200-400 °C, thereby forming a treated slurry; and (vi) recovering a cellulosic hydrolysate from the treated slurry.

[0012] In one aspect, the present disclosure provides a process for the hydrolysis of cellulose pulp, comprising: (i) contacting the cellulose pulp with water, a limited-solubility solvent, and a limited-solubility acid, thereby forming a slurry; (ii) heating the slurry to a temperature of about 200-400 °C, thereby forming a treated slurry; and (iii) recovering a cellulosic hydrolysate from the heated slurry. Optionally, the limited-solubility solvent is a 4- to 8-carbon ketone having an aqueous solubility of 10-40% wt/wt at 20 °C. Optionally, the limited-solubility acid is a dicarboxylic acid having an aqueous solubility of less than 1% wt/wt at 4 °C.

[0013] In practicing any of the processes described herein, the limited-solubility acid may be a dicarboxylic acid, such as fumaric acid. Optionally, the limited-solubility acid has at least one pKa value between 1.9 and 3.5 in water. Optionally, solubility of the limited- solubility acid in water at 4 °C is less than 1% wt/wt.

[0014] In practicing any of the processes described herein, the limited-solubility solvent may be an organic solvent. Optionally, solubility of the limited-solubility solvent in water at 20 °C is less than 40% wt/wt, such as less than 30% wt/wt. Optionally, solubility of the limited-solubility solvent in water at 20 °C is 20-40%) wt/wt. Preferably, the limited- solubility solvent comprises a 4- to 8-carbon ketone, such as methyl ethyl ketone.

[0015] Any process described herein may further comprise recovering the limited- solubility acid by precipitation. In some examples, at least 80%> of the limited-solubility acid is recovered, such as at least 95% of the limited-solubility acid.

[0016] Any process described herein may further comprise pretreating the cellulose pulp prior to the contacting step. Optionally, the pretreating comprises: (a) contacting the cellulose pulp with water, a limited-solubility solvent, and a limited-solubility acid, thereby forming a pretreatment slurry; (b) heating the pretreatment slurry to a temperature of about 160-220 °C in a closed system; and (c) opening the closed system to rapidly release pressure.

[0017] In some embodiments, the cellulose pulp comprises: (i) cellulose; (ii) hemicellulose in an amount up to 5% weight/weight relative to total solids; (iii) ash in an amount up to 6% weight/weight relative to total solids; and (iv) sulfate in an amount up to 3% weight/weight relative to total solids. Optionally, the cellulose pulp may further comprise lignin. Optionally, the cellulose pulp comprises less than 5% water soluble carbohydrates at 20 °C. Optionally, a process described herein comprises at least 10 kg of the cellulose pulp, such as at least 50 kg.

[0018] In some embodiments, the recovering the cellulosic hydrolysate comprises phase separation of an aqueous phase comprising the cellulosic hydrolysate from an organic phase comprising the limited-solubility solvent. Optionally, the process further comprises contacting the aqueous phase with C0 ₂ at a pressure of at least 2 barg to produce a carbonated aqueous phase. Optionally, the process further comprises cooling the carbonated aqueous phase to less than 10 °C, thereby forming a precipitate comprising the limited- solubility acid. Optionally, the process further comprises separating the precipitate from the cold carbonated aqueous phase.

[0019] The present disclosure provides a sugar composition comprising: (i) monosaccharides in a ratio to total dissolved sugars > 0.50 weight/weight; (ii) glucose in a ratio to total monosaccharides > 0.90 weight/weight; (iii) xylose in a ratio to total

monosaccharides < 0.10 weight/weight; (iv) fructose in a ratio to total monosaccharides < 0.10 weight/weight; (v) furfurals in amounts up to 0.01% weight/weight; (vi) phenols in amounts up to 500 ppm; and (vii) hexanol or 2-ethyl-l-hexanol in amounts up to 500 ppm. Optionally, the composition comprises glucose in a ratio to total monosaccharides of 0.90 to 0.99 weight/weight. Optionally, the composition comprises fructose in a ratio to total monosaccharides of at least 0.01 weight/weight. Optionally, the composition comprises xylose in a ratio to total monosaccharides of at least 0.01 weight/weight. Optionally, any composition provided herein comprises at least 10 ppb fumaric acid. Optionally, the composition comprises at least 10 ppb furfural. Optionally, the composition comprises at least 10 ppb phenols. In some examples, the phenols are lignin decomposition products. Optionally, the composition comprises at least 10 ppb hexanol or 2-ethyl-l-hexanol.

Optionally, the composition comprises at least 10 ppb methylethyl ketone. Optionally, the composition comprises C6 oligosaccharides in a ratio to total dissolved sugars of 0.01 to 0.10 weight/weight.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

[0020] Fig. 1 shows a schematic stepwise process for extracting and refining hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin from biomass.

[0021] Fig. 2 shows an alternative stepwise process for extracting and refining hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin from biomass.

[0022] Fig. 3A shows a scheme for integrated processes for extracting and refining lignin and hydrolyzing cellulose to glucose, while recycling chemicals used in the process.

[0023] Fig. 3B shows a scheme for refining a glucose hydrolysate.

[0024] Fig. 4 shows the solubility of fumaric acid and calcium fumarate in pure water and in water saturated with methylethyl ketone.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0025] The present disclosure relates to the integrated processing and refining of lignocellulosic biomass to produce high purity sugars and lignin at high yields and low costs. The sugar products may comprise a hemicellulosic sugar product, a cellulosic sugar product, or a mixed sugar product. The relative parts of C6 and C5 saccharides in the sugar product depend on the biomass used as feedstock, and may be enriched with a specific saccharide by applying separation processes to the refined sugar products.

[0026] In some embodiments, the overall integrated process may comprise three extraction steps, each one designed and optimized to extract preferentially one crude component that can be refined to a pure product stream while minimizing degradation of the extracted component and the remaining solids.

[0027] Fig. 1 presents a scheme of a sequential overall process comprising the following major stages. Optionally, the process comprises a pretreatment process 10, where the biomass is prepared for extraction. Such pretreatment may include, but is not limited to, chipping, sizing, grinding, de-barking, de-soiling, de-ashing, washing, drying or slurrying. Next, three extraction steps may be applied at increasing severity, thus optimizing the conditions to first extract and hydrolyze biomass components that are easier to extract but may be more sensitive to degradation, and later extracting the harder to extract and hydrolyze parts of biomass, the most calcitrant being the crystalline fraction of cellulose. Fig. 2 is an alternative scheme, where before extraction 3, a solvent explosion step is added, aiming to open up the crystalline structure of cellulose to facilitate effective hydrolysis of the crystalline cellulose at a lower temperature than can be achieved using the equivalent pressure drop of steam explosion alone, due to the vapor pressure of the selected solvent. The overall process and the integration of the different stages to establish an economically competitive biorefining industrial process will now be described in detail.

[0028] Extraction 1, designated as process 200 in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, is designed to extract and hydrolyze hemicellulosic sugars. Extraction 1 may be optimized to hydrolyze acetate groups that decorate xylan polymers, as well as to extract ash, extractives, proteins, acid soluble lignin and essentially any acid soluble compound present in the biomass. Such a process was disclosed in detail in PCT/US2013/039585 filed May 3, 2013,

PCT/US2013/068824 filed November 6 2013, PCT/US2014/053956 filed September 3, 2014 and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/100,791 filed January 7, 2015, each incorporated herein by reference. The liquor produced in the extraction process may be separated from the remaining solids to produce acidic hemicellulose sugar stream 205 and hemicellulose-depleted solid stream 201. Stream 205 may be purified to obtain a

hemicellulose sugar mixture 240-P1, or alternatively may be directed to stream 206 and treated together with the acidic cellulosic sugar stream 405 in one purification system.

