Field of Invention

The present invention relates to plasma torch operation in a chemical reactor.

Background of Invention

Methane pyrolysis is under widespread development as an industrial process for obtaining hydrogen and carbon from methane - similar pyrolysis processes can be used for other hydrocarbons. Unlike most methods for formation of hydrogen from hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide is not a by-product, so this can be a particularly clean method for forming useful products from hydrocarbons such as methane, which is largely treated as a polluting waste gas. Plasma torches have been proposed for use in such reactor types.

One technology under active evaluation for use in methane pyrolysis is a liquid metal reactor. Perez et al, "Methane pyrolysis in a molten gallium bubble column reactor for sustainable hydrogen production:

Proof of concept & techno-economic assessment", International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume

46, Issue 7, 27 January 2021, Pages 4917-4935, describes a proof-of-concept evaluation of methane pyrolysis in molten metal bubble columns. At a sufficiently high temperature, liquid metal reactors transfer energy to a hydrocarbon feedstock gas in an endothermic reaction to pyrolyse them, with hydrogen and carbon as reaction products. It would be desirable to develop reactor structures that are adapted for effective pyrolysis process effectively and at scale in a continuous reaction.

Summary of Invention

In a first aspect, the invention provides a method of operating a plasma torch in a chemical reactor comprising a plasma torch and a liquid circulation system, wherein the liquid circulating system comprises a conductive material solid at ambient temperature and liquid at a reaction temperature, the method comprising: operating the plasma torch to decompose a feedstock gas, whereby the decomposition products are output into the liquid circulating system; shutting down the plasma torch, whereby an electrode of the plasma torch is at least partially flooded by conductive material from the liquid circulating system, the conductive material cooling to form a conductive plug; and reigniting the plasma torch to restart the chemical reactor, wherein a conduction path is formed through the conductive plug to melt it.

This approach allows extended operation of the plasma torch in such a way that the flooded electrode is protected against ageing - the conductive material allows a "soft start" in the plasma torch that protects the electrode against an initial surge, while allowing a rapid return to normal operating conditions as the plug is rapidly removed.

In embodiments, on melting of the conductive plug, the conductive material of the conductive plug passes into the liquid circulating system. This may be achieved by using pressure to urge the conductive plug into the liquid circulation system on melting. This can be done by using a gas pressure provided in the plasma torch behind the conductive plug, or by using a vacuum provided between the conductive plug and the liquid circulating system.

The conductive material may be a metal or a metal alloy - it may comprise one or more of lead and bismuth.

In embodiments, the chemical reactor comprises a plasma torch reactor for decomposition of hydrocarbons into carbon and hydrogen. This plasma torch reactor may be for decomposition of methane. In embodiments, the chemical reactor is disposed within a pressure vessel, and the chemical reactor is adapted to operate at a pressure substantially above ambient pressure. This may be at pressures greater than 10 barg, preferably at greater than 30 barg, and more preferably for operation in the range of 40 to 60 barg.

In a second aspect, the invention provides a liquid metal reactor, comprising: at least one feedstock gas input; a liquid metal circulation system; and means to heat the liquid metal circulation system, wherein the liquid metal reactor is adapted to react the feedstock gases to form a plurality of reaction products, and to separate the reaction products and provide them as output products from the liquid metal reactor.

Using this approach, a liquid metal reactor can be used particularly effectively for reactions, as the liquid metal circulation system is used effectively for both reaction and separation of reaction products. In embodiments, the liquid metal circulation system is adapted such that output products are separated from the liquid metal by centrifugal action. A liquid salt may then be used to remove liquid metal from the output products. Solid output products can be extracted from the base of the liquid metal reactor by gravity.

The liquid metal system may be adapted for extraction of gaseous output products from above the liquid metal reactor, using for example a float valve.

In embodiments, the means to heat the liquid metal circulation system may be a plasma torch. This is a particularly effective approach, as in addition to imparting heat the plasma torch may be disposed to impart momentum to the liquid metal of the liquid metal system, for example by delivering a plasma jet to drive the liquid metal through the liquid metal circulation system. Such a plasma torch may be adapted to heat the liquid metal to reaction temperature for the further feedstock gas.

When a plasma torch is used in this way, the plasma torch and the liquid metal reactor may be disposed within a pressure vessel.

Such a liquid metal reactor may also comprise a heat exchanger to bring feedstock gases up to a reaction temperature using heat from gaseous output products.

In embodiments, the feedstock gas comprises a hydrocarbon. This structure of reactor is particularly effective for pyrolysis of hydrocarbons such as methane. In some embodiments, the further feedstock gas may further comprise carbon dioxide to react with carbon to form carbon monoxide, in which case syngas is provided as an output product. The reactor may be structured so that both hydrogen and syngas are provided as separate gaseous output products.

In embodiments, the plasma torch is itself a plasma torch reactor adapted for decomposition of hydrocarbons, wherein reaction products from the plasma torch comprise carbon and hydrogen. Such a plasma torch reactor may for example adapted for decomposition of methane. Using this approach, the reaction products of the plasma torch reactor may be provided as output products from the liquid metal reactor.

