FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a method and apparatus for processing carbonaceous material. In particular, the present invention relates to the torrefaction of carbonaceous material, and/or the production of char (biochar) together with co-products syngas and bio- oils/liquids/tars and further in particular to production of char and co-products using pyrolysis.

The invention has been developed primarily for use as an apparatus and method for production of char and clean syngas using pyrolysis and partial gasification and will be described hereinafter with reference to this application. However, it will be appreciated that the invention is not limited to this particular field of use. Other applications may include torrefaction and production of liquids/bio-oils/tars, if desired.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Any discussion of the prior art throughout the specification should in no way be considered as an admission that such prior art is widely known or forms part of the common general knowledge in the field.

Production of charcoal from organic material using pyrolysis has been used for thousands of years. Pyrolysis can also be described as carbonisation. A typical purpose for the production of charcoal was as a substantially smokeless fuel. However, charcoal production originating from living organic matter has further received interest for its properties as a soil additive, animal feed supplement, and as a means with which to sequester atmospheric carbon (C0 ₂ ) in the soil and adsorb toxins. Charcoal manufactured in this way for its agricultural and climate ameliorant properties is now typically called 'biochar'. Additionally, the process generates synthesis gas (syngas), which is used as a source of renewable energy, fuels and chemicals.

There are many processes for carbonising coal. A couple of interest are the 'Occidental Pyrolysis' process which uses an entrained bed of recycled hot char to provide the heat for pyrolysis and the 'Lurgi-Ruhrgas' process, in which the coal is carbonised by heating it rapidly with a circulating stream of hot char in a mechanically agitated mixer. Heat is generated by partial combustion of a portion of the product char in these processes. This method also uses hot sand or iron particles for heat transfer in a single stage mixed reactor.

It will be appreciated that pyrolysis can involve decomposition of a substance by heating in the absence of oxygen, while gasification can involve the conversion of any carbonaceous material to a gaseous product with a useable heating value.

Known gasification processes use moving bed reactors, fluid bed reactors and entrained flow reactors.

Moving bed gasifiers, sometimes called fixed bed gasifiers, are characterised by a bed in which the material moves slowly downward under gravity as it is gasified by the counter- current flow of gas. With this process the oxygen consumption is low but pyrolysis products, such as tars, are high in the product syngas. Co-current flow endeavours to overcome these tars, but is less thermally efficient.

Fluid bed gasifiers offer mixing between feed and oxidant, which promotes both heat and mass transfer. The operation of fluid-bed gasifiers is generally limited to temperatures below the softening point of the ash, since ash slagging will disturb fluidisation of the bed. Sizing of the feed particles is typically critical for this process. Material that is too fine will entrain with the syngas and leave the bed while material that is too large, especially non- combustible material, can build-up on the bottom of the distributor plate and cause defluidisation of the bed. Fluid bed processes are amenable to gasification of reactive feedstock, such as low-rank coals and biomass, due to the lower operating temperature.

Entrained-flow gasifiers operate with feed and gas in co-current flow. The residence time in these processes is typically short (a few seconds). The feed is typically ground to a size of 100pm or less to promote mass transfer and allow transport with the gas. High temperatures are required for good conversions, therefore having a high oxygen demand. There is a need in the art for an improved apparatus and method for producing char and/or syngas.

OBJECT OF THE INVENTION

It is an object of the present invention to overcome or ameliorate at least one of the disadvantages of the prior art, or to provide a useful alternative.

It is an object of at least a preferred embodiment of the invention to provide an apparatus and method for production of char using pyrolysis. It is an object of at least a preferred embodiment of the invention to provide an apparatus and method for production of syngas using pyrolysis and partial gasification.

It is an object of at least a preferred embodiment of the invention to provide an apparatus and method for torrefaction of organic material . SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

According to a first aspect of the invention there is provided an apparatus for processing carbonaceous material, the apparatus comprising :

a reactor vessel ;

the reactor vessel having a plurality of solids medium ingress apertures for receiving controlled fluid flow of heated solids medium ;

the reactor vessel having a feed material ingress aperture;

the reactor vessel having a syngas egress aperture; and

the reactor vessel having at least one egress aperture for egress of processed carbonaceous solid material and spent solids med ium .

In an embodiment, the reactor vessel comprises separate processed carbonaceous solid material and spent solids medium egress apertu res. In an alternative embodiment, the reactor vessel comprises a combined processed carbonaceous solid material and spent solids medium egress aperture.

In an embodiment, the spent solids egress is arranged to return some or all of the spent solids to the reaction chamber. In an alternative embodiment, the spent solids egress is arranged to direct some or all of the spent solids to an oxidation vessel.

In an embodiment, the reactor vessel is a torrefaction and/or pyrolysis and/or gasification reactor.

In an embodiment, the reactor vessel includes a mechanical fluidisation element for mixing and contacting of the feed material and the solids med ium . The mechanical fluidisation element may comprise ploughs that move and/or rotate to i mprove fluidisation, mixi ng, contact and provide transport of the feed material and the solids medium from the feed ingress to processed carbonaceous solid material and spent solids medium egress aperture(s), allowing control of the residence time.

In an embodiment, the apparatus further comprises static arms to break larger particles of feed material as they progress along the length of the reactor vessel . In this way biochar formed on the particles' surface, which is softer and more brittle than the parent feed material, can be easily removed, exposing fresh surface for reaction.

Preferably, the fluid flow of the heated solids medium provides heat and oxygen for endothermic reactions within the reactor vessel. More preferably, entrained flow of the heated solids medium and the feed material causes pre-heating / pyrolysis / gasification of the feed material to form raw syngas and char. More preferably, steam and/or air can be introduced into the reactor vessel for assisting gasification of the feed material and/or balance any oxygen deficiencies in the reactions and/or assist circulation of the solids medium around the feed material.

In an embodiment, the apparatus comprises ingress valves coupled to the reactor vessel for controlled fluid flow of heated solids medium through the solids medium ingress apertures.

In a preferred embodiment, the ingress apertures are spaced along the flow path of the reactor vessel and form distinct zones based on temperature. In a preferred embodiment, the reactor vessel comprises a drying zone, a heating/torrefaction zone, a pyrolysis zone, and a gasification zone.

In an embodiment, the reactor vessel extends at an angle to horizontal to control the rate of solids movement.

In an embodiment, the reactor vessel further comprises internal baffles to influence the travel of syngas to the syngas egress aperture.

In an embodiment, the apparatus further comprises an oxidation vessel, the oxidation vessel having solids medium egress apertures for supplying heated solids medium, the oxidation vessel having a solids medium ingress aperture for receiving controlled return of at least part of the solids medium, wherein solids medium ingress apertures of the reactor vessel are in fluid communication with solids medium egress apertures of the oxidation vessel.

Preferably, the oxidation vessel has an air ingress aperture. In an embodiment, the oxidation vessel has a supplementary fuel ingress aperture. Most preferably, the oxidation vessel has an off-gas egress aperture. The off-gas egress aperture is an aperture that allows off-gas to exit the oxidation vessel. The off-gas is a combustion gas that results from the oxidation process, and includes gas such as C0 ₂ , N ₂ , H ₂ 0, 0 ₂ , for example.

In an embodiment, the oxidation vessel has a fluidising gas ingress aperture for receiving a fluidising gas, usually air. More preferably, the oxidation vessel has an exhaust gas egress aperture for releasing exhaust gas. Additionally, heat can preferably be recovered from the exhaust gas by preheating the return solids medium and/or a waste heat boiler to generate steam and/or predrying of the feed material .

The oxidation vessel may comprise a rotary kil n which may fluidise the heated sol ids medium as a resu lt of rotati ng the kiln.