[0029] Preferably, an aqueous acidic solution is used to extract and hydrolyze hemicellulosic sugars from lignocellulosic biomass. The aqueous acidic solution can contain any acids, inorganic or organic. Preferably, an inorganic acid is used. For example, the solution can be an acidic aqueous solution containing an inorganic or organic acid such as H ₂ SO ₄ , H ₂ SO ₃ (which can be introduced as dissolved acid or as S0 ₂ gas), HC1, or acetic acid. The acidic aqueous solution can contain an acid in an amount of 0 to 2% acid or more, e.g., 0-0.2%, 0.2-0.4%, 0.4-0.6%, 0.6-0.8%, 0.8-1.0%, 1.0-1.2%, 1.2-1.4%, 1.4-1.6%, 1.6-1.8%, 1.8-2.0%) or more weight/weight. Preferably, the aqueous solution for the extraction includes 0.2 - 0.7%) H ₂ SO ₄ and 0 - 3,000 ppm S0 ₂ . The pH of the acidic aqueous solution can be, for example, in the range of 1-5, preferably 1-3.5, more preferably 1-2.

[0030] In some embodiments, an elevated temperature or pressure is preferred in the extraction. For example, a temperature in the range of 100-200 °C, or more than 50 °C, 60 °C, 70 °C, 80 °C, 90 °C, 100 °C, 110 °C, 120 °C, 130 °C, 140 °C, 150 °C, 160 °C, 170 °C, 180 °C, 190 °C, or 200 °C can be used. Preferably, the temperature is in the range of 110-160 °C, 120-150 °C, or 140-150 °C. Preferably, the temperature is 135-165 °C. The pressure can be in the range of 0.4-10 mPa, for example, 0.4-5 mPa. The solution can be heated for 0.1-5 hours, preferably 0.1-3 hours, 0.1-1 hour, 1-2 hours, or 2-3 hours. The extraction process may have a cooling down period of less than one hour.

[0031] Optionally, hemicellulose sugars are extracted from the biomass in an aqueous acidic solution comprising H ₂ SO ₄ at a pH of 1-3.5. Optionally, hemicellulose sugars are extracted from the biomass in 0.1-3 hours at a temperature of 135-165 °C and a pressure of 0.4-5 mPa. Preferably, hemicellulose sugars are extracted from the biomass in an aqueous acidic solution comprising H ₂ SO ₄ at a pH of 1-3.5, wherein the reaction mixture comprising the biomass and the aqueous acidic solution is heated for 0.1-3 hours to a temperature of 135- 165 °C.

[0032] In some embodiments, impurities such as ash, acid soluble lignin, fatty acids, organic acids such as acetic acid and formic acid, methanol, proteins and/or amino acids, glycerol, sterols, rosin acid and waxy materials may be extracted together with the hemicellulose sugars under the same conditions. These impurities can be separated from the aqueous phase by solvent extraction (e.g., using a solvent containing amine and alcohol).

[0033] In some embodiments, hemicellulose sugar extraction 200 can produce, in one single extraction process, a hemicellulose sugar stream 205 containing at least 80-95% monomelic sugars relative to total sugars. For example, the hemicellulose sugar stream can contain more than 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% wt/wt monomeric sugars relative to total sugars. In addition, the present method produces minimal amounts of lignocellulose degradation products such as furfural, levulinic acid, and formic acid. For example, the hemicellulose sugar stream may contain less than about 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, or 0.1% wt/wt phenols. In some examples, the hemicellulose sugar stream may contain less than about 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, or 0.1% wt/wt furfural. In some examples, the hemicellulose sugar stream may contain less than about 0.01 or 0.005% wt/wt HMF. In some examples, the hemicellulose sugar stream may contain less than about 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, or 0.02% wt/wt formic acid. In some examples, the hemicellulose sugar stream may contain less than about 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, or 0.02% wt/wt levulinic acid. In some embodiments, a xylose yield greater than 80% of theoretical value may be achieved. In some embodiments, at least 70%), 75%), 80%), or more of the hemicellulose sugars may be extracted using the present method.

[0034] The extraction of hemicellulose sugars from the biomass results in a lignocellulosic remainder comprising lignin and cellulose, with only a small residue of hemicellulose. In some embodiments, the extraction of hemicellulose sugars does not remove a substantial amount of the cellulosic sugars. For example, the extraction of hemicellulose sugars does not remove more than 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, or 60% weight/weight cellulose. In some embodiments, the lignocellulosic remainder contains less than 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, 5, 2, or 1% wt/wt hemicellulose. In some embodiments, the lignocellulose remainder contains less than 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1% wt/wt ash.

[0035] Hemicellulose sugar stream 205 is optionally refined and optionally fractionated according to the process disclosed in PCT/US2013/039585, incorporated herein by reference. Examples of compositions of refined hemicellulose sugar mixtures, xylose enriched sugar mixtures and xylose removed sugar mixtures are incorporated in this disclosure in the examples section.

[0036] Alternatively, stream 205 comprising acidic hemicellulose sugars may be combined before refining through stream 206 with acidic cellulosic sugar stream 405, which will be described below. In cases where the biomass feedstock used is high in C6 sugars, combining the two streams before purification is advantageous, as only one purification system is required to achieve a high purity sugar product rich in C6 sugars, thus reducing capital costs associated with this integrated process.

[0037] Next, as outlined in Fig. 3 A and 3B, lignin may be extracted from

hemicellulose-depleted biomass 201 in extraction 300, then further refined as described in more detail below. The remaining solids, comprising predominantly cellulose, are then treated in Extraction 3 (process 400) to fully hydrolyze cellulose to glucose. Glucose may then be refined to high purity glucose (490-P1). Optionally, before Extraction 3, the solid material may be treated in solvent explosion process 380 to open the crystalline structure of cellulose to facilitate the use of milder conditions in Extraction 3. A fundamental

embodiment of this invention is the reuse of all solvents and chemicals applied in the process for multiple uses. For example, at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 98% of all solvents and chemicals may be recycled. The recycling circuits are shown schematically in Fig. 3. Extraction 2 and 3 are described in detail in the following sections.

[0038] Extraction 2 is designated as process 300 in Fig. 1-3. This extraction is designed to extract lignin into an organic solvent phase of a solvent having limited solubility in water. PCT/US2013/039585 and PCT/US2013/068824 disclose a process of producing high purity lignin from a biomass, comprising: (i) removing hemicellulose sugars from the biomass thereby obtaining a lignin-containing remainder; wherein the lignin-containing remainder comprises lignin and cellulose; (ii) contacting the lignin-containing remainder with a lignin extraction solution to produce a lignin extract and a cellulosic remainder; wherein the lignin extraction solution comprises a limited-solubility solvent, an acid, and water, wherein the limited-solubility solvent and water form an organic phase and an aqueous phase; and (iii) separating the lignin extract from the cellulosic remainder; wherein the lignin extract comprises lignin dissolved in the limited-solubility solvent; and optionally further comprising one, two, three or four additional step(s): (iv) distilling or flash evaporating the lignin extract thereby removing the bulk of the limited-solubility solvent from the lignin extract to obtain a solid lignin; (v) heating the solid lignin thereby removing trace limited-solubility solvent or water from the solid lignin; (vi) applying a vacuum to the solid lignin thereby removing trace limited-solubility solvent or water from the solid lignin; and (vii) dissolving the solid lignin with an organic solvent to form a resulting solution and separating the resulting solution from insoluble remainder.

