FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to detecting a phase-to-earth fault on a three-phase electric line of an electric network.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

In certain countries, such as Poland, the neutral admittance protection has become a common earth fault protection function. It has been reported to provide better effectiveness in earth fault detection when compared to the traditional residual current based earth fault protection in unearthed and compensated distribution networks.

Document J. Lorenc et. al, Admittance criteria for earth fault detection in substation automation systems in Polish distribution power networks, CIRED 97, Birmingham, June 1997, discloses examples of the implementation of the neutral admittance based earth fault protection and mentions that until mid-1996 over 2000 neutral admittance protection systems have been installed in Poland.

In simple terms, neutral admittance protection is based on evaluating the quotient Y ₀ = 3| _o /LJo, i.e. neutral admittance of the network, and comparing the result with operating boundaries in an admittance plane. Residual current 3|o is typically measured with a cable core transformer and residual voltage U ₀ is measured from open-delta connected tertiaries of single- pole isolated voltage transformers.

Currently, the admittance protection found in existing protection relay terminals typically requires the user to select the operation criteria from several possibilities such as 1) over-admittance, 2) over-conductance (non-dir or forward/reverse directional) without/with tilt, 3) over-susceptance (non-dir or forward/reverse directional) without/with tilt or a combination of criteria 1...3 (symmetrical around the origin). Figure 1 shows examples of operation characteristics of existing admittance protection functions presented on an admittance plane (B is susceptance and G is conductance). The shaded area in each of the operation characteristics determines the normal or non-operation area such that, if the neutral admittance is within this area, the protection does not operate and, if the neutral admittance is outside this area, then the protection operates. For example, the over-admittance operation characteristic may be defined by setting an absolute value Y _set of admittance Y which defines a circle on the admittance plane as shown. The over-conductance operation characteristic may be defined by lower (-G _set ) and upper (+G _set ) conductance settings and a tilt may be further set with an angle setting α as shown. In a similar manner, the over-susceptance operation characteristic may be defined by lower (-B _set ) and upper (+B _se t) susceptance settings and a tilt may be further set with an angle setting α. It should be noted that in the over-conductance and over-susceptance characteristics illustrated in Figure 1 the shaded non- operation area and the lines defining them have been shown only partly, for the sake of clarity. In addition, different combinations of the operation characteristics can be formed by combining the settings such that e.g. both the over-conductance and over-susceptance settings are applied at the same time.

In existing solutions, the operation characteristic to be used depends on the network neutral point treatment. For example, in isolated networks the over-susceptance criteria should be applied. In compensated networks it is advised to use the over-conductance based criteria instead. This means that a relay terminal with admittance protection functionality requires many settings which need to be set according to the network properties. The many settings and possibly difficult setting calculation procedures are a problem with such existing solutions.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

An object of the present invention is to provide a method and an apparatus for implementing the method so as to overcome the above problem or at least to alleviate the problem. The objects of the invention are achieved by a method, a computer program product and an apparatus which are characterized by what is stated in the independent claims. The preferred embodiments of the invention are disclosed in the dependent claims.

The invention is based on the idea of utilizing zero sequence currents and voltages before an earth fault and during the earth fault for determining a neutral admittance, and comparing the determined neutral admittance, or a quantity indicative thereof, to a predetermined operation characteristic to detect a phase-to-earth fault on the three-phase electric line, wherein the predetermined operation characteristic, when presented on an admittance plane, defines a closed area such that the centre of the closed area is offset from the origin of the admittance plane towards a negative susceptance direction and/or towards a negative conductance direction. An advantage of the invention is that it provides a simplified operation function and characteristic, which can at the same time be valid for unearthed networks, high resistance earthed and/or compensated networks. Therefore, no change in the setting values are needed, if e.g. the earthing method is changed by e.g. disconnection of a compensation coil. In addition, the invention provides immunity against fault resistance and system unbalance by using delta-quantities in neutral admittance calculation. Therefore, a high sensitivity in terms of how high fault resistance can be detected can be obtained.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

In the following the invention will be described in greater detail by means of preferred embodiments with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which

Figure 1 shows examples of operation characteristics of admittance protection functions;

Figure 2 is a simplified equivalent circuit for a three-phase electric network;

Figure 3 is a simplified equivalent circuit for a three-phase electric network; Figure 4 is an example of an operation characteristic according to an embodiment;

Figure 5 is an example of an operation characteristic according to an embodiment; and

Figure 6 is a diagram illustrating an embodiment implementing several protection stages.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The application of the invention is not limited to any specific system, but it can be used in connection with various three-phase electric systems to detect a phase-to-earth fault on a three-phase electric line of an electric network. The electric line can be a feeder, for example, and it may be an overhead-line or a cable or a combination of both. The electric power system in which the invention is implemented can be an electric transmission or distribution network or a component thereof, for example, and may comprise several feeders or sections. Moreover, the use of the invention is not limited to systems employing 50 Hz or 60 Hz fundamental frequencies or to any specific voltage level.