In an embodiment, the apparatus comprises a single oxidation fluid bed vessel located above a single reactor vessel. In an embodiment, the apparatus is adapted to transfer the heated sol ids medium from the oxidation vessel to the reactor vessel under the influence of gravity.

In an alternative embodiment, the apparatus is adapted to transfer the heated solids medium from the oxidation vessel to the reactor vessel by high pressure gas, such as air or steam .

In an embodiment, the apparatus is adapted to control transfer of the heated sol ids medium from the oxidation vessel to the reactor vessel by temperature feedback from each zone of the reactor vessel .

Preferably, spent heated solids medium may be removed from the reactor after each zone to improve thermal efficiency.

Preferably, the oxidation vessel is in fluid communication with plu rality of solids medium ingress apertures of the reactor vessel.

In an embodiment, the apparatus further comprises a valve associated with each aperture for controlling the fluid flow of heated solids medium through each aperture. The valve associated with each aperture is preferably an L-valve.

The heated solids medium may be transferred using gravity and/or pu lses of high pressure gas. In addition the L-valve may act as a non-retu rn valve for the syngas in the reactor, preventing reverse flow of syngas i nto the oxidation vessel and therefore uncontrolled combustion.

In an embodiment, the apparatus further comprises a primary scru bber. The pri mary scrubber may be configured such that raw syngas contacts and reacts with heated solids medium for decomposing residual tars and/or oils in the primary scrubber. In a preferred embodiment, the primary scrubber comprises : a raw syngas ingress apertu re in fluid communication with the syngas egress aperture of the reactor vessel for receiving raw syngas therefrom; a solids medium ingress aperture in fluid communication with one of the solids medium egress apertures of the oxidation vessel for receiving controlled fluid flow of heated solids medium therefrom; a cleaned syngas egress aperture; and a spent solids egress. The spent solids egress may be arranged to return some or all of the spent solids to the reactor vessel . Alternatively, the spent solids egress may be arranged to direct some or all of the spent solids to the oxidation vessel.

Preferably, the primary scrubber is configured such that raw syngas contacts (and reacts) with heated solids medium for decomposing residual tars and oils in the raw syngas. This generates more syngas and alleviates the need to handle oils and tars.

Preferably the heated solids medium facilitates relatively rapid heat transfer for pyrolysis of the carbonaceous feed material. Preferably, the solids medium provides some oxygen for gasification (or partial oxidation) of the carbonaceous feed material. Gasification reactions only occur once at sufficient operating temperature and therefore, are self regulating. Temperature control is preferably how the reaction zones are created along the length of the reactor vessel. By adding heated solids medium at multiple locations along the flow path of the carbonaceous material, the respective sections can be heated to higher temperatures than the preceding section, thereby creating zones based on temperatures. More preferably, the solids medium contains reactive metal oxides for rapid oxidation - reduction, is free flowing with a high particle density, has a high sintering (softening) temperature, resists degradation in use, is non-toxic, can be conditioned to have ferromagnetic properties, and is readily available. Most preferably, by way of example, the solids medium is ilmenite. The solids medium may comprise leucoxene, rutile, zircon, apatite, iron oxides, iron prills, lime stone, zeolite, dolomite, or manufactured materials having a nickel or copper base, for example. The solids material will be chosen depending on the final product that is intended to be produced by the method and apparatus. For example, for gasification, suitable solids materials include iron prills, ilmenite, nickel or copper based products. The solids medium does not have to possess all of the above mentioned properties. The solids medium can be selected based on availability, or allowable contamination, for example. The solids medium can be a mixture of such materials, for example, lime stone can be added to capture sulphur.

In an embodiment, the oxidation vessel is configured to operated at a higher temperature than the reactor vessel.

In an embodiment, the oxidation vessel is configured to operate at a temperature high enough to allow auto-ignition combustion.

According to a second aspect of the invention there is provided a method for processing carbonaceous material, the method comprising : providing an apparatus according to the first aspect;

introducing a controlled fluid flow of heated solids medium to the reactor vessel through the solids medium ingress apertures;

introducing a feed material to the reactor vessel through the feed material ingress aperture;

allowing the heated solids medium to transfer heat to the feed material in the reactor vessel to produce syngas and a processed carbonaceous solid material;

allowing syngas to exit the reactor vessel through the syngas egress aperture; and removing the processed carbonaceous solid material and spent solids medium through the at least one egress aperture for egress of carbonaceous solid material and spent solids medium.

In an embodiment, the processed carbonaceous solid material comprises biochar.

In an embodiment, the processed carbonaceous solid material comprises torrefied material.

In an embodiment, the method is a batch process. In an alternative embodiment, the method is a continuous process.

In an embodiment, the method further comprises mixing and contacting of the feed material and the solids medium with a mechanical fluidisation element.

In an embodiment, the method further comprises breaking larger particles of feed material as they progress along the length of the reactor vessel.

In an embodiment, the method further comprises controlling the fluid flow of heated solids medium to control the temperature along the length of the reactor vessel.

In an embodiment, the method further comprises forming distinct zones along the length of the reactor vessel based on temperature.

In an embodiment, the apparatus comprises an oxidation vessel, the oxidation vessel having solids medium egress apertures for supplying heated solids medium, the oxidation vessel having a solids medium ingress aperture for receiving controlled return of at least part of the solids medium, wherein solids medium ingress apertures of the reactor vessel are in fluid communication with solids medium egress apertures of the oxidation vessel, and wherein the method comprises delivering heated solids medium from the oxidation vessel to the reactor vessel. In an embodiment, the method further comprises supplying a fluidising gas to the oxidation vessel. The fluidising gas may comprise air.

In an embodiment, the method further comprises releasing exhaust gas from the oxidation vessel.

In an embodiment, the method further comprises transferring the hot solids medium from the oxidation vessel to the reactor vessel under the influence of gravity.

In an embodiment, the method further comprises transferring the hot solids medium from the oxidation vessel to the reactor vessel by high pressure gas. The high pressure gas may comprise air or steam.

In an embodiment, the method further comprises controlling the fluid flow of heated solids medium through each aperture.

In an embodiment, the method further comprises operating the oxidation vessel at a higher temperature than the reactor vessel.

In an embodiment, the apparatus further comprises a primary scrubber, and the method comprises introducing raw syngas in to the primary scrubber from the syngas egress aperture of the reactor vessel, and cleaning the raw syngas using the primary scrubber to produce cleaned syngas.

The primary scrubber may comprise a raw syngas ingress aperture in fluid communication with the syngas egress aperture of the reactor vessel for receiving raw syngas therefrom, a solids medium ingress aperture in fluid communication with one of the solids medium egress apertures of the oxidation vessel for receiving controlled fluid flow of heated solids medium therefrom, a cleaned syngas egress aperture, and a spent solids egress, and wherein the method comprises:

introducing raw syngas to the scrubber;

introducing a heated solids medium to the scrubber;

decomposing residual tars and/or oils in the primary scrubber;

allowing cleaned syngas to exit the scrubber; and

allowing spent solids medium to exist the spent solid egress.

In an embodiment, the method further comprises returning some or all of the spent solids medium to the reaction chamber. In an alternative embodiment, the method further comprises returning some or all of the spent solids medium to the oxidation vessel. The term 'comprising' as used in this specification means "consisting at least in part of. When interpreting each statement in this specification that includes the term 'comprising', features other than that or those prefaced by the term may also be present. Related terms such as 'comprise' and 'comprises' are to be interpreted in the same manner.

As used herein the term 'and/or' means 'and' or 'or', or both.

