This application is related to, and claims priority from United States Provisional Patent Application number 62/932,914 filed Nov. 8, 2019. Application 62/932,914 is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

Field of the Invention

The present invention relates generally to the field of micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS), and more particularly to a laser-assisted micro-machining process.

Description of the Problem Solved

Micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) have many applications in fields like healthcare, consumer electronics, automobiles, and energy. However, the development of novel MEMS devices has been significantly hindered by several limitations of lithography -based microfabrication processes used to manufacture MEMS. First, these processes require access to expensive microfabrication tools such as photolithography systems, mask aligners, and deposition and etching tools. Moreover, these processes have a lengthy process development time. The high cost of equipment ownership and long development time associated with the lithography -based microfabrication processes makes them unsuitable for research and development, and low-volume MEMS production.

Second, the fabrication material is largely restricted to silicon and related materials such as silicon oxide and silicon nitride. The restriction in the choice of fabrication material limits the variety of MEM systems that can be designed and fabricated. For example, magnetic MEMS can potentially have distinct advantages over electrostatic/piezoelectric actuators such as high strength, polarity, and long actuation distance. However, fabricating magnetic MEMS is challenging due to the incompatibility of magnetic materials with lithography- based MEMS fabrication processes [1] Furthermore, the performance of MEMS devices is compromised due to the restricted choice of fabrication materials. For example, even though spring steel is an excellent choice for making high-performance micro-springs for MEMS, generally silicon is used because spring steel is incompatible with lithography-based MEMS fabrication processes.

Finally, during MEMS design and fabrication, integrating various materials and corresponding fabrication process is often the most difficult task [2] In the lithography-based fabrication process, MEM systems are fabricated in monolithic fashion by successive deposition and patterning layers of materials. Each material layer is deposited and patterned using a unique process, which must be compatible with the previously deposited materials. However, integrating these processes is difficult due to material incompatibilities, thermal constraints (for example, polymeric parts cannot be subjected to high-temperature processing step such as LPCVD silicon deposition), and mechanical stability of interim structures. In summary, the conventional lithography -based MEMS fabrication processes are costly, offer a limited choice of fabrication materials, and the integration of various materials is challenging.

Laser micromachining is an attractive alternative to conventional microfabrication processes. However, the application of laser micromachining in fabricating MEMS has been limited to drilling holes [1], [2], milling micro-trenches [3], and fabricating millimeter-scale structures [3]— [5]. The limited applications are due to two limitations of laser micromachining process.

First, manufacturing MEMS requires fabricating high aspect ratio (typically 10:1 or higher) microstructures with small lateral feature size (typically IOmih and less). However, laser micromachining produces structures with low aspect ratio and large feature sizes. Therefore, the application of laser micromachining has been limited to drilling low-aspect ratio holes with diameter in the order of 40 to 50 micrometer or patterning surfaces.

Second, the laser micro-machined parts suffer from micro-burrs and debris around the machined parts. These imperfections are of the order of tens of microns, making these laser- micro-machined parts unsuitable for MEMS fabrication. Eliminating these micro-burrs from delicate MEMS microstructure parts is challenging. Methods like sonication and physical scrub are not practical for MEMS structures due to their fragile nature. An etching process often results in dissolving the MEM structures along with the burrs because the size of the burrs is of the same order as the size of MEMS parts. For these reasons, the laser-micromachining process has been largely used to fabricate rigid parts such as patterned surfaces, holes and trenches, where physical scrub or sonication can be utilized to remove burrs.

It would be extremely advantageous to have a laser micromachining process that produces micro-machined parts with high aspect ratios and small lateral features. It would also be advantageous to have an electro-deburring process to remove the burrs in the laser micro- machined parts to produce clean parts comparable to conventional microfabrication process such as deep reactive ion etching (DRIE).

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a laser micro-machining process called laser-assisted material phase-change and expulsion (LAMPE) micromachining. In addition, the present invention relates to a novel MEMS fabrication process called multi-lamina assembly of laser- micro-machined laminates (MALL) to fabricate MEMS. In the MALL process, first, the individual layers of a micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) are fabricated using the LAMPE micro-machining process. Next, the fabricated microstructure laminates are stack assembled and bonded to fabricate MEM systems. The MALL MEMS fabrication process enables greater material section and integration, greater design flexibility, low-cost manufacturing, rapid development, and integrated packaging.

An object of the invention is a laser micromachining process called laser-assisted material phase-change and expulsion (LAMPE) micromachining process to produce sub diffraction-limited lateral features with aspect ratio as large as 10:1. Such features were previously not achievable using conventional laser micromachining process.

A further object of the invention is an electro-deburring process for removing micro-burrs from LAMPE micro-machined or laser micro-machined metal parts. These micro-burrs are formed due to solidification of melted metal during laser micromachining and hinders the application of these parts in fabricating micro-electromechanical system (MEMS). The disclosed process and its application remove these burrs and produces clean parts suitable for MEMS fabrication that are comparable to parts produced using a conventional deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) process. Further disclosed is the application of an electro-deburring process to deburr metal parts produced using a micro-milling process, thereby, also enabling their application in MEMS fabrication.

A further object of the invention is the application of the LAMPE process for silicon micro machining to rapidly produce small lateral features and high-aspect ratio (10:1) features. In this process, a laser is used to oxidize silicon (induce phase-change), and the newly formed granular silicon oxide is removed using pressure generated by partially vaporized silicon.

A further object of the invention is the application of the LAMPE process for diamond micro machining to produce diffraction-limited lateral features and ultra-high aspect ratio features. This process can thus be utilized to fabricate diamond parts for micro-electromechanical (MEMS) system.

A further object of the invention is a novel MEMS fabrication process called multi-lamina assembly of laser micro-machined laminates (MALL) to fabricate MEMS. In this process, first, LAMPE micromachining is used to fabricate individual layer of MEMS. Second, the electro- deburring process is used to remove the micro-burrs from LAMPE micro-machined parts. Third, the individual layers are stack- assembled and bonded to fabricate MEMS. Often an optional fourth step is used to dissolve the sacrificial layer to create free-standing micro-structures in MEMS. For MEMS that do not require small features and high aspect ratio, a traditional laser micro-machining process in conjunction with electro-deburring process can be used to fabricate MEMS layers.

A further object of the invention is a roll-to-roll MEMS fabrication process utilizing MALL for volume manufacturing of MEMS. In this process, individual layers of MEMS are fabricated simultaneously using laser micromachining. Using a set of rollers, these layers are brought together and bonded to form MEMS.

A further object of the invention is the post-processor used to generate a toolpath for the LAMPE micromachining process. This post-processor generates a toolpath program that contains desired process variables and their set values to insure LAMPE micro-machining.

A further object of the invention is a process to fabricate ultra-thin metal foils (less than 10 micrometer thickness) for LAMPE micro-machining, and their application in MEMS fabrication. In this process, a water-soluble film is used as a substrate film on which metal is electro-deposited. The metal-substrate film is laser micro-machined and laminated, and the water-soluble film is removed to fabricate MEMS.

Finally, it is an object of the present invention is the application of the LAMPE micro machining process in fabricating MEMS on a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) substrate. In this process, first, LAMPE micro-machining is used to pattern the device layer in SOI wafer. Next, the buried oxide is dissolved to using a hydrofluoric acid (HF) etch to create free-standing MEMS structures.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

Attention is now directed to several figures that illustrate features of the present invention.

Figure 1A shows a schematic diagram of LAMPE micromachining process illustrating fabrication of high aspect ratio structures.

Figure IB is an image highlighting the melt region of the sheet. The melted material is expelled downwards.

Figures 2A-2B show a comparison of lateral feature size (FS) produced in PLA and LAMPE micromachining. These parts have been cleaned using the electro-deburring process. (A) Lateral features produced in pulsed laser ablation (PLA) micromachining. (B) Lateral features produced in LAMPE micromachining.

Figure 3 shows a crater fabricated using LAMPE micromachining to demonstrate the minimum achievable feature size. The diameter of the hole is 5mih.

Figures 4A-4B show electro-deburring of LAMPE micro-machined crater. (A) Before electro- deburring. (B) After electro-deburring.

Figures 5A-5F show pulse exposure with varying pitch distance to confirm material melting & expulsion. (A) & (B) Pitch = 20mih, (C) & (D) Pitch = IOmih, and (E) & (F) Pitch = 5mih. Figure 6A-6B show high-aspect-ratio microfabrication using LAMPE micromachining. (A)

IOmih wide micro-slits fabricated on IOOmih thick copper sheet using LAMPE micromachining. (B) Magnified image showing the dimension of the micro-slit.

Figure 7 shows a SEM image of the backside of the LAMPE micro-machined copper sheet showing re-solidified melt ejects.

Figure 8 is a prior art graph of the polarization curve of copper in phosphoric acid.

