INTRODUCTION Field of the Invention

The invention relates to a low-noise transimpedance amplifier circuit, particularly for use with photodiodes in high speed digital communications applications.

Prior Art Discussion

In many digital communications applications using an optical transmission link a transimpedance amplifier (TIA) is used to convert the current generated by a photodiode to a voltage that can be processed and converted to digital data. Desirable properties of a TIA include high bandwidth, low input impedance, low noise, and additionally, an ability to control the bias voltage on the input photodiode.

An important consideration in modern integrated circuit TIAs for use with optical systems is the integration of the photodiode on the same substrate as the TIA. This results in a receiver that is more robust to interference and easier to manufacture. However, the fabrication process to integrate the photodiode has trade-offs which result in a relatively lower bandwidth photodiode. This fabrication process may also limit the electrical connections to the photodiode. A typical integrated photodiode anode may be formed by the substrate on a silicon wafer, wherein the substrate must connect to the lowest voltage supply, removing any option of a different electrical connection for the photodiode anode. The bandwidth of a typical photodiode is highly dependent on its reverse bias voltage, in which the greater the reverse bias voltage, the higher the photodiode bandwidth. A severe limitation with many TIA architectures is the lack of control over the reverse bias of the photodiode.

The photodiode bandwidth is also influenced by the input impedance presented to it when coupled to a TIA. The lower the input impedance presented to the photodiode, the faster the photodiode response, due to the lower RC constant of the photodiode capacitance and the input impedance. For example, in the simplified TIA circuit of Fig. 1 the input impedance presented to the photodiode is equal to the value of the transimpedance gain resistor (Rf) divided by the amplifier gain. Generally, the larger the transimpedance gain of the TIA, the better the signal-to- noise ratio. Therefore, a large transimpedance gain combined with a large amplifier gain is desirable, while at the same time maintaining adequate amplifier bandwidth, and providing a large reverse bias voltage for the photodiode. A common TIA circuit is shown in Fig. 2, with a simple common source amplifier consisting of an NMOS transistor Ml with a resistor load Rl, and a transimpedance resistor Rf connected between the amplifier input (the gate of Ml) and output (the drain of Ml) nodes.

One of the key limitations of the bandwidth of an optical receiver is the bandwidth of the photodiode. A photodiode is essentially a P-N junction. A P-N junction naturally develops a depletion region, and this depletion region size can be modulated with a reverse bias voltage.

Fig. 3 shows a model of a photodiode. Iph represents the photon generated current and is proportional to the light on the photodiode. Rsh represents the dark current I-V curve. Rs is the series resistance and is due to the combination of the contact resistance and the resistance of the undepleted diode regions. The wider the depletion region due to the reverse bias the lower the value of Rs. Cj is the junction capacitance of the depletion region. The wider the depletion region due to reverse bias the lower the value of Cj. Rin represents the input impedance of a TIA connected to the photodiode.

The bandwidth of the photodiode depends on three time constants; Tddft, Tdiff _us ion, and T _RC . Tddft is the time required for generated carriers to be swept out of the depletion region, and is inversely proportional to the applied reverse bias voltage up to a point at which the velocity saturates. Tdiff _us io _n is a slower process that occurs to carriers generated outside of the depletion region creating a diffusion current. In the high-speed application of the present invention Tdiffusion can rendered of low importance through fabrication processes that remove most of the diffusion current from the signal current. T _RC is the RC time constant created by Cj, the junction capacitance, Cpar, the parasitic capacitances such as that of wires and the TIA input capacitance, and the combination of Rs and Rin:

T _RC = (Cj + Cpar) * (Rs + Rin)

Three of the variables, Cj, Rs, and Rin depend on either the photodiode reverse bias voltage or the TIA input impedance. This demonstrates the importance of controlling the photodiode reverse bias voltage as well as the TIA input impedance when designing an optical receiver. To increase the bandwidth of an optical receiver the photodiode reverse-bias voltage may be increased or the TIA input impedance may be reduced. The input impedance may be reduced by increasing the gain of the amplifier in the TIA or by reducing the transimpedance resistor value Rf. For a better signal to noise ratio Rf would remain large and the gain of the amplifier would increase while maintaining bandwidth. A well-known technique for achieving high gain and high bandwidth is the cascading of amplifier stages, demonstrated in [1] pl25.

