MATERIALS FOR USE IN ELECTROPHORETIC DISPLAYS

[Para 1 ] This application is related to:

(a) U.S. Patent No. 7,116,466; and

(b) U.S. Patent Publication No. 2006/0038772.

[Para 2] This invention relates to materials for use in electrophoretic media and displays. More specifically, in one aspect this invention relates to an electrophoretic medium and display containing a fluid which reduces haze. In another aspect, this invention relates to an electrophoretic medium and display with improved image stability.

[Para 3] Electrophoretic displays have been the subject of intense research and development for a number of years. Such displays can have attributes of good brightness and contrast, wide viewing angles, state bistability, and low power consumption when compared with liquid crystal displays. The terms "bistable" and "bistability" are used herein in their conventional meaning in the art to refer to displays comprising display elements having first and second display states differing in at least one optical property, and such that after any given element has been driven, by means of an addressing pulse of finite duration, to assume either its first or second display state, after the addressing pulse has terminated, that state will persist for at least several times, for example at least four times, the minimum duration of the addressing pulse required to change the state of the display element. (In practice, some electrophoretic displays, including some of the displays of the present invention, are capable of achieving multiple gray states, and, are stable not only in their extreme black and white optical states, but also in their intermediate gray states. Although such displays should properly be described as "multi-stable" rather than "bistable", the latter term may be used herein for convenience.) The optical property which is changed by application of an electric field is typically color perceptible to the human eye, but may be another optical property, such as optical transmission, reflectance, luminescence or, in the case of displays intended for machine reading, pseudo-color in the sense of a change in reflectance of electromagnetic wavelengths outside the visible range. Nevertheless, problems with the long-term image quality of these displays have prevented their widespread usage. For example, particles that make up electrophoretic displays tend to settle, resulting in inadequate service-life for these displays.

[Para 4] As noted above, electrophoretic media require the presence of a fluid. In most prior art electrophoretic media, this fluid is a liquid, but electrophoretic media can be produced using gaseous fluids; see, for example, Kitamura, T., et al., "Electrical toner movement for electronic paper-like display", IDW Japan, 2001, Paper HCSl-I, and Yamaguchi, Y., et al., "Toner display using insulative particles charged triboelectrically", IDW Japan, 2001, Paper AMD4-4). See also U.S. Patent Publication No. 2005/0001810; European Patent Applications 1,462,847; 1,482,354; 1,484,635; 1,500,971; 1,501,194; 1,536,271; 1,542,067; 1,577,702; 1,577,703; and 1,598,694; and International Applications WO 2004/090626; WO 2004/079442; and WO 2004/001498. Such gas-based electrophoretic media appear to be susceptible to the same types of problems due to particle settling as liquid-based electrophoretic media, when the media are used in an orientation which permits such settling, for example in a sign where the medium is disposed in a vertical plane. Indeed, particle settling appears to be a more serious problem in gas-based electrophoretic media than in liquid-based ones, since the lower viscosity of gaseous suspending fluids as compared with liquid ones allows more rapid settling of the electrophoretic particles. [Para 5] Numerous patents and applications assigned to or in the names of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and E Ink Corporation have recently been published describing encapsulated electrophoretic media. Such encapsulated media comprise numerous small capsules, each of which itself comprises an internal phase containing electrophoretically-mobile particles suspended in a liquid suspending medium, and a capsule wall surrounding the internal phase. Typically, the capsules are themselves held within a polymeric binder to form a coherent layer positioned between two electrodes. Encapsulated media of this type are described, for example, in U.S. Patents Nos. 5,930,026; 5,961,804; 6,017,584; 6,067,185; 6,118,426; 6,120,588; 6,120,839; 6,124,851; 6,130,773; 6,130,774; 6,172,798; 6,177,921; 6,232,950; 6,249,271; 6,252,564; 6,262,706; 6,262,833; 6,300,932; 6,312,304; 6,312,971; 6,323,989; 6,327,072; 6,376,828; 6,377,387; 6,392,785; 6,392,786; 6,413,790; 6,422,687; 6,445,374; 6,445,489; 6,459,418; 6,473,072; 6,480,182; 6,498,114; 6,504,524; 6,506,438; 6,512,354; 6,515,649; 6,518,949; 6,521,489; 6,531,997; 6,535,197; 6,538,801; 6,545,291; 6,580,545; 6,639,578; 6,652,075; 6,657,772; 6,664,944; 6,680,725; 6,683,333; 6,704,133; 6,710,540; 6,721,083; 6,724,519; 6,727,881; 6,738,050; 6,750,473; 6,753,999; 6,816,147; 6,819,471; 6,822,782; 6,825,068; 6,825,829; 6,825,970; 6,831,769; 6,839,158; 6,842,167; 6,842,279; 6,842,657; 6,864,875; 6,865,010; 6,866,760; 6,870,661; 6,900,851; 6,922,276; 6,950,200;

