METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR SPECTROSCOPIC TISSUE ANALYTE MEASUREMENT

1. Technical Field

[0001] The present invention relates to medical methods and systems, and more

particularly to methods and systems for estimating body fluid metrics.

2. Background Art

[0002] This section is intended to introduce the reader to various aspects of art that may

be related to various aspects of the present invention, which are described and/or claimed below. This discussion is believed to be helpful in providing the reader with background

information to facilitate a better understanding of the various aspects of the present

invention. Accordingly, it should be understood that these statements are to be read in this

light, and not as admissions of prior art.

[0003] The maintenance of body fluid balance is of foremost concern in the care and

treatment of critically ill patients, yet physicians have access to few diagnostic tools to assist them in this vital task. Patients with congestive heart failure, for example, frequently suffer

from chronic systemic edema which must be controlled within tight limits to ensure

adequate tissue perfusion and prevent dangerous electrolyte disturbances. Conversely, dehydration from diarrhea is one of the most common causes of hospitalization of infants

and children and can be life-threatening if not recognized and treated promptly. Additionally, hospital admission of long-term care patients due to dehydration occurs with

alarming frequency, high costs to the health care system, and frequently with poor outcomes

for patients.

[0004] The most common method for judging the severity of edema or dehydration is

based on the interpretation of subjective clinical signs (e.g., swelling of limbs, dry mucous

membranes), with additional information provided by measurements of the frequency of

urination, heart rate, serum urea nitrogen (SUN) to creatinine ratios, and blood electrolyte

levels. However, none of these variables alone is a direct and quantitative measure of water retention or loss.

[0005] An indicator dilution technique, which provides the most accurate direct measure

of water in body tissues, is the present de facto standard for assessment of body fluid

distribution. However, indicators can take up to four hours to equilibrate in an adult, and

require careful collection of fluid samples and extensive equipment for precise analysis,

making the technique inconvenient for a clinical setting.

[0006] Alternatively, a great deal of research has been conducted regarding an electrical

impedance technique, which involves the use of electrical impedance monitors for measurement of total body water. This electrical-impedance technique is based on

measuring changes in the high-frequency (typically 10 KHz - 1 MHz) electrical impedance

of a portion of the body. However, while results of using the electrical-impedance technique for a single tissue have proven to be clinically useful, mixed results have been obtained with the electrical-impedance technique in clinical studies of whole body fluid

disturbances, as reported by various investigators. The results generally indicate that the electrical-impedance technique can be inaccurate when measuring total body water. The

rather poor accuracy of the technique seen in many studies points to unresolved deficiencies

when applied in a clinical setting.

DISCLOSURE OF INVENTION

[0007] Certain aspects commensurate in scope with the originally claimed invention are

set forth below. It should be understood that these aspects are presented merely to provide

the reader with a brief summary of certain forms the invention might take and that these

aspects are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. Indeed, the invention may

encompass a variety of aspects that may not be set forth below.

[0008] There is provided a method for calculating one or more body fluid metrics, including acquiring an absorbance spectrum of a subject's tissue at a range of wavelengths

of light, determining concentrations of a plurality of constituents of the subject's tissue by

performing a multi-linear regression of the absorbance spectrum in relation to a plurality of

absorbance spectra of the constituents, and calculating one or more body fluid metrics based

on the concentrations.

[0009] There is further provided a method for calculating one or more body fluid

metrics, including measuring an intensity spectrum of a subject's tissue, processing the

intensity spectrum to determine an absorbance spectrum of the tissue, performing a multi¬

linear regression of the absorbance spectrum in relation to a plurality of analyte absorbance spectra, wherein the analytes are representative of tissue constituents, and determining concentrations of the tissue constituents based on the multi-linear regression.