As used herein '(s)' following a noun means the plural and/or singular forms of the noun It is intended that reference to a range of numbers disclosed herein (for example, 1 to 10) also incorporates reference to all rational numbers within that range (for example, 1, 1.1, 2, 3, 3.9, 4, 5, 6, 6.5, 7, 8, 9 and 10) and also any range of rational numbers within that range (for example, 2 to 8, 1.5 to 5.5 and 3.1 to 4.7) and, therefore, all sub-ranges of all ranges expressly disclosed herein are hereby expressly disclosed. These are only examples of what is specifically intended and all possible combinations of numerical values between the lowest value and the highest value enumerated are to be considered to be expressly stated in this application in a similar manner.

Optional features of different embodiments of the invention are described in the accompanying dependent claims.

To those skilled in the art to which the invention relates, many changes in construction and widely differing embodiments and applications of the invention will suggest themselves without departing from the scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims. The disclosures and the descriptions herein are purely illustrative and are not intended to be in any sense limiting . Where specific integers are mentioned herein which have known equivalents in the art to which this invention relates, such known equivalents are deemed to be incorporated herein as if individually set forth. The invention consists in the foregoing and also envisages constructions of which the following gives examples only.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Preferred embodiments of the invention will now be described, by way of example only, and with reference to the accompanying drawings in which :

Figure 1 is a schematic view of a first embodiment apparatus according to the

invention; Figure 2(a) is a schematic view of a second embodiment apparatus according to the invention;

Figure 2(b) is a schematic view of an alternative version of the second embodiment apparatus according to the invention;

Figure 3 is a schematic block flow diagram of a third embodiment apparatus or method according to the invention;

Figure 4 is a schematic block flow diagram of a fourth embodiment apparatus or

method according to the invention;

Figure 5 is a schematic block flow diagram of a fifth embodiment apparatus or method according to the invention;

Figure 6 is a schematic block flow diagram of a sixth embodiment apparatus or method according to the invention;

Figure 7 is a schematic block flow diagram of a seventh embodiment apparatus or method according to the invention;

Figure 8 is a schematic block flow diagram of an eighth embodiment apparatus or method according to the invention;

Figure 9 is a schematic block flow diagram of a ninth embodiment apparatus or method according to the invention;

Figure 10 is a schematic block flow diagram of a tenth embodiment apparatus or method according to the invention;

Figure 11 is a schematic block flow diagram of an eleventh embodiment apparatus or method according to the invention; and

Figure 12 is a tabular representation of properties of an example solids medium that may be used in any of the embodiment apparatuses or methods according to the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

The disclosed apparatuses and methods can be used for the torrefaction, pyrolysis and partial gasification of carbonaceous feed material by direct contact with an indirectly heated solid medium, for producing biochar and syngas. Carbonaceous material can include biomass, end-of-life waste, animal manures, bio-solids from waste water treatment, abattoir waste streams, and fossil fuels, for example. The feed material may contain a portion of non-combustible material. The clean syngas can be used for process heating, power generation or further processed to liquid or gaseous fuels and base chemicals using established processes. Problems faced by existing processes include, how to accomplish the following : • Provide the necessary process heat (which can limit the scale-up of single units);

• Production of high calorific value syngas without the need for oxygen separation from air;

• Handle the caking tendencies of the solids;

· Separate or dealing with the resulting three phases (solids, liquids (tars), gas);

• Recovery of the desirable useful products, while providing a solution for the byproducts;

• Corrosion-erosion;

• Deal with the toxic by-products, in particular the gases; and

· Accomplish all of these tasks efficiently, economically and environmentally.

In a preferred embodiment, the heated solids medium (heat carrier) used in the processes and methods of the invention comprises ilmenite. Ilmenite is a weakly magnetic titanium- iron oxide material. Other example materials are listed in the summary of the invention section.

It will be appreciated that the ilmenite can additionally act as an oxygen carrier for gasification without nitrogen, allowing a richer syngas to be produced without the need for an Air Separation Unit (ASU). This is referred to as Chemical Looping Combustion (CLC), which typically employs a dual fluidised bed system where a metal oxide is used as a bed material providing the oxygen for combustion in the fuel reactor. The reduced metal oxide is then transferred to the second bed (air reactor) and re-oxidised before being reintroduced back to the fuel reactor completing the loop. This embodiment uses Chemical Looping Gasification (or partial combustion), combining heat transfer because the reduction stage operates at a lower temperature than the oxidation stage and delivers all of the advantages of simplified chemical reactions, eliminates nitrogen dilution of the syngas, produces a flue gas composed primarily of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapour from the oxidation stage.

A preferred embodiment apparatus discloses a hybrid solution between moving-bed and fluid-bed for pyrolysis/gasification of carbonaceous material. Mechanical agitation allows low gas flow rates providing extended residence time for the derived syngas allowing secondary decomposition of tars, which improves the yield to char. Some additional gases, such as, air, steam or recycle syngas can be introduced for control of temperature along the length of the reactor vessel. This can also assist fluidisation, mixing and reactions. This system is referred to as slow pyrolysis. The reactivity of the resulting char can be modified by controlling the initial heating rate, final operating temperature, pressure, gaseous atmosphere composition, and residence time.

One embodiment of the apparatus allows for operation of the system under pressure to influence, for example, the syngas composition, the char yield and reactivity. The preferred embodiment apparatus normally operates at slightly below atmospheric pressure, but could alternatively be run at elevated pressure.

In a preferred embodiment, an apparatus is designed for the gasification of large irregular- shaped carbonaceous material, requiring minimal preparation, to produce clean highly concentrated syngas. An object of such an embodiment is to reduce the cost and energy associated with feedstock preparation by accepting larger and/or irregular shaped material.

In this embodiment, a separate batch wise pyrolysis / gasification vessel can be used. This vessel enables pyrolysis / gasification of large material whereby a continuous stream of hot oxidized bed medium flows substantially downwards over the carbonaceous material to transfer heat and oxygen for converting the material to raw syngas.

Counter flow of a portion of the heated solids medium with the exiting raw syngas functions as primary gas cleaning for removal of problematic tars. It will be appreciated that, the raw syngas can be independently heated to a higher temperature than the reactor, allow decomposition of tars, PAHs, and in particular, dioxins and furans. Rapid quenching of the syngas with water in the secondary scrubber then stops these components from reforming. A portion of the product char can be used as a third stage scrubber, being akin to an activated carbon scrubber, to produce ultra-clean syngas.

An initial quenching of the product gas from the reactor can be included to collect liquid/bio- oil products, if desired. Off-gas from this would then pass to the primary scrubber as normal to remove residual tars, PAHs, and in particular, dioxins and furans.

It will be appreciated that this apparatus can reduce the need for: feed preparation;

additional equipment for oxygen separation from air. The apparatus can operate at atmospheric pressures. This can significantly lower the plant capital and operating costs while improving energy efficiency and widens the range of acceptable 'feedstock' carbonaceous material options. A portion of the feedstock could include contaminated soils, hence in-situ thermally remediating the soil for reuse. This could also include in-situ activation of minerals, such as apatite or other phosphate materials, to enhance phosphate availability to plants. A single apparatus maybe scaled from relatively small domestic use to large industrial applications and mobile units, due to the direct contacting of the carbonaceous feedstock with indirectly heat solids. This also keeps the capital cost relatively lower as a heat exchange surface is not needed.

The apparatuses and methods described herein are capable of processing carbonaceous material to produce:

torrefied material

char/biochar

syngas

liquid(s)/tar(s).

It will be appreciated that char, syngas, and tars are co-products of the pyrolysis process and the ratios can be controlled by modifying the process conditions. It will also be appreciated that torrefied material is produced by torrefaction, which is a type of low temperature pyrolysis.

Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of a first embodiment apparatus 100 for the pyrolysis and/or partial gasification of feedstock material comprising irregular-shaped carbonaceous material 110 to produce char (or biochar) 114 and cleaned syngas 116. The cleaned syngas is syngas that has been treated by the primary scrubber.

By way of example, the carbonaceous material can include biomass, end-of-life waste and coal. The raw syngas can be further processed to provide: a clean highly concentrated syngas for production of liquid or gaseous fuel, base chemicals or used for power generation via integrated gas turbine combined cycle. Clean syngas can also be used to co-fire compression ignition engines (i.e. diesel engines) to generate mechanical energy or used for process heating. The apparatus and method can be a net exporter of energy, substantially without use of fossil fuel inputs (other than for start-up purposes).

In the embodiment where torrefaction is the desired mode of operation, the reactor temperature is controlled to produce just enough syngas for the process and not produce export syngas. This embodiment minimises auxiliary equipment and capital cost.

In an embodiment, the apparatus 100 includes a first vessel 120 for oxidative combustion with air 125 and a second reactor vessel 130 for pyrolysis/gasification of the feedstock material 110. A heat and mass transfer solids medium is circulated 140, 141 between the two vessels. In an embodiment, the oxidation vessel 120 can be an oxidation fluid bed that is air fluidised. The air 125, or other gas, enters the oxidation vessel via a fluidising gas ingress aperture 125a. Heating fuel/source 127 can be provided by either product syngas and/or product char and/or other fuel source(s) and can be delivered to the oxidation vessel via a supplementary fuel ingress aperture 127a. Off-gases from the oxidation vessel 120 can be vented via an off-gas or exhaust gas egress aperture 175a and duct 175.

In an embodiment, the heated medium can enter the pyrolysis/gasification reactor vessel 130 at multiple locations 142a, 142b, 142c, 142d (typically via L-valves 123 either located proximal to an upper portion of the vessel or elsewhere between the oxidation vessel 120 and reactor vessel 130), through a plurality of solids medium ingress apertures 143a, 143b, 143c, 143d. The oxidation vessel 120 has a plurality of solids medium egress apertures 141a, 141b, 141c, 141d each in fluid communication with a respective one of the solids medium ingress apertures 143a, 143b, 143c, 143d. The heated solids medium flows substantially co-current with the feedstock material 110 that is being pyrolysed / gasified. The feedstock material 110 enters the reaction chamber of the reactor vessel through a feed ingress aperture 131. The production of char (biochar) can be monitored and controlled through the operating temperature in each of the zones 132, 133, 134, 135.

The preferred embodiment shown includes four solids medium ingress apertures forming four zones. However, the number of zones could be increased or decreased depending on the mode of operation or size of the plant.

It will be appreciated that this process can be operated stage wise, with separation of the spent solids medium from the reactor vessel after each stage to give higher thermal efficiency, but requiring additional mechanical equipment.

It will be appreciated that torrefaction can involve heating of a substance in the absence of oxygen, while pyrolysis can involve decomposition of a substance by heating in the absence of oxygen, and further gasification can involve the conversion of any carbonaceous material to a gaseous product with a useable heating value. Gasification processes can include partial oxidation, where the oxidant includes pure oxygen and/or air and/or steam, which produces a syngas containing hydrogen and carbon monoxide in varying ratios.

The entry of the heated solids medium to the pyrolysis/gasification reactor vessel 130 at multiple locations can define respective zones 132, 133, 134, 135 within the vessel along the reaction path. These zones can include a drying zone 132, a heating zone 133 in which torrefaction occurs, a pyrolysis zone 134 and gasification zone 135. Each of these zones can be separately monitored (for example using a thermocouple to monitor operating temperature) and controlled by adjusting the feed rate of hot solids medium entering 142a, 142b, 142c, 142d proximal to the respective zone.

The reactor can be operated as a drier, or for drying plus torrefaction, or for drying, torrefaction and pyrolysis. That is, the reactor can be held at any zone condition if required and zone conditions can be extended. It will be appreciated that torrefied biomass is produced at temperatures of about 250°C to 350°C, char is produced by pyrolysis at temperatures of about 350°C to 600°C, and syngas is produced at temperatures of about 600°C to 1000°C. Albeit, the rate of syngas production progressively increases from torrefaction through to gasification, while the solids mass recovery decreases.

In an embodiment, one or more mechanical fluidisation elements 112 (for example, in the form of rotating arms or ploughs) can be included within the pyrolysis/gasification reactor vessel 130 to provide mechanical fluidisation and agitation. The mechanical fluidisation element improves mixing and contact of the feed material and the heated solids medium, provides transport of the materials from the inlet to the outlet point, provides residence time control by adjustment of the rotational speed and for reducing dilution of the product syngas with nitrogen and eliminating heat losses associated with recirculating gases. Steam can be injected into the base of the reactor vessel (for example proximal to the gasification zone 135) for enhancing the reaction and providing additional circulation of the medium. Because the pyrolysis/gasification reactor vessel is not fully gas fluidised (instead mechanically fluidised / mixed), it allows large irregular shaped carbonaceous material to be treated, minimizing feed preparation. Large material is material in which the pieces are bigger than about 50 mm by about 50 mm by about 50 mm and can be as large up to about 500 mm by about 500 mm by about 500 mm. Typical large material would have pieces that are about 300 mm by about 300 mm by about 300 mm. Rotating arms can be designed to break up the feedstock material as it moves through the reactor, thereby requiring less mechanical energy as the char is softer to break off the surface as it is formed, which can thereby result in less mechanical wear and increased overall efficiency.

In an embodiment, by way of example only, the reactor 130 can be mounted on an angle to also control the rate of solids movement and therefore the residence time for reaction. Internal baffles may be installed perpendicular to the top surface into reactor 130 to influence the syngas path to the outlet (syngas egress aperture 150), thereby re-contacting the evolved syngas from previous stages / zones with incoming hot solids, to assist progressive decomposition of tars, etc. The rotary arms in the reactor 130 provide continuous cleaning of the vessel, in particular the upper space where tars could condense and build accretions. The advantages of using internal rotating arms as opposed to an external rotary kiln type arrangement is it allows for multiple points to inject the hot solids medium and therefore create the zonal effect in a single unit. Also, reducing the rotating mass. However, the limitation is operating temperature. Therefore, multiple rotary kilns in series could be used on a large scale - making it possible to divide the zones for easy of mechanical construction, operation and maintenance, but would still be arranged in a co- current/sequential fashion.

It will be appreciated that an advantage of the disclosed embodiment over the existing prior art includes the ability to scale-up a single unit to larger capacities without the limitation of needing more heat transfer area. Therefore, the embodiments described have a better economy of scale factor.

Irregular-shaped carbonaceous material containing non-combustible components, such as metals and glass can be processed with the feedstock material . The apparatus can recover clean scrap metals for further recycling. It will be appreciated that, if a portion of the feedstock material is fine, by being mechanically fluidised (not fully gas fluidised) gasification is enabled with minimal entrainment of fines. It will also be appreciated that, if fines are entrained with the medium to the oxidation fluid bed vessel 120, the fines will be fully burnt-out, therefore not wasted. Very fine carbonaceous material entrained with the raw syngas can be gasified in the primary scrubber 115, which generally operates at a higher temperature than the reactor 130, or non-carbonaceous fines (medium) will be captured by a secondary wet scrubber (not shown in Figure 1) that is in fluid communication with the primary scrubber 115 to receive the syngas 116 that exits the primary scrubber through a cleaned syngas egress aperture 116a.

