Login| Sign Up| Help| Contact|

Patent Searching and Data


Title:
METHOD OF PRODUCING AND UTILIZING COLD FUSION
Document Type and Number:
WIPO Patent Application WO/1994/003906
Kind Code:
A2
Abstract:
A method of generating and controlling high energy 32He particles includes the steps of accumulating protons and deuterons in intimate contact with a lattice structure storage member (12) and repeatedly reacting one proton and one deuteron to produce 32He particles and excess energy greater than 6 MeV for each of the 32He particles. In particular, a first isotope of hydrogen and a second isotope of hydrogen are stored in contact with a lattice structure (14) to produce a first ratio of the first isotope to the second from a mixture having a second ratio of the first isotope to the second isotope, adjusting the energy of the lattice structure (14) to initiate the energy production reaction caused by the interaction and controlling the second ratio to control the rate of the energy production reaction based on the interaction of the first isotope with the second isotope. Methods for treating radioactive waste by transmutation and for forming a superconductive material from a plurality of constituents, as well as methods for forming improved semiconductor devices.

Inventors:
BRIGHTSEN RONALD A
LOWENBERG HOMER
FORSCHER FREDERICK
GEORGE D RUSSELL
MALLOVE EUGENE F
Application Number:
PCT/US1993/007444
Publication Date:
February 17, 1994
Filing Date:
August 10, 1993
Export Citation:
Click for automatic bibliography generation   Help
Assignee:
CLUSTRON SCIENCES CORP (US)
International Classes:
G21G1/00; (IPC1-7): G21G1/00
Foreign References:
US4986887A1991-01-22
Download PDF:
Claims:
WHAT IS CLAIMED ISt
1. A method for generating high energy 2He particles, said method comprising the steps of: accumulating protons and deuterons in intimate contact with a lattice structure capable of storing said protons and deuterons; and repeatedly reacting one of said protons and one of said deuterons so as to produce 2He particles and an excess of energy greater than about 6 MeV for each of said 2He particles.
2. The method of claim 1, wherein said excess of energy is greater than 931 MeV for said each of said 2He particles.
3. The method of claim 1, wherein said accumulating step further comprises accumulating said protons and said deuterons in a predetermined loading sequence in said lattice structure.
4. A method of controlling an energy production reac- tion of isotopic hydrogen atoms, said method comprising the steps of: storing a predetermined first isotope of hydrogen and a predetermined second isotope of hydrogen in intimate contact with a lattice structure capable of containing isotopic hydro- gen atoms to produce a predetermined first ratio of said first isotope of hydrogen with respect to said second isotope of hydrogen from a mixture having a predetermined second ratio of said first isotope of hydrogen with respect to said second said first isotope of hydrogen with respect to said second isotope of hydrogen; adjusting the energy of said lattice structure so as to initiate the energy production reaction caused by the interac- tion of one nucleus of said first isotope of hydrogen with one nucleus of said second isotope of hydrogen; and controlling said second ratio so as to control the rate of the energy production reaction based on the interaction of said first isotope of hydrogen with said second isotope of hydrogen.
5. The method of claim 4, wherein said storing step comprises the steps of: accumulating said first isotope of hydrogen in said lattice structure; and charging said lattice structure with isotopic hydrogen atoms to produce said first ratio from a mixture having said second ratio of said first isotope of hydrogen with respect to said second isotope of hydrogen.
6. The method of claim 4, wherein said adjusting step further comprises adjusting the energy of said lattice struc¬ ture so as to produce the energy production reaction.
7. The method of claim 4, wherein said adjusting step further comprises adjusting the energy of said lattice struc¬ ture so as to control lattice site displacement in said lat- tice structure to thereby produce the energy production reac¬ tion.
8. The method of claim 4, further comprising the step of forming said lattice structure, said lattice structure having a plurality of sites at which said isotopic hydrogen atoms are disposed within said lattice structure.
9. The method of claim 8, wherein said forming step further comprises forming said lattice structure having said sites by controlling size of a first plurality of said sites to be less than a predetermined maximum volume.
10. The method of claim 8, wherein said forming step further comprises the step of supplying a predetermined third ratio of isotopic constituents of a material comprising one component of said lattice structure.
11. The method of claim 10, wherein said supplying step further comprises the step of determining said third ratio producing a predetermined distance between said first isotope of hydrogen and said second isotope of hydrogen.
12. A method for treating target isotopes by transmuting these target isotopes to a desired isotopic product, said method comprising the steps of: identifying the target isotope; and bombarding the target isotope with electromagnetic radia¬ tion, said electromagnetic radiation including coherent elec¬ tromagnetic radiation and having a predetermined energy level sufficient to transmute the target isotope to said product.