[0010] There is further provided a system for calculating one or more body fluid metrics, including a sensor configured to emit a range of wavelengths of light into a subject's tissue

and to detect reflected, scattered, or transmitted light, a spectrometer configured to process

the reflected, scattered, or transmitted light and to generate an absorbance spectrum of the

subject's tissue across the range of wavelengths of light, a memory configured to store a

plurality of absorbance spectra of tissue constituents across the range of wavelengths of light

and to store a multi-linear regression model, and a processor configured to perform a multi¬

linear regression of the absorbance spectrum of the subject's tissue with respect to the

plurality of absorbance spectra of tissue constituents based on the multi-linear regression model and to calculate one or more body fluid metrics based on the multi-linear regression.

[0011] There is further provided one or more tangible, machine-readable media, having code executable to perform the acts of performing a multi-linear regression of an absorbance

spectrum of a subject's tissue in relation to a plurality of absorbance spectra of skin

constituents and calculating one or more body fluid metrics based on the multi-linear

regression.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

[0012] Advantages of the invention may become apparent upon reading the following

detailed description and upon reference to the drawings in which:

[0013] FIG. 1 is a bar graph of body water percentage in men and women across varying

age groups as observed in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present

invention;

[0014] FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a monitor coupled to a multi-parameter patient monitor and a sensor in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention;

[0015] FIG. 3 is a block diagram of the monitor coupled to a patient in accordance with

an exemplary embodiment of the present invention;

[0016] FIG. 4 is a flow chart of a process related to calculating body fluid metrics in

accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention;

[0017] FIG. 5 is a graph of a skin absorbance spectrum as observed in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention;

[0018] FIG. 6 is a graph of analyte absorbance spectra as observed in accordance with an

exemplary embodiment of the present invention;

[0019] FIG. 7 is a graph of a pig's hydration index as measured while the pig underwent

overhydration in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention;

[0020] FIG. 8 is a graph of hydration index as determined by a monitor versus hydration

index as determined by local skin biopsy for a study of eight pigs undergoing overhydration

as observed in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; and

[0021] FIGS. 9-13 are graphs illustrating a correlation between hydration index as

determined by local skin biopsy and estimated hydration index calculated at various sensor sites using each of two wavelength bands for a study of twelve pigs undergoing non-isotonic

overhydration as observed in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention.

MODES FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION

[0022] One or more specific embodiments of the present invention will be described below. In an effort to provide a concise description of these embodiments, not all features of an actual implementation are described in the specification. It should be appreciated that

in the development of any such actual implementation, as in any engineering or design

project, numerous implementation-specific decisions must be made to achieve the

developers' specific goals, such as compliance with system-related and business-related

constraints, which may vary from one implementation to another. Moreover, it should be

appreciated that such a development effort might be complex and time consuming, but

would nevertheless be a routine undertaking of design, fabrication, and manufacture for those of ordinary skill having the benefit of this disclosure.

[0023] In accordance with present embodiments, a monitor may be used to non-

invasively measure a relative quantity of a specific constituent in a subject's skin. For

example, the monitor may be used to measure the percentage of water in the subject's tissue.

To obtain such measurements, the monitor may be configured to use near-infrared (NIR) diffuse reflectance spectroscopy to measure the absorbance of water relative to other major

tissue constituents. Specifically, the monitor may shine light into the subject's tissue and

then measure an intensity of the light after it has been reflected, scattered, and/or transmitted

by the tissue. By shining a wide-band light into a patient's tissue, a spectrum of the tissue

absorbance over a range of light wavelengths may be measured or observed. In accordance

with embodiments of the present invention, once the wide-band absorbance spectrum is

measured, it may be utilized as essentially a weighted combination of the absorbance spectra of the tissue's constituents (e.g., water, fat, and proteins). Accordingly, the concentration of each of the constituents in the tissue may be determined by performing a multi-linear regression of the tissue absorbance spectrum using individual absorbance spectra of the tissue constituents. Further, based on the relative concentrations of the tissue constituents,

one or more body fluid metrics may be calculated.

[0024] One body fluid metric which may be desirable to determine in a clinical setting is

a patient's body water percentage. However, studies have shown that the fraction of total

water in a human body varies significantly (e.g., varying from 44-58%) with age and gender.

Such variations can create issues with the proper interpretation of total body water

percentage measurements.