In a third aspect, the invention provides a method of reacting feedstocks in a liquid metal reactor, comprising: providing at least one feedstock gas input into a liquid metal circulation system; heating liquid metal of the liquid metal circulation system to a reaction temperature for a feedstock gas, and reacting feedstock gases to form a plurality of reaction products, and separating the reaction products and providing them as output products from the liquid metal reactor.

This method may also involve separating output products from the liquid metal by centrifugal action, and it may further involve passing output products through liquid salt to separate liquid metal from the output products. The solid output products may then be extracted at a base of the liquid metal reactor by gravity. Gaseous output products may then be extracted from above the liquid metal reactor.

In embodiments, the liquid metal circulation system is heated with a plasma torch. Using this approach, momentum may also be provided to the liquid metal of the liquid metal circulation system with the plasma torch, and the liquid metal can be heated to reaction temperature.

The feedstock gas may comprise a hydrocarbon. In embodiments, the feedstock gas further comprises carbon dioxide to react with carbon to form carbon monoxide, wherein syngas is provided as an output product. The reactor may be configured such that both hydrogen and syngas are provided as separate gaseous output products.

In embodiments, the plasma torch is itself a reactor adapted for decomposition of hydrocarbons. The method may then further comprise decomposing a further feedstock gas with the plasma torch, with reaction products from the plasma torch comprising carbon and hydrogen. Such a plasma torch reactor may be adapted for decomposition of methane. When this approach is taken, the reaction products of the plasma torch reactor may be provided as output products from the liquid metal reactor.

Brief Description of Figures

Embodiments of the invention will now be described, by way of example, with reference to the accompanying Figures, of which:

Figure 1 shows a side elevation view of a reactor according to an embodiment of the invention;

Figure 2 shows a high-level schematic diagram of the main functional elements of a reactor according to an embodiment of the invention;

Figure 3 shows a longitudinal cross-section of a plasma torch from a reactor according to an embodiment of the invention; Figure 4 show a detail from the plasma torch of Figure 3 showing additional elements of the anode, and illustrating features that prevent carbon build-up;

Figure 5 shows flow of reaction gases through the plasma torch of Figure 3;

Figures 6A and 6B show side elevation and sectional views respectively of a ring for inlet of feedstock gases for use in the plasma torch of Figure 3;

Figure 7 shows a revolver system comprising a set of plasma torches and a feedstock system according to an embodiment of the invention;

Figure 8 shows a plasma torch in the process of removal from the revolver system of Figure 7;

Figures 9A and 9B shows a gearing system for rotation of the revolver system of Figure 7;

Figure 10 shows a feedstock system for use in the revolver of Figure 7;

Figure 11 illustrates an exemplary reaction process for a reactor system according to an embodiment of the invention;

Figure 12 illustrates a liquid metal pyrolysis reactor system driven by the plasma torch system of Figures

3 to 11 and including a housing for the plasma torch system;

Figures 13A and 13B illustrate the liquid metal circulation system of the reactor of Figure 12 driven by the plasma torch;

Figures 14A and 14B provide different sectional views of the liquid metal circulation system of Figures

13A and 13B;

Figure 15 illustrates the liquid metal pyrolysis reactor of Figure 12 in more detail;

Figure 16 illustrates feed systems to the liquid metal pyrolysis reactor of Figure 15, together with a carbon output;

Figure 17 shows feed systems in a swirl chamber of the liquid metal pyrolysis reactor of Figure 16;

Figure 18 shows a vertical section through a part of the liquid metal pyrolysis reactor of Figure 15;

Figure 19 shows a modified reaction flow for syngas generation; Figures 20a and 20b show different views of a second embodiment of a plasma torch for use in embodiments of the invention;

Figures 21a and 21b show different views of a third embodiment of a plasma torch for use in embodiments of the invention; and

Figure 22 is a system diagram of a reactor system according to a further embodiment of the invention.

Description of Specific Embodiments

General and specific embodiments of the invention will be described below with reference to the

Figures.

Figure 1 provides a perspective view of a reactor according to an embodiment of the invention. The reactor 1 is formed as a pressure vessel 2 with electrical inputs to power a plasma torch (not shown here, though Figure 12 shows how this is integrated into the system) and gas inputs 4 for gaseous feedstocks to be admitted to the system. These inputs are each directed to a revolver assembly (not shown here, see Figures 7 to 9 and 12 for further details) adapted to fit into an assembly aperture 5 - the revolver assembly houses a set of plasma torches and which also provides gaseous feedstock to each plasma torch. The reactor shown here has multiple stages - the plasma torches act as a first reactor stage, with a liquid metal reactor as a further reactor stage consuming heat generated by the plasma torches. The reaction products include heated gas - hydrogen in the main example discussed below - and a heat exchanger uses the heated gas to bring feedstock gases to the correct temperature for reaction, effectively acting as a preliminary reactor stage.