13. The method of claim 12, wherein said bombarding step further comprises bombarding the target isotope with said electromagnetic radiation having a predetermined energy level sufficient to induce emission of at least one cluster from each atom of the target isotope so as to transmute the target isotope to said product.
14. The method of claim 13, wherein said at least one cluster is freely selected from an NP cluster, an NPN cluster and a PNP cluster.
15. The method of claim 12, further comprising the steps of: determining a magnetic moment of said target isotope; and adjusting said electromagnetic radiation based on said magnetic moment.
16. The method of claim 15, further comprising the step of determining a magnetic moment of at least a selected one of an NP cluster, an NPN cluster and a PNP cluster in each nucle¬ us of said target isotope.
17. The method of claim 12, wherein said target isotope has an odd atomic mass number and wherein said method further comprises the step of determining magnetic moment of said target isotope.
18. A method for forming a superconductive material from a plurality of constituents, said method comprising the steps of: selecting at least one of said constituents from a group of materials consisting of isotopes having nuclear configura¬ tions producing corresponding electron shell configurations compatible with superconduction of electricity at a predeter¬ mined temperature greater than about 60° K; and forming said constituents including said at least one of said constituents into a solid.
19. A method for forming a superconductive material from at least one constituent, said method comprising the steps of: selecting isotopes of said constituent having nuclear configurations producing corresponding electron shell configu¬ rations compatible with superconduction of electricity at a predetermined temperature greater than about 60° K; and forming said isotopes of said constituent into a solid.
20. In a method for forming a semiconductor device, the improvement comprising the step of implanting a material having a predetermined nuclear configuration corresponding to a predetermined electron shell configuration in a selected portion of the semiconductor device.
21. The method of claim 20, wherein said material is silicon-29.
22. In a method for forming atomic lattice structures, the improvement comprising the step of supplying a component of said atomic lattice structure having a predetermined ratio of isotopic constituents, wherein said component is selected according to the following criteria: a) said isotopic constituents have a selected one of mass numbers less than or equal to 11 and greater than or equal to 14; b) said isotopic constituents have half lives greater than about 5 years; and c) said isotopic constituents include a predetermined number of isotopes.
23. The method of claim 22, wherein said predetermined number of isotopes is 2.
24. In a method for forming molecular structures, the improvement comprising the step of supplying a component of said molecular structure having a predetermined ratio of isotopic constituents.
25. In a method for forming ionic structures, the im¬ provement comprising the step of supplying a component of said ionic structures having a predetermined ratio of isotopic constituents, wherein said component is selected according to the following criteria: a) said isotopic constituents have a selected one of mass numbers less than or equal to 15 and greater than or equal to 19; c) said isotopic constituents include a predetermined number of isotopes.
26. In a method for forming an oxide compound, the improvement comprising the step of forming a predetermined portion of structures comprising said oxide compound, wherein each of said structures comprises an oxygen molecule consist¬ ing of a pair of oxygen-17 atoms.
27. An apparatus for producing controlled emissions of high energy 32He particles, said apparatus comprising: means for accumulating protons and deuterons in a lattice structure capable of storing said protons and deuterons; means for repeatedly reacting one of said protons and one of said deuterons so as to produce a plurality of 2He particles and an excess of energy greater than about 6 MeV for each of said 2He particles; and means for directing 2He particles along a selected emis¬ sion path.
28. The apparatus of claim 27, wherein said apparatus is a motor and wherein said directing means comprises means for directing said 2He particles along said selected emission path so as to induce a momentum reaction between said apparatus and said 2He particles.
29. The method of claim 12, wherein said target isotope is a long lived isotope of a fission product.
30. The method of claim 12, wherein said target isotope is weapons grade nuclear material and wherein said product is a predetermined isotope suitable for use as fuel in a moderat¬ ed fission reaction.
31. The method of claim 12, wherein said target isotope is a stable isotope and wherein said product is a radioactive isotope.
Description:
METHODS POR MANUFACTURING AND PRODUCING PRODUCTS FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to methods for manufacturing and producing products. More specifically, the present invention relates to methods for manufacturing and producing products wherein at least one of the constituents of the products to be formed and the resultant are selected from materials classified according to the Nucleon Cluster Model. In particular, the present invention relates to methods for producing energy and highly energetic particles.