6,958,848; 6,967,640; 6,982,178; 6,987,603; 6,995,550; 7,002,728; 7,012,600; 7,012,735; 7,023,420; 7,030,412; 7,030,854; 7,034,783; 7,038,655; 7,061,663; 7,071,913; 7,075,502; 7,075,703; 7,079,305; 7,106,296; 7,109,968; 7,110,163; 7,110,164; 7,116,318; 7,116,466; 7,119,759; 7,119,772; 7,148,128; 7,167,155; 7,170,670; 7,173,752; 7,176,880; 7,180,649; 7,190,008; 7,193,625; 7,202,847; 7,202,991; 7,206,119; 7,223,672; 7,230,750; 7,230,751; 7,236,790; 7,236,792; 7,242,513; 7,247,379; 7,256,766; 7,259,744; 7,280,094; 7,304,634; 7,304,787; 7,312,784; 7,312,794; and 7,312,916; and U.S. Patent Applications Publication Nos. 2002/0060321; 2002/0090980; 2003/0102858; 2003/0151702; 2003/0222315; 2004/0105036; 2004/0112750; 2004/0119681; 2004/0155857; 2004/0180476; 2004/0190114; 2004/0196215; 2004/0226820; 2004/0257635; 2004/0263947; 2005/0000813; 2005/0007336; 2005/0012980; 2005/0018273; 2005/0024353; 2005/0062714; 2005/0067656; 2005/0099672; 2005/0122284; 2005/0122306; 2005/0122563; 2005/0134554; 2005/0151709; 2005/0152018; 2005/0156340; 2005/0179642; 2005/0190137; 2005/0212747; 2005/0213191; 2005/0253777; 2005/0280626; 2006/0007527; 2006/0038772; 2006/0139308; 2006/0139310; 2006/0139311; 2006/0176267; 2006/0181492; 2006/0181504; 2006/0194619; 2006/0197737; 2006/0197738; 2006/0202949; 2006/0223282; 2006/0232531; 2006/0245038; 2006/0262060; 2006/0279527; 2006/0291034; 2007/0035532; 2007/0035808; 2007/0052757; 2007/0057908; 2007/0069247; 2007/0085818; 2007/0091417; 2007/0091418; 2007/0097489; 2007/0109219; 2007/0128352; 2007/0146310; 2007/0152956; 2007/0153361; 2007/0200795; 2007/0200874; 2007/0201124; 2007/0207560; 2007/0211002; 2007/0211331; 2007/0223079; 2007/0247697; 2007/0285385; and 2007/0286975; and International Applications Publication Nos. WO 00/38000; WO 00/36560; WO 00/67110; and WO 01/07961; and European Patents Nos. 1,099,207 Bl; and 1,145,072 Bl. [Para 6] Many of the aforementioned patents and applications recognize that the walls surrounding the discrete microcapsules in an encapsulated electrophoretic medium could be replaced by a continuous phase, thus producing a so-called polymer-dispersed electrophoretic display, in which the electrophoretic medium comprises a plurality of discrete droplets of an electrophoretic fluid and a continuous phase of a polymeric material, and that the discrete droplets of electrophoretic fluid within such a polymer-dispersed electrophoretic display may be regarded as capsules or microcapsules even though no discrete capsule membrane is associated with each individual droplet; see for example, the aforementioned U.S. Patent No. 6,866,760.

Accordingly, for purposes of the present application, such polymer-dispersed electrophoretic media are regarded as sub-species of encapsulated electrophoretic media.

[Para 7] A related type of electrophoretic display is a so-called "microcell electrophoretic display". In a microcell electrophoretic display, the charged particles and the fluid are not encapsulated within microcapsules but instead are retained within a plurality of cavities formed within a carrier medium, typically a polymeric film. See, for example, U.S. Patents Nos. 6,672,921 and 6,788,449, both assigned to Sipix Imaging, Inc.

[Para 8] Although electrophoretic media are often opaque (since, for example, in many electrophoretic media, the particles substantially block transmission of visible light through the display) and operate in a reflective mode, many electrophoretic displays can be made to operate in a so-called "shutter mode" in which one display state is substantially opaque and one is light- transmissive. See, for example, the aforementioned U.S. Patents Nos. 6,130,774 and 6,172,798, and U.S. Patents Nos. 5,872,552; 6,144,361; 6,271,823; 6,225,971; and 6,184,856. Dielectrophoretic displays, which are similar to electrophoretic displays but rely upon variations in electric field strength, can operate in a similar mode; see U.S. Patent No. 4,418,346. Other types of electro-optic displays may also be capable of operating in shutter mode. [Para 9] An encapsulated, electrophoretic display typically does not suffer from the clustering and settling failure mode of traditional electrophoretic devices and provides further advantages, such as the ability to print or coat the display on a wide variety of flexible and rigid substrates. (Use of the word "printing" is intended to include all forms of printing and coating, including, but without limitation: pre-metered coatings such as patch die coating, slot or extrusion coating, slide or cascade coating, curtain coating; roll coating such as knife over roll coating, forward and reverse roll coating; gravure coating; dip coating; spray coating; meniscus coating; spin coating; brush coating; air knife coating; silk screen printing processes; electrostatic printing processes; thermal printing processes; ink jet printing processes; and other similar techniques.) Thus, the resulting display can be flexible. Further, because the display medium can be printed (using a variety of methods), the display itself can be made inexpensively.