The reactor system is shown schematically in Figure 2. Gaseous inputs 11 - for example, hydrocarbons such as methane, and additional hydrogen for cooling (though this may be recirculated from the output products) - are admitted into the plasma torch 12, and the plasma torch 12 consumes the input feedstock gases providing a first set of output products, such as carbon and hydrogen. These first output products pass at high temperature as inputs 13 into a liquid metal system 14, which then in embodiments provides pyrolysis of further feedstock gas. Final output products 15 - such as carbon, which may depending on the design be extracted through the liquid metal or from the gaseous output, and hydrogen output as a gas - are provided from liquid metal reactor 14 after a separation process - these final output products include the first output products from the plasma torch 12 and may be supplemented by further output products produced from pyrolysis in the liquid metal reactor 14. The pyrolysis reaction is endothermic, but there is still sufficient heat present that the gaseous final output products are at significantly greater temperature than desired for storage, so there is excess heat to be used. Here, this heated gas output isused by a heat exchanger 16 which controls the temperature of feedstock gases for different stages of the reactor process. As will be noted further below, embodiments of the invention may not require all the features shown in the Figure 2 arrangement to operate - the Figure 2 arrangement is a synergistic combination of a series of processes for particularly effective production of carbon and hydrogen from hydrocarbons such as methane. As will be indicated further below, such processes may also be adapted to produce other output products, such as syngas.

An embodiment of the plasma torch is shown in more detail in Figures 3 to 5. A longitudinal sectional view of the plasma torch 30 is provided in Figure 3. The plasma torch 30 is generally cylindrical, and in the arrangement used in embodiments of the invention, it extends into a liquid metal circulation system

40 (discussed further below) where it jets directly into the liquid metal. The plasma torch has a central chamber 300 containing a cathode 31 and an anode 32. These may be of any conductive material suitable for the conditions in the central chamber 300 - carbon (graphite) could be used, or any suitable metal or alloy, either uniform or with suitable inserts - for example, copper with hafnium inserts would be a possible choice. Here, the cathode 31 is located towards the end of the plasma torch 30 remote from the liquid metal reactor 39, with a ceramic cup-shaped end section 38 terminating the plasma torch. In alternative torch designs, the electrodes may be disposed the other way around, or an alternating current plasma torch may be used in which it is only meaningful to talk of electrodes, rather than anode and cathode. The anode is generally cylindrical, but it has a shaped inner surface 34 which comprises a nozzle 35 and a diffusing section 36, which will be described in greater detail below. A protective electrode 33 may be disposed between the cathode 31 and the anode 32 - the skilled person will appreciate that again the electrode structure may be varied to achieve a desired field pattern within the plasma torch chamber, and may involve none, one or multiple intermediate electrodes - multiple protective electrodes may be cascaded to help stabilisation of the spark, for effective ignition, or to prevent wear on the anode. Gas inputs 37 are provided to admit gaseous feedstock into the reactor - in the arrangement shown in Figure 3, methane is admitted in the gas input 37 disposed in the protective electrode 33. As will be indicated in further detail below, different gas input positions are provided for different feedstock gases in different embodiments of the invention While the discussion below will refer primarily to methane, it should be appreciated that other hydrocarbons may equally well be used - for example, propane can be transported in liquid form but will vaporise easily for reaction in a plasma torch reactor, so will be another particularly suitable choice for processing.

Figure 4 illustrates one phenomenon in the use of the plasma torch 30 shown in Figure 3 to break down methane. In this reaction, methane decomposes at high temperature into hydrogen gas and carbon through action of the plasma torch spark, which may have a temperature of 6000 degrees Centigrade, resulting in instant decomposition. A practical issue is that this may result in carbon deposits 41 which would clog the torch, which will significantly affect the efficiency of the process and which could lead to significant downtime for maintenance. It would be desirable to prevent such carbon build up, and for both reaction products to exit the plasma torch 30. One feature to achieve this is to protect the anode with a gas that will inhibit build up. This can be achieved by making the anode 32 porous, with anode gas outputs 42 delivering gas - in this case, hydrogen, through the anode to provide a protective curtain along the inside of the anode, inhibiting carbon build up. The gas is delivered at an angle to the anode such that it has a component of velocity towards the plasma torch output to achieve this protective curtain - alternatively, a component of velocity can be provided away from the plasma torch output, as this will still provide a protective curtain to the electrode. In addition to providing a protective curtain, there may also be active erosion of deposited carbon by the hydrogen - the hydrogen can react with the carbon in a back reaction back to methane, thus further eroding any carbon deposited. The hydrogen also serves to cool the anode, preventing it from being degraded. In addition to using a porous anode in this way, the cathode can also be made porous and cooled in a similar way.

Further strategies are used to prevent carbon build-up. The shaping of the anode can also be arranged such that a likely deposition point for carbon would be on the anode in the region of the spark gap with the torch in operation - spark action can then further erode any carbon build-up.

Another feature that prevents carbon build up is shown in Figure 5, which illustrates the passage of gas through the plasma torch structure. Here, methane enters the plasma torch tangentially through the gas input 37 in the protective electrode, and this input methane travels towards the cathode following a generally helical path. The gas input 37 here is provided through a ceramic ring 51, shown in more detail in Figures 6a and 6b. The ceramic ring 51 has a gallery 52 for circulation of the input gas around the ring, allowing the input gas to pass into a number (four in the design shown) of channels 53 which deliver input gas tangentially into the chamber establishing both a helical path in the output gas adjacent to the wall of the chamber and also a vortex within the plasma torch chamber. This may be optimised taking into account gas type, flow conditions, pressure and temperature to achieve the desired flow pattern. The wall structure (in particular wall roughness and geometry promotes the outer helix of gas maintaining its momentum and separating from the faster rotating inner helix of gas, with the torch geometry forcing the gas into an inner returning helix at a greater speed and with a tighter inner circle. The gas adopts this tighter helix on travelling back between cathode and anode, and it maintains this on heating as it is broken down into carbon and hydrogen in the spark gap between the cathode and the anode. Plasma formation is rapid - it will typically take less than a microsecond.