In addition to bandwidth, another important factor in TIA design is the circuit noise, and in particular the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The optimization of SNR in the amplifier is critical to the sensitivity of the receiver. Referring to Fig. 4, if we assume that all amplifiers A 1/2/3 contribute noise (Nl, N2, N3 respectively) on their own at their outputs, and the input noise is negligible, then the final noise output:

Nout = A2*A3*N1 + A3*N2 + N3

If as a simple example, we assume A1=A2=A3=10:

Nout = 100*N1 + 10*N2 + N3

This demonstrates that optimising the first stage amplifier SNR is critical.

One of the best amplifier circuits for good SNR is a common source amplifier with a resistive load. While extra gain can be achieved with a current mirror load in such an amplifier, the introduction of a current mirror can introduce additional noise and result in a worse SNR, although that would not preclude such an amplifier from functioning in the present invention.

The simple amplifier circuit in Fig. 2 is a low noise amplifier. However, it is difficult to achieve high gain with this amplifier together with high bandwidth, and therefore this architecture can result in a relatively high input impedance to a photodiode [1] pl07. Additionally, it fails to provide a high bias voltage to the photodiode, the voltage on Dl being equal to the gate-source voltage of transistor Ml.

An approach described in [2] involves the use of three cascaded common-source MOS amplification stages with current source loads to create an overall TIA. The second stage amplifier is described as a TIA, and is an inverting amplification stage with a resistor between its input and its output. An approach described in [3] also uses three cascaded inverting amplifiers, in this case a first inverter amplifier with shunt feedback, a second inverter amplifier, and a third inverter amplifier with shunt feedback. An approach described in [4] is a general case of that in [2], which uses the concept of "nested TIAs" to increase gain-bandwidth. It is important to note that increasing gain-bandwidth is not necessarily desirable if it is done at the expense of the signal-to-noise ratio.

Another three-stage amplifier is shown in [5].

A circuit described in [6] has a TIA amplifier, followed by a differential voltage amplifier. The TIA uses a reference voltage on the emitter of the input transistor to set the bias on the photodiode and has a single gain stage.

The present invention is directed towards providing a TIA which has control over the reverse bias on the photodiode, and/or which provides high- amplifier gain, and/or low-noise, and/or high-bandwidth.

References

[1] Title: Design of Integrated Circuits for Optical Communications

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Author: Behzad Razavi, pages 107, 125. [2] Title: Amplifier Circuit, And System Incorporating Same

Patent: US 7265632 B2, Sep 4 2007

Inventors: Hock Tiong Kwa et al.

Assignee: Avago Technologies [3] Title: High Gain, High Bandwidth CMOS Transimpedance Amplifier

Patent: US6828857 B2, Dec 7 2007

Author: Fabrice Pailler et al.

Assignee: Intel Corporation, Santa Clara, CA Title: Nested Transimpedance Amplifier

Patent: US6836182 B 1 , Dec 28 2004

Author: Sehat Sutardja

Assignee: Marvell International Ltd

[5] Title: Transimpedance Amplifier and Light Receiving Circuit

Patent: US8674770 B2, Mar 18, 2014

Author: Yukiko Takiba et al

Assignee: Kabushiki Kaisha Toshiba

[6] Title: Advanced CMOS and BiCMOS photonic receiver ICs

Authors: K. Kieschnick ; T. Heide ; A. Ghazi ; H. Zimmermann ; P. Seegebrecht Published in: Solid-State Circuits Conference, 1999. ESSCIRC '99. Proceedings of the

25th European Solid-State Circuits Conference, 21-23 Sept. 1999, Pages 398-401

Summary of the Invention

We describe a transimpedance amplifier (TIA) circuit comprising:

an input terminal and an output terminal,

an odd number of at least three inverting amplifier stages linked in series between the input terminal and the output terminal, and each inverting amplifier stage having a transistor with a source, a gate, a drain and a load circuit connected to the drain, wherein the input of said first inverting amplifier stage is the gate of its transistor, and the output of said first inverting amplifier stage is coupled from the drain,

a reference voltage source connected to the source of the transistor of at least the first inverting amplifier stage, and

a transimpedance feedback circuit coupled between the output of the final inverting amplifier stage and the input terminal.