Figures 2 and 3 are simplified equivalent circuits for a three-phase electric network in which the invention can be used. Figure 2 shows a situation in which there is a fault in the background network and Figure 3 shows a situation in which there is a fault in the electric line to be monitored. The figures show only the components necessary for understanding the invention. The exemplary network can be a medium voltage (e.g. 20 kV) distribution network fed through a substation comprising a transformer 10 and a busbar 20. The illustrated network also comprises electric line outlets, i.e. feeders, of which one 30 is shown separately. Other possible feeders as well as other network parts, except the line 30, are referred to as a 'background network' and have been represented by a single line outlet 40 although it should be noted that there may be any number of feeders or other network elements in the background network. There may also be several feeding substations. Further, the invention can be utilized with a switching station without a transformer 10, for example. The network is a three-phase network and the three phases of the three-phase electricity system are referred to as L1 , L2, and L3. In the exemplary system the functionality of the invention can be located in a possible relay unit (not shown) located at the beginning of the line 30 e.g. in the connection point between the line 30 and the busbar 20. It is also possible that only some measurements are performed in the location of such a unit and the results are then transmitted to another unit or units in another location for further processing. Thus, the functionality of the invention could be distributed among two or more physical units instead of just one unit and also the unit or units implementing the invention may be located in connection with the electric line 30 to be protected or possibly in a remote location. This, however, has no relevance to the basic idea of the invention. The notations used in Figures 2 and 3 are as follows:

Uo = Zero-sequence voltage of the network

Eu = Phase L1 source voltage

F_L2 = Phase L2 source voltage

Eι_3 = Phase L3 source voltage

Ice = Current through the earthing arrangement (compensation coil plus parallel resistor) Ycc Admittance of the earthing arrangement (compensation coil plus parallel resistor)

In Phase current of phase L1 measured at infeed

1L2 Phase current of phase L2 measured at infeed

IL ₃ Phase current of phase L3 measured at infeed

In Fd ⁼ Phase current of phase L1 of the electric line iL2Fd ⁼ Phase current of phase L2 of the electric line iL3Fd ⁼ Phase current of phase L3 of the electric line

IuBg = Phase current of phase L1 of the background network iL2Bg = Phase current of phase L2 of the background network iL ₃ Bg = Phase current of phase L3 of the background network

LJu = Phase voltage of phase L1 at the substation

U _L.2 = Phase voltage of phase L2 at the substation

U _L3 = Phase voltage of phase L3 at the substation

Y _F = Fault admittance (assumed to be pure conductance)

Y _{-U Fd} = Admittance of phase L1 of the electric line

Y_ _.2Fd = Admittance of phase L2 of the electric line

Y_.3Fd = Admittance of phase L3 of the electric line

Y-UBg = Admittance of phase L1 of the background network

YL2Bg = Admittance of phase L2 of the background network

Y_. ₃ Bg = Admittance of phase L3 of the background network

Z _Ld = Phase impedance of a delta connected load

Monitored current and voltage values are preferably obtained by a suitable measuring arrangement including e.g. current and voltage transducers (not shown in the figures) connected to the phases of the electricity system. In most of the existing protection systems, these values are readily available and thus the implementation of the invention does not necessarily require any separate or specific measuring arrangements. How such values are obtained is of no relevance to the basic idea of the invention and depends on the particular electricity system to be monitored.