For a gas, proper tuning allows this to be tuned (by pressure, temperature and density) to minimise exchange of energy between the helices, similarly to a tornado. This configuration already gives the output gas - in this case, hydrogen - significant velocity towards the output of the plasma torch, and it will also prevent carbon condensation and deposition, as the carbon is formed in the centre of the plasma torch chamber rather than at the walls. The plasma comprises ions and electrons in energetic balance in a state of near thermal equilibrium, with molecules largely decomposed into atoms - under operating conditions of temperature and pressure in the plasma torch, the stable state of carbon is as a gas, reducing likelihood of carbon deposition. The plasma torch design is generally arranged so as to promote the reaction in the centre of the chamber and to inhibit it at the walls, so that the reaction products are preferentially driven out of the plasma torch into the liquid metal reactor. The outer helix cools and insulates the wall, while preventing atomic carbon in the inner helix from condensing on the walls. The hydrogen from the reaction passes through the nozzle 35, which results in an increase in speed and a decrease of pressure according to the Venturi effect. The gas is then output from the plasma torch 30 through the diffuser 36 with high temperature (and kinetic energy) - the plasma is ejected from the torch at supersonic speeds. By the cumulative effect of these features, carbon is generally carried through into the plasma torch output without significant build-up of deposit on the walls of the anode. The role of the diffuser 36 is to match the pressure of the output of the plasma torch with the next reactor stage, as will be described in more detail below. As noted here, the embodiment described in detail here, the next reactor stage is a liquid metal reactor - the liquid metal here may also be used to interact directly with the torch, as will also be discussed further below.

Alternative plasma torch designs for use in embodiments of the invention are shown in Figures 20a and

20b (for a second torch embodiment) and Figures 21a and 21b (for a third torch embodiment). Figures

20a and 20b show a plasma torch with a gas input line 200 located in line with the torch chamber but with the cathode 2031 and the anode 2032 separated by a spacer 201 - the cathode 2031 here forms the cup end, with a smaller diameter passage region 202 being formed through the anode opening out into a larger diameter passage region 203 for the plasma torch output. Figures 21a and 21b show an alternative embodiment with a swirl plate 2151 providing gas entry into the chamber at the closed end adjacent to a cathode 2131 (here made of Molybdenum) in tubular form. The anode 2132 is stepped as before with a smaller diameter passage region 212 and a larger diameter passage region 213, but in this case these regions are shorter relative to the plasma chamber and the larger diameter passage region 213 terminates in a diffuser 214 of linearly increasing diameter.

This arrangement in the torches described above allows for operation at high temperature (above 6000 degrees Centigrade at the point of reaction) and hyperbaric pressure in the torch, with a very high throughput of gaseous feedstock. For an input of 200kW of power into the plasma torch, and with operating temperatures within the torch chamber in the region of 6000 degrees Centigrade at the point of reaction and pressures of 50 bar, approximately 72kg/hour of methane can be processed using this design. The voltage across the electrodes will typically be between 150V and 600V, typically about

250V, with operating current between 100A and 500A, typically about 200A. Feedstock gases can be pre-heated by using a heat exchanger - taking advantage of the heat given out in the pyrolysis reaction

(see further discussion below), though hydrogen used to cool the anode will be provided at a lower temperature.

Hyperbaric operation of the plasma torch is common to embodiments of the invention described here, and the reaction system is typically contained within a pressure vessel as shown in Figure 1. However, an effective reaction can be achieved at a variety of pressure regimes - while the system described here is particularly suitable for operation at 50 barg (50 bars above atmospheric pressure), it is differentiated from conventional approaches to use of plasma torches in connection with pyrolysis by hyperbaric operation and use of a system at lower but still elevated pressures (20 barg, 10 barg, or even 1 barg) allows for more efficient operation than in temperatures operating at atmospheric pressure. As will be noted further below, operation at lower temperatures and with lower power torch operation is also possible (this is discussed further below with respect to Figure 22).

Figures 7 to 10 illustrate the system for mounting the plasma torch and for providing gaseous feedstock and electrical power to the plasma torch in embodiments of the invention. One potential issue with a reactor design of this type is that if there is a need to maintain a plasma torch, then the reactor could lose significant efficiency because of the long cycle time that taking a plasma torch out of commission would require. This is because the torch would need to be brought down to a much lower temperature and pressure for maintenance, and it then would need to be brought back up to temperature and pressure to operate again. In embodiments of the invention, the approach taken is to use multiple torches for each "torch position" in a reactor, wherein one of the plasma torches is in an active position and ready for operation, with other plasma torches in other positions where they can be made ready for removal or for operation without affecting the torch that is actually in operation. This approach can be combined effectively with an efficient system for providing electrical power and gaseous feedstocks to the plasma torch.