Preferably, each inverting amplifier stage has at least a transistor with a source, gate, and drain, with a load circuit connected to the drain, and a signal input terminal at the gate, and an output being coupled from the drain. Preferably, said reference voltage source comprises a dedicated reference voltage source connected to the source of each inverting amplifier stage.

A plurality of inverting amplifier stages may share the reference voltage source.

Preferably, at least one reference voltage source comprises a voltage regulator. Preferably, at least one reference voltage source is programmable. Preferably, at least one reference voltage source has an impedance with a range set by a relationship in which Gm* R _Sc < 1, where Gm is the transconductance of the first inverting amplifier stage transistor, and R _sc is the output impedance of the reference voltage source connected to the source of the first inverting amplifier stage transistor.

Preferably, the output impedance Rsc has a value such that Gm*Rsc is less than 0.1, and more preferably less than 0.01.

At least one inverting amplifier stage may comprise a bipolar transistor as a common emitter amplifier. Preferably, the first inverting amplifier stage comprises a bipolar transistor as a common emitter amplifier, wherein the emitter of said bipolar transistor is connected to a reference voltage source, wherein said reference voltage source has an impedance with a range set by the relationship in which Rsc < Re, where Re is the bipolar transistor emitter impedance of the common emitter stage, and Rs _c is the output impedance of the reference voltage source. Preferably, the output impedance Rsc has a value such that Rsc < 0.1 *Re, and more preferably Rsc <0.01*Re. The TIA circuit may further comprise a photodiode coupled to the input terminal. Preferably, the TIA circuit comprises two single-ended TIA circuits each having a photodiode coupled to its input terminal to provide differential signal processing. Preferably, the circuit further comprises a capacitance in parallel with the photodiode, for stability. Preferably, the load of at least one inverting amplifier stage includes a current mirror. Preferably, at least one inverting amplifier stage comprises a PMOS or a NMOS transistor. Preferably, the load of at least one inverting amplifier stage includes a resistor. Preferably, the load of at least one inverting amplifier stage includes a diode or a transistor connected as a diode. The load of at least one inverting amplifier stage may include an inductor.

The load of at least one inverting amplifier stage may include a transistor with its gate coupled to the input of said inverting amplifier stage.

The transimpedance feedback circuit may comprise a resistor. The transimpedance feedback circuit may comprise a resistor in parallel with a capacitor.

Preferably, the circuit further comprises an automatic gain control circuit for gain control of the transimpedance feedback circuit.

Preferably, the circuit further comprises at least one active load for one or more of the inverting amplifier stages, in which control of the impedance of said active load is linked to an automatic gain control circuit for control of the gain of the inverting amplifier stage to compensate loop stability as the automatic gain control changes impedance of the transimpedance feedback circuit.

Preferably, the circuit further comprises a non-inverting buffer before or after any inverting amplifier stage.

Preferably, the drain of at least one inverting amplifier stage is coupled to the output terminal of that inverting amplifier stage through a non-inverting amplifier.

At least one of the inverting amplifier stage may comprise a transimpedance amplifier.

Preferably, the circuit comprises three inverting amplifier stages, and preferably any of the three inverting amplifier stages comprises a transimpedance amplifier.

We also describe an optical receiver comprising a TIA circuit of any embodiment and a photodiode coupled to the input terminal.

Additional Statements

We describe a TIA circuit comprising an input terminal and an odd number of inverting stage amplifiers linked in series to the input terminal and each having a transistor with a source and a drain and a load circuit connected to the drain, and an output terminal. There is preferably a reference voltage source connected to the source of the transistor of at least the first inverting stage amplifier, and a transimpedance feedback circuit coupled between the output of the final inverting stage amplifier and the input terminal.

In one embodiment, a separate reference voltage source is connected to the source of each inverting stage amplifier. In one embodiment, any combination of inverting stage amplifiers share a reference voltage. Preferably, the reference voltage is supplied by a voltage regulator. In one embodiment, the reference voltage is programmable.