Figures 9A-9B show electro-deburring of LAMPE micro-machined parts to remove micro burrs. (A) Before electro-deburring. (B) After electro-deburring.

Figures 10A-10B High aspect ratio interdigitated fingers fabricated using the LAMPE micro machining - (A) Low-magnification image showing the interdigitated fingers. (B) Magnified image of the fingers showing 10:1 aspect ratio. The lateral feature size is IOmih.

Figures 11A-11B show pulsed laser ablation (PLA) of silicon using 20ns long laser pulses. (A) Ablation profile created by a 5.6m/ pulse. The diameter of the crater is 9.51 mih and it is 3.29mih deep. (B) Ablation profile created by a 56m/ pulse. The diameter of the crater is 18.6mih and the depth is 6.8mih.

Figure 12 shows the cross-section image showing laser assisted oxidation of silicon. As can be seen, the laser assisted oxidation can significantly increase the effective optical penetration depth.

Figure 13 shows the optical microscope image confirming the oxidized silicon. The energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) image shown in the inset further confirms the present of silicon oxide.

Figures 14A-14B show examples of high-aspect-ratio microstructures fabricated using LAMPE micromachining of silicon. (A) Low-magnification image showing fabricated interdigitated finger structures. (B) High-magnification image showing the distance between the fingers. Figures 15A-15B and Figure 16 show a schematic diagram of multi-lamina assembly.

Figures 17A-17B show a schematic diagram of the comb-drive actuator showing design parameters.

Figures 18A-18B show fabrication of comb-drive device layer using LAMPE micromachining of copper: (A) Optical microscope image showing micro-burrs present in LAMPE micro-machined part. (B) Magnified image showing micro-burrs present between the fingers. These burrs result in short circuits between the two sets of fingers.

Figures 19A-19B show electro-deburring of LAMPE micro-machined comb-drive structure to remove the micro-burrs between the fingers. (A) Before electro-deburring. (b) After electro- deburring showing clean comb-drive fingers.

Figure 20 shows layers of the comb-drive actuator fabricated using LAMPE micromachining. The copper layer is used for the device, and the aluminum oxide layer is used for the substrate layer. Figures 21A-21B show (A) Assembled and bonded layers of comb-drive actuator. (B) The device cut-out from the laminated layers using laser cutting.

Figure 22 shows a SEM image of the fabricated comb-drive actuator.

Figures 23A-23B shows features of the fabricated comb-drive actuator. (A) The distance between the electrostatic-comb fingers is 1 Opm (B) The width of the micro-beam is 20pm Figures 24A-24B show fabrication of 2.5D structure in silicon using laser-micromachining: (A) Silicon nitride mask layer patterned using laser-micromachining. (B) KOH anisotropic etch to fabricate 2.5D structures.

Figures 25A-25B show fabrication of 2.5D structures using micro-milling. (A) Square recess fabricated using micro-milling followed by electro-deburring. Feature size as small as 100 pm can be fabricated using this method. (B) The micro-milling method provides a high degree of control over the recess depth. The figure shows fabricated recess with depth 5pm, 10pm, and 15 pm. Figure 26 shows manipulation and laser micromachining of ultra-thin metal foils using a rigid frame. First, a window is micro-machined in the rigid frame. Next, a 10pm thin metal foil is laminated on this frame. Finally, laser micromachining is performed to create microstructure. Figure 27 shows the 12.5pm gap between the freestanding structure and the substrate fabricated using a 12.5pm thick adhesive layer.

Figure 28 shows the intensity profile of focused laser beam. The beam spot diameter is 10 = 2l.2MW/cm ² ·

Figure 29 shows a process flowchart for the MALL MEMS fabrication process.

Figure 30 shows fabrication of an individual MEMS layer. Figure 31 shows a flowchart used to determine the LAMPE micro-machining process according the layer material.

Figure 32 shows a flowchart used to fabricate metal layers using the LAMPE micromachining. Figure 33 shows a flowchart for using LAMPE in the micro-machining of silicon.

Figures 34A-34D show (A) Micro-assembly of discrete lamina sheets using alignment pins. (B) Alignment pin inserted inside the alignment hole. (C) The clearance between the alignment pin and the alignment- hole. (D) SEM image of aligned alignment marks, showing alignment accuracy down to 2mih. The inset shows the black-lit optical image of an alignment of marks.

Several illustrations have been presented to aid in understanding the present invention. The scope of the present invention is not limited to what is shown in the figures.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 1 Laser-assisted Material Phase-change & Expulsion (LAMPE) Micro-machining

1.1 Introduction

Enabling MEMS fabrication using metals is advantageous because they offer a wide range of mechanical and electrical properties. Moreover, these properties can be tuned by the alloying process. The ability to fabricate MEM systems using metals empowers a new paradigm in MEMS design. Moreover, the metal foils used for MEMS fabrication are low-cost and easy to fabricate using a roll forming process [61] Unfortunately, the existing wet and dry etching processes are isotropic and not suitable for fabricating high aspect ratio microstructures required for making MEMS.

At a macro-scale, lasers are widely used for cutting metal sheets. In this process, a laser is used to melt the metal, and a high-pressure air jet is used to expel the melted material. However, high-pressure jets cannot be employed at a micro-scale due to the delicate nature of the laser micro-machined structures. For this reason, laser micro-machining utilizes vaporization to remove the material. However, the vaporization process typically results in low aspect ratio micro-machining. The low aspect ratio in pulsed laser ablation micro-machining utilizing vaporization is due to several reasons. First, during the ablation process, the vaporized material creates a plasma above the ablated region. This plasma absorbs the laser light, thereby reducing the energy available for ablation. As the depth of ablation crater increases, the laser absorption by the plasma becomes significant, and the laser energy available to the target is no longer enough to process the material. This phenomenon limits the maximum depth of micro-machining achievable using the PLA laser-micro-machining process.

Also, the aspect ratio depends upon the optical penetration depth of the material. For metals, the absorption coefficient a > 10 ⁵ cm ¹ [55], and the optical penetration depth, Ha is on the order of a few nanometers. Therefore, with a typical laser, the laser energy is confined to a very thin layer on the surface, and the laser acts as a surface heat source. Due to isotropic heat conduction, the surface heating of the metal results in an equal temperature gradient in all directions, thereby resulting in approximately 1 : 1 aspect ratio of ablation profile. However, in the special case of a laser with a Gaussian intensity, the distribution results in the depth of the ablation profile being larger than the width due to the high intensity at the center of the Gaussian beam.

Finally, the material vaporization also results in large melt-pool around the ablated region. This melted material is shifted by the high-pressure escaping vapors, thereby increasing the width of the ablation region.

1.2 LAMPE Micromachining

The present invention relates to a novel approach to laser micro-machine material sheets to create high aspect ratio structures significantly exceeding the optical penetration depth and thermal diffusion length of the material. The approach utilizes a laser-assisted, material phase- change and expulsion (LAMPE) process to achieve a high aspect ratio, while still maintaining small lateral features. In this process, low energy laser power is used to first induce a phase- change in the material, and then expel the altered material utilizing pressure generated by vapor bubbles formed at the laser-material interface due to the partial vaporization of material. The expelled liquid-metal re-solidifies at the edges of the LAMPE micro-machined part. These re-solidified liquid-metal burrs can then be removed using an electro-deburring process herein disclosed. The process utilizes high current density at sharp burrs and edges to selectively electrochemically etch burrs without significantly affecting the dimensions of the LAMPE micro-machined part. It must be noted that for MEM systems that do not require high aspect ratio structures with small lateral features, traditional pulsed laser ablation (PLA) micro machining in conjunction with the electro-deburring process can be used for MALL MEMS fabrication. The electro-deburring process is described in section 1.5.1 It is shown that the LAMPE micro-machining process can be used to fabricate lateral feature size smaller than the diffraction-limited spot size, and ultra-deep structures far exceeding the optical penetration depth of the laser beam.

A careful setting of laser power is required to achieve the laser-assisted material -phase change and expulsion process. A laser power below this level would not result in partial vaporization of the material, and no expulsion would occur. The laser power above the level will result in the creation of large melt-pool and complete vaporization, thereby increasing the feature size.

The LAMPE micro-machining can be used for a wide range of materials such as metals, silicon, and diamond. In LAMPE micromachining of metal sheets, first, the laser beam is used to melt (i.e., induce phase-change) the material, and then, the liquid-phase metal is expelled through the rear of the sheet; as a result, creating features as small as the diffraction-limited spot size and as deep as the Rayleigh length of the focused beam. Such small features-size and high aspect ratio are not achievable using conventional laser micro-machining utilizing vaporization to remove the material.