Figure 7 shows one embodiment of this multiple torch approach - in this embodiment, three torches 71,

72, 73 are mounted in a carousel or revolver 70. The revolver 70 can rotate about a longitudinal axis, but after rotation is locked in one of three positions with one of the three torches in an active position, or active bay, where it is operative within the reactor. A feedthrough system 74 is provided along the axis of the revolver 70, and this system is configured such that gaseous feedstocks and electrical power are provided to the plasma torch which is in the active position. The other two plasma torches are not in the active position, and they can be made ready for use or for extraction - for example, one of the two positions could be a "ready" position (or loading bay) in which a torch is brought up to working temperature, and the other of the two positions could be a "cool-down" position (or cooling bay) in which a previously active torch could be cooled down and depressurised ready for removal for maintenance.

Figure 8 shows a plasma torch fitting into a torch position in the revolver. The three torch positions are arranged symmetrically around the axis of the revolver, and the plasma torch slides in from the side remote from the reactor until it is locked in position and provided with appropriate pressure sealing such that when it is rotated into the active bay, the pressure within the plasma torch chamber can be maintained.

Figures 9A and 9B shows a gear system 91 by which the bays of the revolver may be rotated between the three available positions - any appropriate gear system may be used. A locking mechanism is provided so that the bays may only be locked into the designated positions - with three bays, this would involve three possible locking positions Figure 9B indicates two ways in which this may be done The pin 93 on the revolver cap penetrates the revolver core and can be used to lock the revolver into position. Alternatively, one of the gears - for example, the gear 92 at the stepper motor connection - may be locked into place with the motor control (if desired, each of the gear shafts can be locked in this way).

Figure 10 shows a feedthrough system for use with the revolver shown in Figures 7 to 9. A feedthrough system 74 is provided for each revolver and provides electrical and gaseous inputs to the torch in the active bay - inputs could also be provided to other bays (for example, cooling gas to the cooling bay) if required, but generally the feedthrough system will be formed so as to have inputs only to the active bay for use by the torch in the working position. In contrast to the torches, the feedthrough system will adopt a fixed configuration with respect to the bays, so that the correct inputs are provided to the active bay regardless of which torch is disposed in the active bay at any given time.

Using this approach, specific input locations can be designated for specific input gases. In some cases, this may be generally independent of the reaction in the plasma torch (for example, lower temperature hydrogen may be input to cool the anode in a number of different reactions) but in other cases specific gaseous inputs may be provided to enter the plasma torch at particular positions 75 for particular reactions - multiple gas inputs 37 in the plasma torch (see Figure 3) may commute with these supply outputs 75. The feedthrough system can in this way be coded (for example, colour coded) for particular feedstock gases and particular reactions. In Figure 10, the gaseous inputs are shown, but electrical connections are not. Ceramic insulators 76 are however shown to separate connections, in particular electrical connections, on the torch. As for the torch, this arrangement needs to be provided with pressure seals effective to allow a pressure of 50 bars to be maintained within the plasma torch chamber in use. Different approaches to the construction of an appropriate feedstock system can be taken, but the approach shown here uses a series of aligned disks - in this case these are metal disks 77 separated by ceramic insulating disks 78.

While the feedstock system is described above in relation only to inputs, it may also be used for outputs.

For example, where there is recirculation (as for example with hydrogen, which is produced as an output but also used as a cooling gas), the recirculation system may use both inputs and outputs through the feedstock system.

It should be noted here that different torches could in fact be used for different reactions - for example, a torch may be designed with feedstock input positions optimised for methane and another torch with different input positions optimised for a different feedstock gas. These different input positions may be aligned with different positions on the feedstock system in such a way that only the correct input gas and torch combinations can be used. It may also be possible to reconfigure the feedstock system so that the same feedstock gas can be supplied to different positions for different torches (or even different reactions) - this could be achieved with addition of valves in the feedstock system with a preconfigured set of valve positions for particular arrangements.

Before describing the other elements of the reactor, an overall reaction flow will be described with respect to Figure 11. This reaction flow is specific to decomposition and pyrolysis of methane, but it is used here more generally to illustrate the different reaction processes taking place in different parts of the composite reactor. For example, other hydrocarbons such as propane may be used as a feedstock hydrocarbon, rather than methane, in not only the plasma torch reactor but also the liquid metal reactor.

Two inputs to the system are shown: electricity 1101 and hydrocarbon 1102 (in this case, methane).

Two outputs are shown: hydrogen 1103 (though for other reactions, other output gases may be provided as well or instead - note also that some of the hydrogen generated is recirculated for use in the reaction processes) and carbon black 1104.