The primary scrubber 115 has a raw syngas ingress aperture 115a in fluid communication with the reaction chamber of the reactor vessel via syngas egress aperture 150. Heated solid medium is continuously passed through the primary scrubber 115 via path/pipe 144 and solids medium ingress aperture 144a before egressing the primary scrubber through spent solids egress aperture 115b and entering 142d the reactor vessel 130 via aperture 143d, such that the off-gasses pass through hot solids medium in the primary scrubber for decomposing tar, oils, PAHs, dioxins, and furans, for example in the raw syngas resulting in a clean syngas for further use after quenching in the secondary scrubber.

The embodiment of Figure 1 includes a bypass line 198 that enables some or all of the solids medium from the scrubber to be diverted back towards the oxidiser rather than being delivered to the reactor vessel through the aperture 143d.

At the end of the pyrolysis/gasification process in the reactor vessel 130, a reduced cooled solids medium exits 146 from the pyrolysis/gasification reactor vessel 130. Some or all of that cooled solids medium can be returned 141 to the top of the oxidation fluid bed vessel 120 via a solids medium ingress aperture 122. Some of the return solids medium can be diverted 199 to buffer the hot solids medium addition 142a when operating the apparatus in the torrefaction mode. Sufficient enthalpy to raise the solids medium temperature greater than the pyrolysis/gasification temperature can be provided by: re- oxidation of the medium, combustion of char, combustion of syngas or combustion of other gaseous, liquid or solids fuels (or a mixing of all simultaneously). Other components such as catalytic materials for enhancing gasification kinetics or adsorption of gaseous components, such as sulphur, may be mixed with the solids medium.

The solids medium used is preferably free-flowing, non-sintering at elevated temperatures, and facilitates rapid mass (oxygen) and heat transfer. Product char from the

pyrolysis/gasification reactor can be screened out from the spent solids medium while hot. This ensures minimal enthalpy loss from the solids medium, i.e. only the product char is cooled down to ambient temperature. Any fines that travel with the solids medium will be combusted in the oxidation fluid bed vessel 120. Some solids medium will be lost with the char. This can act to partially purge the solids medium from the oxidation fluid bed vessel and thereby reduce build-up of alkali metals, which can lead to sintering problems. Fresh solids medium can be added to the oxidation fluid bed 120 as required based on the bed level measurement. It will be appreciated that, after hot screening, the product char 114 is cooled anaerobically either directly, indirectly, or both directly and indirectly. Once cooled the product char can be magnetically separated to recover solids medium and/or iron from the original feedstock. The solids medium fraction can be returned to the reactor vessel 130 after secondary separation. If the solids medium has adhered to the char particle indicates insufficient residence time due to the presence of tars (which can act as a 'glue'). In this way the solids medium and the adhered char can be recycled back to the reactor vessel 130, and hence the char and solids medium can be recovered by additional processing time.

It will be appreciated that other components can be co-fed to allow thermal activation, such as soils, phosphate materials, zeolites, and/or lime stone, for example.

The separate oxidation vessel 120 reduces nitrogen in the syngas derived from pyrolysis / gasification (without requiring an air separation unit) thereby generating a syngas with low relative energy consumption (low parasitic power consumption as there is no air separation unit consuming power). Primary syngas cleaning is provided by a primary scrubber 115, which operates at a relatively higher temperature than the reactor vessel 130 for further decomposing any oils and tars to syngas and avoiding accretions in the off-gas handling system. This also avoids having to deal with the oils and tars as separate by-products. Heat is provided to the primary scrubber 115 by a continuous flow of heated solids medium entering 144 via an L-valve or fluidised leg 123. Spent solids medium is reintroduced back to the reactor vessel 130 through a trickle valve 145 or diverted 198 to return to the oxidation vessel and/or to buffer 199. Clean super-heated syngas leaves the primary scrubber via a pipe and is transferred to a secondary water quench scrubber (not shown in Figure 1). Rapid water quenching of the hot syngas can stop reversible reactions from occurring, condenses excess water vapour and removes particulate matter, thereby producing a clean, cooled, concentrated syngas.

Figures 2(a) and 2(b) show, by way of example only, second embodiment apparatuses 200 for the pyrolysis and/or partial gasification of feedstock material comprising Irregular- shaped carbonaceous material 210 to produce char (or char) 214 and raw syngas 216.

Unless described as otherwise below, the features and functioning of the apparatuses should be considered the same as described for the first embodiment above, and like reference numerals indicate like parts with the addition of 100.

Each apparatus 200 of the second embodiment includes an oxidation vessel 220. The oxidation vessel has a plurality of solids medium egress apertures 241a, 241b, 241c, 241d in fluid communication with a reaction chamber of a reactor vessel 230 for supplying heated solids medium thereto. The oxidation vessel has a solids medium ingress aperture 222 for receiving controlled return of solids medium from the reactor vessel. In this embodiment, all the solids medium is returned. In an alternative second embodiment, shown in figure 2 (b), some of the solids medium is returned.

The reactor vessel 230 has a plurality of solids medium ingress apertures (for example 243a, 243b, 243c, 243d) in fluid communication with the solids medium egress apertures 241a, 241b, 241c, 241d for receiving controlled fluid flow of heated solids medium. The reactor vessel has a feed ingress aperture 231, a syngas egress

aperture 250, and a char/processed carbonaceous solid material and spent solids medium egress aperture 246.

It will be appreciated that the plurality of solids medium ingress apertures 243a, 243b, 243c, 243d are located along a material flow path of the reactor vessel 230. The plurality of solids medium ingress apertures allow for the insertion of new hot solids medium at distinct location among the material flow path and at predetermined stages of processing the material. Separate control of solids medium ingress can be made for each ingress aperture. The zones 232, 233, 234, 235 can be arbitrarily defined based on the intended state of processing the material within the reactor vessel, based on temperature. The zone dimensions need not be defined structurally by the reactor vessel. By way of example only, the fluid bed oxidation vessel 220 and pyrolysis / gasification reactor vessel 230 can be constructed from refractory lined steel.

Combustion air 260 can be used to transport the spent (reduced and cooled) solids medium back to the fluid bed oxidation vessel 220, which doubles as combustion air within the oxidation vessel 220.

Spent solids medium and char exits the pyrolysis / gasification vessel 230 at 246 and is separated by a hot screen 264, with the spent solids medium returning back into the top 222 of the oxidation vessel 220 via venturi 261 and a cyclone 265. Air for oxidation can be first used to transport the spent solids medium back into the oxidation vessel. A cyclone 265 can be used to separate the solids medium and air, with the air being fed back 265a into the plenum of the fluid bed oxidation vessel, thereby allowing improved heat recovery.

Alternatively, a mechanical elevator 241a can be used to return the spent solids to the oxidation vessel 220, as shown in Figure 2(b). Any of the described embodiments could use either of these methods for returning spent solids medium to the oxidation vessel, or alternatively could use some other method.

Material typically continuously flows to drying zone 232, then heating zone 233, then the pyrolysis zone 234 and then the partial gasification zone 235. The flow into the zones can be controlled by the overall feed rate, rotational speed of the arms 212 or the reactor vessel angle from horizontal. In addition the reaction kinetics (in particular the pyrolysis zone 234 and the gasification zone 235), can be controlled with temperature. The gasification reactions maybe accelerated by increasing the operating temperature (by increasing the flow rate of heated solids medium), and/or addition of steam and/or air.

A start-up gas burner 262 is located in the plenum of the fluid bed oxidation vessel 220, for bringing the vessel and solids medium up to an auto-ignition operating temperature. It will be appreciated that auto-ignition combustion is the temperature at which combustion occurs spontaneously. Auto-ignition occurs at about 700°C. Typically, once the oxidation vessel is operational, this burner is not used.