[Para 1 0] Although as already mentioned, electrophoretic displays exhibit bistability, this bistability is not unlimited, and images on the display slowly fade with time, so that if an image is to be maintained for extended periods, the image must be refreshed periodically (and the intervals at which such refreshing is necessary is a convenient quantitative measure of image

stability). Also, in many systems which lack image stability, it is necessary to apply so-called "blanking pulses" at regular intervals; such blanking pulses involve first driving all the pixels of the display to one optical state (for example, a white state), then driving all the pixels to the opposite optical state (for example, black), and then writing the desired image. Since such refreshing and blanking of the display inherently consumes energy, and the blanking pulses are distracting for a user who is trying to concentrate on an image, it is desirable to minimize such refreshing and blanking, that is to say, to increase the bistability of the display so that the intervals between refreshing and/or blanking of the image can be increased, and the power consumption of the display thus reduced. For example, one potential application of electrophoretic displays is in personal digital assistants (PDA's) where the inherent size and weight limitations of the device, and the need for the screen to be visible under a wide variety of lighting conditions, render low power consumption and reflective mode of electrophoretic displays very attractive. It is common for the user of a PDA to keep a single image, such as a list of telephone numbers, on the screen for an extended period, and in order to keep the energy consumption of the PDA and distractions to the user to an absolute minimum, it is desirable that this be achievable without the need for any refreshing or blanking of the display during this extended period.

[Para 1 1 ] It has been found (see the aforementioned U.S. Patent No. 7,170,670) that the main factor limiting image stability in electrophoretic displays of the types described in the aforementioned patents and applications is settling of the electrophoretic pigment particles under gravity. It is also shown in this patent that the addition of certain polymers, especially high molecular weight polyisobutylene, to the suspending fluid used in electrophoretic displays provides an increase in image stability greater than can be accounted for by the increase in viscosity of the fluid caused by the addition of the polymer. Accordingly, the use of these polymers in the suspending fluid allows for substantial increases in image stability without excessive increase in the switching time of the display. However, the preferred polyisobutylene used in this patent is not compatible with all fluids used in electrophoretic media, and there is thus a need for alternative types of stabilizing polymers for use in differing fluids. [Para 1 2] Another aspect of the present invention relates to reducing haze in variable transmission windows and similar light modulators. As described in the aforementioned 2005/0213191, one potentially important application of electrophoretic media is in light

modulators, that is to say to variable transmission windows, mirrors and similar devices designed to modulate the amount of light or other electro-magnetic radiation passing therethrough; for convenience, the term "light" will normally be used herein, but this term should be understood in a broad sense to include electro-magnetic radiation at non- visible wavelengths. For example, the present invention may be applied to provide windows which can modulate infra-red radiation for controlling temperatures within buildings.

[Para 1 3] One potentially important market for electrophoretic media is windows with variable light transmission. As the energy performance of buildings and vehicles becomes increasingly important, electrophoretic media could be used as coatings on windows to enable the proportion of incident radiation transmitted through the windows to be electronically controlled by varying the optical state of the electrophoretic media. Effective implementation of such "variable- transmissivity" ("VT") technology in buildings is expected to provide (1) reduction of unwanted heating effects during hot weather, thus reducing the amount of energy needed for cooling, the size of air conditioning plants, and peak electricity demand; (2) increased use of natural daylight, thus reducing energy used for lighting and peak electricity demand; and (3) increased occupant comfort by increasing both thermal and visual comfort. Even greater benefits would be expected to accrue in an automobile, where the ratio of glazed surface to enclosed volume is significantly larger than in a typical building. Specifically, effective implementation of VT technology in automobiles is expected to provide not only the aforementioned benefits but also (1) increased motoring safety, (2) reduced glare, (3) enhanced mirror performance (by using an electro-optic coating on the mirror), and (4) increased ability to use heads-up displays. Other potential applications include of VT technology include privacy glass and glare-guards in electronic devices.

[Para 1 4] The aforementioned 2005/0213191 describes various factors which are important in adapting electrophoretic media for optimum performance in light modulators. One important factor is minimization of haze. In this application, "haze" refers to the percentage of diffuse transmitted light (light that is scattered as it is transmitted), compared to total transmitted light. In order to create a variable transmission film (VTF) with reduced haze it is important to match the refractive index of all components present at non-planar interfaces. In capsule -based electrophoretic media such non-planar interfaces exist at the boundaries between the internal phase (the electrophoretic particles and the surrounding fluid) and the capsule walls, and at the

boundaries between the capsules walls and the binder which, as described in the aforementioned E Ink and MIT patents and applications, normally surrounds the capsules and forms them into a coherent layer. In polymer-dispersed and some microcell electrophoretic media, such curved surfaces exist at the boundaries between the internal phase and the surrounding continuous phase or binder.

[Para 1 5] It has been found empirically that even small differences in refractive index at the relevant boundaries can produce major increases in haze; in practice, as shown in the Examples below, for every 0.001 difference in refractive index between an internal phase (the "refractive index of the internal phase" is of course in practice the refractive index of the fluid therein) and a surrounding capsule wall, haze increases by about 1 per cent, and approximately the same relationship holds for index mis-matches between an internal phase and a binder with which it is contact. Hence, for most commercial applications, index matching to better than 0.010 in refractive index is needed. Achieving such tight refractive index matching poses considerable difficulties, because the materials normally used to form capsules walls or binders have considerably higher refractive indices than the fluids normally used in internal phases. For example, many of the aforementioned E Ink and MIT patents and applications describe encapsulated electrophoretic media having capsule walls formed from a coacervate of gelatin and acacia; this coacervate has a refractive index of about 1.540. The binders conventionally used in the polymer-dispersed electrophoretic media described in the aforementioned U.S. Patent No. 6,866,760 have a refractive index of about 1.5220. In contrast, most of the aforementioned E Ink and MIT patents and applications describe electrophoretic media using hydrocarbon solvents having refractive indices of about 1.416, or mixtures of such hydrocarbon solvents with Halocarbon 0.8 oil, a low molecular weight polymer of chlorotrifluoroethylene, and such mixtures will have similar refractive indices to the hydrocarbon solvents themselves. The resultant refractive index mis-match of about 0.1 between the internal phase and the surrounding material is far too great to be tolerated in a light modulator.