The invention utilizes the calculation of neutral admittance Yo, that is, the quotient of residual current 3Io Qo is the zero sequence current) measured at the beginning of the electric line 30 (3| ₀ = Iu Fd ⁺ k2Fd + iL3Fd) and residual voltage LJ ₀ (with negative sign). According to an embodiment, the calculation of the neutral admittance is done with "delta"-quantities, where t1 and t2 refer to two separate instances in time, before (t1) and during (t2) the fault:

3-(Λ -0 a ,, - ^/ „ ,.) )

Start of the neutral admittance calculation (e.g. according to equation 1) is preferably done as soon as an earth fault is detected. An earth fault in the electric network may be detected on the basis of the zero sequence voltage. It can be done in two alternative ways: either when amplitude of the residual voltage exceeds a pre-set value Uo _set -

U _o > U _Oiet (2)

or when a change in the residual voltage exceeds a pre-set value

UoDset ^' -

- Ui-o a U o n >u, OAiet (3)

The advantage of using equation 3 as a start criterion is the fact that due to network asymmetry, a large magnitude residual voltage may exist in the network during the healthy state. This may lead to a very high value of U _Oset , which in turn results in insensitivity of the fault detection. By applying equation 3, the start criterion is based on change, not on the absolute value, and therefore sensitivity of fault detection is increased.

With reference to Figure 2, when a single-phase earth fault occurs outside the electric line 30, the measured neutral admittance equals to the total line admittance (sum of all phase admittances) with a negative sign:

∑OΔ ^{= ~} ¥-rd1ot ^{= ~} \β FDM ⁺ J ^' ^PC/tot ) (4) where

YFdtot = the total line admittance GF _dtot = the total line conductance B _F dtot = the total line susceptance

± Y-tdtot — LYl M d + ^τ LY-LlTd 4 ^- ±Y-L31 d

L-I M d ^~ ^ ⁷ LM d + J ^' "l \td

Ll 2I d ⁼ ^ ¹ I lId + J ^' "Lird

L ] IId ⁼ ( ^J I 3I d ⁺ J ^{' B} ] U d

GijFd = Phase-to-earth conductance of phase L1 of the electric line

GL2Fd = Phase-to-earth conductance of phase L2 of the electric line Gι_3Fd = Phase-to-earth conductance of phase L3 of the electric line BuFd = Phase-to-earth susceptance of phase L1 of the electric line Bι_2Fd = Phase-to-earth susceptance of phase L2 of the electric line B _L 3Fd = Phase-to-earth susceptance of phase L3 of the electric line

In practice, the conductance term real(Y _F dtot) = G _F dtot = (GLiFd + G _L 2Fd + Gι_3Fd) is very small due to small resistive leakage losses of conductors. At least in networks with over-headlines, the losses may be so small that conductance cannot be measured accurately. In this case, only the susceptance term imag(Y _Fd tot) = B _Fd tot = (B _L iFd + B _L2 Fd + B _L3 Fd) = W-(C _O LI + C _0L 2 + C0L.3) is valid. The admittance protection characteristic should be set so that the measured neutral admittance during outside fault stays inside the operation characteristics (= protection does not operate). An outside fault means that the fault is located outside the protected electric line 30. This can be achieved by setting the admittance characteristic so that the characteristic always covers the total line admittance of the electric line. The value for the total line admittance (sum of all phase admittances) can be determined on the basis of the earth-fault current value of the electric line:

YFdtot ~ j*3-lθFd/Uphase, (5) where

3-loFd = magnitude of the earth-fault current supplied by the line in case of an outside fault (RF = 0 ohm)

Uphase = nominal phase-to-earth voltage of the network

Another option is to determine the total line admittance by calculating the neutral admittance based on changes in the residual current and voltage during the healthy state. These changes can be due to e.g. altering the compensation coil tuning or switching of the parallel resistor of the compensation coil (on or off): )

where

3 ^* Io_hi = residual current prior to the change during healthy state 3 ^* io_ _h2 = residual current after the change during healthy state y _o _ _h i = residual voltage prior to the change during healthy state

Mo_ _h2 ⁼ residual voltage after the change during healthy state

This embodiment has the advantage that admittance characteristic settings could be updated utilizing equation 6 so that the settings, and thus the characteristic, match the current switching state of the electric line i.e. the total line admittance is covered by the admittance characteristic. The updating can be performed in real time, i.e. always when the switching state of the three- phase electric line changes. Alternatively, the updating can be performed at predetermined intervals, for example. With reference to Figure 3, when a single-phase earth fault occurs inside the electric line 30, the measured neutral admittance equals to the admittance of the background network 40 plus the compensation coil including a parallel resistor:

ZoA + Ice (7) where

Y - Y + γ + γ

i-L\Bg ⁼ ^ IABg + J ^' "iΛBg i_ i,2Bg ⁼ ^ ⁷ LlBg ⁺ J ^' "LlBg

±-L3Bg ⁼ ^LΪBg ⁺ J ^' "L3Bg

G _L i _B g = Phase-to-earth conductance of phase L1 of the background network

Gι_2Bg = Phase-to-earth conductance of phase L2 of the background network

Gι.3 _B g = Phase-to-earth conductance of phase L3 of the background network

Bu _B g = Phase-to-earth susceptance of phase L1 of the background network B _L 2Bg = Phase-to-earth susceptance of phase L2 of the background network