In this embodiment, oxidised solids medium circulates from the bottom 221 of the fluid bed oxidation vessel 220 via valves 223 (for example L-Valves) to one or more ingress apertures 243a, 243b, 243c, 243d in one or more zones 232,233,234,235 of the pyrolysis / gasification vessel 230. Off-gases from the fluid bed oxidation vessel 220 and pyrolysis/gasification vessel 230 can be vented. In this example, the off-gases are vented separately via egress apertures 235a, 250 and ducts 275, 216. A respective cyclone 276, 271 is located in each off-gas streams to separate particulate material and provide a return 277, 272 for the particulate material to the respective vessels.

The syngas egress aperture 250 can be coincident with one of the plurality of solids medium ingress apertures of the pyrolysis / gasification vessel 230, such that the off gasses pass through hot oxidized solids medium for cleaning / removing / decomposing of tar and oil in the raw syngas. This acts as the primary scrubber.

In an embodiment, steam 280 can be fed/applied to a zone of reactor vessel, for example proximal to the gasification zone 135 to enhance syngas production.

Further example embodiment apparatuses and methods for producing syngas and char are disclosed in Figure 3 through Figure 11. Unless described as otherwise, the features and functioning of the apparatuses and methods should be considered the same as described for earlier embodiment(s), and like reference numerals indicate like parts with the addition of 100 per embodiment.

Figure 3 shows a block flow diagram of a third embodiment apparatus and method 300 using syngas and fine char for heating the solids medium. Char is produced by direct contact with a separately heated solids medium.

In this embodiment, the oxidation vessel 320 has multiple solids medium flow paths 342a, 342b, 342c, 342d to a reactor vessel 330. The feedstock 310 enters the reactor vessel 330 and contacts the hot solids medium to undergo stages of drying 332,

heating /torrefaction 333, pyrolysis 334 and partial gasification 335.

The heat and mass transfer solids medium (for example, ilmenite) is heated under oxidising conditions to between 900°C and 1100°C. This process is carried out in the fluid bed oxidation vessel 320, and can be fuelled with part of the product syngas. This converts the iron(II)oxide fraction to iron(III)oxide, which is an exothermic reaction, wherein oxygen from air is transferred to the solid iron oxide, allowing it to be transferred to the pyrolysis reactor vessel 330 without the substantial nitrogen component of air. This is sometimes referred to as chemical looping. This reduces or substantially eliminates the requirement for an air separation plant, while enabling production of a rich raw syngas (low in nitrogen) from pyrolysis. The off-gas 375 from the oxidation heating stage is high in nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapour. A waste heat recovery system could utilise this hot off-gas stream. Rich syngas is high in chemical energy and has low levels of non-combustible gases. The raw syngas can undergo a primary treatment 315 and secondary treatment 317. This can result in a relatively clean syngas 318 suitable for a number of applications.

The temperature of the solids medium cycles between about 1000°C when exiting the 5 oxidation vessel 320 and about 400°C when exiting the reactor vessel 330, or between about 800°C and about 200°C for torrefaction, while the biomass feedstock 310 temperature can be increased from an ambient temperature to about 500°C (or higher if necessary) as it passes through the reactor vessel. For stand-alone torrefaction, the biomass feedstock 310 temperature can be increased from an ambient temperature to

10 about 350°C.The raw syngas 370 from pyrolysis undergoes a primary treatment 315 in which it is heated to about 800°C to decompose tars or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs, also known as poly-aromatic hydrocarbons and includes dioxins and furans) before being rapidly quenched in a secondary treatment (wet scrubber) 317. Cooling the syngas rapidly reduces reversible reactions and condenses excess water vapour and removes fine

15 particulate matter. Heat must be removed from the secondary scrubber to condense the water vapour. This can be achieve either directly with a cooling tower or indirectly with a heat exchanger in circuit with the scrubber water.

The mechanically mixed pyrolysis reactor vessel 330 combines four key functions in the form of drying 332 of the feedstock 310, heating 333 to the pyrolysis temperature, pyrolysis

20 334 and partial gasification 335. The position of these zones 332, 333, 334, 335 is quite arbitrary, and depends on the actual feedstock 310 characteristics. Process control is achieved by measuring the temperature and controlling (adding more or less) hot solids medium at each respective section 332, 333, 334, 335. Other operations include conveying of the material and breaking up of larger particle to expose fresh surfaces for pyrolysis -

25 allowing processing of larger feedstock particles. Rapid heating of the 'as received'

feedstock in this system produces a lower reactivity char, which provides a char (biochar) suitable for long term carbon sequestration.

Hot size separation or screening 364 is used to conserve energy. The char product is cooled anaerobically 366 (such as by use of cooling water 366a for example, to reduce the risk of

30 combustion with air (pyrophoric), and can therefore be handled and stored safely. Magnetic separation 367 of the char can remove residual solids medium. The solids medium has a high magnetic susceptibility after partial reduction and can be easily separated (for example, using a rare earth drum magnetic separator). Some fine char will return with the solids medium back to the oxidation fluid bed 320 where it will be burnt. Likewise, some

35 solids medium will be lost to the char product. It will be necessary from time to time to add make-up solids medium as a result. This system could be used to thermally treat ilmenite, allowing it to be further upgraded by removal of gangue minerals for use as a titanium dioxide feedstock.

It will be appreciated that, ilmenite that adheres to the product char due to incomplete pyrolysis, can be recovered after hot screening 364 and cooling 366 using a magnetic separator 367. The magnetic fraction can then be returned to the pyrolysis zone 334 for further processing.

This will maintain high recovery of both char and ilmenite and high product quality. The air 360 for oxidation reheat can be first used to transport the spent ilmenite after screening back into the oxidation fluid bed 320. A cyclone 365 can then be used to separate the ilmenite and pre-heated air, with the air being fed back into the plenum of the fluid bed 320. This allows improved heat recovery. Alternatively, a mechanical elevator can be used .

Alternatively, all of the discharge solids from the reactor 330 can be cooled and then screened to separate char (biochar) and spent solids medium.

In an embodiment, waste water 319b from secondary scrubber 317 can be used to wet the product char 314, thereby disposing of the water, making the char safer to handle and precondition the char for agricultural use, thereby reducing any initial detrimental effects of drawing moisture from the soil. Excess water can be treated and disposed.

Figure 4 shows a block flow diagram an embodiment apparatus 400 using char/biochar for heating while maximising production of syngas.

It will be appreciated that, for the production of syngas, the char could be consumed as fuel in oxidation vessel 420. The reactor 430 would be operated at an increased temperate, and gasification can be assisted by steam injection 406 from a boiler 404. The steam can be generated from waste heat in the fluid bed oxidation off-gas 408. As only low pressure steam is required for the reaction vessel 430, the steam could also be passed through a turbine 409 to generate and export power before entering the reactor vessel 330.

In this embodiment, by way of example only, the ilmenite solids medium is not separated from the char before returning to the oxidation vessel 420 via path 402.

Figure 5 shows a block flow diagram an embodiment apparatus 500 producing char (biochar) and a syngas product, which uses part of the feedstock 510 or alternative fuel source 511 for heating the oxidiser solids medium.

For maximum char and syngas production, an alternative fuel 511 can be used for heating the fluid bed oxidation vessel 520. This could be a solid, liquid, gaseous or mixed fuel, but preferably clean burning. Suitable examples of alternative fuels include used cooking oils, coal fines, natural gas, diesel, for example. If the feedstock 510 was clean burning, such as woodchip, then this could also be used directly 504 for heating the fluid bed oxidation vessel 520. A supplementary fuel ingress aperture 511a is provided in the oxidation vessel 520 for delivery of the feedstock 510 or alternative fuel 511.