[Para 1 6] The present invention provides electrophoretic media which have a low refractive index difference between the internal phase and the surrounding material and which are hence very suitable for use in light modulators.

[Para 1 7] In one aspect, this invention provides an electrophoretic medium comprising a plurality of particles disposed in a fluid, the particles being capable of moving through the fluid

upon application of an electric field to the medium, the fluid comprising a partially hydrogenated aromatic hydrocarbon and a terpene.

[Para 1 8] This aspect of the invention may hereinafter be referred to as the "mixed fluid" medium of the invention. In such a mixed fluid medium, the partially hydrogenated aromatic hydrocarbon may comprise a partially hydrogenated terphenyl, while the terpene may comprise d-limonene. As in the block copolymer medium, the mixed fluid medium may be encapsulated, with the fluid and particles being retained within a plurality of capsules. In such an encapsulated medium, the capsule walls may be formed from a coacervate of gelatin and acacia, and the difference in refractive index between the capsule walls and the fluid may be not greater than about 0.005. Alternatively, the medium may be of the polymer-dispersed type, with the fluid and the particles present as a plurality of discrete droplets in a continuous phase. The continuous phase may comprise gelatin or a mixture of poly(vinyl alcohol) and poly(vinylpyrrolidone) and the difference in refractive index between the capsule walls and the fluid may be not greater than about 0.005. The fluid may have dispersed therein a polystyrene having a weight average molecular weight in the range of 10 kD to 500 kD, preferably 12 kD to 100 kD. [Para 1 9] This invention extends to an electrophoretic display comprising a mixed fluid electrophoretic medium of the present invention and at least one electrode arranged to apply an electric field to the electrophoretic medium. Such an electrophoretic display may further comprise voltage supply means arranged to supply voltages to the at least one electrode, the voltage supply means being arranged to drive the electrophoretic medium to a first optical state in which the medium is light transmissive and to a second optical state in which the medium is light absorbing. Such an electrophoretic display may further comprise at least one sheet of light transmissive material disposed adjacent the electrophoretic medium, so that the electrophoretic display forms a variable transmission window.

[Para 20] In another aspect, this invention provides an electrophoretic medium comprising a plurality of particles disposed in a fluid, the particles being capable of moving through the fluid upon application of an electric field to the medium, the fluid having dissolved or dispersed therein a polystyrene having a weight average molecular weight in the range of 10 kD to 500 kD.

[Para 21 ] This aspect of the invention may hereinafter be referred to as the "polystyrene" medium of the invention. In such a polystyrene medium, the polystyrene may have a weight average molecular weight in the range of 12 kD to 100 kD, and preferably in the range of 15 kD

to 25 kD. The polystyrene may be present in an amount of from 1.0 to 2.0 times its overlap concentration in the fluid. The electrophoretic medium may be encapsulated, with the fluid and particles being retained within a plurality of capsules or microcells. Alternatively, the electrophoretic medium may be of the polymer-dispersed type, with the fluid and the particles present as a plurality of discrete droplets in a continuous phase.

[Para 22] This invention extends to an electrophoretic display comprising a polystyrene electrophoretic medium of the present invention and at least one electrode arranged to apply an electric field to the electrophoretic medium. Such an electrophoretic display may further comprise voltage supply means arranged to supply voltages to the at least one electrode, the voltage supply means being arranged to drive the electrophoretic medium to a first optical state in which the medium is light transmissive and to a second optical state in which the medium is light absorbing. Such an electrophoretic display may further comprise at least one sheet of light transmissive material disposed adjacent the electrophoretic medium, so that the electrophoretic display forms a variable transmission window.

[Para 23] Finally, this invention provides an electrophoretic medium comprising a plurality of particles disposed in a fluid, the particles being capable of moving through the fluid upon application of an electric field to the medium, the fluid having dissolved or dispersed therein a polymer having an intrinsic viscosity of [η] in the fluid and being substantially free from ionic or ionizable groups in the fluid, the polymer being present in the suspending fluid in a concentration of from 0.5 [η] ^"1 to 2.0 [η] ^"1 , the polymer comprising a polystyrene having a weight average molecular weight in the range of 10 kD to 500 kD.

[Para 24] Figures IA and IB are schematic cross-sections through a first electrophoretic display of the present invention in which the electrophoretic medium comprises a single type of particle in a colored suspending fluid.

[Para 25] Figures 2A and 2B are schematic cross-sections, generally similar to those of Figures

IA and IB respectively through a second electrophoretic display of the present invention in which the electrophoretic medium comprises two different types of particle, bearing charges of opposite polarity, in an uncolored suspending fluid.