Similarly, in LAMPE micro-machining of silicon, low energy laser pulses are used to oxidize the silicon (i.e. induce phase-change). The newly formed silicon oxide transmits the laser light (due to its low absorption coefficient) causing further oxidation of silicon beneath it as a result, enabling oxidation far beyond the optical penetration depth of silicon. The formed silicon oxide is granular and expelled through the rear of the wafer utilizing pressure generated by vapor bubbles formed at the laser-material interface due to the partial vaporization of material. Likewise, in LAMPE micro-machining of diamond, first, the laser is used to convert the diamond into graphite (i.e. induce phase-change), and then the newly formed graphite is removed by oxidizing the graphite into carbon dioxide. Using LAMPE micro-machining of diamond, a very high aspect ratio machining of diamond is achieved.

Using the LAMPE micro-machining process, burr-free parts with lateral features as small as Imih and aspect ratio as large as 20: 1 can be fabricated. These features are comparable to features produced using conventional lithography-based micro-fabrication processes such as deep reactive ion etching (DRIE). The LAMPE micromachining process can result in a lateral feature size smaller than the diffraction-limited spot size of the beam and the aspect ratio as the Rayleigh length far exceeds the optical penetration depth of the material.

The LAMPE micromachining process has several advantages over laser ablation micro machining. First, the laser power required for LAMPE micro-machining is significantly lower than the power required for laser micro-machining using vaporization. The low power requirement is because the enthalpy of melting is less than the enthalpy of vaporization. Moreover, the absence of vapor plasma shown in Figures 1 A-1B results in no laser absorption, and the entire laser power is available for material processing. Second, the thermal and mechanical shock exerted on the material during melting is less the thermal and mechanical shock exerted on the material during vaporization. As a result, the heat-affected zone (HAZ) in LAMPE micro-machining is smaller than HAZ resulting in vaporization.

1.3 Difference between PLA and LAMPE Micromachining

The differences between conventional laser micro-machining utilizing pulsed laser ablation and LAMPE micro-machining process are as follows:

1. In conventional pulsed laser ablation (PLA) micro-machining, the material is removed using vaporization, and the mass of the target is reduced after the laser micromachining process. However, in the LAMPE micro-machining process, the metal is melted, and the liquid-metal is expelled through the rear of the sheet using the pressure generated by vapor bubbles formed at the laser-material interface. This expelled liquid-metal re- solidifies at the edges of the micro-machined part. Thus, the mass of the target remains unchanged. In LAMPE micro-machining, the material is removed using the electro- deburring process.

2. The laser fluence required in PLA micro-machining is higher than the laser fluence required in LAMPE micro-machining process because the enthalpy of vaporization is higher than the enthalpy of melting. The low fluence requirement for LAMPE micro machining considerably reduces the cost of a laser source.

3. The conventional PLA laser micro-machining process can be used to fabricate 2.5D structures by raster scanning overlapping pulse irradiation spots [62][63] However, the LAMPE micro-machining process is limited to micromachining material sheets.

4. The PLA micro-machining produces lateral features larger than the diffraction-limited spot size because of the formation of large melt-pool around the ablation region. However, as shown in section 3.4, the LAMPE micro-machining can produce lateral features as small as the diffraction-limited spot size. Figure 2 shows the lateral feature size created using PLA and LAMPE micro-machining process. As can be seen, the minimum feature size produced in PLA micro-machining is 28mih and in the LAMPE micro-machining process is 8mih.

5. In the conventional laser micro-machining, the vaporized material creates a plasma above the ablation region. This plasma absorbs the laser beam, thereby reducing the energy available for vaporization and limits the achievable depth of micromachining. In contrast, no vapor plasma is formed in LAMPE micromachining, and the aspect ratio is only limited by the Rayleigh length of the laser beam.

1.4 Lateral Feature Size in LAMPE Micromachining

The minimum achievable feature size depends upon the focused beam spot size and laser pulse duration. In a conventional pulsed ablation process, the material is removed through vaporization, resulting in large melt-pool, plasma plume, and thermal shock on the material lattice. As a result, the minimum feature size is much larger than the theoretical limit [64][65][66][62] However, using the laser-assisted material phase-change and expulsion (LAMPE) micro-machining, feature size comparable to the theoretical limit can be achieved. Moreover, using LAMPE micro-machining, much higher aspect ratio can be achieved than previously possible.

Figure 3 shows the minimum achievable feature size of 5mih using LAMPE micromachining process when a 10 micrometer beam spot-size is used. This feature is created by irradiating a single pulse of laser with wavelength 532nm and pulse duration 20ns on a copper target. The pulse energy is 5.6m/, which is set by reducing the original pulse energy of 561m/ to its 1 % value using an external attenuator. The reflectivity of the copper target, R = 047; therefore, the effective energy available for material processing is 3.2m/. The laser beam is focused using a microscope objective with numerical aperture NA = 0.65. The focused beam spot diameter is Imih, giving the maximum intensity at the center of Gaussian distribution as / o =

71 5GI/!//cm ² . Table 1 summarizes the laser conditions used for LAMPE micromachining process.

Table 1: Laser parameters for LAMPE micromachining. The small feature size is possible in the LAMPE micromachining because the laser is used to melt and expel the material, thereby eliminating the drawbacks of vaporization present in the pulsed ablation process. The expelled liquid metal re-solidifies at the rim of the hole and can be removed using an electro-deburring process developed in this work (section 1.5.1). Figures 3- 4 shows the LAMPE fabricated hole before and after removing the re-solidified metal.

It should be noted that the material is largely melted (and only partially vaporized). This hypothesis can be validated empirically by performing a series of dot array machining with varying pitch distance. Figure 5A-5F show the micro-machined dot array at pitch distance of 20m? n, 10m?h, and 5mpi. In figure 5 A, the machined dots are far apart, and the melted metal is forced to expel upward, creating a crater. As the dot patterns overlap, the pulsed laser ablation process involving vaporization to remove material results in a recess or 2.5 D micromachining [63] However, the LAMPE micromachining process results in re-solidified slag as shown in figure 5C. The slag is formed due to the mere shifting of the melted material and re-solidification when dots overlap. These findings confirm that in the LAMPE micromachining process, there is minimal vaporization, and micro-machining process is dominated by liquid-metal expulsion.

1.5 LAMPE High- Aspect-Ratio Micromachining

It was seen in the previous section that short laser pulses can be utilized to melt, partially evaporate, and expel the material. The analytical model, along with process development, can be used to empirically estimate the pulse duration and threshold pulse energy ELAMPE required for achieving laser-assisted melting and expulsion.

Figures 1 A-1B show the schematic diagram using the LAMPE micro-machining process to fabricate high aspect-ratio (LIAR) structures. The high aspect ratio machining is achieved by using laser pulses to gradually melt the vertical face of the laminate (shown in figure IB) and expel it downwards. The laser pulse energy is set to ELAMPE to ensure melting and expulsion, and no vaporization. The high aspect ratio (HAR) machining of metal sheet using LAMPE micro machining process is similar to laser cutting of thick sheets of metals used at macro-scale. In the laser cutting of metals at macro-scale, the laser is used to melt the metal (and not vaporize), and a high-pressure air jet is used to expel the melted material. However, in the LAMPE micro machining process, the metal is ejected by the pressure generated from the vapor bubbles formed at the laser-metal interface due to the partial vaporization of the material. The expelled material re-solidifies at the rear of the sheet, as shown in figure 7.

Figures 6A-6B show the IOmih wide micro-slights fabricated using LAMPE micromachining on a IOOmih thick copper sheet. The high aspect ratio (HAR) structure is fabricated using the pulse energy of 56m/, which is set by reducing the original pulse energy of 561m/ to its 10% value using an external attenuator. The reflectivity of the copper target, R = 0.47; therefore, the effective energy available for material processing is 32m/. The laser beam is focused using a 100mm focal length lens and the focused beam spot diameter is 12.98mih. Table 2 summarizes the laser conditions used for the LAMPE micromachining process.

In the LAMPE micro-machining process, the expelled metal re-solidifies at the edges of the micro-machined part creating micro-burrs. Figure 7 shows a SEM image of the backside of the LAMPE micro-machined copper sheet, displaying the micro-burrs. These micro-burrs must be removed from the laser micro-machined part to make them suitable for MEMS fabrication.

The next section describes the developed electro-deburring process to remove these micro-burrs.

Table 2: Laser parameters for LAMPE micromachining high aspect ratio (HAR) features. 1.5.1 Electro-deburring of LAMPE Micromachined Metal Layers

The LAMPE micro-machining process can create small lateral features with high aspect ratio. However, the micro-machined parts suffer from re-solidified micro-burrs. These burrs pose two difficulties in making MEMS. First, in a typical MEM system, microstructure parts are very close to each other (typically as close as 5mih - IOmih), and often held at a different electric potential. For example, in an electrostatic comb-drive actuator, the comb fingers are kept close to each other to increase the electrostatic force of attraction and a bias voltage is applied between the fingers. The protruding burrs can create electric contact between these fingers. Second, the sharp metal protrusion can generate field-emitted electrons resulting in the dielectric breakdown of air, thereby causing damage to the MEM system [69]

Removing the burrs in MEMS microstructures is challenging due to two reasons. First, macro-scale deburring processes such as physical scrub and abrasive jet cannot be utilized for MEMS structures due to their small size and delicate nature. Second, at macro-scale, etching process can etch the burrs without significantly affecting the dimensions of the parts. However, in MEMS parts, the burrs and the features are of the same order, and these methods result in significant etching of the parts.