In one embodiment, the reference voltage source has an impedance with a range set by a relationship in which Gm* Rs _c < 1, where Gm is the transistor transconductance of the common source stage, and R _Sc is the output impedance of the reference voltage. Preferably, the Rsc has a value such that Gm*Rsc < 0.1, and more preferably the Rsc has a value such that Gm*Rsc <0.01.

In one embodiment, at least one inverting stage amplifier comprises a bipolar transistor as a common emitter amplifier. In one embodiment, the reference voltage source has an impedance with a range set by the relationship in which Rsc < Re, where Re is the bipolar transistor emitter impedance of the common emitter stage, and Rsc is the output impedance of the reference voltage, and it is preferable that Rsc has a value such that Rsc < 0.1 *Re, and it is further preferable that Rsc <0.01*Re. In one embodiment, the TIA circuit comprises two single-ended TIAs to provide differential signal processing.

In one embodiment, at least one inverting stage amplifier comprises a PMOS or a NMOS transistor.

In one embodiment, the circuit further comprises a capacitance in parallel with the photodiode for stability.

In one embodiment, the load of at least one inverting stage amplifier includes a current mirror, and/or a resistor, and/or a diode, and/or an inductor. In one embodiment, the transimpedance feedback circuit comprises a resistor. In one embodiment, the transimpedance feedback circuit comprises a resistor in parallel with a capacitor. In one embodiment, the TIA circuit further comprises an automatic gain control circuit for gain control of the transimpedance feedback circuit.

In one embodiment, the TIA circuit further comprises at least one active load for one of more of the inverting amplifier stages, in which control of the impedance of said active load is linked to an automatic gain control circuit for control of the gain of the inverting amplifier stage to compensate loop stability as the automatic gain control changes impedance of the transimpedance feedback circuit.

In one embodiment, further comprises a non-inverting buffer before or after any inverting amplifier stage.

In another aspect, the invention provides an optical receiver comprising a TIA circuit of any embodiment. Detailed Description of the Invention

The invention will be more clearly understood from the following description of some embodiments thereof, given by way of example only with reference to the accompanying drawings in which: - Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4 are diagrams illustrating aspects of the prior art as set out above, in which Fig. 1 is a generalised view of a photodiode (PD) and its connection to a TIA, Fig. 2 is a diagram illustrating a common source approach, Fig. 3 is a diagram showing a model of a photodiode, and Fig. 4 shows a simplified noise model of a three- stage amplifier;

Fig. 5 is a diagram showing an optical receiver of the invention having a TIA with three inverting amplifier stages, and a low impedance regulated voltage source linked with the first stage; Fig. 6 is a diagram showing an optical receiver of the invention having a TIA with three inverting amplifier stages, and a separate low impedance regulated voltage source linked with each stage; Fig. 7 shows a further receiver, in this case with a PMOS transistor;

Fig. 8 shows a further receiver in this case with five inverting amplifier stages, and a low impedance regulated voltage source linked with the first one; Fig. 9 is a diagram showing an optical receiver having three inverting amplifier stages, and a first low impedance regulated voltage VI linked to the first stage and a common low impedance regulated voltage V2 linked with the second and third stages;

Fig. 10 shows a differential optical receiver in which a photodiode Dl receives the light input signal and a photodiode D2 serves as a reference input; and

Fig. 11 is a diagram showing an optical receiver having three inverting amplifier stages, and a first low impedance regulated voltage VI linked to the first stage and a common low impedance regulated voltage V2 linked with the second and stages; and the third stage source is connected to ground.

Description of the Embodiments

A transimpedance amplifier (TIA) circuit has an input terminal, an output terminal, an odd number of inverting amplifier stages linked in series between these terminals. At least the first stage has a transistor with a source, gate and a drain with a load circuit connected to the drain.