[0039] It is realized in the current disclosure and is a fundamental embodiment in this disclosure that it is advantageous to use in this process an acid that has limited solubility in water. In some embodiments, the acid is an organic acid. In some embodiments, the acid has limited solubility in an aqueous solution that is saturated with the limited-solubility solvent. In some embodiments, the acid has limited solubility in the limited-solubility solvent that is saturated with water. In some embodiments, the solubility of the acid in water, in solvent- saturated water or in water-saturated solvent is highly temperature dependent. In some embodiments, the solubility of the acid is higher in the limited-solubility solvent than in water, and is highest in water- saturated solvent. In some embodiments, the partition coefficient of the acid between the limited-solubility solvent and water is greater than 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10. In some embodiments, the solubility of the acid in water at 4 °C is less than 1%, 0.5%, or 0.3% wt/wt. In some embodiments, the solubility of the acid in water at 20 °C is less than 100, 75, 50, 40, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, or 5 g/L. In some embodiments, the solubility of the acid in water at 20 °C is between 1-10, 1-5, or 3-5 g/L. In some

embodiments, the solubility of the acid in water at 20 °C is about 4 g/L. In some

embodiments, the acid has at least one pKa value lower than 4.8, 4.0, 3.7, 3.5, 3.2, or 3.0. In some embodiments, the acid has at least one pKa value between 1.9 and 3.5 in water. In some embodiments, the acid has at least one pKa value between 2.5 and 3.5 in water. In some embodiments, the acid is a dicarboxylic acid. In some embodiments, the acid is a C ₄ carboxylic acid. In some embodiments, the acid is selected form fumaric acid, maleic acid and malic acid. In some embodiments, the acid is fumaric acid. The acid used in lignin extraction may be referred to herein as a limited-solubility acid.

[0040] In some embodiments, the limited-solubility solvent is an organic solvent. In some embodiments, the limited-solubility solvent includes one or more of esters, ethers and ketones with 4- to 8-carbon atoms. In some embodiments, the limited-solubility solvent is a 4- to 8-carbon ketone, such as methyl ethyl ketone. Examples of limited-solubility solvents suitable for the present invention include methylethyl ketone, diethyl ketone, methyl isopropyl ketone, methyl propyl ketone, mesityl oxide, diacetyl, 2,3-pentanedione, 2,4- pentanedione, 2,5-dimethylfuran, 2-methylfuran, 2-ethylfuran, l-chloro-2-butanone, methyl tert-butyl ether, diisopropyl ether, anisol, ethyl acetate, methyl acetate, ethyl formate, isopropyl acetate, propyl acetate, propyl formate, isopropyl formate, 2-phenylethanol, toluene, 1 -phenyl ethanol, phenol, m-cresol, 2 -phenyl ethyl chloride, 2-methyl-2H-furan-3- one, γ-butyrolactone, acetal, methyl ethyl acetal, dimethyl acetal, morpholine, pyrrole, 2- picoline, and 2,5-dimethylpyridine. In some embodiments, the solubility of the limited- solubility solvent in water is less than 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 29%, 28%, 27%, 26% or less than 25% weight/weight at 20 °C, such as less than 40% weight/weight. Preferably, the solubility of the limited-solubility solvent in water is less than 30% weight/weight at 20 °C. In some embodiments, the solubility of the limited-solubility solvent in water is 20-40%) weight/weight at 20 °C.

[0041] The ratio of the limited-solubility solvent to water suitable for carrying out the lignin extraction can vary depending on the biomass material and the particular limited- solubility solvent used. In some embodiments, the solvent to water ratio is in the range of 100: 1 to 1 : 100, e.g., 50: 1 to 1 :50, 20: 1 to 1 :20, and preferably 1 : 1.

[0042] Elevated temperatures and/or pressures are preferred in some lignin extraction embodiments. For example, the temperature of lignin extraction may be in the range of 50- 300 °C, preferably 160-220 °C, e.g., 170-200 °C. The pressure may be in the range of 1-30 mPa, preferably, 12-26 mPa. The solution may be heated for 0.5-24 hours, preferably 1-3 hours.

[0043] Optionally, lignin is extracted from a lignocellulosic remainder (i.e., a hemicellulose-depleted biomass) by contacting the lignocellulosic remainder with a lignin extraction solution to produce a lignin extract and a cellulosic remainder; wherein the lignin extraction solution comprises a limited-solubility solvent, a limited-solubility acid, and water, wherein the limited-solubility solvent and water form an organic phase and an aqueous phase. Preferably, solubility of the limited-solubility acid in water at 4 °C is less than about 1% wt/wt, and solubility of the limited-solubility solvent in water at 20 °C is less than about 30% wt/wt. Optionally, the limited-solubility acid is fumaric acid, and the limited-solubility solvent is methylethyl ketone.

[0044] Returning to Fig. 3A, after extraction 300 the effluent of the reactor may be separated. In some embodiments, the remaining solid, which contains mostly cellulose, is filtered 302 and optionally washed with solvent to remove residual lignin. The collected solid (i.e., cellulose pulp) is transferred to the next stage in the overall process, i.e. Extraction 3, 400 in Fig. 1, or optionally solvent explosion 380 in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3A.

[0045] Optionally, the cellulose pulp comprises at least 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%,

96%), 97%), or at least 98%> cellulose, such as at least 80%> cellulose. Optionally, the cellulose pulp further comprises hemicellulose sugars in an amount up to 10%>, 7.5%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%), 1%), or up to 0.5%) weight/weight relative to total solids, such as up to 5% hemicellulose sugars. Optionally, the cellulose pulp comprises 0.01-5% hemicellulose sugars, such as 0.01- 1%) hemicellulose sugars. Optionally, the cellulose pulp further comprises ash in an amount up to 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, 1%, 0.5%, or up to 0.1% weight/weight relative to total solids, such as up to 6% ash. Optionally, the cellulose pulp comprises 0.001-6%) ash, such as 0.001-2%) ash. Optionally, the cellulose pulp further comprises sulfate in an amount up to 5%, 4%), 3%), 2%), 1%), 0.5%), or up to 0.1% weight/weight relative to total solids, such as up to 3% sulfate. Optionally, the cellulose pulp further comprises lignin in an amount up to 20%, 15%, 10%, 7.5%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, 1% or up to 0.5% weight/weight relative to total solids as determined by the REL/TP-510-42618 method, such as up to 15% lignin. Optionally, the cellulose pulp comprises water soluble carbohydrates in an amount up to 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%), 5%), 4%), 3%), 2%), or up to 1% weight/weight relative to total solids, such as up to 5% water soluble carbohydrates, wherein the solubility is measured at 20 °C. Optionally, the cellulose pulp comprises cellulose, hemicellulose in an amount up to 5% weight/weight relative to total solids, ash in an amount up to 4% weight/weight relative to total solids, and sulfate in an amount up to 3% weight/weight relative to total solids.

[0046] Optionally, the organic phase that contains the dissolved lignin is separated

308 from the aqueous phase that contains residual dissolved sugars and ionic species.

Optionally, before separation 308, Ca(OH) ₂ is added to the solution to bring the pH of the aqueous phase to 3.5-3.8. Other suitable bases known in the art may be used to adjust the pH, including, for example, Mg(OH) ₂ , NaOH, KOH, and others. In some embodiments, the separated organic phase comprises at least 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, or 10% lignin wt/wt.

[0047] The aqueous phase of separation 308 is optionally treated with high pressure

C0 ₂ gas, i.e. at 2-10, 3-8, or 4-5 barg, to convert any salts of the acid to the acid and carbonate salts. Optionally, Ca(OH) ₂ is added to the aqueous phase of separation 308 to raise the pH. The Ca(OH) ₂ -treated aqueous phase may be treated with C0 ₂ gas, i.e. at 2-10, 3-8, or 4-5 barg, to convert any calcium salts of the acid to the acid and calcium carbonate. In some embodiments, calcium carbonate is precipitated and removed by filtration.