[0025] FIG. 1 includes a bar graph 10 that summarizes an exemplary study of the total

water in a human body. According to the study results illustrated by bar graph 10, the

percentage of water per total body weight in human females 12 is lower on average than the

percentage of water per total body weight for human males 14 in the same age groups. The

observed difference between genders is because lean tissue, such as muscle, is composed mostly of water, while fatty tissue contains relatively little water. Women have a higher

proportion of body fat, therefore female bodies on average have a lower percentage of water per total body weight. However, when fat is excluded from the percent water calculation, a

measurement of percentage water in lean tissue can be obtained. The fraction of water in

lean tissue in healthy subjects is consistent across both gender and age (e.g., varying from

73-74%). In other words, the percentage water per lean body mass 16 in females is not

significantly different from the percentage water per lean body mass 18 in males. This lean

tissue water content may be referred to as the "hydration index" (HI). It is now recognized that the HI of skin is a good predictor for total body HI. This relationship between skin and

total body HI is described in U.S. Pat. App. No. 60/857,045, entitled "METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR ACCESSING LOCAL AND WHOLE BODY HYDRATION," filed November 6, 2006, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

[0026] An exemplary system 20 which may be used to determine body fluid metrics,

such as HI, in accordance with embodiments of the present invention is shown in FIG. 2.

The system 20 may include a monitor 22 and a sensor 24. The monitor 22 may be configured to calculate body fluid metrics and display them on a display 26. The sensor 24

may include an emitter 28 for emitting light into a patient's tissue and a detector 30 for

detecting the light after it passes through or is reflected by the patient's tissue. The sensor

24 may be communicatively coupled to the monitor 22 via a cable 32 or other suitable device, such as, for example, a wireless transmission device (not shown).

[0027] The system 20 may also include a multi-parameter patient monitor 34. The multi¬

parameter patient monitor 34 may be included in the system 20 to provide a central display

for information from the monitor 22 and from other medical monitoring devices or systems

(not shown). For example, the multi-parameter patient monitor 34 may display a patient's

body fluid metrics from the monitor 22 along with a blood pressure measurement received from a blood pressure monitor (not shown). In addition to the monitor 22, or alternatively,

the multi -parameter patient monitor 34 may be configured to calculate body fluid metrics. The monitor 22 may be communicatively coupled to the multi-parameter patient monitor 34

via a cable 36 or 38 coupled to a sensor input port or a digital communications port,

respectively.

[0028] FIG. 3 is a block diagram of the exemplary system 20 of FIG. 2. Specifically,

certain components of the monitor 22 and the sensor 24 are illustrated in FIG. 3. The monitor 22 generally includes a spectrometer 40, a processor 42, a memory 44, the display 26, and an input interface 46. More specifically, the monitor 22 may include components

found in oximeters and tissue hydration monitors under development by Nellcor Puritan

Bennett LLC of Pleasanton, CA, such as those disclosed in the references mentioned above.

[0029] The sensor 24 includes the emitter 28 and the detector 30. Light emission and

detection through the sensor 24 may be controlled by the spectrometer 40. It should be

noted that the emitter 28 is configured to emit a range of wavelengths of light into a patient's tissue 48. Hence, the emitter 28 may include a plurality of illumination fibers for

emitting light into the patient's tissue 48. The detector 30 may also consist of a plurality of

detection fibers and may be configured to transmit light to the spectrometer 40 via the fibers. Light enters the detector 30 after passing through the patient's tissue 48. The

spectrometer 40 may convert the intensity of the received light as a function of wavelength

into an electrical signal for processing. The light intensity is directly related to the

absorbance, scattering, and/or reflectance of light in the tissue 48. That is, when more light

at a certain wavelength is absorbed, scattered, or reflected, less light of that wavelength is

received from the tissue 48 by the detector 30. In the illustrated embodiment of the sensor

24 in FIG. 2, the illumination fibers making up emitter 28 are arranged in a circle around the

detector 30. Other embodiments of the sensor 24 may include, for example, a circular detector surrounding an emitter or a parallel emitter and detector.