[Para 26] Figures 3 A and 3B are schematic cross-sections, generally similar to those of Figures

2A and 2B respectively through a third electrophoretic display of the present invention in which

the electrophoretic medium comprises two different types of particle, bearing charges of the same polarity but differing in electrophoretic mobility, in an uncolored suspending fluid.

[Para 27] Figure 4 is a graph illustrating the change in the haze in a light modulator with changes in the refractive index of the liquid used in the internal phase.

[Para 28] Figure 5 is a graph showing the change in viscosity of an internal phase liquid as a function of the concentration of polystyrene therein for experiments described in Example 1 below.

[Para 29] Figure 6 is a graph showing the relationship between the intrinsic viscosity of the polystyrenes shown in Figure 5 and their weight average molecular weights in the experiments described in Example 1 below.

[Para 30] Figure 7 is a graph showing the image stability of polystyrene electrophoretic media of the present invention as functions of the polymer concentration therein for experiments described in Example 2 below.

[Para 31 ] As already indicated, there are two principal aspects of the present invention, namely the mixed fluid electrophoretic medium and the polystyrene electrophoretic medium. These principal aspects will mainly be described separately below, but it should be appreciated that both aspects of the present invention may be used in a single electrophoretic medium.

[Para 32] Before discussing the principal aspects of the present invention in detail, however, the following general introduction, applicable to all aspects of the invention, is offered.

[Para 33] As already mentioned, the present invention relates to an electrophoretic medium comprising a plurality of particles disposed in a fluid. The particles are capable of moving through the fluid upon application of an electric field to the medium. The fluid may contain a dissolved and/or dispersed polymer.

[Para 34] The electrophoretic medium of the present invention may be of any of the types described in the aforementioned E Ink and MIT patents and applications, and preferred embodiments of such media will now be described with reference to Figures 1 to 3 of the accompanying drawings.

[Para 35] The first electrophoretic display (generally designated 100) of the invention shown in

Figures IA and IB comprises an encapsulated electrophoretic medium (generally designated

102) comprising a plurality of capsules 104 (only one of which is shown in Figures IA- 1C), each

of which contains a liquid 106 and dispersed therein a plurality of a single type of particle 108, which for purposes of illustration will be assumed to be black. The particles 108 are electrophoretically mobile and may be formed of carbon black. In the following description, it will be assumed that the particles 108 are positively charged, although of course negatively charged particles could also be used if desired. (The triangular shape of the particles 108, and the square and circular shapes of other particles discussed below, are used purely to way of illustration to enable the various types of particles to be distinguished easily in the accompanying drawings, and in no way correspond to the physical forms of the actual particles, which are typically substantially spherical. However, we do not exclude the use of non-spherical particles in the present displays.) The display 100 further comprises a common, transparent front electrode 110, which forms a viewing surface through which an observer views the display 100, and a plurality of discrete rear electrodes 112, each of which defines one pixel of the display 100 (only one rear electrode 112 is shown in Figures IA and IB). For ease of illustration and comprehension, Figures IA and IB show only a single microcapsule forming the pixel defined by rear electrode 112, although in practice a large number (20 or more) microcapsules are normally used for each pixel. The rear electrodes 112 are mounted upon a substrate 114. [Para 36] The liquid 106 is colored such that the particles 108 lying in the positions shown in Figure IA adjacent the rear electrodes 112 are not visible to an observer viewing the display 100 via the front electrode 110. The necessary color in the liquid 106 may be provided either by dissolving a dye in the liquid. Since the colored liquid 106 and the particles 108 render the electrophoretic medium 102 opaque, the rear electrodes 112 and the substrate 114 can be transparent or opaque since they are not visible through the opaque electrophoretic medium 102. [Para 37] The capsules 104 and the particles 108 can be made in a wide range of sizes. However, in general it is preferred that the thickness of the capsules, measured perpendicular to the electrodes, be in the range of about 15 to 500 μm, while the particles 108 will typically have diameters in the range of about 0.25 to about 2 μm.

[Para 38] Figure IA shows the display 100 with the rear electrode 112 negatively charged and the front electrode 110 positively charged. Under this condition, the positively-charged particles 108 are attracted to the negative rear electrode 112 and thus lie adjacent the rear electrode 112, where they are hidden from an observer viewing the display 100 through the front electrode 110 by the colored liquid 106. Accordingly, the pixel shown in Figure IA displays to the observer the

color of the liquid 106, which for purposes of illustration will be assumed to be white. (Although the display 100 is illustrated in Figures IA and IB with the rear electrodes 112 at the bottom, in practice both the front and rear electrodes are typically disposed vertically for maximum visibility of the display 100. None of the specific embodiments of the invention described herein rely in any way upon gravity to control the movement of the particles; such movement under gravity is in practice far too slow to be useful for controlling particle movement.) Figure IB shows the display 100 with the front electrode 110 made negative relative to the rear electrode 112. Since the particles 108 are positively charged, they will be attracted to the negatively- charged front electrode 110, and thus the particles 108 move adjacent the front electrode 110, and the pixel displays the black color of the particles 108.