Preferably, the input of the first stage is the gate of the transistor, and the output of the first stage is coupled from the drain. It should be clear to one skilled in the art that there are many forms of transistors, and in this specification when the terms source or drain or gate are used then their equivalents for other transistors can be assumed to also be valid, such as emitter, collector and base in the case of a bipolar transistor. Similarly, to one skilled in the art, a circuit that simply swaps PMOS and NMOS and/or polarities from a previous circuit is a simple and obvious modification to a circuit. There is a reference voltage source connected to the source of the transistor of at least the first stage, and a transimpedance feedback circuit coupled between the output of the final stage and the input terminal. The second and subsequent stages are preferably common-source inverting amplifier stages (Fig. 6) but may also be amplifiers of another configuration (Fig. 5) (e.g. common-gate, common-drain, transimpedance amplifier, etc.). There may be a separate reference voltage source connected to the source of each stage, or two or more may have a common reference voltage source. One preferred embodiment of the present invention is shown in Fig. 5, in which an optical receiver 1 has three cascaded amplifiers Al, A2, and A3. The output of Al is connected by a conductor 12 to the input of A2, and the output of A2 is connected by a conductor 13 to the input of A3. The output of A3 is connected to the input through a conductor 14 and a transimpedance resistor Rf. A photodiode Dl has its cathode connected by a link 11 to the receiver 1 input, and has its anode connected to ground. A variation may have the anode connected to a voltage other than ground, or in the case of Fig. 7 the cathode may be connected to a voltage other than Vdd.

The amplifier Al comprises a common source transistor Ml and a load resistor Rl between Ml and the rail Vdd.

A low impedance regulated voltage 16 is connected by a link 15 to the source of the transistor Ml. The reference voltage source is nominally constant, i.e. it is a DC voltage, and so is preferably provided by a regulator with low output impedance. In a second embodiment of the invention, Fig. 6 shows a receiver 50 in which there are again three inverting amplifiers Al, A2, and A3, but in this case there is a low impedance regulated voltage VI, V2, and V3 linked to each transistor Ml, M2, and M3 respectively at the source of each common-source amplifier. A current mirror 53 is connected between the drain of M3 and Vdd for the purposes of providing a full range output for the amplifier. Without the current mirror 53 the current through R3 would approach zero as the voltage output Vout3 approaches the value of Vdd. However, with the current mirror 53 a current remains available to maintain correct operation of the amplifier A3 even as the output voltage Vout3 approaches Vdd. A key benefit of this invention is that reverse bias voltage on Dl (V _DIODE ) can be controlled through selection or programming of VI while maintaining the low-noise common- source architecture in the first stage Al. This is due to the relationship:

VDIODE = GSI + VI

for the first inverting amplifier, Al.

This solves a key limitation of prior TIA architectures.

The voltage gain, Av of a common source amplifier with a drain impedance R _D and a transconductance Gm, and a source impedance of Rs _c may be represented with the following simplified equation:

Av = -(Gm*R _D ) / (l+Gm*R _Sc ) ; (I)

The reference voltage source impedance, represented by Rs _c , reduces the voltage gain of the common- source amplifier, and in an ideal voltage source there would be zero source impedance. It should be clear that R _Sc needs to be minimised to maximise the gain. Thus, even neglecting the noise contribution of Rs _c , it follows that Rs _c needs to be minimised to maximise the signal gain, and thus maximise the signal-to-noise ratio. As already mentioned, maximising the signal- to-noise ratio at the 1 ^st stage amplifier is critical to optimise receiver sensitivity.

If the voltage source is low impedance and renders the term (Gm* Rs _c << 1) then the gain can be simplified to:

Av = -(Gm*R _D )

Continuing to refer to Fig. 6, and assuming for simplicity no current flowing in Dl, the DC bias voltage at the output of A 1 is:

VOUTI = VDSI + VI

Without the addition of V2, that is if the source of M2 were connected to ground, then

VGS2 = VOUTI = VDSI + VI

This means that V _GS2 would be very dependent on VI for the Fig. 5 embodiment. Additionally, the drain-source bias current in Ml (I _DSMI ) is dependent on V _OUTI :

IDSMI = (VDD - VOUTI) / Ri Because of the dependence of this relationship on the voltage VI, the value of VI chosen to optimise the voltage of Dl, could compromise the gain and/or noise performance of Al, A2 and A3. In the embodiment of Fig. 6 the reference voltage source V2 allows the freedom to optimize the amplifier A2 to the most suitable V _GS2 SO that now:

Similarly, with A3:

V _GS3 = V _DS2 + V2 - V3

The parameters of the regulated voltages VI are such that it may be at a minimum zero volts, although negative voltages in other embodiments may be possible, and a maximum of Vdd - V _GSI - Its value is preferably chosen such that an adequate reverse bias develops across the photodiode, and enough voltage headroom remains so that the TIA may operate. For example, a typical Vdd for integrated circuits is 3.3V. A photodiode of a certain size may require for example, a reverse bias of 2V for a bandwidth of lGHz for a lGHz receiver. A typical Vgs of an NMOS transistor could be estimated at 800mV. This would therefore necessitate a reference voltage of value 1.2V on the source of Al.