[0048] Optionally, the acid is used in the lignin extraction process is fumaric acid.

The aqueous phase of separation 308 is optionally treated with high pressure C0 ₂ gas, i.e. at 2-10, 3-8, or 4-5 barg, to convert any calcium fumarate to fumaric acid and calcium carbonate. In some embodiments, calcium carbonate is precipitated and removed by filtration.

[0049] In some embodiments, the lignin containing organic phase is contacted 315 with a strongly acidic cation exchange resin (SAC) to remove residual cations. Lignin may be precipitated by flash evaporation 320 of the limited-solubility solvent in contact with hot water, and the collected lignin dried 330 to produce high purity lignin 340-P1. Detailed embodiments of the lignin refining process are disclosed in PCT/US2013/039585 and

PCT/US2013/068824, incorporated herein by reference.

[0050] In some embodiments, the aqueous phase comprising limited-solubility acid, such as fumaric acid, is combined again with the solids (e.g., cellulose pulp) remaining from Extraction 2. Optionally, additional limited-solubility solvent is added. The combined slurry may be heated to a temperature sufficient to create high pressure, preferably 160 to 220 °C, e.g., 170-200 °C. The slurry may be maintained at high temperature for 1-30 minutes (e.g., 5- 15 minutes) and the pressure released rapidly through a vent. In some embodiments, the vapors comprising limited-solubility solvent and water are collected in a condenser 382 and directed to be used in Extraction 3, 400 in Fig. 3A. In some embodiments, various explosion techniques are applied as pretreatment of biomass, i.e. techniques by which gas or vapors are created by heat and pressure and the pressure released abruptly to cause an explosive effect on the biomass fibers (see for example Kumar et. al., Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. (2009), 48, 3713- 3729). Known techniques include steam explosion, ammonia explosion, and C0 ₂ explosion. Application of such processes to biomass treatment has multiple purposes, including, for example, the removal of hemicellulose and lignin from cellulose fibers, reduction of the crystallinity of cellulose, and increasing the porosity of cellulose to improve enzymatic or chemical digestion. However, achieving these goals in one step is difficult, since the severe conditions required for sufficiently high removal of hemicellulose and lignin also severely degrade these products, making later refining of hemicellulose and lignin products difficult, less attractive and less economical.

[0051] In some embodiments, a mixture of water and methylethyl ketone (MEK) is used as the limited-solubility solvent that is heated to create high pressure that is rapidly dropped to cause an explosive effect on the cellulose fibers. In some embodiments, the pressure difference between the high and low pressures is about 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, or 5.0 MPa. In some embodiments, the temperature required to achieve such pressure is about 130, 135, 140, 145, 150, 155, 160, 165, 170, 175, 180, 185, or 190 °C. In some embodiments, the use of a volatile solvent in the mixture allows for higher pressures at lower temperatures than steam alone. In some embodiments, the efficacy of solvent explosion is enhanced by applying pressure to cellulose pulp that is already well impregnated with the liquid phase from the previous process step (i.e., lignin extraction). In some embodiments, once exploded, the slurry is immediately transferred to Extraction 3.

[0052] Optionally, prior to Extraction 3, the cellulose pulp is pretreated. In some embodiments, the pretreating comprises (a) contacting the cellulose pulp with water, a limited-solubility solvent, and a limited-solubility acid, thereby forming a pretreatment slurry; (b) heating the pretreatment slurry to a temperature of about 160-220 °C in a closed system; and (c) opening the closed system to rapidly release pressure. The resultant cellulose pulp may be used directly in Extraction 3.

[0053] Extraction 3 is designated as process 400 in Fig. 1-3. Extraction 3 is designed to hydrolyze cellulose in the remaining pulp and to dissolve lignin residues in the organic phase. In some embodiments, the remaining mostly cellulosic solid (e.g., the cellulose pulp) is treated with a mixture of water, solvent and acid. In some embodiments, the acid is an organic acid. In some embodiments, the solvent is a limited-solubility solvent. In some embodiments, little or no hemicellulose remains in the pulp at this stage after two extractions (i.e., Extraction 1 and Extraction 2), and the severity of conditions may be increased to hydrolyze cellulose to monomeric glucose with little or no risk of damage to the more sensitive sugars. In some embodiments, temperature, pressure and acid concentration are increased such that the reaction time to achieve full conversion of solid cellulose to water soluble oligomers and monomers is less than 60, 50, 40, 30, or 20 minutes. In some embodiments, the temperature is about 200-400 °C, for example, 220-280 °C. In some embodiments, the pressure is about 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, or 5.0 MPa. In some embodiments, the acid concentration is about 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, or 7% wt/wt. The reaction may be conducted in a batch reactor or in a flow reactor.

[0054] In certain embodiments, provided herein is a process for the hydrolysis of cellulose pulp. The process may comprise: (i) contacting the cellulose pulp with water, a limited-solubility solvent, and a limited-solubility acid, thereby forming a slurry; (ii) heating the slurry to a temperature of about 200-400 °C, thereby forming a treated slurry; and (iii) recovering a cellulosic hydrolysate from the treated slurry. [0055] In certain embodiments, provided herein is a process for the hydrolysis of cellulose pulp. The process may comprise: (i) contacting the cellulose pulp with water, a limited-solubility solvent, and a limited-solubility acid, thereby forming a slurry; (ii) heating the slurry to a temperature of about 200-400 °C, thereby forming a treated slurry; and (iii) recovering a cellulosic hydrolysate from the treated slurry, wherein the limited-solubility solvent is a 4- to 8-carbon ketone having an aqueous solubility of 10-40% wt/wt at 20 °C, and wherein the limited-solubility acid is a dicarboxylic acid having an aqueous solubility of less than 1%) wt/wt at 4 °C. Optionally, the limited-solubility acid is fumaric acid. Optionally, the limited-solubility solvent is methylethyl ketone.

[0056] In some embodiments, recovering the cellulosic hydrolysate from the treated slurry comprises phase separation of an aqueous phase comprising the cellulosic hydrolysate from an organic phase comprising the limited-solubility solvent. Optionally, the aqueous phase is contacted with C0 ₂ at a pressure of at least 2 barg to produce a carbonated aqueous phase. In some examples, the carbonated aqueous phase is cooled to less than 10 °C, such as less than 5 °C, thereby forming a precipitate comprising the limited-solubility acid.

Optionally, the precipitate is separated from the aqueous phase.

[0057] In some embodiments, the process for the hydrolysis of cellulose pulp is conducted at an industrial scale. Optionally, at least 1 kg, 5 kg, 10 kg, 50 kg, 100 kg, 250 kg, 500 kg, or at least 1000 kg of cellulose pulp, such as at least 10 kg of cellulose pulp is hydrolyzed in a single batch. Optionally, the hydrolysis produces at least 1 kg, 5 kg, 10 kg, 50 kg, 100 kg, 250 kg, or at least 500 kg of glucose, such as at least 5 kg of glucose, in a single batch.