The char product 514 could be briquetted and used as a smokeless fuel, thereby reducing pollution from wood fired combustion heaters, stoves, etc. The char product 514 could be used in metallurgical reduction processes.

Figure 6 shows a block flow diagram an embodiment apparatus 600 producing char (biochar) and a syngas product, using end-of-life feedstock 610 that may be contaminated, which uses char for removing contaminates from the syngas.

In this example embodiment, all or part of the produced char product is used 602 to absorb contaminates from the syngas in a syngas ternary treatment and filter unit 618. Once the syngas has been scrubbed 618, it can be used 606 by a number of operations without further gas cleaning. Typically, sorted biomass and end-of-life waste materials can be fed as feedstock into the reactor vessel 630 - having about 25% carbon for sequestration, providing 608 about 80% less volume. For example, a mixed feed that included biomass from green waste collections could be used in this process. Contaminated char 608 from the ternary unit 618, and char 602 that has not passed through the ternary unit 618, can be sequestered.

It will be appreciated that this flow diagram can be used for waste-to-energy conversion projects and waste-volume reduction projects. This process can therefore enable extending the life of landfill sites and/or enabling transporting of the remaining carbon elsewhere for sequestration. As most end-of-life waste is generated from highly populated areas, it will be appreciated that power could also be generated locally from the syngas, thereby reducing power transmission line losses. Alternatively, if the plant is located in a remote area, energy could be stored by liquefaction of air, which can then be transported to a common site that is connected to the electricity grid, and re-vaporised to generate power on demand using a turbine. This would be most applicable for mobile plants.

Figure 7 shows a block flow diagram an embodiment apparatus 700 producing char (biochar) and syngas, wherein the process is being used for soil remediation while producing char (biochar) and removal of contaminates from the syngas using part of the produced char. In this example embodiment, soil contaminated with hydrocarbons could be treated with this apparatus or process.

It will be appreciated that, in this example embodiment, the ilmenite medium and treated soil is cooled 766(for example below 80°C) prior to magnetic separation 767 of the ilmenite 5 medium 768 from the remediated soil 708.

This could also be applied to thermal activation of other materials such as rock phosphate, lime stone, or dolomite, for use in soil conditioning in agriculture.

Figure 8 shows a block flow diagram an embodiment apparatus 800 producing char (biochar) and syngas, wherein direct heat recovery 802 is used for pre-drying 810a 10 feedstock 810 having a relatively high moisture content, such as manures or bio-oils from waste water treatment. In this embodiment, hot off-gas from the oxidising vessel 820 is passed over the feedstock before the feedstock is fed into the reactor vessel 830. After pre- drying the feedstock, warm off-gas comprising nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and water is released 875 to atmosphere, optionally via a scrubber.

15 Figure 9 shows a block flow diagram an embodiment apparatus 900 producing char

(biochar) and syngas, identifying typical operating temperatures.

In this example embodiment, the oxidising vessel 920 typically operates at temperatures of about 1000°C, the drying zone 932 typically maintains an outlet temperature of about 140°C, the heating/torrefaction zone 933 typically maintains an outlet temperature about

20 350°C, the pyrolysis zone 934 typically maintains an outlet temperature of about 500°C, the partial gasification zone 935 typically maintains an outlet temperature of about 800 ^D C, the syngas primary treatment 915 typically operates at an outlet temperature of about 800°C, and the syngas secondary treatment 917 typically operates at an outlet temperature of about 80°C. All stages 932, 933, 934, 935 in the reactor vessel will typically be

25 controlled progressively. Char (biochar) 914 is typically output having a temperature below 80°C. It will be appreciated that, if desired, the pyrolysis zone can be extended with no gasification zone, controlled by temperature. Extending the pyrolysis zone will increase the production of char. Additionally, the syngas primary treatment 915 may operate at about 900°C, if more syngas generation is required.

30 Figure 10 shows an alternative apparatus 1000 in which large or very large irregular shaped end-of-life waste and/or biomass 1010a can be processed in a batch wise reactor vessel 1091 that is fed continuously with a separate stream of hot solids medium 1042e from the same oxidation vessel 1020. This embodiment would have a continuous reactor operating in addition to the batch wise reactor vessel 1091. The separate stream of hot solids medium 1042e flows substantially downward over the material 1010a contained in a stationary basket that can be lifted in and out of the vessel 1091. Steam 1092 can be injected into the base of the batch reactor vessel to enhance the reactions and/or providing additional circulation of the hot solids medium. Spent solids medium 1093 continuously exits the 5 batch reactor vessel (typically at the bottom) and is returned to the oxidation vessel 1020, such as by the use of air 1060 for example. Non-combustible residues, such as metals and ceramics, are removed 1094 from the basket once cooled at the end of the batch cycle.

Rather than a stationary basket, the reactor vessel may comprise a rotary kiln batch reactor.

10 It will be appreciated that this type of batch wise operation is best operated in conjunction with a continuous pyrolysis plant to enable the peaks and troughs in syngas generation to be controlled . Otherwise, it would be necessary to use additional fuel to start each batch or store syngas or operate multiple units.

It will be appreciated that, by way of example only, a solids medium can include ilmenite.

15 Figure 11 shows an alternative apparatus 1100, which is operated as a dedicated

torrefaction plant. The main feature of this embodiment is that it produces a torrefied biomass product 1114. The torrefied biomass product 1114 is typically output having a temperature below 80°C.

In this embodiment, the apparatus 1100 includes a dryer 1190, a first vessel 1120 for 20 oxidative combustion with air 1125 and a reactor vessel 1130 for pre-heating and

torrefaction of the feedstock material 110. A heat and mass transfer solids medium is circulated 1140, 1141 between the two vessels.

In this embodiment, part of the recycled spent solids would be returned to the feed 1130 to buffer the maximum temperature, that is, not overheat the biomass feedstock. All of the 25 solids from the primary scrubber would be bypassed 1198 so as to not return directly down into the torrefaction zone of the reactor vessel.

In this embodiment, the reactor temperature is controlled to produce just enough syngas for the process and not produce excess syngas. The syngas is fed to the oxidation vessel 1120 at aperture 1181a. Excess syngas is fee to the oxidation vessel 1120 at aperture 30 1181b and can then be fed to the dryer 1190 This embodiment minimises auxiliary

equipment and capital cost. With reference to Figure 11, smaller remote plants could operate in torrefaction mode and supply fuel to centralised pyrolysis and gasification plants or be co-fed into existing coal fired power stations.

Figure 12 shows a typical analysis of a geologically fresh ilmenite.

It will be appreciated that oxides of iron and manganese are involved in the reduction - oxidation reactions. The other major component, titanium dioxide, increases the sintering temperature, strength, durability and heat carrying capacity. The minor components are naturally associated with the mineral ilmenite.

In use an apparatus of Figure 1, for example any of the preferred embodiments can provide continuous processing of carbonaceous material. By way of example only, to process 1000 kg/h of carbonaceous material that contains about 25% Carbon and 5% Hydrogen by mass (where the remainder is typically moisture, S, O, and N) required approximately 78 kg/h of oxygen. In this example, 95% of the oxygen is derived from the solids medium and 5% from an applied air supply.