[0030] The detected light from the detector 30 may be transmitted to the spectrometer 40 in the monitor 22. The spectrometer 40 separates the detected light according to wavelength

and converts the intensity to a measure of absorbance to determine an absorbance spectrum. The processor 42 may then perform a multi-linear regression on the measured absorbance spectrum, as described below, using estimated or standardized absorbance spectra of the individual tissue constituents. An algorithm for performing the multi-linear regression, as

described below, along with the absorbance spectra information for each of the individual

tissue constituents, may be stored in the memory 44. Additional information for use in the

multi-linear regression algorithm, such as, for example, the subject's body or skin

temperature, may be entered into the monitor 22 via the input interface 46 or via other

sensor input ports (not shown).

[0031] The monitor 22 may be configured to calculate the hydration index, or other

tissue hydration parameters, of a patient's tissue 38 by performing a multi-linear regression

of a measured tissue absorbance spectrum in relation to absorbance spectra of known tissue

constituents. FIG. 4 is a flow chart illustrating a process 50 by which body fluid metrics may be estimated. The intensity of light detected by detector 30 may be represented as a

tissue intensity spectrum 52. The tissue intensity spectrum 52 may be pre-processed (Block 54), as described below, to produce a tissue absorbance spectrum 56. This tissue

absorbance spectrum 56 may be compared to a plurality of analyte absorbance spectra 58 in

a multi-linear regression (Block 60). In addition, other factors may be considered in the

multi-linear regression (Block 60). For example, a patient's body temperature 62 may be

input into the multi-linear regression (Block 60) as described below. The result of the multi-linear regression (Block 60) is the constituent concentrations 64. These constituent

concentrations 64 may then be used to calculate body fluid metrics (Block 66) as described below.

[0032] The data pre-processing step (Block 54) may include correcting the spectrum of detected light 52 for instrument and sensor factors and converting the intensity spectrum 52 into the absorbance spectrum 56. An instrument factor may include, for example, a residual signal detected by the spectrometer 40 with the light source off, due to either ambient light

U

or an offset voltage in the spectrometer's electronic circuitry. This residual signal may be

subtracted from the tissue intensity spectrum 52 to correct associated inaccuracies. Another

instrument factor may include differences in spectral resolutions between spectrometers,

which may cause measurement inaccuracies. For example, the spectrometer 40 may have a

different spectral resolution than the spectrometer on which the analyte absorbance spectra

58 were collected. This factor may be corrected by adjusting the known analyte absorbance spectra 58 for the spectral resolution of the spectrometer. That is, the resolution of the

analyte absorbance spectra 58 may be scaled up or down depending on the resolutions of the spectrometer on which they were collected and the spectrometer 40 on which the patient's

tissue 48 is measured.

[0033] Additional instrument and sensor factors may affect the detected intensity

spectrum 52. These factors may be corrected in the conversion of the intensity spectrum 52 to the absorbance spectrum 56. Generally, intensity may be converted to absorbance

according to the following equation:

A = -\og[l _delecled / I _emmed ], (1)

where / is the intensity of light and A is absorbance. In accordance with present embodiments, U _m m _ed may be adjusted to account for sensor factors which affect the accuracy

of Equation (1). For example, the spacing between the emitter 28 and the detector 30 on the

sensor 24 may affect the slope and curvature of the detected intensity spectrum 52. Therefore, the detected intensity spectrum 52 may be divided by a reference intensity spectrum of a substance having minimal absorption and scattering similar to tissue. For example, a Teflon block has been found to approximate the bulk scattering of tissue. This Teflon block reference intensity spectrum may further be divided by the ratio of a

previously-collected Teflon intensity spectrum to a previously-collected intensity spectrum

of a total reflecting substance, such as a gold mirror. While a total reflecting surface may be

used directly to establish the reference intensity spectrum, it may be desirable to use the

Teflon block with a correction factor to establish the reference intensity spectrum because the Teflon block may be more portable and convenient than, for instance, a gold mirror.