Bi_3 _B g = Phase-to-earth susceptance of phase L3 of the background network

Gcc = Conductance of the earthing arrangement (compensation coil plus parallel resistor)

Bcc = Susceptance of the earthing arrangement (compensation coil)

Gcc is the conductance of the resistor, which is connected in parallel with the compensation coil in case of compensated networks. In case of resistor earthed networks B _C c = 0 and Gcc is the conductance of the earthing resistor. In case of an unearthed network Y _C c = 0. The admittance protection characteristic should be set so that the measured neutral admittance during an inside fault moves outside the operation characteristics (= protection operates). An inside fault means that the fault is located inside the protected electric line 30.

In case of a compensated network and when the compensation coil is adjusted to a resonance (B _C c = B _Bg tot + Bpdtot), the measured neutral admittance calculated with delta quantities is:

Y _0& = (G _BgM + G _cc ) -j - B _Fdtol (8)

This is the most difficult case of discriminating outside and inside fault as imaginary part of measured neutral admittance is the same in both cases. Secure and reliable protection might require that resistive current is increased during the fault by the use of a parallel resistor. Neutral admittance calculation can then measure the conductance of the parallel resistor. Therefore the discrimination should be done on the basis of conductance. According to an embodiment, once the neutral admittance, or a quantity indicative thereof, has been determined e.g. on the basis of equation 1 , it is compared to a predetermined operation characteristic to detect a phase- to-earth fault on the three-phase electric line 30. According to an embodiment, the predetermined operation characteristic, when presented on an admittance plane, defines a closed area such that the centre of the closed area is offset from the origin of the admittance plane towards a negative susceptance direction and/or towards a negative conductance direction. The comparison of the determined neutral admittance, or the quantity indicative thereof, to a predetermined operation characteristic to detect a phase-to-earth fault on the three-phase electric line preferably comprises determining whether the neutral admittance is inside or outside of said closed area defined by the predetermined operation characteristic on the admittance plane, and detecting a phase-to-earth fault on the three-phase electric line when the determined neutral admittance is determined to be outside of said closed area defined by the predetermined operation characteristic on the admittance plane. In other words, the closed area is a non-operation area in which the protection does not operate, and the area outside the closed area is an operation area in which the protection operates i.e. a phase-to-earth fault is detected on the three-phase electric line 30. According to an embodiment, the closed area is defined by a circle or an ellipse whose centre point is offset from the origin of the admittance plane towards the negative susceptance (B) direction and/or towards the negative conductance (G) direction. Figure 4 shows an example of an operation characteristic which comprises a circle 401 , which is set-off from the admittance plane origin by settings GN1 and BN1. The circle radius is defined by setting YN1. Operation of the protection is achieved, when the determined neutral admittance moves outside the closed area defined by the circle 401. In mathematical form this can be expressed as follows:

real(Y _0A ) - GNl) ² + (imag(Y _0A ) - BNl) ² - YNl ■ YNl > 0 , (9)

where 7 _0Δ is the measured neutral admittance.

The settings GN1 , BN1 and YN1 should be generally selected such that the admittance corresponding to the electric line 30 length (YF _C K _O O is within the closed area preferably with a suitable safety margin. The smaller the circle, the more sensitive the protection is. If the connection state of the electric line 30 to be protected changes, the settings should be adjusted accordingly. This can also be done automatically by determining the total line admittance by calculating the neutral admittance based on changes in the residual current and voltage during the healthy state using equation 6. After determining the total line admittance of the present switching state using equation 6, the settings GN 1 , BN 1 and YN 1 can be updated according to the following criteria:

BN 1 = -imag(Y _F dtot) GN 1 = -real(Y _Fd tot)

YN 1 = r ^* imag(Y _Fdt ot) r = factor defining the marginal (sensitivity) of the protection, r > 0. In Figure 4, r = 1.5. r = user defined setting parameter