[0058] In some embodiments, the acid is a limited-solubility acid. In some embodiments, the acid has limited solubility in an aqueous solution that is saturated with the limited-solubility solvent. In some embodiments, the acid has limited solubility in the limited-solubility solvent that is saturated with water. In some embodiments, the solubility of the acid in water, in solvent-saturated water or in water-saturated solvent is highly

temperature dependent. In some embodiments, the solubility of the acid is higher in the solvent than in water, and is highest in water- saturated solvent. In some embodiments, the partition coefficient of the acid between the limited-solubility solvent and water is greater than 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10. In some embodiments, the solubility of the acid in water at 4 °C is less than 1%, 0.5%, or 0.3% wt/wt. In some embodiments, the solubility of the acid in water at 20 °C is less than 100, 75, 50, 40, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, or 5 g/L. In some embodiments, the solubility of the acid in water at 20 °C is between 1-10, 1-5, or 3-5 g/L. In some embodiments, the solubility of the acid in water at 20 °C is about 4 g/L. In some embodiments, the limited-solubility acid has at least one pKa value lower than 4.8, 4.0, 3.7, 3.5, 3.2, or 3.0. In some embodiments, the limited-solubility acid has at least one pKa value between 1.9 and 3.5 in water. In some embodiments, the limited-solubility acid has at least one pKa value between 2.5 and 3.5 in water. In some embodiments, the limited-solubility acid is a dicarboxylic acid. In some embodiments, the limited-solubility acid is a C ₄ carboxylic acid. In some embodiments, the limited-solubility acid is selected form fumaric acid, maleic acid and malic acid. In some embodiments, the limited-solubility acid is fumaric acid.

[0059] In some embodiments, Extraction 3 yields a hydrolysate aqueous phase and a lignin organic phase. In some embodiments, no solid remains at the end of Extraction 3. In some embodiments, any solid remaining at the end of Extraction 3 is collected and combined with the feed into solvent explosion 380 or the feed into Extraction 3. In some embodiments, the concentration of sugar in the hydrolysate (i.e. sugar/(sugar+water) concentration) is at least 5%, 8%, 10%, 12%, 15%, or 20% wt/wt. In some embodiments, the concentration of sugar in the hydrolysate is less than 25%, 20%, 15%, 12%, 10%, 8%, or 5% wt/wt.

Optionally, the concentration of sugar in the hydrolysate is 1-25% wt/wt, such as 5-25% wt/wt. In some embodiments, the concentration of monomers relative to total sugars is at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95% wt/wt. In some embodiments, the

concentration of lignin in the organic phase is at least 0.2%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, or 5% lignin wt/wt.

[0060] In some embodiments, the concentration of monomers relative to total sugars in the hydrolysate is less than 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 70%, 60%, or 50% wt/wt. Optionally, the hydrolysate is heated to about 90-130 °C for about 20-120 minutes. The heating may cause hydrolysis of oligomers to monomers. In some embodiments, the concentration of total sugars in the solution is modified prior to the hydrolysis of oligomers to monomers. The concentration of total sugars in the solution may be reduced, optionally by dilution with water. The concentration of total sugars in the solution may be increased, optionally by the removal of water by evaporation. Preferably, the concentration of total sugars in the solution is modified to be less than 20%, 15%, 12%, 10%, 8%, or less than 6% wt/wt. In some embodiments, the further hydrolysis of oligomers to monomers described herein is done before treating the aqueous phase with base and/or C0 ₂ , as described below. In some embodiments, the further hydrolysis of oligomers to monomers described herein is done after treating the aqueous phase with base and/or C0 ₂ . [0061] The stream coming out of Extraction 3 may be phase separated in process 408.

Optionally, Ca(OH) ₂ is added before phase separation to adjust the pH to the range of 3.5-3.8. Other suitable bases known in the art may be used to adjust the pH, including, for example, Mg(OH) ₂ , NaOH, KOH, and others. In some embodiments, the organic phase containing dissolved lignin is combined with lignin stream 305 of Extraction 2 for refining. In some embodiments, calcium fumarate formed in the aqueous stream is converted back to fumaric acid by applying C0 ₂ gas, i.e. at 2-10, 3-8, or 4-5 barg. Calcium carbonate formed in this process may be removed by filtration.

[0062] Optionally, Ca(OH) ₂ is added to the aqueous phase of separation 408 to raise the pH. The Ca(OH) ₂ -treated aqueous phase may be treated with C0 ₂ gas, i.e. at 2-10, 3-8, or 4-5 barg, to convert any calcium salts of the acid to the acid and calcium carbonate. In some embodiments, calcium carbonate is precipitated and removed by filtration.

[0063] In some embodiments, the limited-solubility acid is recovered by precipitation.

Preferably, at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the limited- solubility acid is recovered and optionally recycled, such as at least 80%, more preferably at least 95% of the limited-solubility acid is recovered and optionally recycled.

[0064] In some embodiments, the limited-solubility acid is recycled in the process by stripping the aqueous phase from dissolved solvent and cooling the remaining aqueous fraction to cause precipitation of the limited-solubility acid. In some embodiments, the precipitated acid is collected by filtration and is re-dissolved in solvent-saturated water for recycling. In a preferred embodiment of this invention, the limited-solubility solvent is 2- butanone (methylethyl ketone, MEK) and the limited-solubility acid is fumaric acid. Starr & King (Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1992, 31, 2572-2579) teach that the solubility of fumaric acid is greater in saturated solutions of ketones in water as compared to the solubility of fumaric acid in either pure water or dry ketone. While Starr & King did not test the combination of water and MEK, similar behavior is observed for this ternary mixture. As suggested by Starr & King, the recovery of fumaric acid is enhanced by stripping the solvent (MEK) from a solvent-saturated aqueous solution of the acid to cause its effective precipitation. Thus, precipitation and recovery of fumaric acid is enhanced by the removal or reduction of the solvent at a reduced energy cost as is required for the recovery of alternative acids commonly used in the art. In some embodiments, the concentration of the limited-solubility acid in the aqueous stream after acid recovery 450 is less than about 3, 2, 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, 0.05, or 0.01% wt/wt. In some embodiments, at least about 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%), 96%), 97%), 98%), or 99% of the limited-solubility acid is recovered and recycled. In some embodiments, the glucose solution is optionally further concentrated by evaporation of water by any technique known to one skilled in the art to reduce further the total amount of organic acid loss. In some embodiments, the energy consumption of acid recovery 450 is reduced by at least 50%, 60%>, 70%, 80%>, or 90% compared to the recovery by distillation of organic acids that are soluble in water or water/MEK, including, for example, acetic acid and formic acid.

[0065] The refining process of crude glucose is presented in Fig. 3B. This refining process follows the logic disclosed in PCT/US2013/039585 and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/100,791, incorporated herein by reference. Optionally, the crude product of Extraction 1 (stream 205), comprising hemicellulosic sugars, mineral acid and other impurities, is combined with the cellulosic sugar hydrolysate and refined together. In some embodiments, the crude sugar stream is first contacted with SAC resin 480 to convert all organic anions to their acid form. Remaining organic acids, mineral acids, acid soluble lignin and sugar degradation products, i.e. HMF, furfural and their derivatives, may be extracted in amine extraction 482. In some embodiments, the crude glucose stream is extracted with an amine extractant counter-currently, e.g., the sugar stream flows in an opposite direction to the flow of the amine extractant. The counter-current extraction may be carried out in any suitable device, e.g., a mixer-settler device, stirred tanks, columns, a liquid-liquid separation centrifuge, or any other equipment suitable for this mode of extraction. Preferably, the amine extraction is conducted in a mixer-settler designed to minimize emulsion formation and reduce phase separation time. A mixer-settler has a first stage that mixes the phases together followed by a quiescent settling stage that allows the phases to separate by gravity. Various mixer-settlers known in the art can be used. In some methods, phase separation may be enhanced by incorporating a suitable centrifuge with the mixer-settler or simply using a suitable centrifuge configuration. Preferably, the amine extraction and washing steps are conducted in liquid-liquid separation centrifuges.