[Para 39] In Figures IA and IB, the capsules 104 are illustrated as being of substantially prismatic form, having a width (parallel to the planes of the electrodes) significantly greater than their height (perpendicular to these planes). This prismatic shape of the capsules 104 is deliberate. If the capsules 104 were essentially spherical, in the black state shown in Figure IB, the particles 108 would tend to gather in the highest part of the capsule, in a limited area centered directly above the center of the capsule. The color seen by the observer would then be essentially the average of this central black area and a white annulus surrounding this central area, where the white liquid 106 would be visible. Thus, even in this supposedly black state, the observer would see a grayish color rather than a pure black, and the contrast between the two extreme optical states of the pixel would be correspondingly limited. In contrast, with the prismatic form of microcapsule shown in Figures IA and IB, the particles 108 cover essentially the entire cross- section of the capsule so that no, or at least very little white liquid is visible, and the contrast between the extreme optical states of the capsule is enhanced. For further discussion on this point, and on the desirability of achieving close-packing of the capsules within the electrophoretic layer, the reader is referred to the aforementioned U.S. Patent No. 6,067,185. Also, as described in the aforementioned E Ink and MIT patents and applications, to provide mechanical integrity to the electrophoretic medium, the microcapsules are normally embedded within a solid binder, but this binder is omitted from Figures 1 to 3 for ease of illustration. [Para 40] The second electrophoretic display (generally designed 200) of the invention shown in Figures 2Aand 2B comprises an encapsulated electrophoretic medium (generally designated 202) comprising a plurality of capsules 204, each of which contains a liquid 206 and dispersed

therein a plurality of positively charged black particles 108 identical discussed to those in the first display 100 discussed above. The display 200 further comprises a front electrode 110, rear electrodes 112, and a substrate 114, all of which are identical to the corresponding integers in the first display 100. However, in addition to the black particles 108, there are suspended in the liquid 206 a plurality of negatively charged, particles 218, which for present purposes will be assumed to be white.

[Para 41 ] Typically the liquid 206 is uncolored (i.e., essentially transparent), although some color may be present therein to adjust the optical properties of the various states of the display. Figure 2A shows the display 200 with the front electrode 110 positively charged relative to the rear electrode 112 of the illustrated pixel. The positively charged particles 108 are held electrostatically adjacent the rear electrode 112, while the negatively charged particles 218 are held electrostatically against the front electrode 110. Accordingly, an observer viewing the display 200 through the front electrode 110 sees a white pixel, since the white particles 218 are visible and hide the black particles 108.

[Para 42] Figure 2B shows the display 200 with the front electrode 110 negatively charged relative to the rear electrode 112 of the illustrated pixel. As in the corresponding optical state shown in Figure IB, the positively charged particles 108 are now electrostatically attracted to the negative front electrode 110, while the negatively charged particles 218 are electrostatically attracted to the positive rear electrode 112. Accordingly, the particles 108 move adjacent the front electrode 110, and the pixel displays the black color of the particles 108, which hide the white particles 218.

[Para 43] The third electrophoretic display (generally designated 300) of the invention shown in Figures 3A and 3B comprises an encapsulated electrophoretic medium (generally designated 302) comprising a plurality of capsules 304. The display 300 further comprises a front electrode 110, rear electrodes 112, and a substrate 114, all of which are identical to the corresponding integers in the displays 100 and 200 previously described. The display 300 resembles the display 200 described above in that the liquid 306 is uncolored and that white negatively charged particles 218 are suspended therein. However, that the display 300 differs from the display 200 by the presence of red negatively charged particles 320, which have a substantially lower electrophoretic mobility than the white particles 218.

[Para 44] Figure 3 A shows the display 300 with the front electrode 110 positively charged relative to the rear electrode 112 of the illustrated pixel. Both the negatively charged white particles 218 and the negatively charged red particles 320 are attracted to the front electrode 110, but since the white particles 218 have substantially higher electrophoretic mobility, that they reach the front electrode 110 first (note that the optical state shown in Figure 3 A is normally generated by abruptly reversing the polarity off the electrodes in the optical state shown in Figure 3B, thus forcing both the white particles 218 and the red particles 320 to traverse the thickness of the capsule 304, and thus allowing the greater mobility of the white particles 218 to cause them to reach their positions adjacent the front electrode 110 before the red particles 320). Thus, the white particles 218 form a continuous layer immediately adjacent the front electrode 110, thereby hide being the red particles 320. Accordingly, an observer viewing the display 300 through the front electrode 110 sees a white pixel, since the white particles 218 are visible and hide the red particles 320.

[Para 45] Figure 3B shows the display 300 with the front electrode 110 negatively charged relative to the rear electrode 112 of the illustrated pixel. Both the negatively charged white particles 218 and the negatively charged red particles 320 are attracted to the rear electrode 112, but since the white particles have higher electrophoretic mobility, when the optical state shown in Figure 3B is produced by reversing the polarity on the electrodes in the optical state shown in Figure 3 A, the white particles 218 reach the rear electrode 112 more quickly than do the red particles 320, so that the white particles 218 form a continuous layer adjacent the electrode 112, leaving a continuous layer of the red particles 320 facing the front electrode 110. Accordingly, an observer viewing the display 300 through the front electrode 110 sees a red pixel, since the red particles 320 are visible and hide the white particles 218.