Considering the carbon fraction, the solids medium reaction during gasification can be characterised as:

Fe ₂ 0 _3(s) + C _(s) = > 2FeO _(s) + CO _(g)

Iron oxide is the main component in the solids medium that is reacting. Hence a solids medium recirculation rate of 3500 kg/h (1570 kg/h Fe 0 ₃ ) is required to deliver 78kg/h of oxygen. If the oxidation bed is operating at 1000°C and the pyrolysis/gasification vessel is operating at 500°C the enthalpy transfer would be in the order of 535 kW. This thermal energy transfer can be controlled to balance the endothermic pyrolysis and gasification reactions. The split between pyrolysis and gasification is controlled by the operating temperature. The above reaction does not proceed until temperature exceeds about 650°C. This therefore naturally limits / controls the transition from pyrolysis to gasification reactions. It will be appreciated that torrefaction and pyrolysis do not need oxygen, but only require heat.

The gas phase shift reaction can be characterised as:

H20(g) + C(s) = > CO(g) + H2(g)

In this example, a minimum of 22.5 kg/h of steam is required in the gasification zone, but can typically be supplied in excess of this rate. Steam or water vapour is present from the drying stage off-gas, which is an advantage of this system configuration being co-current and integrated with the feedstock drying stage. It will be appreciated that the illustrated apparatuses and methods produces processed carbonaceous solid material in the form of torrefied biomass, char and/or syngas using pyrolysis.

It will be further appreciated that the illustrated apparatuses and methods can be used for the pyrolysis and/or gasification of large irregular-shaped carbonaceous material, including biomass and end-of-life waste and manures to produce clean highly concentrated syngas that is low in nitrogen whilst providing the majority of oxygen required using air (indirectly).

It will be further appreciated that the illustrated apparatuses and methods use separate vessels for oxidative combustion with air and gasification with steam and/or air - with a heat and mass transfer solids medium circulating between the vessels. The oxidation vessel can be air fluidised.

It will be further appreciated that the illustrated apparatuses and methods can consume relatively large irregular-shaped carbonaceous material containing non-combustible components, such as steel. By way of example the material can be loaded into heat resistant cradles, and lowering into a separate batch reactor for a period of time sufficient to gasify the combustible components. This allows recovery of clean scrap iron for further recycling. An example of this type of end-of-life waste is bed mattresses, tyres, or coated scrap metals.

It will be further appreciated that char(biochar) offers a means of carbon sequestration and a method of improving and prolonging land for agricultural use. Char(biochar) is also used industrially as fuel and metallurgical reductant. Char can be tailored to have a high active surface area, making it useful for adsorption of contaminates and toxic chemicals from the environment. This can then be buried and doubles as carbon sequestration. For example, if the treated material contains PVC plastics, heating evolves HCI(g) which the product char can re-adsorb from the syngas stream to allow safe collection, neutralisation and disposal, Char (biochar) can be included in animal feed rations to improve production rates and lower emissions from these animals and their manure.

It will be further appreciated that the disclosed pyrolysis/gasification of feedstock, with particular reference to end-of-life waste and biomass, is carried out by indirect heating of a solids medium that provides the heat and mass transfer for producing char (biochar) and syngas.

Experimental results Table 1 shows results of experiments using a small scale test plant with a configuration corresponding to Figure 1.

Table 1

The temperatures listed in the table are the temperatures in the pyrolysis zone of the reactor vessel. The yield of solids is a percentage of the amount of char produced by weight compared to the amount of feedstock fed Into the system. The yield does not include the loss in mass from the feed moisture content.

Tables 2 and 3 show a typical analysis of woodchip feedstock and mass and energy figures using and apparatus and method having a configuration corresponding to Figure 1. The analysis is based on feedstock as received without drying and it will be appreciated that these values could be improved using pre-drying. Table 2: Woodchip feedstock typical analysis

Table 3: Summary of mass and energy balance figures for woodchip feedstock

Operated at different temperatures / modes

Although the invention has been described with reference to specific examples, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the invention may be embodied in many other forms. Reference throug hout this specification to 'one embodiment' or 'an embodiment' means that a particular feature, structure or characteristic described i n connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the present invention . Thus, appearances of the phrases 'in one embodiment' or 'in an embodiment' in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment, but may.

Furthermore, the particular features, structures or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner, as would be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art from this disclosure, in one or more embodiments.

Similarly, it is to be noticed that the term coupled, when used in the claims, should not be interpreted as being limitative to direct connections only. The terms 'coupled' and

'connected', along with their derivatives, may be used. It should be understood that these terms are not intended as synonyms for each other. Thus, the scope of the expression a device A coupled to a device B should not be limited to devices or systems wherein an output of device A is directly connected to an input of device B. It means that there exists a path between an output of A and an input of B which may be a path including other devices or means. 'Coupled' may mean that two or more elements are either in direct physical, or that two or more elements are not in direct contact with each other but yet still co-operate or interact with each other.

As used herein, unless otherwise specified the use of the ordinal adjectives 'first', 'second', 'third ', etc., to describe a common object, merely indicate that different instances of like objects are being referred to, and are not intended to imply that the objects so described must be in a given sequence, either temporally, spatially, in ranking, or i n any other manner.

As used herein, unless otherwise specified the use of terms 'horizontal', 'vertical', 'left', 'rig ht', 'up' and 'down', as well as adjectival and adverbial derivatives thereof (e.g. ,

'horizontally', Yightward ly', 'upwardly', etc.), simply refer to the orientation of the illustrated structu re as the particular drawing figure faces the reader, or with reference to the orientation of the structure during nominal use, as appropriate. Similarly, the terms 'inwardly' and 'outwardly' generally refer to the orientation of a su rface relative to its axis of elongation, or axis of rotation, as appropriate.

Similarly it should be appreciated that in the above description of exemplary embodiments of the invention, various features of the invention are sometimes g rou ped together in a si ngle embodiment, figure, or description thereof for the pu rpose of streamlining the disclosure and aiding in the understanding of one or more of the various i nventive aspects. This method of disclosure, however, is not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that the claimed invention requires more features than are expressly recited i n each claim. Rather, as the following claims reflect, inventive aspects lie in less than all features of a si ngle foregoing disclosed embod iment. Thus, the claims following the Detailed Description are hereby expressly incorporated into this Detailed Description, with each claim standing on its own as a separate embodiment of this invention .

Furthermore, while some embodi ments described herein include some but not other features included in other embodiments, combinations of features of different embodiments are meant to be within the scope of the invention, and form d ifferent embodiments, as wou ld be understood by those in the art. For example, in the followi ng claims, any of the claimed embodi ments can be used in any combination.

Furthermore, some of the embodiments are described herein as a method or combination of elements of a method for control ling an apparatus can be implemented by a processor of a computer system or by other means of carrying out the function. Thus, a processor with the necessary instructions for carrying out such a method or element of a method forms a means for carrying out the method or element of a method . Furthermore, an element descri bed herein of an apparatus embodiment is an example of a means for carrying out the function performed by the element for the purpose of carryi ng out the i nvention .

In the description provided herein, numerous specific details are set forth. However, it is understood that embodiments of the invention may be practiced without these specific details. In other instances, well-known methods, structures and techniques have not been shown in detail in order not to obscure an understanding of this description.

Thus, while there has been described what are believed to be the preferred embod iments of the invention, those skilled in the art will recognize that other and further modifications may be made thereto without departing from the spirit of the invention, and it is intended to claim all such changes and modifications as fall within the scope of the invention . For example, any formulas given above are merely representative of procedures that may be used . Fu nctionality may be added or deleted from the block d iagrams and operations may be interchanged among functional blocks. Steps may be added or deleted to methods descri bed within the scope of the present invention.

It will be appreciated that an embodiment of the invention can consist essentially of features disclosed herein. Alternatively, an embod iment of the invention can consist of features disclosed herein. The invention illustratively disclosed herein suitably may be practiced in the absence of any element which is not specifically disclosed herein .