[0066] The amine extractant may contain 10-90% or preferably 20-60%

weight/weight of one or a plurality of amines having at least 20 carbon atoms. Such amine(s) can be primary, secondary, and tertiary amines. Examples of tertiary amines include tri- laurylamine (TLA; e.g. COGNIS AL AMINE 304 from Cognis Corporation; Tucson AZ; USA), tri-octylamine, tri-isooctylamine, tri-caprylylamine and tri-decylamine.

[0067] Diluents suitable for use in the amine extraction include an alcohol, such as butanol, isobutanol, hexanol, octanol, decanol, dodecanol, tetradecanol, pentadecanol, hexadecanol, octadecanol, eicosanol, docosanol, tetracosanol, or triacontanol. Preferably, the diluent is a long chain alcohol (e.g. C6, C8, C IO, C12, C 14, or C16 alcohol), or kerosene. The diluent can have additional components. More preferably, the diluent comprises n-hexanol or 2-ethyl-hexanol. Optionally, the diluent comprises hexanol. Most preferably, the diluent comprises 2-ethyl-hexanol. In some embodiments, the diluent consists essentially of, or consists of, 2-ethyl-hexanol.

[0068] Optionally, the amine is tri-laurylamine and the diluent is hexanol. The ratio of amine and diluent can be any ratio, e.g., between 3 :7 and 6:4 weight/weight. In some methods, the amine extraction solution contains tri-laurylamine and hexanol in a ratio of 1 :7, 2:7, 3 :7, 6:4, 5.5 :4.5, 4:7, 5 :7, 6:7, 7:7, 5 :4, 3 :4, 2:4, or 1 :4 weight/weight. Preferably, the amine extraction solution contains tri-laurylamine and hexanol in a ratio of 3 :7

weight/weight.

[0069] Preferably, the amine is tri-laurylamine and the diluent is 2-ethyl-hexanol. The ratio of amine and 2-ethyl-hexanol can be any ratio, e.g., between 3 :7 and 6:4 weight/weight. In some methods, the amine extraction solution contains tri-laurylamine and 2-ethyl-hexanol in a ratio of 1 :7, 2:7, 3 :7, 6:4, 5.5 :4.5, 4:7, 5 :7, 6:7, 7:7, 5 :4, 3 :4, 2:4, or 1 :4 weight/weight. Preferably, the amine extraction solution contains tri-laurylamine and 2-ethyl-hexanol in a ratio of 3 :7 weight/weight.

[0070] The amine extraction can be conducted at any temperature at which the amine is soluble, preferably at 50-70 °C. Optionally, more than one extraction step (e.g., 2, 3, or 4 steps) can be used. The ratio of the amine extractant stream (organic phase) to the

hemicellulose sugar stream (aqueous phase) can be 0.5-5 : 1, 1-2.5 : 1, or preferably, 1.5-3.0: 1 weight/weight.

[0071] In some embodiments, the acid-depleted sugar stream can be further purified

(see, e.g., Fig. 3B). For example, the diluent in the acid-depleted sugar stream can be removed using a packed distillation column. The distillation may remove at least 70%, 80%, 90%), or 95% of the diluent in the acid-depleted sugar stream. With or without a diluent distillation step, the acid-depleted sugar stream may also be contacted with SAC exchanger 484 to remove any residual metallic cations and any residual amines. Preferably, the acid- depleted sugar stream is purified using a packed distillation column followed by a strong acid cation exchanger.

[0072] Preferably, the acid-depleted sugar stream may then be contacted with a weak base anion (WB A) exchanger 486 to remove excess protons. The amine-removed and neutralized sugar stream may be pH adjusted and evaporated 490 to 25-65%> and preferably 30-40%) weight/weight dissolved sugars in any conventional evaporator, e.g., a multiple effect evaporator or a mechanical vapor recompression (MVR) evaporator.

[0073] The product of the refining process is optionally pure glucose solution 490-P1, which may be concentrated by one of several known evaporation techniques to the appropriate level. This pure glucose solution is highly suitable as feed for fermentation processes or catalytic conversion processes. For example, this product may be the feed for numerous fermentation processes applied in the industry, which currently employ dextrose made from corn, sugar cane or sugar beet. Some examples of such fermentation processes are disclosed in PCT/IL2012/050118, filed on April 2, 2012, incorporated by reference herein. This glucose product may be the feed to a conversion process to HMF, as disclosed in U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/091,319, filed on December 12, 2014, incorporated by reference herein. In another alternative, the product is a combined sugar solution of high purity, comprising glucose, mannose, galactose, xylose and arabinose, with the ratios of different carbohydrates dependent on the biomass feedstock.

[0074] When hemicellulosic sugars are not combined into the stream, the highly purified glucose product may be characterized by one or more, two or more, three or more, four or more, five or more, or six or more characteristics, including: (i) monosaccharides in a ratio to total dissolved sugars > 0.50 weight/weight; (ii) glucose in a ratio to total

monosaccharides > 0.90 weight/weight; (iii) xylose in a ratio to total monosaccharides < 0.10 weight/weight; (iv) fructose in a ratio to total monosaccharides < 0.10 weight/weight; (v) fructose in a ratio to total monosaccharides > 0.01 weight/weight; (vi) furfurals in amounts up to 0.01% weight/weight; (vii) phenols in amounts up to 500 ppm; (viii) hexanol in amounts up to 500 ppm; (ix) C ₄ carboxylic acid in a ratio to total saccharides < 0.05 weight/weight; and (x) fumaric acid in a ratio to total saccharides < 0.05 weight/weight. For example, the glucose product may be a mixture having a high monosaccharides to total dissolved sugars ratio, a high glucose content, and a low xylose content. In some embodiments, the sugar mixture is a mixture having a high monosaccharides to total dissolved sugars ratio, a high glucose content, a low xylose content, and a low impurity content (e.g., low furfurals and phenols). In some embodiments, the mixture is characterized by a high monosaccharides to total dissolved sugars ratio, a high glucose content, a low xylose content, a low impurity content (e.g., low furfurals and phenols), and a trace amount of hexanol. In some

embodiments, the glucose product is provided as an aqueous solution. The aqueous solution may comprise at least 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, or at least 30% total sugars

weight/weight relative to the total weight of the composition.

[0075] In certain embodiments, the product of the cellulose pulp extraction process is a sugar composition comprising: (i) monosaccharides in a ratio to total dissolved sugars > 0.50 weight/weight; (ii) glucose in a ratio to total monosaccharides > 0.80, such as > 0.90, weight/weight; (iii) xylose in a ratio to total monosaccharides < 0.10 weight/weight; (iv) fructose in a ratio to total monosaccharides < 0.10 weight/weight; (v) furfurals in amounts up to 0.01% weight/weight; (vi) phenols in amounts up to 500 ppm; and optionally (vii) hexanol or 2-ethyl-l -hexanol in amounts up to 500 ppm. Optionally, the composition comprises glucose in a ratio to total monosaccharides of 0.80 to 0.99, such as 0.90 to 0.99,

weight/weight. Optionally, the composition comprises fructose in a ratio to total