The burrs produced in the LAMPE micromachining process have two interesting properties; first, these burrs have sharp features and large surface area, and second, they are located at the edges of the micro-machined parts. The current density is higher near the burrs due to two reasons: first, the burrs have sharp features, and second, they are located at the edges where the current density is higher. As a result, the electric field and the available mass transport rates are high at the burrs, resulting in a high etch rate. When the cell voltage is increased beyond the electro-polishing voltage, the etch rate at the burr increases significantly; however, the etch rate at the other area remains the same due to saturation in the etch rate. Using this phenomenon, the burrs can be selectively etched without significantly affecting the dimensions of the micro parts. Figures 9A-9B show performing electro-deburring of copper in 14 M phosphoric acid at 5F for 30 seconds. For certain application, electro-deburring can be followed by electroplating of gold to avoid surface oxidation. Figure 3-11 shows the high aspect ratio interdigitated fingers fabricated using the LAMPE micromachining. Such small features and high aspect ratio were previously achievable only using deep reactive ion etching (DRIE). It must be noted that for MEMS that does not require small lateral-features and high aspect ratio, traditional pulsed laser ablation (PLA) micromachining in conjunction with the electro-deburring process can be used for MALL MEMS fabrication.

1.6 LAMPE Micromachining of Silicon

Silicon is widely used as a mechanical material for fabricating MEM systems [71] Conventionally, deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) of silicon is used to fabricate MEMS [72] However, DRIE tools are expensive and require expensive etching gases. The LAMPE micro machining process is an attractive alternative for manufacturing high aspect ratio (HAR) microstructure silicon laminates. Figures 11 A-l IB show pulsed laser ablation of silicon. Moreover, these LAMPE micro-machined silicon laminates in conjunction with the MALL process, can be used to make MEM systems.

In the LAMPE process, the silicon is first converted into silicon oxide using laser (i.e. induce phase-change), and next, the granular silicon oxide is expelled from the rear of the wafer using the pressure generated from vapor bubbles formed at the laser-silicon interface due to partial vaporization of silicon.

When silicon is irradiated with low power laser in the oxygen environment, it converts to silicon oxide without resulting in any ablation. The absorption coefficient of S1O2 is a < lcm ¹ [55]; therefore, the optical penetration depth is E>lcm. Since the absorption coefficient of silicon oxide is low, the newly formed silicon oxide transmits the large percentage of the laser energy, which further oxidizes the silicon beneath. In this manner, a high aspect ratio structure much longer than the optical penetration depth of silicon can be oxidized. Figure 12 shows the laser-assisted oxidation of silicon. As can be seen, the oxidation length far exceeds the optical penetration depth. The oxidation of the silicon can be verified by using an optical microscope and energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) image as shown in Figure 13.

The successive oxidation of silicon takes place until the bottom of the wafer is reached. The oxidized silicon is in granular form and loosely bound to the silicon wafer. As a result, the small recoil pressure generated by partially vaporized silicon is sufficient to expel the granular silicon oxide from the bottom of the wafer, resulting in micromachining.

The maximum achievable aspect ratio is limited by two factors. First, the oxidized silicon exists in granular form and the effective absorption coefficient of granular oxide is larger than bulk silicon oxide due to light scattering. Second, the silicon oxide is expelled only when the oxidation is reached to the bottom of the wafer. As a result, for thick wafers, the attenuation could be significant to stop oxidation before the rear of the wafer is reached, thereby resulting in no micromachining. The aspect ratio in LAMPE micromachining could be further increased by performing the micromachining in HF vapor. The HF vapor can facilitate the selective removal of silicon oxide by forming gaseous SiFri.

Figures 14A-14B show examples of high-aspect-ratio microstructures fabricated using LAMPE micromachining of silicon. (A) Low-magnification image showing fabricated interdigitated finger structures. (B) High-magnification image showing the distance between the fingers

2 MALL MEMS Fabrication

We disclose a novel approach to fabricate MEMS using multi -lamina assembly of laser- micro-machined laminates (MALL). Figures 15A-15B show schematic diagram of the MALL fabrication process. The process includes two steps. First, the individual layers of the MEMS are fabricated using laser micromachining. Second, these layers are stack assembled and bonded to construct the MEM systems. The previous section described fabricating microstructure layers using the LAMPE micromachining process. This section describes the multi-lamina assembly and bonding of these microstructure layers to fabricate MEMS. Mechanical alignment of laminates using dowel pins and alignment holes is widely used in precision macro-fabrication, and employed to align and bond microstructure laminates. Figure 16 shows a schematic diagram of the alignment-pin and alignment-hole assembly process. Using this method, alignment accuracy exceeding 2 5mih is demonstrated. The multi-lamina assembly process is described in section 4-1

2.1 MALL Fabrication of Comb-drive Actuator

To demonstrate the application of MALL in fabricating MEMS devices, fabrication of a comb-drive actuator is presented. The comb-drive actuator is fabricated using copper as a structural material. The comb-drive actuator is selected because the interdigitated comb finger structure is an essential building block in many MEM systems such as optical shutters [21], micro-grippers [83], micro-engines [84], accelerometer [22], resonators [23], and electromechanical filters [24] The ability to fabricate interdigitated comb finger structures using copper can significantly reduce the cost of these MEM systems. Moreover, fabricating comb fingers is challenging because it requires high aspect ratio structures with small lateral features. Previously, comb fingers with comparable features and aspect ratio could be fabricated from silicon alone using the lithography -based deep reactive ion etching (DRLE) process [28] However, the process of the present invention can fabricate these structures from metal using the LAMPE micromachining process.

2.1.1 Comb-drive Actuator Design

Figures 17A-17B show the design of a comb-drive actuator. Figures 18A-18B show fabrication of the comb-drive device layer.

2.1.2 Comb-drive Actuator Fabrication

The fabrication of the comb-drive actuator consists of two steps. The first step is to fabricate the individual layer of the device using the LAMPE micromachining process. Figures 19A-19B show the optical microscope image of the LAMPE micro-machined copper sheet containing the comb-drive device structure. As can be seen in figure 19 A, the micro-machined part suffers from carbon deposits and micro-burrs. The micro-burrs result in electrical contact between the two sets of comb fingers and must be removed.

The micro-burrs are removed using the electro-deburring process described in section 1.5.1. The electro-deburring process is carried out in phosphoric acid, and the LAMPE micro- machined part is used as the anode while another copper sheet is used as a cathode. The electro- deburring is carried out at 5F for 30 seconds. Figure 19B shows the SEM image of the comb- drive structure after removing the micro-burrs.

A 100 pm thick aluminum oxide sheet is micro-machined and used as an insulating substrate. Prior to micromachining the aluminum oxide substrate, a 50pm thick stage-B epoxy adhesive film is bonded to it. This adhesive layer is later used to bond the copper device layer with aluminum oxide substrate layer. Figure 20 shows fabricated layers of the comb-drive actuator. For every layer, alignment holes are machined along with the device structure. These alignment holes are subsequently used for multi-lamina assembly. Once the layers are bonded (Figure 21 A), the device is cut out from the laminate structure using laser cutting (Figure 21B).

Figure 22 shows the fabricated comb-drive actuator. The gap between the comb-drive fingers is 10pm, and the thickness of the beam spring is 20pm (Figures 23A-23B). The gap between the fingers can be further reduced by reducing the thickness of the copper layer.

2.2 Discussion on MALL MEMS Fabrication

Various aspects of MALL fabrication process are discussed below.

2.2.1 Fabricating 2.5D Structures

The conventional microfabrication utilizes deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) and anisotropic wet etching processes [82] [117] to fabricate MEMS structures. These processes allow control over etch depth, and therefore, enable the fabrication of two-and-a-half dimension (2.5 D) structures. However, the LAMPE micromachining process is restricted to micromachining layers. One approach to overcome this limitation is to use 2.5 D structures fabricated in polymers using the conventional pulsed ablation laser-micromachining process. Another approach is to integrate the laser-micromachining with silicon anisotropic etching process. In this approach, first, a silicon nitride mask layer is removed using laser-micromachining (Figure 24A) and then, potassium hydroxide etching [2] is performed to create 2.5 D structures (Figure 24B) the third approach is to use micro-milling followed by the electro-deburring process (section 1.5.1) to create 2.5 D structures. The micro-milling offers vertical features as small as 5pm. However, the minimum achievable feature in the lateral direction is limited to 50pm. Figures 25A-25B show micro-milling 2.5 D recess with a varying depth.