Furthermore, to optimise the signal-to-noise ratio of Al, the reference voltage source could be for example, a regulated voltage, with an impedance such that Gml*R _Sc is much less than 1. If Ml is biased such that its transconductance, Gml, is equal to 1 millisiemen, then an impedance of 20 Ohms or less for the regulated voltage would result in Gml* Rs _c of 0.01 or less, reducing the Al gain term of Gml*Rd by no more than 1.01.

It is important to recognize that impedance is frequency dependent, and that the range of frequencies for which this this regulator must satisfy this criteria in this example would approximately be up to the 1 GHz operating frequency of the receiver. The DC impedance of the reference voltage source can be critical in applications where the amplifier must potentially function from DC up to high frequencies. Achieving this low impedance across a wide range of frequencies is a significant design challenge, especially for large values of Gm. In particular this is a challenge in integrated circuits which cannot take advantage of large area capacitors, and therefore simple passive solutions such as diode references with decoupling capacitors are not a feasible option. A voltage regulator, in contrast, consists of active amplification circuitry to create a stable output voltage with low output impedance over a range of frequencies, limited by the performance of the regulator. The amplification circuitry plays an important role in reducing the output impedance of the regulator.

If V2 is now chosen to satisfy:

then for example, assuming a V _GS2 of 800mV, and an optimal V _DSI of 400mV for signal-to- noise, then V2 would equal 0.8V on the source of M2. One could then for simplicity of design use V2 on the source of M3 also. The input impedance of V2 would be less critical than that of VI, because as Fig. 4 demonstrates, the most important optimisation for signal-to-noise ratio is achieved in Al. However, as adequate cascaded gain is still a requirement to lower the input impedance, it is preferred that the input impedance of V2 remain relatively low (such that Gm*R _Sc < 1) throughout the frequencies of operation, for example, less than 100-ohms for a Gm of approximately lmS. Fig. 7 shows a receiver 100 in which there is a low impedance voltage source 101 linked with the source of a PMOS transistor Ml in a first inverting amplifier state stage.

Fig. 8 shows a receiver 150 in which there are five inverting amplifiers Al, A2, A3, A4, and A5. In this case only the first inverting amplifier has a low impedance regulated voltage connected to its source, however, there may be one connected to one or more of the others, and some may be common. There is a feedback resistor Rf linking the output of A5 back to Dl.

Where there are N inverting amplifiers it is feasible that the values of V _GS2 to V _GSN are designed in such a way that V2 = V3 = . . . = V , as shown in a receiver 200 of Fig. 9 in the case of 3 inverting amplifiers. In this case, a single reference voltage source could be used at the gate of both A2 and A3. This advantageously reduces the number of reference voltage sources, and it optimises Al and A2, with A3 to A being of less importance to optimise. As shown in Fig. 4, the first stage noise is the most important stage to optimise in terms of signal-to-noise ratio as it is amplified by the subsequent gain stages.

For example, in Fig. 6 it is possible that Al, A2, and A3 are designed in such a way that VI = V2 = V3, in which case a single reference voltage source could supply all three stages of Al, A2, and A3. The amplification stages could use either resistor loads or current source loads, or a combination of them. A current source would result in a lower SNR than a resistive load and is therefore not preferred, especially for Al. The load may also be a transistor with its input gate connected to the gate of the input transistor to form a simple inverter amplifier. The load may also be a diode, or a diode connected transistor. The load may be another electrical circuit.

A current source load is especially beneficial in the final stage amplifier, as the output voltage at this amplifier could move close to the rail, which would turn off the current in a resistive load, and thus slew-limit the amplifier.

Non-inverting amplification stages may be placed after each, all, or any combination of, inverting amplifier stages, and this may improve drive capability of the stage.