monosaccharides of at least 0.0001, 0.001, 0.01, 0.05, 0.08, or 0.09 weight/weight, such as at least 0.01 weight/weight. Optionally, the composition comprises xylose in a ratio to total monosaccharides of at least 0.0001, 0.001, 0.01, 0.05, 0.08, or 0.09 weight/weight, such as at least 0.01 weight/weight. Optionally, the composition further comprises at least 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 250, 500, 1000, 5000, or 10,000 ppb fumaric acid, such as at least 10 ppb fumaric acid. Optionally, the composition further comprises at least 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 250, 500, 1000, 5000, or 10,000 ppb furfural, such as at least 10 ppb furfural. Optionally, the composition further comprises at least 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 250, 500, 1000, 5000, or 10,000 ppb phenols, such as at least 10 ppb phenols. Optionally, the composition further comprises at least 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 250, 500, 1000, 5000, or 10,000 ppb hexanol or 2-ethyl-l -hexanol, such as at least 10 ppb hexanol or 2-ethyl-l -hexanol. Optionally, the composition further comprises at least 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 250, 500, 1000, 5000, or 10,000 ppb methyl ethyl ketone, such as at least 10 ppb methylethyl ketone. Optionally, the composition further comprises C6 oligosaccharides in a ratio to total dissolved sugars of 0.001 to 0.30, 0.001 to 0.20, 0.01 to 0.20, 0.001 to 0.10, 0.01 to 0.10, 0.001 to 0.05, or 0.01 to 0.05 weight/weight, such as 0.01 to 0.10 weight/weight. In some embodiments, the sugar composition is provided as an aqueous solution. The aqueous solution may comprise at least 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, or at least 30% total sugars weight/weight relative to the total weight of the composition.

[0076] When hemicellulosic sugars are combined, the highly purified cellulosic sugar product may be characterized by one or more, two or more, three or more, four or more, five or more, or six or more characteristics, including (i) monosaccharides in a ratio to total dissolved sugars > 0.50 weight/weight; (ii) glucose in a ratio to total monosaccharides > 0.50 weight/weight; (iii) glucose in a ratio to total monosaccharides > 0.80 weight/weight; (iv) fructose in a ratio to total monosaccharides < 0.10 weight/weight; (v) fructose in a ratio to total monosaccharides > 0.01 weight/weight; (vi) xylose in a ratio to total monosaccharides < 0.10 weight/weight; (vii) furfurals in amounts up to 0.01% weight/weight; (viii) phenols in amounts up to 500 ppm; (ix) hexanol in amounts up to 500 ppm; (x) C ₄ carboxylic acid in a ratio to total saccharides < 0.05 weight/weight; and (xi) fumaric acid in a ratio to total saccharides < 0.05 weight/weight. For example, the sugar mixture may be a mixture having a high monosaccharides to total dissolved sugars ratio, a high glucose content, and a low xylose content. In some embodiments, the sugar mixture is a mixture having a high monosaccharides to total dissolved sugars ratio, a high glucose content, a low xylose content, and a low impurity content (e.g., low furfurals and phenols). In some embodiments, the mixture is characterized by a high monosaccharides to total dissolved sugars ratio, a high glucose content, a low xylose content, a low impurity content (e.g., low furfurals and phenols), and a trace amount of hexanol. In some embodiments, the sugar product is provided as an aqueous solution. The aqueous solution may comprise at least 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, or at least 30% total sugars weight/weight relative to the total weight of the composition.

EXAMPLES

[0077] It is understood that the examples and embodiments described herein are for illustrative purposes only and are not intended to limit the scope of the claimed invention. It is also understood that various modifications or changes in light of the examples and embodiments described herein will be suggested to persons skilled in the art and are to be included within the spirit and purview of this application and scope of the appended claims. All publications, patents, and patent applications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes.

[0078] Example 1 - Extraction and refining of bagasse: Bagasse sugar composition

(DB4D01): Bagasse was shredded in a wood shredder. In a temperature controlled tank, bagasse (60 lbs, dry base) was then treated with an aqueous solution containing 0.5% H ₂ S0 ₄ (wt/wt) at a liquid to solid ratio of 14:2. The average temperature of the temperature controlled tank was maintained at 130-135 °C for 3 hours. The solution was circulated by pumping. The resulting liquor was collected and the solids washed with water. The wash water was then used to prepare the acid solution for the next batch by adding acids as needed. The hemicellulose-depleted lignocellulosic matter was collected and dried.

[0079] The acidic hemicellulose sugar stream was run through a SAC column. The sugar stream was then extracted continuously in a series of mixer settlers (2 countercurrent stages) with an extractant having tri-laurylamine:hexanol at a ratio of 30:70. The extractant to sugar stream ratio was kept in the range of 2: 1 to 1.5: 1. The resulting aqueous phase was further purified by using a SAC resin, a WBA resin, and a mixed bed resin. The pH of the resulting stream was adjusted to 4.5 with 0.5% HCl and the sugar solution evaporated to a concentration of -30% dissolved solids (DS). The resulting sugar stream contained about 7% arabinose, 2.5% galactose, 6.5% glucose, 65% xylose, 1.5% mannose, 4% fructose and 14% oligosaccharides (all % weight/total sugars). This sugar solution was further processed by fractionation on an SSMB system, resulting in a xylose rich fraction and a xylose depleted fraction. Each fraction was concentrated by evaporation. Table 1 provides a chemical analysis of the resulting xylose rich sugar solution.

Table 1: Chemical analysis of a hemicellulose sugar mixture produced by hemicellulose sugar extraction and purification of bagasse

[0080] Example 2 - Refined bagasse sugar stream: Bagasse was extracted and refined according to Example 1. The process was conducted at pilot scale at Virdia PDU, Danville VA. Table 2 summarizes the sugar profile of the refined sugar stream.

Table 2: Sugar composition of a hemicellulose sugar mixture produced by hemicellulose sugar extraction and purification of bagasse

[0081] Example 3 - Fractionation of refined bagasse sugar stream: Refined bagasse produced according to Example 2 was fractionated by chromatography (as per

PCT/US2013/039585) to produce a xylose enriched extract stream (Table 3A) and xylose depleted raffinate stream (Table 3B).

Table 3A: Sugar composition of a xylose enriched sugar mixture produced from bagasse

Table 3B: Sugar composition of a xylose depleted sugar mixture produced from bagasse

[0082] Example 4 - Evaluating solubility of fumaric acid and calcium fumarate in water-MEK mixtures: Water and methylethyl ketone (MEK) were shaken for several minutes to allow saturation of each phase. The phases were separated. An excess amount of fumaric acid was stirred at 40 °C in each phase for 5 hours in a closed container. A sample of the solution was diluted with water and filtered. The concentration of fumaric acid was determined by HPLC by injecting 1-20 μΐ _^ onto a Bio-Rad Aminex HPX-87H 7.2mm column, using 0.003 M H ₂ S0 ₄ as eluent, flow rate 0.6 mL/min, temperature 65 °C, and an RI detector. The saturated solution was held in a thermostated bath at 25 °C, 10 °C, 4 °C and 0 °C and allowed to equilibrate at each temperature. A sample of each solution was taken, diluted with water and injected onto the HPLC to determine fumaric acid concentration. Similarly, excess amounts of fumaric acid and Ca(OH) ₂ were shaken with each phase and the concentration of fumaric acid determined by HPLC in a diluted, filtered sample. The solubility curves of fumaric acid and calcium fumarate are shown in Fig. 4.

[0083] Example 5 - Evaluating the partition coefficient of fumaric acid and calcium fumarate in a two phase system of water and MEK: An excess amount of fumaric acid was shaken overnight at 4 °C in a biphasic system of water and MEK. The fumaric acid concentration in each phase was determined by HPLC as described in Example 4. Similarly, excess amounts of both fumaric acid and calcium hydroxide were equilibrated with a biphasic system of water and MEK. The partition coefficient was calculated as:

Concentration in MEK, %wt

Concentration in water, %wt

K was determined to be 8.6 for fumaric acid and 0.5 for calcium fumarate.