[Para 46] The present invention may be applied to any of the forms of encapsulated electrophoretic media shown in Figures 1 to 3, and to similar microcell media. However, the present invention is not restricted to encapsulated electrophoretic media, and may also be applied to unencapsulated media and to polymer-dispersed electrophoretic media which, as previously described, are of a two-phase type, with the fluid and particles forming a discontinuous phase comprising a plurality of droplets, the droplets being surrounded by a continuous phase. In such a polymer-dispersed electrophoretic medium, the droplets desirably comprise at least about 40

percent by volume all of the electrophoretic medium; see the aforementioned U.S. Patents Nos. 6,866,760 and 7,079,305, and Patent Publication No. 2006/0007527. [Para 47] Mixed fluid electrophoretic medium

[Para 48] As already mentioned, haze in a variable transmission electrophoretic medium is very strongly dependent upon differences in refractive index between the fluid of the internal phase and the capsule wall. To investigate just how strong this correlation is, encapsulated electrophoretic media were prepared substantially as described in the aforementioned U.S. Patent No. 7,170,670 with gelatin/acacia capsule walls and with internal phases having varying refractive indices, and the media were then tested for haze. The results are shown in Figure 4. [Para 49] From Figure 4, it will be seen that (as expected) the haze reaches a minimum when the internal phase fluid has a refractive index of 1.540, equal to the refractive index of the capsule walls. Figure 4 also shows how sensitive the system is to even small refractive index differences between the internal phase fluid and the capsule walls; for every difference of 0.001 in refractive index between the internal phase fluid and the capsule wall, the haze increases by about 1 per cent. Thus, to provide a variable transmission electrophoretic medium with haze values acceptable for use in a commercial variable transmission window, the refractive indices of the internal phase fluid and the capsule wall must differ by not more than about 0.010, and preferably by not more than about 0.005.

[Para 5O] It is not easy to find a single liquid meeting these very tight refractive index constraints and possessing all the other properties required for use in an electrophoretic medium internal phase, such properties including viscosity, long term stability, and ability to maintain stable charges on the electrophoretic particles. Furthermore, there is an additional complication in that differing types of electrophoretic media have materials of different refractive indices in contact with the internal phase. As already mentioned, the gelatin/acacia coacervate commonly used to form capsule walls in electrophoretic media has a refractive index of about 1.540. In contrast, the preferred continuous phase for polymer-dispersed electrophoretic media is a mixture of poly(vinyl alcohol) and polyvinylpyrrolidone), typically with a minor proportion (about 5 to 10 per cent by weight) of gelatin; this continuous phase has a refractive index of about 1.522. Given the difficulty of finding a refractive index matching liquid for use in electrophoretic media which meets all the other properties required, and the amount of work necessary to check that any proposed liquid does not adversely affect the properties of an electrophoretic medium, it is

highly undesirable to have to use two different types of internal phase fluid for capsule- containing and polymer-dispersed media, or to have to find a new fluid every time the refractive index of the capsule wall or continuous phase is changed.

[Para 51 ] It has now been found that mixtures of partially hydrogenated aromatic hydrocarbons and terpenes are very suitable for use as refractive index matching fluids for use in electrophoretic media. The preferred partially hydrogenated aromatic hydrocarbon for this purpose is partially hydrogenated terphenyl, available commercially as Cargille 5040 from Cargille Laboratories, 55 Commerce Rd, Cedar Grove NJ 07009. The preferred terpene is d-limonene, a product derived from citrus fruit, used as a cleaning agent, and available commercially from a variety of suppliers. Cargille 5040 has a refractive index of 1.577, which is higher than any refractive index which is normally required to be matched, while d-limonene has a refractive index of 1.471, lower than any refractive index which is normally required to be matched. The two materials are miscible in all proportions to allow the formation of mixtures which can accurately index match most capsule and continuous phase materials likely to be used in electrophoretic media. Such mixtures have been found to have good properties for use in electrophoretic internal phases; for example, they do not interfere with proper electrical charging of the electrophoretic particles. Furthermore, such mixtures are free from the toxicity, smell and long term health issues to which possible alternative high refractive index liquids (for example halogenated aromatic solvents) are subject. [Para 52] Polystyrene electrophoretic medium

[Para 53] Electrophoretic media using a mixture of a partially hydrogenated aromatic hydrocarbon and a terpene as the internal phase fluid typically require the addition of a polymer to the fluid to improve the optical state stability of the medium to a level acceptable for use in commercial variable transmission windows and similar light modulators. Although power consumption may be a less important consideration with variable transmission windows than with some other applications of electrophoretic media, since such windows can normally be powered from electric mains, it is still undesirable to have to "rewrite" such windows at frequent intervals since even slight changes in the optical transmission through such windows are likely to be noticeable and irritating to users. However, the polyisobutylene used in the aforementioned U.S. Patent No. 7,170,670 to increase image stability cannot be used with media using a mixture

of a partially hydrogenated aromatic hydrocarbon and a terpene as the internal phase fluid since the polyisobutylene is not sufficiently soluble in the fluid.

[Para 54] As already noted, the polyisobutylene used in the worked Examples of the aforementioned U.S. Patent No. 7,170,670 is believed to exert its image stabilizing effect via a depletion flocculation mechanism. Accordingly, to achieve the same image stabilizing effect in an electrophoretic medium using a mixture of a partially hydrogenated aromatic hydrocarbon and a terpene as the internal phase fluid, it was necessary to identify a polymer not only capable of dissolving in this internal phase fluid but also capable of remaining in solution across the operational temperature range of the medium. After screening several materials, it was determined that polystyrene met these requirements. At first glance, it appears that polystyrene was an unlikely candidate since this polymer is generally known as being particularly susceptible to degradation by ultra-violet radiation. However, its has been found empirically that when a typical variable transmission window, comprising in order a glass sheet, an electrode, the polystyrene-containing internal phase, an indium-tin-oxide (ITO) electrode and a polymeric film such as poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), is exposed to harsh ultra-violet exposure, no significant degradation of the polystyrene is observed. Indeed, when a similar structure but without the glass sheet was exposed to the ultra-violet radiation conditions used to stress test variable transmission windows, it was found that the PET failed before the polystyrene became unacceptably degraded.