In the MALL process, MEMS structures are fabricated with thin sheets of materials and manually assembled or roll-to-roll laminated. Typically, foils with thickness greater than or equal to 20pm can be used for manual assembly and roll-to-roll lamination process. As the thickness of the laminate is reduced, handling of these ultra-thin laminates becomes difficult.

For a MEM device requiring sheets with a thickness between 20pm to 5pm, a rigid or flexible frame can be utilized. Figure 26 shows a 10pm thin microstructure supported by a frame. For fabricating this structure, first, a window is micro-machined in 200pm thick silicon substrate. Next, a 10pm thick silver foil is bonded to the silicon substrate. Finally, the device structure is laser micro-machined on the bonded silver foil. For MEM systems requiring metal foils with thickness in the order of 5 pm to 1pm, the desired metal can be electrodeposited over water or solvent-soluble films, and such laminates is used to fabricate MEMS.

2.2.2 Gap Between Laminates

In the MALL process, the gap between the free-standing structure and substrate depends upon the thickness of the adhesive layer. This work demonstrates that a gap as small as 12.5pm can be fabricated using a 12.5pm thick adhesive layer. Figure 27 shows a cantilever fabricated with a 12.5pm gap between the structure and substrate. To further reduce the gap, spin-coat the adhesive layer directly on the laminate. This spin coated layer is used as a sacrificial layer to create very small gaps. 2.2.3 Alignment Accuracy

The alignment accuracy is improved by utilizing kinematic coupling [123] and passive mechanical alignment features [124]

2.3 Volume Manufacturing of MEMS using MALL

In deep reactive ion etching (DRIE), many devices can be fabricated in parallel, resulting in a high part production rate. However, the laser direct-write micromachining process used in MALL is a serial process and MEMS are fabricated one device at a time. As a result, the part production rate in MALL process is low. The MALL process is suitable for low volume production and requires less initial investments. However, for investments greater than one million dollars, the part production rate of DRIE process increases significantly.

The part production rate in MALL process is increased by implementing the following changes:

1. Using a roll-to-roll lamination process to automate the assembly.

2. Integrating laser-micromachining and roll-to-roll lamination process by delivering the laser over the laminates using galvanometer scanner mirrors. In this system, individual layers of a device can be fabricated simultaneously, and laminated to manufacturer MEM systems. Using laser-micromachining with the roll-to-roll lamination process also eliminates the need for layer alignment, as the patterns can be spatially offset to ensure accurate alignment.

3. Using multiple laser beams to fabricate many devices in parallel. These multiple beams can be either from different laser sources or split from a single high-power laser beam.

4. Using high power laser and other precision manufacturing methods such as embossing, micro-milling, knife-cutting, wire-EDM to machine large-features at a high machining rate and reserving the low-etch rate laser-micromachining for small-features. 5. Integrating MEMS packaging with the roll-to-roll lamination process by including package layers in the lamination process. These package layers can be fabricated using embossing, micro-milling, and other conventional fabrication tools

In conventional MEMS fabrication, upgrading from a 150 mm wafer facility to a 300 mm wafer facility is a significant cost. However, in MALL fabrication, adding additional lasers for parallel manufacturing is easy and the cost is incremental. Thus, the part production rate in MALL can be matched with DRIE.

2.4 Table-Top Manufacturing of MEMS using MALL

Micro-electromechanical systems have many potential applications in healthcare, automobile, and consumer electronics. Unfortunately, due to the high cost of equipment ownership, research in MEMS has been primarily limited to industries and universities with microfabrication facilities. As can be seen above, the major obstacle in engaging a larger scientific community in MEMS research is the substantial capital investment required to procure microfabrication tools. In addition, the high cost of equipment maintenance and consumables such as silicon wafer, photoresists, developers, and etchants further hinder the access of MEMS fabrication to a large portion of the scientific community.

In contrast, the MALL process utilizes a laser micromachining system, which has three advantages. First, single equipment replaces a set of tools, mainly spin coater, mask aligner, exposure system, and DRIE system, required for micromachining. Second, the cost of laser micromachining system is significantly less than conventional microfabrication tools. Third, the consumables are limited to electro-polishing solution and metal foils. These materials cost $0.0015 per device, significantly lower than that of silicon wafers used in conventional MEMS fabrication.

The major cost in a laser micromachining system comes from the laser source. The cost of the laser source depends upon its average power. A high-power laser requires a high-intensity pumping source, resulting in an increase in the cost of the laser. For example, the diode-pumped laser used in this work uses an array of light-emitting diode (LED) to pump the laser medium. These diode-arrays require specialized high-current power supply and cooling system, which are not only expensive but also have a large footprint.

The LAMPE micro-machining process requires average power in the range of 280m 1/1/ (Table 3.2), thereby needing a laser with significantly low power. The low power lasers require less intense pumping source; as a result, cost less and have a small footprint. The low-cost laser system, in conjunction with low-cost machine building can be used to develop low-cost table-top MEMS manufacturing systems. The table-top MEMS manufacturing can reduce the cost of MEMS fabrication and enable rapid prototyping, thereby democratizing MEMS fabrication and accelerating the development of novel micro-electromechanical system.

2.5 Comparison with Prior Work

The DRIE is desirable for small lateral features and high aspect ratio, however, falls short on the choice of fabrication material. After DRIE, the LIGA process is desirable for small lateral features and high aspect ratio, however, fall short on creating free-standing microstructures and require expensive x-ray source.

The MALL process disclosed here uses the similar lamination process that is used in PCB-MEMS, laminate MEMS, and Pop-up book MEMS. However, there are two major differences between the MALL process and other laminate PCB-MEMS, laminate MEMS, and pop-up book MEMS processes. These differences are discussed in the following sections.

2.5.1 High Aspect Ratio & Small Lateral Feature

In the conventional MEMS fabrication process, deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) is used to fabricate structures with high aspect ratio and small lateral features. Typically, structures with the aspect ratio as large as 10:1 and lateral features as small as 5 - IOmih can be micro-machined using DRIE [20] The high aspect ratio machining is required to fabricate MEMS structures that can move in the direction parallel to the MEMS device plane such as interdigitated comb fingers and beam springs. These structures are common in many MEMS such as comb-drive actuators [21], accelerometers [22], resonators [23], and electromechanical filters [24] In the PCB-MEMS, individual layers of the MEM system are fabricated using photolithography, followed by wet etching. However, the wet etching process is isotropic, thereby resulting in low aspect ratio. Similarly, in laminate MEMS, the individual layers are fabricated using various processes such as stamping, laser cutting, and electroforming [6] These processes produce structures with larger features and limited aspect ratio than DRIE. Hence, the performance of these MEMS has been far from MEMS produced using conventional microfabrication process utilizing DRIE [4][25][26][27][11] Moreover, the low aspect ratio structures have restricted movement in the direction of the device plane, and the motion is constrained to the direction normal to the device. As a result, the application of PCB-MEMS and laminate MEMS have been limited to MEM systems in which the structures move perpendicular to lamination plane, such as MEMS RF switch [4] and microphones [11]

In the MALL process, individual layers of the MEM systems are fabricated using LAMPE micromachining. The LAMPE micromachining process can fabricate microstructure laminates with aspect ratio as large as 10:1 and features as small as IOmih. Such high aspect ratio while maintaining the small lateral features is not achievable in PCB-MEMS, laminate MEMS, and pop-up book MEMS fabrication processes. In fact, traditionally, such high aspect ratio and small lateral features were attainable exclusively using deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) [28] The small features and large aspect ratio structures fabricated using LAMPE micromachining are comparable to structures produced in DRIE. Hence, the MALL fabrication process can manufacture MEMS that are comparable to MEMS fabricated using DRIE.

2.5.2 Freestanding Structures with Six Degrees of Freedom

In conventional MEMS fabrication, surface micromachining [48][49][50] is used to fabricate free-standing microstructures. First, a sacrificial layer is deposited on a substrate and patterned using photolithography and etching. Next, a structural layer is deposited and patterned on top of the sacrificial layer. Finally, the sacrificial layer is removed to create free-standing microstructures. The deposition process, such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD) used to deposit the sacrificial layer and structural layer, allows a high degree of control over the thickness of the deposited material and the gap created between structure and the substrate. Fabricating similar thin freestanding structures in the lamination process is challenging. The difficulty is due to two reasons. First, as the thickness of the laminate is reduced, handling and micromachining these ultra-thin layers becomes difficult. Second, freestanding structures are created using a spacer layer, which is patterned and sandwiched between the layer containing freestanding structure and the substrate. The thickness of the spacer layer determines the gap between the freestanding structure and the substrate. As this gap and the size of freestanding structures is reduced, manipulating and patterning the ultra-thin spacer layer gets challenging. As a result, the applications of PCB-MEMS and laminate MEMS have been largely limited to either fabricating MEMS with no freestanding structures such as microfluidic devices [51] [52] and optical MEMS [7] or MEMS with large gap between the freestanding structure and substrate such as such as MEMS microphone and electromagnetic switch [4][11][8][25][27]

The laser micromachining process used in MALL allows effortless patterning of B-staged epoxy adhesive layers. By using patterned adhesive layers as a spacer layer, tack bonding process, and high alignment accuracy, this work demonstrates fabricating freestanding structures with a gap between the structures as small as 12.5mih (as shown in figure 5-6). Similarly, by bonding ultra-thin film to rigid frame for manipulation and performing LAMPE micromachining, this work demonstrates fabricating freestanding structures as thin as IOmih (as shown in figure 5- 5). These microstructures can be fabricated with small features and satisfactory aspect ratio to allow six degrees of freedom (DOF) movement.