[0084] Example 6 - Performing Extraction 2 with water-MEK-fumaric acid:

Hemicellulose-depleted bagasse (treated as described in the examples above) of DS~47% was contacted for 2 hours with a mixture of water, MEK and fumaric acid using reaction conditions summarized in Table 6. The liquid to solid ration was maintained at 17: 1 and the MEK to water ratio was 1 : 1. The mixture was heated in a Parr 5500 pressure reactor with a 4848 reactor controller. After the reactor was cooled down, the solids were filtered, washed with water saturated MEK, dried, and the solids weighed. The dried cellulosic-remainder was characterized by NREL/TP-510-42618 method to determine the cellulose and lignin content. The amount of ash in the lignin could not be determined at the available quantities, but is estimated to be about 5%, i.e., if the % lignin + ash is reported as 20%, then mixture comprises about 15% lignin and about 5% ash.

Table 6: Reaction conditions of Extraction 2

[0085] The liquid phase is split into two fractions. Fraction A is separated to obtain the organic phase and the aqueous phase. A sample of the organic phase is evaporated to dryness to determine the amount of dissolved lignin. Fraction B is first titrated with Ca(OH) ₂ to pH 3.5-3.8 and is then treated similarly to Fraction A.

[0086] Example 7 - Performing Extraction 3 with water-MEK-fumaric acid: The solid separated in Example 6 having DS of 30-50%) wt/wt is introduced into a high pressure lab reactor equipped with a stirrer and thermostated heating system (Autoclave Engineers). Alternatively, a reaction vessel fabricated in the lab from metal piping and Swagelock ^® fittings allowing for the rapid conduction of heating and cooling is heated by dipping it into a hot oil bath using DowTherm A thermal fluid and cooled by dipping into a water bath. The reaction vessel is loaded with a water/MEK solution at 13 : 1 ratio to dry solids. The solution comprises MEK:water at about 35:65%> wt/wt and fumaric acid as indicated in Table 7, and the reaction is conducted for 10-40 minutes at the reaction temperature. Table 7: Reaction conditions of Extraction 3

Temp (°C) Fumaric acid (%w/w of liquid)

200 1.0

220 1.0

230 1.0

240 1.0

250 1.0

220 2.0

250 2.0

[0087] After the reaction is cooled down, the content of the reactor is tested to determine if all of the solid have been hydrolyzed to liquid, and any remaining solid is filtered, dried and its weight measured. The liquid phase is split into two fractions. Fraction A is separated to obtain the organic phase and the aqueous phase. A sample of the organic phase is evaporated to dryness to determine the amount of dissolved lignin. Fraction B is first titrated with Ca(OH) ₂ to pH 3.5-3.8 and is then treated similarly to Fraction A. The aqueous phase is analyzed for total sugars, for monomer/oligomer composition and for carbohydrate composition.

FURTHER EMBODIMENTS OF THE DISCLOSURE

1. A process of producing hemicellulosic mixed sugars, lignin and glucose from a biomass, comprising:

(i) extracting hemicellulose sugars from the biomass, thereby obtaining a hemi-depleted remainder, wherein the hemi-depleted remainder comprises lignin and cellulose;

(ii) contacting the hemi-depleted remainder with a lignin extraction solution to produce a lignin extract and a cellulosic remainder; wherein the lignin extraction solution comprises a limited-solubility solvent, a limited- solubility organic acid, and water, wherein the limited-solubility solvent and water form an organic phase and an aqueous phase;

(iii) separating the lignin extract from the cellulosic remainder, wherein the lignin extract comprises lignin dissolved in the limited-solubility solvent and the cellulosic remainder comprises cellulose and residual lignin; and

(iv) contacting the cellulosic remainder with a cellulose hydrolysis solution to hydrolyze cellulose and extract residual lignin; wherein the cellulose hydrolysis solution comprises the limited-solubility solvent, the limited- solubility organic acid and water, wherein the limited-solubility solvent and water form an organic phase and an aqueous phase.

2. The process of embodiment 1, wherein before contacting the cellulosic remainder with the cellulose hydrolysis solution, the cellulosic remainder is treated with the lignin extraction solution to increase porosity and reduce crystallinity, wherein the treatment comprises contacting the cellulosic remainder with the lignin extraction solution at elevated temperature and pressure and releasing the pressure rapidly to create a solvent explosion effect.

3. The process according to embodiment 1 or 2, wherein the limited-solubility organic acid is recycled by applying one, two, three, or four step(s) selected from:

(i) contacting the aqueous stream(s) after phase separation with C0 ₂ at a pressure of at least 2 barg to convert calcium fumarate to fumaric acid and calcium carbonate;

(ii) stripping the limited-solubility solvent from the aqueous phase comprising fumaric acid by evaporation to produce a solvent-depleted aqueous phase;

(iii) concentrating the aqueous phase comprising glucose and fumaric acid; and

(iv) cooling the solvent-depleted aqueous phase to less than 5 °C to cause precipitation of fumaric acid and filtering the precipitate to collect the fumaric acid for further use.

4. The process of embodiment 3, wherein loss of the limited-solubility organic acid per kg of glucose produced is less than 25 g.

5. A highly purified glucose product characterized by one or more, two or more, three or more, four or more, five or more, or six or more characteristics selected from:

(i) monosaccharides in a ratio to total dissolved sugars > 0.50 weight/weight;

(ii) glucose in a ratio to total monosaccharides > 0.90 weight/weight;

(iii) xylose in a ratio to total monosaccharides < 0.10 weight/weight;

(iv) fructose in a ratio to total monosaccharides < 0.10 weight/weight;

(v) fructose in a ratio to total monosaccharides > 0.01 weight/weight;

(vi) furfurals in amounts up to 0.01% weight/weight;

(vii) phenols in amounts up to 500 ppm;

(viii) hexanol in amounts up to 500 ppm;

(ix) C ₄ carboxylic acid in a ratio to total saccharides < 0.05 weight/weight; and

(x) fumaric acid in a ratio to total saccharides < 0.05 weight/weight.

6. The use of the highly purified glucose product of embodiment 5 as feed for a fermentation process or chemical conversion process to produce a product. 7. The highly purified glucose product of embodiment 5, comprising fumaric acid in an amount less than 0.05% weight/weight.

8. A process for the hydrolysis of cellulose pulp, comprising:

(i) contacting the cellulose pulp with water, a limited-solubility solvent, and a limited-solubility acid; and

(ii) heating the cellulose pulp to a temperature of about 200-400 °C.

9. The process of embodiment 8, wherein the limited-solubility acid is a dicarboxylic acid.

10. The process of embodiment 8 or 9, wherein the limited-solubility acid has at least one pKa value between 1.9 and 3.5 in water.

11. The process of any one of embodiments 8-10, wherein the solubility of the limited-solubility acid in water at 4 °C is less than 1% wt/wt.

12. The process of any one of embodiments 8-11, wherein the limited-solubility acid is fumaric acid.

13. The process of any one of embodiments 8-12, wherein the limited-solubility solvent comprises a 4- to 8-carbon ketone.

14. The process of any one of embodiments 8-13, wherein the limited-solubility solvent is methylethyl ketone.

15. The process of any one of embodiments 8-14, wherein at least a portion of the limited-solubility acid is recovered by precipitation.

16. The process of any one of embodiments 8-15, wherein the cellulose pulp has undergone a pretreatment step.

17. The process of embodiment 16, wherein the pretreatment step comprises:

(i) contacting the cellulose pulp with water, solvent, and a limited-solubility organic acid;

(ii) heating the cellulose pulp to a temperature of about 160-220 °C in a closed system; and

(iii) opening the closed system to rapidly release pressure.