Both inputs are provided to the plasma torch 1105 - in addition to electrical power and the hydrocarbon feedstock, hydrogen is provided as an input. In the arrangement shown, a low temperature hydrogen input 1111 (shown here in the 200-400 degree Centigrade range) is provided to the plasma torch 1105 for cooling the anode, for example, with high temperature hydrocarbon 1112 (shown here at around

700 degrees centigrade), used as a reaction feedstock and also to maintain the temperature and pressure of the reaction chamber and to promote the flow of material through the plasma torch. As the plasma torch consumes electrical energy and generates a high temperature output, this is partially consumed by the pyrolysis reaction in a second reactor 1122, from which heated output gases can be used in a heat exchanger 1121 to circulate the hydrocarbon feedstock so that it is elevated from low temperature hydrocarbon 1113 at about 200 degrees Centigrade to high temperature hydrocarbon

1112 at a plasma torch reaction temperature of about 700 degrees centigrade - the heat exchanger

1121 can also provide hydrogen at cooler temperatures to the plasma torch. This heat exchanger 1121 thus effectively acts as a first reactor process, absorbing the heat of the end process and using it to bring gases required for reaction stages to the correct temperature The plasma torch 1105 itself acts as a second reactor 1122, providing high temperature hydrogen and

(primarily) gasified carbon as outputs 1114. The plasma torch 1105 through its reaction products operates on the next reactor stage, which is a liquid metal pyrolysis reactor 1123. The plasma torch

1105 provides heat for this reaction, heating up the metal (here, lead) to reaction temperature, and also providing rotation to the lead, allowing the carbon to be extracted at the centre of the reactor. More high temperature hydrocarbon 1115 is provided from the heat exchanger 1121 as a feedstock for the liquid metal pyrolysis reactor 1123. The hydrogen output 1116, provided at very high temperature

(approximately 1200 degrees Centigrade) from the exothermic reaction in the pyrolysis reactor, is returned to the heat exchanger 1121 and partly recirculated to the plasma torch 1105 while mainly provided (at a lower temperature) at the hydrogen gas output 1104.

The liquid metal pyrolysis reactor is shown in more detail in Figures 12 to 18. Figure 12 illustrates the main elements of the reactor assembly. The torch mounting 121 is directed into a liquid metal racetrack 122 which feeds into the main reactor volume 123. There are also gas inputs 124 to the main reactor volume 123, which contains a swirl chamber 125. The liquid (molten) metal is delivered into the swirl chamber 125 so as to give rotation to the liquid metal column, allowing the liquid metal both to initiate a pyrolysis reaction in the input gas and to act as a centrifugal separator, separating reaction products towards the centre of the rotating column. Carbon is then extractable from the base of the reactor in a carbon output 126. Hydrogen rises from the liquid metal and is released through a hydrogen output 127 from the top of the reactor. The reaction is carried out at elevated temperature and pressure (typically 800-1000 degrees Centigrade and 50 bar).

This functionality may be usefully combined with that of the plasma torch even if the liquid metal system is not itself a reactor - in that case, it only acts as a separator to separate the reaction products from the plasma torch, powered by the energy of the plasma torch output. This leaves significant excess heat, however, and it is found that making the liquid metal system itself a reactor, used for endothermic pyrolysis of further hydrocarbon, leads to a particularly effective reactor system.

Figures 13A and 138 show the plasma torch mounting and the liquid metal racetrack from different angles, and Figures 14A and 14B show different sectional views of these elements. Liquid metal passes out of the reaction chamber as it cools and reaction products are separated, and it then passes through a liquid metal racetrack 122 past an elbow joint 128 towards the plasma torch mounting 121, where the plasma torch output is jetted into the liquid metal This heats the liquid metal up to a sufficient temperature to initiate a pyrolysis reaction in hydrocarbons such as methane, and also carries the reaction products of the plasma torch reaction into the liquid metal reactor so that they can be collected from the system (methane passing into the liquid metal from the plasma torch jet may also be pyrolyzed at this point). The heated metal passes along the rest of the liquid metal racetrack and enters the liquid metal reactor chamber from the bottom. The parts of the racetrack structure as a result need to withstand high temperatures from the heated liquid metal, and they will also need to be adapted for expansion from the significant difference between temperatures during reaction processes and outside reaction processes. Joints may for example be protected by use of molybdenum sleeves 141, as shown in Figure 14B.

The plasma torch is designed so that it will jet effectively into the liquid metal racetrack 122 - in particular, the diffuser of the plasma torch is designed to match pressures with the outside of the torch.

This will have the benefit of supporting linear rather than turbulent flow in the liquid metal racetrack.

The liquid metal may be brought into a swirl or vortex which will act to stabilize the plasma jet.

Reaction products from the plasma torch - in the example shown, hydrogen and carbon - will be carried in the liquid metal for subsequent separation in and output from the liquid metal reactor, as described below.

The liquid metal system may also serve to purge the outputs of the plasma torch reactor from impurities. For example, ethylene may be produced as a byproduct but then be broken down again in the liquid metal system.

The liquid metal from the liquid metal system may have other functions. For example, the diffuser of the plasma torch may extend sufficiently far into the liquid metal racetrack that the liquid metal will act to clean the diffuser and prevent carbon build-up there - in embodiments, the diffuser section may be porous in part to support liquid metal flow. If desired, the liquid metal from the racetrack could even be driven up to flood the plasma torches, rapidly quenching the reaction and stopping their operation.

Liquid metal could thus be used to flood - and hence clean - the porous anode (and where used, cathode) structures.