2.6 Advantages of MALL MEMS Fabrication

The MALL fabrication process offers several advantages over conventional lithography- based MEMS fabrication processes such as greater material selection and integration, low cost of fabrication, rapid development, and integrated packaging. These advantages are discussed in detail in the following sections. 2.6.1 Greater Choice of Fabrication Materials

The fabrication materials used in the lithography-based MEMS manufacturing process is largely limited to silicon. On the other hand, the MALL process enables fabrication with a wide range of materials such as metals, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials. The ability to fabricate MEMS using a wide range of materials greatly enhances the functionality and performance of these systems. For example, materials with interesting properties such as magnetic, piezoelectric, pyroelectric, thermoelectric, and superconducting materials can be employed to design novel MEM systems.

The application of metals in fabricating MEM systems is especially of great interest. Metals offer a wide range of mechanical and electrical properties, and these properties can be tuned using the alloying process. Moreover, due to the roll forming process, the cost and energy requirement for making metal foils is much less than that of silicon wafers.

2.6.2 Fabrication with Incompatible Materials

In conventional microfabrication process, MEMS are fabricated layer-by-layer by successive deposition and patterning of material layers. Each material layer is deposited and patterned using a unique process, and this process must be compatible with the previously deposited materials. The integration of these processes is often difficult due to material incompatibilities and thermal constraints. However, in the MALL fabrication process, the individual layers of MEMS are fabricated separately, and stack-assembled and bonded to make a system. As a result, materials with incompatible fabrication process can be bonded together, in any order, to manufacture MEMS.

2.6.3 Low-Cost Fabrication

The high cost of MEMS fabrication is due to two reasons. First, the large capital investment in microfabrication tools such as exposure system, mask aligners, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) systems. Second, the high cost of raw materials and chemicals such as photoresists, developers, etching solutions and gases, and silicon wafers. In contrast, the MALL process requires a laser micromachining system and electrochemical etching tools, which have a much low cost of ownership than the traditional microfabrication tools. Similarly, the raw materials used in MALL fabrication are metal foils, polymers, and ceramics. These materials are much more cost-effective than silicon wafers, utilized in conventional MEMS fabrication process.

2.6.4 Rapid Development

The MALL MEMS fabrication process enables rapid development by allowing rapid material integration, process development, and quick design and prototype iteration as discussed below:

2.6.4.1 Rapi d Materi al Integrati on

In a conventional lithography-based fabrication process, MEM systems are fabricated layer-by-layer. Fabricating each layer involves a series of deposition and patterning steps such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), spin-coating photoresist, resist exposure and development, and wet or dry etching. The fabrication process for each layer must be optimized and should be compatible with the previously deposited materials. This step-by-step process optimization and integration is extremely time-consuming. Moreover, in conventional MEMS fabrication, MEMS chips and packages are fabricated separately and integrated at a later stage. This integration of chips and packages further increases the development time.

In the MALL fabrication process, individual layers can be manufactured independently with minimal process development and effortlessly bonded to make MEMS; as a result, significantly reducing the device development time. Moreover, laser micromachining system used in MALL can exist side by side with other macro-fabrication equipment (such as milling, molding, and embossing), and utilizes similar computer-aided design (CAD) and computer aided manufacturing (CAM) tools, thereby enabling integrated design of MEMS and packaging, simultaneous fabrication, and rapid integration.

In conventional MEMS fabrication, the three-dimensional MEMS design is converted into a series of two-dimensional lithography masks, which are subsequently used for fabrication. However, in MALL, the laser micromachining toolpath can be directly exported from the integrated CAD/CAM design tool. This integration of design, manufacturing, and finite element analysis (FEA) of MEMS in one environment enables the rapid iteration of design, simulation, and prototyping.

2.6.4.2 Rapid Process Development

In DRIE, some degree of process development is required to etch the desired MEMS structure. The etching process parameters are determined by performing a series of etch cycles and varying the etching parameters. Each etch cycle requires the loading and unloading of wafer, and often the process is done manually. As a result, the process development takes substantial time.

However, in the MALL process, various laser micromachining parameters such as laser power, pulse frequency, feed rate, and pulse duration can be tested in a single cycle by performing a series of micromachining tests. As a result, considerably shortening the process development time. The laser micromachining process development time for new material or new sheet thickness is about 6 hours.

2.6.4.3 Rapid Design Iteration

In MALL, the micromachining rate of PLA or LAMPE micromachining is independent of the device area (or design). As a result, many designs can be tested without requiring any process development. However, in DRIE, the etch rate depends upon the device area due to the loading effect [113][72] As a result, for each MEMS design, a new set of DRIE process parameters must be determined, which significantly hinders design iteration and increases device development time.

2.6.5 Ultra-short Time to First Prototype

The MALL MEMS fabrication process significantly shortens the time require for fabricating the first prototype. This fact is illustrated by using the example of the comb-drive actuator fabricated in this section. The first step in the concept to creation cycle is to design the device and select the desired fabrication material. Once the design and the material is finalized, the next step is to determine the laser micromachining parameters required to micro-machine the material sheet of a given thickness.

For determining process parameters, a micromachining pattern containing horizontal and vertical lines of varying width is used as a test pattern. Multiple instances of this test pattern are micro-machined at various laser power, laser frequency, feed rate, and pulse duration (in this work, the pulse duration is fixed to 20 ns). These micro-machined patterns are inspected in a scanning electron microscope, and the pattern with smallest feature is determined and the laser micro-machining setting corresponding to this pattern is used for device micro-machining. The laser micro-machining process development time for a new material or sheet thickness is about 6 hours. The determined laser micro-machining parameter is used fabricate the comb-drive structure. Depending upon the design, this process can take anywhere between a few minutes to one hour. For this estimate, it is assumed that it will take one hour to micro-machine the whole device.

The next step is to perform electro-deburring. For electro-deburring, the information about the required electrolytic solution can be derived from here [90] The laser micro-machined part is used as the anode, and another piece of same metal is used as the cathode. The information about the electro-polishing voltage can also be derived from reference [90] As discussed in section 1.5.1, the electro-deburring voltage must be greater than the electro polishing voltage to ensure selective etching burrs. Some degree of process development may be required for new material, but any voltage above electro-polishing voltage results in electro- deburring. Often the easiest option to increase the voltage until the bubbles start to appear at the anode, and perform electro-deburring at this voltage. Generally, 30 seconds are enough to completely remove the burrs. For this estimate, it is assumed that the electro-polishing process will take a total of one hour.

The final step is to align and laminate the individual device layer. This experiment used Dupont FR1500 and 3M thermal bonding film 583. These adhesive films are very well studied and do not require any process development. Therefore, the bonding can be performed in a total of one hour (30 minutes of handling and 30 minutes of the adhesive curing cycle).

The total time required in fabricating the first prototype is approximately 10 hours. It must be noted that if the fabrication material remains the same, prototyping a new MEMS device takes approximately 4 hours.

2.6.6 Integrated Packaging

The packaging of MEMS is essential for protecting the system from a harsh environment. Moreover, in certain MEM systems, the packaging also acts as an interface between the MEMS system and the external environment. The microfabrication processes used to fabricate MEMS chips are incompatible with the macro-fabrication processes that are used to fabricate MEMS packages. As a result, the MEMS die, and the package are fabricated independently and then integrated later. This integration process is challenging and increases development time and cost. Often, the cost of MEMS packaging is higher than the cost of fabricating MEMS chips.

In MALL, the fabrication process and materials are compatible with the macro fabrication processes. As a result, the MEMS layers and the packaging layers can be fabricated simultaneously. Moreover, these layers can be laminated in a single step, thereby enabling the fabrication of MEM systems with integrated packaging. However, the lamination process uses polymer adhesive films for bonding the packaging layers. These polymer films are permeable to water molecules [115][116] Thus, the MALL integrated packaging cannot be used for package MEMS requiring a hermetic seal.

3 Detailed Process Description

The detail process description of MALL MEMS fabrication process is described below.