According to an embodiment, the closed area is defined by a circle whose centre point is offset from the origin of the admittance plane towards the negative susceptance direction and/or towards the negative conductance direction such that a segment of the circle is excluded from the closed area which segment is defined by a line defined by a predetermined conductance value. In other words, in practical applications the offset admittance circle 401 can be combined with one or more "classical" boundary lines, e.g. with a forward directional conductance boundary line 402 as illustrated in Figure 4. The value for G _max can be obtained from parallel resistor conductance: G _m3x = k ^* Gcc, where k = 0...1 safety margin. Typical value for k is 0.8. In this case the shaded segment 403 of the circle 401 is excluded from the closed area and thus belongs to the operation area surrounding the closed non-operation area. In case the network is a compensated one and |YN1 |>|Gcc|, G _max should be preferably set and used. However, if the compensation coil and parallel resistor are disconnected, this setting need not be changed. According to an embodiment, the closed area is a polygon having three or more sides defined by three or more lines, respectively. This is exemplified in Figure 5 in which the operation characteristic is an off-set rectangle (the shaded area), whose reach is defined by settings B _min , B _max and Gmiπ, Gm _a x which define lines forming the sides of the rectangle. This operation scheme requires more setting parameters, but offers more flexibility and is useful especially in case of problematic network configurations. In practice, the G settings relate to the network components causing resistive current in the network such as a possible compensation coil and its parallel resistor. In case of a compensated network when the fault is in the protected electric line, the admittance determination detects:

Y _0A = TL _B ** + Y cc = (G ^ + j ^■ B _Hglol ) + (G _cc - j ^■ B _cc )

As typically Gcc » Gβgtot, the following approximation is valid in practice:

IθΔ ~ ^G CC + J ^■ ( ^B Bgtol ^{~ B} CC )

In other words, the imaginary part of the measured admittance is mainly due to the term Gcc caused by the parallel resistor of the compensation coil. Thus, the settings G _mi n and G _max are preferably selected such that Gcc is outside the range defined by G _m m and G _max . A suitable safety margin may be used. The settings B _m j _n and B _max may be selected e.g. to correspond to the minimum and maximum switching situations of the electric line 30 to be protected. Again, a suitable safety margin may be used. One option is to determine parameters of a polygon shape admittance criterion by utilizing calculated neutral admittance based on changes in the residual current and voltage during the healthy state using equation 6. After determining the total line admittance of the present switching state using equation 6, then settings G _m ι _n , G _max , B _mιn and B _ma χ can be determined using the following formulae:

G _max = The value for G _ma χ can be obtained from parallel resistor conductance: Gmax = k ^* Gcc, where k = 0...1 is a safety margin.

Typical value for k is 0.8. G _mιn = d ^* imag(YFdtot), where d is a factor defining the marginal (sensitivity) of the protection, d > 0, in Figure 5, d = 1.5. Bmin = q1 ^* imag(Y _F d _t ot), where q1 is a factor defining the marginal

(sensitivity) of the protection. q1 > 0, in Figure 5, d = 1.0. Bmax = q2 ^* imag(Y _F dtot), where q2 is a factor defining the marginal

(sensitivity) of the protection. q2 > 0, in Figure 5, d = 1.25. d, q1 , q2 are user defined setting parameters.

The benefit of the various suggested operation characteristics is that they can be applied to unearthed, high resistance earthed and also compensated networks. Also the number of settings is minimized. In addition, the setting procedure is very simple as B-axis settings can be calculated on the basis of earth fault current supplied by the electric line using equation 5 and G- axis settings can be based on a rated value of earthing/parallel resistor current IGCC: (Gmin = k'lGcc/Uphasβ). Example: l _G cc = 5A ₁ U _P hase = 20000/sqrt(3) volts, k = 0.5: G _m i _n = 0.22 milliSiemens. Alternatively, settings can be determined utilizing changes during the healthy state and using equation 6.

According to an embodiment, the fault resistance can be simultaneously (during a fault inside the electric line) estimated with the equation:

where U _L _f _au ι _t is the phase-to-earth voltage of the faulted phase during a fault Equation 10 uses the same measured quantities and the settings YoFdtot = G _F dtot + j-BFdtot as the protection. Another option to calculate the fault resistance is to calculate the fault admittance with delta method utilizing changes during the fault:

Lt - - ( ^{1 1} ) where f1 and f2 refer to two separate instances in time during the fault, before (f1) and after (f2) the change. This change can be due to e.g. altering the compensation coil tuning or switching of the parallel resistor of the compensation coil (on or off).