This has consequences for the operation of the system on shutdown and startup. Once the plasma torch is stopped, some degree of backfilling of the plasma torch structure from the liquid metal racetrack can be expected - liquid metal will enter the torch chamber, and (depending on the choice of metal) may solidify as the torch cools. If porous electrodes are used, the electrodes, or at least the electrode closest to the torch aperture may flood with liquid metal. This can be used beneficially for effective operation of the torch, and for extending its working lifetime. The electrodes may be directly replenished by the solidified metal, which may compensate for erosion during use. Restarting a plasma torch is normally achieved using a high voltage pulse - this will typically have a significant ageing effect on the electrodes and on the torch structure generally. If liquid metal has entered the torch chamber, and particularly if it has formed a solid metal plug, the effect of starting the torch is significantly softened. Such a solid metal plug will typically form a link between the electrodes of the plasma torch, so the high voltage pulse will typically result in a high current (perhaps 200A) through the plug which will heat and melt it very rapidly - the combination of plug melting with the supply of feedstock gas to the torch will result in rapid expulsion of the metal plug while also providing a soft start to the plasma torch to reduce the ageing effect of power cycling it - the result is a more effective autoignition process assisted by the liquid metal system. To make expulsion of the plug more rapid. this may be stimulated either by injection of gas behind the plug or vacuum in advance of it to pressure the plug forward into the liquid metal system. A mechanical system for engaging with and ejecting the plug is also possible.

Lead, or a mixture containing lead, may be used as the liquid metal in the liquid metal system. Lead is a suitable choice as it is liquid at reaction temperatures without having a high vapour pressure, and it creates fewer toxicity issues than most other suitable metals. Gallium is another possible choice, as is bismuth. One alloy used in embodiments of the system is WR58, comprising bismuth and lead, available from William Rowland Ltd. While the term "liquid metal" is used throughout this description. in embodiments the circulating liquid may not itself be a metal, providing that it is a liquid at reactor temperatures and supports separation of the reaction products (and where acting as a reactor, supports further pyrolysis) but does not itself have a further chemical reaction with feedstock gases or pyrolysis reaction products. A number of salts also have appropriate properties. As noted above, where a cooled plug is used for autoignition of the torch it will be necessary for the circulating liquid to become solid when the reactor is cold and for it to be electrically conductive to some degree.

As noted above, the liquid metal system is here designed to act not only as a separator but also as a reactor. Figure 15 provides a view of the swirl chamber 125 which forms the reaction chamber for the liquid metal pyrolysis reactor. Heated liquid metal is passed into this chamber from below along with input gases, and circulation within the swirl chamber 125 leads to separation with the reaction products separated by centrifugal action into the centre of a circulating liquid metal column, with carbon and hydrogen initially collected in a hat structure 151 at the top of the reactor. This can be used to collect clean hydrogen - this will be the only gas at this point and can simply be released through a float valve.

A liquid salt structure can be provided in this structure for the lead and carbon mixture to percolate through - this will separate out the carbon from the lead, with the process being completed by gravity with the lighter carbon floating up over both the lead and the salt, which are heavier. This enables the carbon to be separated by dropping it through a chute in the central region of the chamber. The base plate 152 beneath the swirl chamber 125 has through holes for gaseous inputs. Cooling metal passes out through holes in the side of the swirl chamber 125 and down through the base plate 152 where it circulates on to the liquid metal race track shown in Figures 13 and 14.

Further details of the swirl chamber 125 are shown in Figures 16 to 18.

Figure 16 shows the lower part of the liquid metal reactor vessel, beneath the swirl chamber 125 in which the reaction takes place. Hot metal heated from the plasma torch enters from below through metal inlet 161 with reaction gases entering through gas inlets 162. Carbon is output through the bottom of the reactor in carbon output 163. Hydrogen is circulated down through the base plate 152 of the swirl chamber 125 for subsequent circulation and collection above the swirl chamber.

Figure 17 shows the region above the base plate 152 of the swirl chamber 125. The liquid metal is input through an elbow 171 tangentially to the liquid metal column - this provides the liquid metal column with rotation so that it acts as a centrifugal separator. Also shown in Figure 17 is a percolation inlet 172 for further feedstock gas - in this case, methane for pyrolysis. The percolation inlet 172 is here disposed directly in front of the incoming liquid metal from the elbow 171 so that the further feedstock gas percolates directly into the liquid metal flow for pyrolysis. This process can be further developed by use of appropriate catalysis - for example, nickel balls (not shown here) can be included in the swirl chamber 125 - these will elongate the flow path of the injected methane, promoting reaction, while also cleaning the hydrogen of impurities. Nickel balls are an attractive choice as they would float on lead (if used as liquid metal) but sink in the salt, and so would be effectively confined to the separation layer. The connections through the base plate 152 are shown in more detail in the sectional view of Figure 18.

As has been described above, a heat exchanger system is provided which allows the heat generated in reaction to be used to provide input gases at the correct temperature for use in the reaction. The hydrogen output from the liquid metal reactor, which is at high temperature (1200 degrees Centigrade) is used to heat up methane feedstock for provision to both the plasma torch and to the liquid metal pyrolysis reactor. A part of this hydrogen output is cooled to a much lower temperature (for example

200 to 400 degrees Centigrade) and used to cool the anode and the cathode of the plasma torch, as described above.