[0034] The slope and curvature of the detected tissue intensity spectrum 52 may change

with emitter-detector spacing as the scattering coefficients, and therefore the mean photon

pathlengths, vary with wavelength. Therefore, the gold-to-Teflon ratio may be calculated and applied for the emitter-detector spacing used to collect the tissue intensity spectrum 52.

The corrected reference spectrum compensates for wavelength-dependent emitter and

detector characteristics according to the following equations:

A = - \og[l _delecled I I _standard ] , (2)

gold.slandard

Where 1 _slandard — I Teβon.deiecied ^X _j

' Teflon.slandard

Those skilled in the art will recognize that, depending on the design of the monitor 22,

I _standard may be acquired for each use, may be stored in the memory 44 or in a memory within the sensor 24, or may be computed based on one or more measured or stored

instrument or sensor characteristics. The resulting absorbance spectrum 56 represents the absorbance of the patient's tissue 48 across a range of wavelengths, as illustrated by an

exemplary graph 68 in FIG. 5. Specifically, the graph 68 includes absorbance values 70 plotted against wavelengths of emitted light 72.

[0035] Returning to FIG. 4, in order to perform the multi-linear regression (Block 60) of the skin tissue absorbance spectrum 56, the absorbance spectra 58 of the main constituents

found in skin may be measured or approximated over the entire near-infrared region (i.e.,

approximately 1000-2500 nm). For example, FIG. 6 includes a graph 74 of the absorbance

spectra 58 of known analytes representing some skin constituents. The illustrated

absorbance spectra 58 include a water absorbance spectrum 76, a protein absorbance

spectrum 78, and a lipid (fat) absorbance spectrum 80. Other analytes for which known

absorbance spectra may be collected and which may be used in embodiments of the present

invention include oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO ₂ ); deoxygenated hemoglobin (Hb); water at

different temperatures; known mixtures of water, protein, and lipid; different varieties of proteins (e.g., elastin, albumin, keratin, and collagens); different varieties of lipids (e.g.,

oleic acid, cholesterol, palmitic acid, corn oil and canola oil); saturated and unsaturated fats;

proteins dissolved in deuterium oxide ("heavy water"); and any other analyte representative of known skin constituents. The absorbance spectra 58 may be acquired by measuring light

transmitted through a cuvette containing the representative, and desirably non-scattering,

analyte.

[0036] Referring again to FIG. 4, based on the measured analyte absorbance spectra 58,

the concentration of skin constituents 64 may be determined from the tissue absorbance

spectrum 56 in the multi-linear regression (Block 60). Multi-linear regression may be

employed to determine a linear combination of the known analyte absorbance spectra 58, such as absorbance spectra 76, 78, and 80, that best matches the measured tissue absorbance spectrum 56. In other words, the multi-linear regression determines to what extent each

tissue constituent contributes to the values of the measured tissue absorbance spectrum 56. The multi-linear regression (Block 60) may be characterized by the following set of

equations:

< = Cw*l + CpAt ₁ + C _L A _λ ^L _ι + C _N A^ + b Al = C _w Al + C _P A _M ^P + C _L A _λ ^L ₂ + C ₁₁ A^ ^{+ b}

(3)

Al + C _L A _K ^L + C ₁₁ Al ^{+ b}

where A is the absorbance, λ _n is the wavelength, C is the concentration 64 of the constituent,

b is a wavelength-independent offset, M denotes the measured tissue 48, W denotes water, P

denotes proteins, L denotes lipids, and H denotes oxygenated hemoglobin. Additional terms may be added for other analytes. This system may also be expressed using the following equation:

A ^M = A"C , (4)

where A ^M =

[0037] Given the measured tissue absorbance spectrum 56 (A ^M ) and the known analyte

absorbance spectra 58 (A ^s ), the concentration 64 (Q of each constituent may be calculated.