Fig. 10 shows a differential optical receiver in which a photodiode Dl receives the light input signal and a photodiode D2 serves as a reference input. Two identical TIAs provide a differential output signal. A differential receiver may advantageously provide a differential output with better common-mode rejection than a single-ended receiver. The differential TIAs could share reference voltage sources VI, V2, and/or V3. The differential TIAs could feed into another differential amplifier with the dual purpose of creating a fully differential output signal (with or without feedback), and also acting as an active filter so as to limit the signal bandwidth and improve SNR. In alternative embodiments the reference voltage source need not be a fixed value over all circuit parameters. The reference may optimally vary with temperature or supply voltage to optimize the performance of the receiver over these conditions. Also, the reference voltage source may be programmable or otherwise adjustable by some other parameter, such as for example, the connection of an external resistor to the circuit, the value of this resistor being the parameter used to vary the voltage. However, for any given operating point the reference voltage source remains nominally constant and DC. A benefit of cascading the amplifiers is that high gain and high bandwidth can be achieved. Non-inverting amplifiers or buffers may be present within the amplifiers A2 or A3 at their inputs or outputs. Fig. 11 is a diagram showing an optical receiver having three inverting amplifier stages, and a first low impedance regulated voltage VI linked to the first stage and a common low impedance regulated voltage V2 linked with the second and stages; and the third stage source is connected to ground, and the third stage inverting transistor drain is coupled to its output through a non- inverting amplifier. The third stage inverting transistor drain is coupled to its output through a non- inverting amplifier. An input photodiode Dl is shown linked to the input. A feedback resistor Rf is shown linking the output of the amplifier to the input of the amplifier. A feedback capacitor Cf is shown in parallel with Rf. A stability capacitor CI is shown in parallel with Dl.

The receiver of Fig. 11 benefits from a buffer consisting of a PMOS follower transistor with a resistor load coupling the drain of the amplifier transistor M3 to the overall amplifier output. In terms of what is represented in the block diagrams, as the buffer circuit does not affect the polarity of the amplifier of M3 and its load, then the buffer is considered functionally part of A3 in any block diagram. The amplifier transistor Ml could be substituted with a bipolar transistor to form a common emitter amplifier, and, depending on the process characteristics, provide an advantage over the MOS implementation.

The reference voltage source is preferably a voltage regulator with a low output impedance to optimize the amplification voltage gain term (I). A low-drop-out (LDO) voltage regulator is an option. Preferably, the output impedance of the reference voltage source should result in Gm* Rsc << 1, where Gm is the transistor transconductance of the common source stage, and Rs _c is the output impedance of the reference voltage source. The reference voltage source is preferably programmable to optimise the photodiode to a given bandwidth. The reference voltage source may advantageously have a proportionality to temperature to compensate for temperature effects on the photodiode bandwidth.

A feedback resistor (Rf) and/or an automatic gain circuit (AGC) may be employed. Bipolar transistors may be used instead of MOS transistors in some embodiments.

PMOS transistors may be used instead of NMOS transistors in some embodiments. The amplifiers A2 and A3 may be inverting amplifier stages other than common-source amplifiers in some embodiments.

In some embodiments, any uneven number of inverting amplifier stages greater than three may be used.

In one embodiment, a photodiode is integrated onto the same integrated circuit as the optical receiver.

The invention includes various transimpedance amplifier circuits with regulator(s), which uses cascaded amplification stages to achieve high gain, high bandwidth, high signal to noise ratio, and control over the input bias voltage.

The invention is not limited to the embodiments described but may be varied in construction and detail. For example, as shown in Fig. 11, a capacitance may be connected in parallel with the feedback resistor for stability. Similarly, as shown in Fig. 11, a capacitance (CI) may be connected in parallel with the photodiode (Dl) to increase stability in some scenarios, at the expense of photodiode bandwidth. Also, in various examples, there may be an automatic gain control circuit for transimpedance gain control, and/or components for control of impedance of the amplifier loads for amplifier gain control and for stability, and/or non-inverting buffers between at least two stages. There may additionally be circuitry to enable programming of the output voltage of the reference voltage sources. In some embodiments the reference voltage source may have a dependence on a physical parameter, such as temperature or supply voltage, in order to optimise the circuit over various circuit conditions.