3.1 Tools Required for MALL MEMS Fabrication

Below is the list of tools required for MALL MEMS fabrication: A laser micromachining system. Preferred is a laser micromachining system from Oxford Laser Ltd [56] Depending upon the feature size of the device, a scanning electron microscope or a high- resolution optical microscope is required to inspect the MEMS device during fabrication. A low magnification stereo microscope is also useful for quick inspection. A chemical hood and a voltage source is required to perform electro-deburring process. A critical point dryer may be required. For MEMS fabricated with metals, dipping the device in isopropanol (IP A) and drying on a hot plate is sufficient. However, for MEMS fabricated with silicon and containing small features, a critical point dryer is desirable. A hot plate is useful for quickly drying the wafers. A toaster oven with a temperature controller is required for certain adhesives that need curing at higher temperatures. Particularly, the Dupont FR1500 adhesive used in a particular MEM relay requires baking at 185 degree centigrade. Another example adhesive is 3M thermal bonding film 583, which can be either solvent activated or pressure activated, and does not require baking. A vacuum tweezer is desirable to facilitate manipulating the delicate sheets after laser micromachining process. Depending upon the MEMS device, addition tools may be required for device testing. For example, a MEM relay, or other simple device, may be tested using a semiconductor parameter analyzer. A probe station may also be required for electrical testing of the device.

9. For certain MEMS devices, a table-top precision milling machine can be useful. The bottom layer of MEM relay can be fabricated using a table-top precision milling machine. A main tool that is useful for LAMPE micromachining is the Oxford laser micromachining system [56] This system is described in detail below: 3.1.1 Laser-Micromachining System

The system consists of three major components: 1) Laser source, 2) Focusing optics, and 3) Motion system. These components are discussed in the following sections.

3.1.1.1 Laser Source

The laser source is an important component of a laser micromachining system and determines the feature size and type of materials that can be processed. There are two types of lasers that are employed in laser micromachining: pulsed laser and continuous-wave (cw) laser. The pulsed laser has two advantages over continuous-wave laser. First, the short laser pulse enables fine control over the energy dumped into the target, which is essential for machining small features. Second, the peak power of the individual pulse is several orders of magnitude higher than the average power of the laser. As a result, the pulsed laser can ablate the material even with much lower average power.

The laser source used in this work is a Q-switched frequency-doubled Nd: YAG diode- pumped solid-state (DPSS) laser. The wavelength of the laser is 532nm and the pulse duration is 20ns. The mode of the laser beam is TEM00 and the beam quality M ² < 1.2. The average power, P _avg of the laser is between 2 - 6 51/1 and depends upon the pulse frequency. The average power at 5KHz pulse repetition rate is 2 81/1 The pulse energy at 5KHz pulse repetition rate is 561m/. The peak power is in the order of kilowatts even though the average power is less than 6.5W .

The peak power of the laser pulses is responsible for the ablation of the material. The peak power at 5KHz pulse repetition rate is 28k 1/1/ . Table 3 summarizes the values of the parameters calculated for the laser used in this work.

Table 3: The values of various parameters of laser source.

3.1.1.2 Beam Delivery & Focusing Optics

The laser beam is delivered to the target material using a series of mirrors, lenses, and other optical elements. First, the laser beam emitted from the source is expanded using a beam expander. The diameter of the laser beam after the beam expansion is 10mm. The beam is then allowed to pass through a variable attenuator, which is used to attenuate the laser beam and control the energy dumped into the target. Finally, the laser beam is focused onto the target using either a lens or a microscope objective.

Diameter of Focused Beam

For the laser used in this work, the wavelength l = 532nm, beam waist (or aperture diameter) d= 10mm, and focal length / = 100mm. The calculated focused spot size 2wo = 12.98mih. The focused beam spot size 2wo is an important parameter in determining the minimum achievable feature size in laser-micromachining. In addition to lens, microscope objectives can also be used for focusing the beam. Generally, an infinity-corrected objective is desirable as it enables simultaneous laser micromachining and imaging, and easy insertion of additional optical components. In an infinity-corrected objective, the light effectively travels parallel to the optical axis. As a result, additional optical components such as optical filters, polarizer and beam splitters can be inserted between the tube lens. To create an image with an infinity-corrected objective, a tube lens must be used to focus the image.

Intensity of Focused Beam The peak power of the laser pulse at 5KHz is 28W and the diameter of the focused beam spot is w = 12.98mih; therefore, the pulse intensity is 21.IGW!cm ¹ . The right y-axis of Figure 28 shows the variation of pulse intensity / _p with respect to the pulse frequency. As can be seen, the intensity of the central peak of a Gaussian beam is twice the average intensity of the laser pulse. The peak power of the laser at 5KHz pulse frequency is P = 28 KW (Table 2.1). The maximum intensity at the center of the beam is / o = 2/ _p = 424GI/l//cm ² Figure 28 shows the intensity profile of the laser beam.

Rayleigh length

For the laser used in this work, the wavelength l = 532nm, beam waist (or aperture diameter) d = 10mm, and focal length / = 100mm. The resulting Rayleigh length of the focused laser beam is ZR = 850pm.

3.1.1.3 Motion System

A 2-axis stage is used to move the target with respect to the laser to perform laser micromachining. For each axis, the resolution is 0.250pm, repeatability is 0.750pm, and accuracy is +/-2pm. The maximum attainable speed is 250mm/s, and the maximum attainable acceleration/deceleration is 10,000mm/s ² . It must be noted that the practical limit on maximum attainable speed for micromachining MEMS parts is restricted to lmm/s or less due to their small size and limited acceleration/deceleration of the stage.

The feature size in laser micromachining process depends upon the laser energy dumped into the target. This dumped energy is controlled by changing the pulse energy and the overlap between the successive laser pulse exposure. For MEMS requiring small features, using a galvanometer scanner is desirable instead of using a 2-axis stage. The galvanometer can provide a much higher feed rate, thereby enabling fabricating small features by allowing fine control over the energy dumped into the target. Moreover, the high feed rate can increase the micromachining rate. A typical 2-axis galvanometer mirror can operate at 100Hz [60] Assuming, the scan distance of 1mm, a feed rate of lOOmm/s can be easily achieved.

3.2 Materials Required for MALL MEMS Fabrication Below is the list of materials required for MALL fabrication:

1. The main material used in MALL MEMS fabrication is metal foils. These metal foils can be sourced from https://www.mcmaster.com/.

2. The main adhesive layers used in this work are Dupont FR1500, 3M thermal bonding film 583, and scotch double-sided tape. These adhesives can be sourced from their corresponding vendors.

3. Electrolyte for electro-deburring process. For copper, either copper sulfate or phosphoric acid can be used.

4. Dowel pins or gauge pins as alignment pins.

3.3 MEMS Design Procedure for MALL MEMS Fabrication

Fusion 360 may be used for designing MEMS. The software offers the advantage of integrating the computer aided design (CAD) and computer aided manufacturing (CAM), and is well suited for MALL MEMS design. Since the MALL process is a laminate process, it is advantageous to design the MEMS system in form of layers. Once the design is finished, the g- code for laser toolpath can be exported using the CAM interface of the Fusion 360 program. This g-code program is used for performing the laser micromachining.

Depending upon the MEMS device design it is advisable to export two different laser toolpaths. The first toolpath is for the part of the region where small feature sizes are not required and high-power laser can be used to remove the material at high micromachining rate. The second toolpath is for parts of the MEMS design which have small features, and require LAMPE micromachining process. 3.4 Step-by-Step Guide and Process Flowchart for MALL MEMS Fabrication Process The process flowchart of Figure 29 describes the MALL MEMS fabrication process.

The process steps are as follows:

1. Fabricate individual layer of MEMS using LAMPE micromachining or laser micromachining.

2. Align the individual layer of MEMS and bond.

3. Dissolve sacrificial layer.

4. Dice device using laser cutting.

3.4.1 Fabrication of Individual MEMS Layer

A MEMS device consists of layers of materials. Each layer has features such as lateral feature size, aspect ratio, and geometry (2D, 2.5D or 3D). Depending upon these features different manufacturing process could be used. For example, for device layers with lateral features larger than lOOpm, conventional manufacturing process such as micro-milling, wire- EDM and embossing and the like can be used. For device layer with features in the range of 100pm-25pm, laser micromachining process can be used. For device layer with features smaller than 10pm and aspect ratio larger than 10:1, LAMPE micromachining process can be used. The flowchart of Figure 30 shows the process for fabricating an individual MEMS layer.

3.4.2 LAMPE Micromachining of MEMS Layers

In this work, the laser micromachining is performed using a commercially available laser micromachining system from Oxford Laser Ltd [56] Following are the general steps used for LAMPE micromachining: 1. The material foil is clamped to the stage using a clip. For material foils with thickness up to 20pm, tweezers can be used for manipulations. However, for thickness below 20pm, it is desirable to attach the metal foil with a rigid frame for easy manipulation.