Because the measured tissue absorbance spectrum 56 and the known analyte absorbance spectra 58 may be represented as matrices, as illustrated in Equation (4), solving for the

constituent concentrations 64 may be performed using a suitable matrix manipulation

environment, such as, for example, MATLAB ^® , available commercially from The Math Works, Natick, MA. The matrix manipulation environment may, for example, be utilized to find the constituent concentrations 64 (Q in Equation (4) by multiplying each side of the equation by the inverse of the matrix representing the analyte absorbance spectra

75

58 (A ). The matrix manipulation environment may, for example, be stored in the memory

44 of the monitor 22 for use by the processor 42.

[0038] Equations (3) and (4) illustrate a simple multi-linear regression model which

considers only four skin constituents and a wavelength-independent offset which accounts for variations in light input. Additional factors may be added to the equations to account for

observed differences in estimated and actual body fluid metrics. For example, the multi¬

linear regression model may include a temperature component to account for temperature-

dependent changes in hydrogen bonding which affect the width and center frequency of the water absorbance spectrum 76. That is, the patient's body or skin temperature 62 may be

measured and used as an input to the model. The effect of temperature on the water

absorbance spectrum 76 is due to hydrogen bonds between molecules which decrease as

temperature increases. In addition, it is believed that the degree of hydrogen bonding could

be affected in vivo by the proximity of water molecules to either fat or protein and/or by the structural properties of the tissue rather than the bulk composition. The temperature

component of the multi-linear regression model may include adjustment of the known water

absorbance spectrum 76 for the measured body temperature 62 and/or use of a specific known water absorbance spectrum 76 corresponding to the measured temperature 62. Thus,

equation (3) may be rewritten as follows:

Al = C _w Al(T)+ C _P Al + C ₁ Al + C ₁₁ AJt ₁ + b , (5)

where T is the patient's body temperature 62, and the known absorbance spectrum of water

76 (A ^w ) is dependent on temperature 62.

[0039] Further adjustments to the multi-linear regression model may consist of, for example, adding a slope factor in addition to the known analyte absorbance spectra (A ) and

the wavelength-independent offset (b). This slope factor may account for variation between

tissues in the derivative of the tissue scattering coefficient with respect to wavelength which

are independent of variation in the composition of the tissue. The slope factor may consist

of, for example, another degree of freedom in the multi-linear regression and/or a known

offset. Equation (5) may therefore be rewritten as follows:

Al = C _w Al (T)+ C _P A _K ^r + C _L A _λ ^L _π + C _H A» + b + s _λn , (6)

where s represents the slope factor. The slope factor may, for example, be a linear function, a quadratic or higher order polynomial function, or an exponential function of wavelength.

[0040] An additional factor may be added to the multi-linear regression model to account

for the reduction in mean photon pathlength that occurs with increasing absorption

coefficients. That is, tissue that is more absorbent at a given wavelength will preferentially

absorb light deeper in the tissue, so that the photons reaching the detector will preferentially

be those that traversed a shallower and shorter path through the tissue. This pathlength

factor may be represented as a weighted function of the measured tissue absorbance

spectrum. For example, the function may be a multiple of the square of the tissue absorbance spectrum 56 ((A ^M ) ² ). In addition, if a spectrometer is used in which the

wavelength calibration drifts, a weighted derivative of the tissue absorbance spectrum with

respect to wavelength (dA ^M /dλ) may be added as a calibration factor to the multi-linear

regression model to account for shifts in the wavelength calibration. Including these

pathlength and calibration factors, Equation (6) may be rewritten as follows:

Al = C _w Al(T)+ C _P Al ₊ C _L Al + C ₁₁ Al +b ₊ s _κ + CC{AJ ^M + β^£- , (?)

where α and β are weighting coefficients.

[0041] A correction may also be made to account for the water content of fat

(approximately 10-20%) and to exclude this fat-associated water from the lean-water

estimate. Finally, hydration index, approximated as the ratio of water to non-fat analytes,

may be computed (Block 66) based on the concentrations of each tissue constituent obtained from the multi-linear regression according to the following equation:

HI = ^ . (8)

C _w + C _p + C _H

[0042] In an experimental test of the described multi-linear regression model, the

algorithm was applied to data collected from both euhydrated humans and overhydrated pigs. These tissue absorbance spectra were gathered from a near-infrared array spectrometer

with spectral resolution of about 18 nm. FIG. 7 includes a graph 90 that illustrates the results of an exemplary test of a pig undergoing overhydration. The graph 90 shows HI 92

over time 94 according to embodiments of the present invention. The measured tissue

absorbance spectra used in calculating HI were obtained using a torso sensor (data points

96) and a forehead sensor (data points 98). The emitter-detector spacing for the torso sensor

was 5 mm and for the forehead sensor was 9 mm, and the wavelength range analyzed was

1000-1350 nm. Each vertical line 100 marks the time at which half a liter of fluid was

administered to the subject.