While the reactor embodiment described here is adapted for pyrolysis of methane, this reactor structure can be employed for a number of reactions. As noted in the discussion of the feedstock system, for example, a variety of input gases may be used in different reactions, with input positions of gases chosen to achieve the correct circulation of gases throughout the plasma torch. Similarly, different inputs may be provided to the liquid metal reactor, rather than simply methane, to achieve different reactions.

While the reactor processes described in the example above are directed to production of hydrogen and carbon from methane, the reactor structure used here can be adapted for other reaction processes.

As shown in Figure 19, after methane or another hydrocarbon has been broken down 191 into hydrogen and carbon - either directly in the plasma torch or through subsequent pyrolysis in the liquid metal reactor, and separation 192 has taken place in the liquid metal separator, syngas (syngas, or synthesis gas, is primarily a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide) may be produced 193 by addition of carbon dioxide to the carbon stream as a further input gas. The carbon dioxide is reduced by the carbon to form carbon monoxide, which can be collected with hydrogen above the swirl chamber and extracted as syngas. Using this approach, the carbon monoxide will be released outside the swirl chamber and will percolate up for collection at the top of the vessel. There may then be outputs of both hydrogen (from the hat over the swirl chamber) and of syngas (from the top of the whole liquid metal reactor structure).

In the approach generally described above, heat from the plasma torch is used by an endothermic reaction - methane pyrolysis in the main example - to establish an efficient composite reactor. While this is an effective use of the heat provided by the plasma torch, if there is an alternative way to use this heat, then the liquid metal system need not be used as a reactor. In other embodiments, for example, the liquid metal system may be used essentially for separation of hydrogen and carbon generated by the plasma torch reactor, in which case no feed of methane to the liquid metal system is required.

While much of the heat from the plasma torch reactor is used by the endothermic methane pyrolysis reaction, a significant proportion of the heat is removed from the reactor with the hydrogen output, which is provided at elevated temperature (typically 1200 degrees Centigrade). In the arrangement shown here, this is used to bring feedstock gases - methane for the plasma torch, and also for the liquid metal reactor - up to reaction temperature in a conventional heat exchanger. As is described above, it is desirable for a further output from the heat exchanger to be a lower temperature stream of hydrogen for cooling of electrodes. However, if there is an effective alternative use of this output heat, this heat exchanger need not be used - other approaches may be taken to bring gases up to appropriate reaction temperatures, and a source of hydrogen at ambient or another sub-reaction temperature may be used.

Figure 22 is a system diagram of a reactor system according to a further embodiment of the invention.

In this design, the temperature of operation is lower, the liquid metal system conveys product away from the torch for separation rather than providing an additional reactor stage, and the heat exchanger stage is not used. While this reactor system is designed for lower temperature operation (here for

250°C normal temperature with an operating range of 200-300’C through the reactor as a whole - though clearly the temperature locally at the plasma spark will be significantly higher) it is also designed for high pressure operation (with 50barg as the normal reactor pressure, with an operating range of 40-

60barg). In this arrangement, a hydrocarbon feed 2202 - methane, for preference - is provided at ambient temperature and pre-heated to 80°C before being provided to the plasma torch 2205. In this embodiment, a single plasma torch is used (there is no revolver). The system is designed for 18kg/hr throughput with the whole system operating at around 50barg. The plasma torch 2205 operates at

50kW (up to 800VDC, 300 Amps). The reaction products of hydrogen and carbon black are jetted out into the liquid metal handling system (which may also be termed a quench reactor - this is equivalent to the "plasma reactor" of the Figure 11 arrangement) - in this case, the liquid metal system uses WR58 alloy heated to at least 80°C, with the liquid metal system 2214 supplied from a metal supply tank

2214a. The reaction products are extracted from the liquid metal handling system 2214 by an extraction system 2230 here comprising a first and a second cyclone 2231, 2232 and a pulse jet filter 2233 (with an alternate pulse jet filter than can be switched in). Each of these systems deposit carbon black as a solid while allowing a gas comprising predominantly hydrogen to progress to the next stage. In the arrangement shown, the first cyclone 2231 accepts a stream from the reactor at 18kg/hr, 48barg and

200°C). The solid deposited by the first cyclone 2231 will be carbon black with some metal alloy, so a separator is needed at this point. The second cyclone 2232 accepts an input at 17.66kg/hr, 47barg,

190°C, and outputs gas at 4.96kg/hr, 46barg and 185°C while shedding more carbon black. This output is received by the pulse jet filter 2233 which sheds more carbon black and outputs hydrogen gas which is cooled to ambient temperature in a cooler 2234. The carbon black will be deposited into intermediate bulk containers 2235 - the arrangement shown optimises deposition into the second and third bulk containers such that most of the carbon black produced does not require separation from the liquid metal.

Further embodiments can be produced with higher operating temperatures up to the high temperature operation (which may be at 1200°C) of the Figure 11 arrangement. Such designs may use features from either or both of the Figure 11 and Figure 22 arrangements, as appropriate - for example, an intermediate design may have a heat exchanger similar to that shown in Figure 11 while using a separation arrangement of the type shown in Figure 22.

As the skilled person will appreciate, other embodiments of the plasma torch and the reactor technology and reaction processes set out here may be provided within the scope of the claims provided, without limitation to specific features set out in the embodiments but not required by the claims.