[Para 55] The following Examples are provided, though by way of illustration only, to show preferred types of polystyrene for use in the present invention, and the results achieved by adding polystyrene to electrophoretic medium internal phases. [Para 56] Example 1 : Measurement of overlap concentration

[Para 57] It is known that the concentration of polymer needed to cause stabilization by depletion flocculation in a liquid is related to the overlap concentration of the polymer (i.e., the concentration at which the polymer chains begin to overlap one another). Accordingly, a series of experiments were conducted to determine the overlap concentration of polystyrenes of varying molecular weights in a solvent mixture which can be used as a fluid in electrophoretic media. [Para 58] The overlap concentration C* is given by the Mark-Houwink equation:

C* = (KM ^*1 ) ^"1

where K is a dimensionless constant. M is the volume average molecular weight in Daltons and a is proportional to the solubility of the polymer in the solvent. Accordingly, C* at any given temperature can be determined by plotting the specific viscosity of a polymer in a liquid against polymer concentration.

[Para 59] In these experiments, polystyrenes having volume average molecular weights from 382 to 983 kD were dissolved in a 1.7:1 v/v mixture of Cargille 5040 and Isopar G (a hydrocarbon solvent) at polymer concentrations well below the estimated overlap concentration to ensure a linear relationship between solution viscosity and polymer concentration, and the Mark-Houwink constants (at ambient temperature of approximately 2O ⁰ C) were determined from the slope of specific viscosity versus polymer concentration. The results are shown in Figure 5 below.

[Para 60] In Figure 5, the slopes of the lines represent the intrinsic viscosity of each polystyrene. Figure 6 plots these intrinsic viscosities determined from Figure 5 against the molecular weight of the polystyrene in a log/log plot. The slope of this line equals the Mark- Houwink solubility parameter, a, and the intercept equals 10 ^K , where K is the Mark-Houwink constant, thus enabling the calculation of C* for the various polystyrene samples. The resulting value of a (about 0.55) shows that the solvent mixture used is not an ideal solvent for polystyrene but is sufficiently solvating to be effective. [Para 61 ] Example 2 : Measurement of optical state stability

[Para 62] A series of experimental variable transmission windows were produced using polymer-dispersed polystyrene electrophoretic media of the present invention. These experimental windows used varying concentrations of five different polystyrenes with molecular weights varying from 97 to 983 kD. All the polystyrene samples had narrow polydispersisity with M _w /M _n not greater than 1.3. All electrophoretic media used the same 1.7:1 v/v mixture of Cargille 5040 and Isopar G as in Example 1 above.

[Para 63] Each window was driven to its maximum transmission optical state, which (it was known empirically) tends to be the least stable state of such media. The optical transmission was measured immediately after the end of the drive pulse and after the medium had been thereafter allowed to stand undriven for one minute; the former transmission is denoted T and the difference between the two values δT. Figure 7 plots the normalized δT (i.e., δT/T, expressed as

a percentage) against polymer concentration expressed as a proportion of the overlap value. A normalized δT of 0 would be ideal, meaning that there was no change in transmission; 100 would indicate the display has completely reverted to its undriven state.

[Para 64] The results shown in Figure 7 indicate that lower molecular weight polystyrenes are more effective for stabilizing the optical state of the medium transmission at low fractions of overlap concentration. Use of a low fraction of overlap concentration is desirable as the liquid viscosity increases more steeply with concentration for higher molecular weights, particularly after the overlap concentration has been exceeded. A higher viscosity liquid slows electrophoretic and dielectrophoretic motion of the electrophoretic particles, thereby requiring longer drive times and resulting in greater power consumption.

[Para 65] In view of the results shown in Figure 7, further experiments were conducted to determine if polystyrenes having molecular weights lower than about 97 kD (the lowest molecular weight material used in Figure 7) are effective in increasing image stability. The following Table shows the amount of each polystyrene needed to reduce the normalized δT value below 2 per cent, both in terms of the volume per cent of polymer and in terms of the fraction of the overlap concentration. Results for some of the polystyrenes shown in Figure 7 are also included in the Table

[Para 66] Table

[Para 67] From this Table, it can be seen that polystyrenes having volume average molecular weights as low as 13 kD are effective in causing depletion flocculation and hence increasing image stability. However, from these data it appears that a volume average molecular weight of about 20 kD is optimum for this purpose.

[Para 68] As indicated above, the polystyrene aspect of the present invention is primarily intended for use in light modulators and other types of electrophoretic which operate in shutter mode. However, all aspects of the present invention can also be used in any of the applications in

which electrophoretic displays have previously been employed. Thus, for example, the present displays may be used in electronic book readers, portable computers, tablet computers, cellular telephones, smart cards, signs, watches, shelf labels and flash drives.