[0043] In addition to estimating the HI, data collected by local biopsy (data points 102) was analyzed by chemical methods, such as those described in S. E. Campbell et al., "A novel method to determine lean body water using localized skin biopsies: correlation between lean skin water and lean body water in an overhydration model," American Journal of Physiology - Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 291 (2006), R1539-

Rl 544, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes. Whole

body water fraction was calculated using the same chemical analysis method on the

homogenized carcass after the end of the experiment. Weights measured during the course

of each measurement were then used to back-calculate body water fractions (data points

104). It is apparent from the graph 90 that the multi-linear regression method for estimating

HI shows high correlation to chemical analyses of local skin biopsies and back-calculation

of body water fractions from the homogenized carcass. Indeed, the data points obtained

from each method clearly include similar trends.

[0044] Results of further experimentation on eight overhydrated pigs, illustrated in a

graph 110 included in FIG. 8, show a good correlation between estimated HI 112 from the

multi-linear regression model and HI 114 determined by skin biopsy. A torso sensor with an emitter-detector spacing of 2.5 mm and a wavelength range of 1000-1350 nm was used to

collect data for the multi-linear regression. A linear trendline 1 16 describing the

relationship between the estimated HI 1 12 and the skin biopsy HI 1 14 has an R-squared

value of 0.68. An R-squared value of one would represent a perfect correlation between the

estimated HI 112 and the skin biopsy HI 114.

[0045] In addition, FIGS. 9-13 illustrate the results of a non-isotonic overhydration study

performed on twelve pigs in which a hydration index 120 was calculated from sensors

placed at five different locations on the pigs' bodies. In FIG. 9, the sensors were placed on the pigs' sterna; in FIG. 10, the sensors were placed on the rumps; in FIG. 11, the sensors were placed on the cheeks; in FIG. 12, the sensors were placed high on the pigs' chests; and in FIG. 13, the sensors were placed low on the pigs' chests. Data points 122 were calculated from light emitted in the range of 1000-1350 nm, while data points 124 were calculated

using light in the range of 1530-1850 nm. One skilled in the art will understand that

estimated HI calculated from the 1530-1850 nm range may be lower than the 1000-1350 nm

range because the longer wavelengths do not penetrate as deeply into the skin, and shallower

skin layers may have lower water content. Data points 126 represent the pigs' hydration

indices as determined by skin biopsy. It can be seen from the graphs in FIGS. 9-13 that, for

both the 1000-1350 nm range and the 1530-1850 range, the estimated HI (data points 122 and 124) has a high correlation to the chemical analyses from local skin biopsies (data

points 126) for the sensor sites tested.

[0046] Results from studies such as those illustrated in FIGS. 7-13 show that estimation of HI according to embodiments of the present technique may be useful to apply in a clinical

setting. The multi-linear regression method may allow for quick, accurate, and non-invasive

determination of HI.

[0047] While the invention may be susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments have been shown by way of example in the drawings and have

been described in detail herein. However, it should be understood that the invention is not

intended to be limited to the particular forms disclosed. Indeed, the present techniques may not only be applied to measurements of blood oxygen saturation, but these techniques may

also be utilized for the measurement and/or analysis of other blood constituents. For example, using the same, different, or additional wavelengths, the present techniques may be utilized in conjunction with the measurement and/or analysis of carboxyhemoglobin, met-hemoglobin, total hemoglobin, intravascular dyes, and/or water content. The invention is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope

of the invention as defined by the following appended claims.