According to an embodiment, also a faulted phase can be identified by calculating fault resistance estimates simultaneously for each phase:

r _> 7 / — IΛ fault N R _F , , = real( — )

- ^J i • _ TLθΔ - iT£I-0Δ - iY-i'dtoi

R a

I- Ll = real( U-Ll f lamult

-)

$ ^' i-OΔ -__0Δ ^' ±- Fdlol

R r> _h

Phase selection logic suggested: in case only one out of the three fault resistance estimates provides positive value, this is the faulted phase with corresponding fault resistance value. In case two out of the three fault resistance estimates provides positive value, the faulted phase is selected on the basis of comparing the phase voltage magnitudes between the two candidates: the faulted phase is the phase with a lower phase voltage value.

According to an embodiment, a multi-stage admittance protection concept could be implemented. When the faulted electric line is detected on the basis of the admittance criteria, the fault resistance estimate can be used to define operation speed. Multiple fault resistance thresholds (protection stages) could be implemented. Different stages could be set e.g. at RF>, RF», RF»>, RF»» with corresponding protection operation delays t>, t», t>» and t»». This is illustrated in Figure 6, which shows how an inverse type operation curve 601 is formed along with such protection stages.

An apparatus according to any one of the above embodiments, or a combination thereof, may be implemented as one unit or as two or more separate units that are configured to implement the functionality of the various embodiments. Here the term 'unit' refers generally to a physical or logical entity, such as a physical device or a part thereof or a software routine. One or more of these units may reside in a protective relay device or equipment, for example. For example, an apparatus according to an embodiment may comprise a monitoring unit configured to monitor a zero sequence current on the three-phase electric line and a zero sequence voltage in the electric network; a detection unit configured to detect an earth fault in the electric network on the basis of the zero sequence voltage value, a determination unit configured to determine a difference between the zero sequence current before the earth fault and the zero sequence current during the earth fault, to determine a difference between the zero sequence voltage before the earth fault and the zero sequence voltage during the earth fault, and to determine a neutral admittance, or a quantity indicative thereof, on the basis of a ratio between the difference between the zero sequence currents and the difference between the zero sequence voltages, and a comparison unit configured to compare the determined neutral admittance, or the quantity indicative thereof, to a predetermined operation characteristic to detect a phase-to-earth fault on the three-phase electric line. An apparatus according to any one of the embodiments may be implemented by means of a computer or corresponding digital signal processing equipment provided with suitable software, for example. Such a computer or digital signal processing equipment preferably comprises at least a working memory (RAM) providing storage area for arithmetical operations and a central processing unit (CPU), such as a general-purpose digital signal processor. The CPU may comprise a set of registers, an arithmetic logic unit, and a control unit. The control unit is controlled by a sequence of program instructions transferred to the CPU from the RAM. The control unit may contain a number of microinstructions for basic operations. The implementation of microinstructions may vary depending on the CPU design. The program instructions may be coded by a programming language, which may be a high- level programming language, such as C, Java, etc., or a low-level programming language, such as a machine language, or an assembler. The computer may also have an operating system which may provide system services to a computer program written with the program instructions. The computer or other apparatus implementing the invention further preferably comprises suitable input means for receiving e.g. measurement and/or control data, which input means thus enable e.g. the monitoring of current and voltage quantities, and output means for outputting e.g. fault alarms and/or control data e.g. for controlling protection equipment such as switches, disconnectors and circuit-breakers. It is also possible to use a specific integrated circuit or circuits, and/or discrete components and devices for implementing the functionality according to any one of the embodiments.

The invention can be implemented in existing system elements, such as various protective relays or similar devices, or by using separate dedicated elements or devices in a centralized or distributed manner. Present protective devices for electric systems, such as protective relays, typically comprise processors and memory that can be utilized in the functions according to embodiments of the invention. Thus, all modifications and configurations required for implementing an embodiment of the invention e.g. in existing protective devices may be performed as software routines, which may be implemented as added or updated software routines. If the functionality of the invention is implemented by software, such software can be provided as a computer program product comprising computer program code which, when run on a computer, causes the computer or corresponding arrangement to perform the functionality according to the invention as described above. Such a computer program code may be stored or generally embodied on a computer readable medium, such as suitable memory, e.g. a flash memory or a disc memory from which it is loadable to the unit or units executing the program code. In addition, such a computer program code implementing the invention may be loaded to the unit or units executing the computer program code via a suitable data network, for example, and it may replace or update a possibly existing program code.

It will be obvious to a person skilled in the art that, as the technology advances, the inventive concept may be implemented in various ways. The invention and its embodiments are not limited to the examples described above but may vary within the scope of the claims.