2. Selecting the laser source: For metals, the laser micromachining process is generally independent of the laser wavelength. This is due to the fact that the absorption of laser by the metal is low in the UV, Vis, and IR range. The pulse duration of the laser is essential to get the small feature size. Equations or tables may be used to determine the required pulse width for a desired feature size. Often the laser pulse width is fixed, and the user only has control over the pulse power.

3. Selecting the focusing optics: Depending upon the feature size, the desired lens or objective is installed. The laser micromachining system is equipped with a digital camera for sample inspection. Next, the sample is brought into the focal plane of the lens by inspecting in the imaging system.

4. Selecting laser power and process development: A series of power tests in the vicinity of this calculated laser power can be used to determine the exact value of the power which gives the minimum feature size. The laser micromachining should be performed at this value. It must be noted that, the feature size also depends upon the degree to which the sample is at the focal plane. Usually, before performing the power test, one performs a series of focus tests to determine the best focus. Sometimes a second pass might be required if the laser micro-machined part does not fall off during the laser micromachining process.

One can use the flowchart in Figure 30 to determine the LAMPE micromachining process according the layer material. 3.4.2.1 LAMPE Micromachining of Metal

Follow the steps described in the flowchart of Figure 3 lto fabricate metal layers using the LAMPE micromachining.

For machining metal films with thickness less than 1 Opm, it is recommended to use ultra- short pulsed lasers irrespective of the absorption coefficient of the material. In ultra- short pulsed laser micromachining, the micromachining depth per pulse is equal to the optical penetration depth of the material. The high pulse energy and repetition rate (lOOKHz) lead to sufficient number of pulse irradiation per spot, resulting in machining depth in the order 1 Omih

Electro-deburring

The steps for performing electro-deburring are as follows:

1. Selecting the electrolyte: The choice of electrolyte depends upon the deburring metal. Since the electro-deburring process is similar to electro-polishing and electroplating process, the choice of electrolyte is the same as that used for electro-polishing or electroplating. There is a great body of work on available electrolytes for various metals. In this work, copper is used for fabricating MEMS. For copper, 14M phosphoric acid is used as the electrolytic solution.

2. Electro-deburring setup: The laser micro-machined copper part is connected to anode and another copper sheet is connected to the cathode. Both electrodes are dipped inside 4M phosphoric acid solution.

3. Selecting the electro-deburring voltage: Setting the right voltage is essential to remove burrs. As can be seen in figure 28, the electro-deburring voltage must be greater than the electro-polishing temperature to ensure the removal of the burrs. The electro-polishing process is well studied and the value of the electro-polishing voltage for a given metal and electrolyte can be found in the literature. The electro-deburring voltage should be above this value. In this work, the electro-deburring of laser micro-machined parts is performed at 5V for 30 seconds. Generally, the electro-deburring voltage is a little less than the voltage at which the bubbles start to form at the anode.

4. For some MEMS devices, a gold electroplating may be desirable to prevent oxidation of the metal.

5. After the electro-deburring, the laser micro-machined part can be rinsed in DI water followed by isopropanol rinse. The cleaned laser micromachining part can be either air dried at room temperature or at 85 degree centigrade inside an oven

3.4.2.2 LAMPE Micromachining of Silicon

Flowchart below describes the LAMPE micromachining of silicon

Follow the steps described in the flowchart below to fabricate metal layers using the LAMPE micromachining.

To further increase the aspect ratio in LAMPE micromachining of silicon, perform LAMPE micromachining in HF vapor environment. The HF vapor reacts with the newly formed S1O2 to form colorless gaseous silicon tetrafluoride S1F4, which is removed efficiently. Now, the depth of the micromachining can be further increased by gradually moving the focus downwards as the material is removed.

3.4.3 Multi -Lamina Assembly & Bonding

The second step in the MALL process is to stack assemble the LAMPE micro-machined laminates to fabricate MEM systems. For many MEMS, the alignment accuracy better than a few micrometers is desirable. Mechanical alignment of laminates using dowel pins and alignment holes is widely used in precision macro-fabrication. This method is employed to align and bond microstructure laminates. The alignment accuracy exceeding 2.5pm is demonstrated using the method.

Figures 34A-34D show a schematic diagram of the alignment-pin and alignment-hole assembly process. The precise hand-assembly is carried out under an eyepiece-less stereo microscope with long working distance and large depth of focus [85] The microscope uses multi -lenticular technology to provide true depth perception, which aids in hand-to-eye coordination; as a result, facilitating the micro-assembly process.

Four precision-ground alignment pins with 508mih diameter are used for alignment. The clearance between the alignment pin and alignment hole determines the alignment accuracy and must be minimized. For a given alignment pin, first, a series of holes is micro-machined (Figure 34 A). Subsequently, the alignment pins are inserted and the clearance between the pin and the hole is measured (Figure 34B). Finally, laser micromachining setting for the hole that gave the minimum clearance (Figure 34C) used to micro-machine alignment holes.

To characterize the alignment accuracy, two layers with alignment marks are assembled and bonded. The bonded layers are illuminated from the rear, and the alignment marks are studied using an optical microscope. The inset of Figure 34D shows back-illuminated light transmitting through the two aligned marks. The width of the slit is IOmih, and the overlap between the two aligned markers is better than 75%. As a result, it can be concluded that the alignment accuracy is better than 2.5mih. The alignment accuracy can be further improved by creating passive alignment features in laminates [86] [87] [88]

The aligned layers are bonded using Dupont FR1500 and 3M thermal bonding film 583 adhesive sheets. For adhesion, the Dupont FR1500 is cured at 185°C for 5-20 minutes, depending upon the device design. Similarly, the 3M thermal bonding film 583 can be bonded by using pressure, applying solvent or heating at 120°C In some devices, it is desirable to first tack bond the adhesive sheet to one layer, and then attach another layer and perform complete cure for lamination. For tack bonding, the FR1500 sheet is cured at 120°C for 10 minutes, and 3M thermal bonding film 583 is pressure or solvent activated.

The steps for lamination are as follows:

1. For the lamination process, the adhesive layer is first tack bonded to the substrate layer.

For tack bonding the Dupont FR1500 adhesive layer, the curing is performed at 120°C

2. Once the adhesive is tack bonded to the substrate, the backing layer is removed and the top device layer is attached. Alignment pins are used for the alignment. For devices requiring high alignment accuracy, alignment pins with diameter of 500pm is used to improve the alignment accuracy. However, for the device which does not require a high alignment accuracy, thicker alignment pins (for example, 1.5mm diameter dowel pins) can be used to simplify the assembly process.

3. Once aligned, the laminate structure is sandwiched between a custom-made alignment fixture and clamped using a paper clip and put inside the oven for full curing. The temperature of the oven is set to 185°C, and the baking is performed for 5-20 minutes depending upon the device and adhesive layer thickness.

4. After the lamination process, the MEMS device can be cut-out from the laminate structure using laser cutting. However, this step is not required during the device development.

3.4.4 MEMS Device Testing

The actual steps for testing the device depend upon the actual design of the device. Here are the general steps which are common to many MEMS devices:

1. After the device fabrication, it is advised to inspect the device in an optical microscope to check the integrity of the device.

2. Care must be taken to handle the MEMS devices, as they are very fragile. Do not blow air to dry or remove dust particles, it will break the device.

3. For electrical testing, use probe station probes to make the electrical connection. A wire- bonder can be used as well. For devices made out of copper, using gold ball-bonding at 100°C works very well.

4 Summary

In summary, the MALL MEMS fabrication process disclosed here can replace the conventional microfabrication process used for MEMS manufacturing. The MALL process enables MEMS fabrication with a wide range of material, thereby empowering a new paradigm in MEMS design, functionality, and applications. Moreover, the manufacturing cost per device in MALL fabrication is low due to using low-cost fabrication materials such as metal foils. In contrast, in conventional microfabrication, the fabrication material is largely limited to silicon, which restricts the design, functionality, and application of MEMS, and increases the manufacturing cost per device.

The development time and cost in MALL is less due to the independent development of device layers and their effortless integration. The MALL process is well suited for one-of-a-kind and low-demand MEMS market because of the low cost of development. In contrast, creating new MEMS devices in conventional microfabrication requires developing and integrating various material deposition/etching processes, which increases the development time and cost. Thus, even though the cost of manufacturing per device is low, the total cost per device is large. Due to this limitation, the commercialization of MEMS products has been largely limited to markets in which the huge demand can compensate for the high cost of development.

The tools and material cost of MALL fabrication is approximately $25,000, which is affordable to a wider scientific community. This democratization of MEMS fabrication can expedite the development of novel MEMS systems. Traditionally, the research and development of novel MEMS devices have been largely limited to a few industries and universities, due to the high cost of equipment ownership.

Several descriptions and illustrations have been presented to aid in understanding the features of the present invention. One with skill in the art will understand that numerous changes and variations may be made without departing from the spirit of the invention. Each of these changes and variations is within the scope of the present invention.

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