According to one aspect of the invention, a method for forming superconductive materials is provided by selecting the constituents of the materials from isotopes having nucleon clusters advantageously configured to produce and/or promote. superconductive effects in the resultant material. According to another aspect of the invention, an improved method for manufac¬ turing enhanced semiconductor devices is provided and character¬ ized by a step of enriching predetermined portions of a semicon¬ ductor device with isotopes having nucleon clusters advantageous- ly configured to produce and/or promote conductivity effects in the resultant device. Methods for materials having improved chemical and physical properties are also proved. According to yet another aspect of the invention, methods for transmuting isotopes which are particularly advantageous for converting radioactive isotopes to stable or substantially more stable isotopes are also provided.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

As R. L. Mills stated in World Patent Publication No. WO 90/13126, at the end of the 19th century, many physicists believed that all of the principles of physics had already been discovered. These principles or laws of classical physics included laws relating to Newton\'s mechanics, Gibbs thermodynam¬ ics, LaGrange and Hamilton\'s elasticity and hydrodynamics, Maxwell-Boltzmann molecular statistics, and Maxwell\'s equations. However, discrepancies between nature and classical physics have been and are being noted regularly. When such discrepancies are noted, scientists and researchers attempt to formulate models which explain the noted discrepancy as a first step to refining the laws of classical physics. In 1900, for example, Planck made the revolutionary assumption that energy levels were quantized, which resulted in a model which was consistent with experimenta¬ tion. In addition, models of the atom were developed by Bohr based on the concept of quantized energy levels. Bohr\'s model was in agreement with the observed hydrogen spectrum; however, it failed with the helium spectrum and could not account for chemical bonds in molecules. It was reasoned that Bohr\'s model failed because it was based on the application of Newtonian mechanics to a discrete particle, and its limited applicability was due to the unwarranted condition that the energy levels be quantized. Quantization occurs in wave motion; hence, in 1923 de Broglie suggested that electrons have a wave aspect analogous to light with λ = h/p, where λ is the wavelength, h is Planck\'s constant, and p is momentum. In 1927, Davisson and Germer

experimentally confirmed de Broglie\'s hypothesis by observing diffraction effects by reflecting electrons from metals.

Schrodinger reasoned further that if electrons have wave properties, then there must be a wave equation that governs their motion. In 1926, Schrodinger proposed that the Schrodinger equation, IPfr — E , was the law which governs the motion of electrons (where is a wave function, H is a wave operator and E is the energy of the wave) . This equation and its associated postulates provides the basis for the field of quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics requires that physics on an atomic scale are quite different from that on a macroscopic scale. However, it entails postulates which are not proven, but are assumed to be absolute laws of nature. Central to quantum mechanics is that it is statistical in nature. Knowing the state, a position measurement cannot be predicted with certainty, and only the probabilities of various possible results can be predicted, as reflected in the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: σp σc ≥ fι , which is fundamental to the prevailing view of quantum mechanics and establishes the lower bound for the uncertainty of two observables. The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that the product of the uncertainty in position and the uncertainty in momentum of an electron must be greater than ft where ft is Planck\'s constant divided by 2π . Prevailing understanding of quantum mechanics does not provide that an electron is distribut- ed over a larger region of space as a wave is distributed. Rather, it is believed that the probability patterns (wave functions) used to describe the electron\'s motion behave like waves and satisfy a wave equation (x) .

Max Born interpreted (x)"^(x)dx to be the probability that the electron is located between x and x + dx, where is the complex conjugate of --\'(x) , and this interpretation is generally accepted. However, Bom\'s view results in intangible concepts which conflict with known physical laws. For example, it results in overlap of negative probability density in molecules, the possibility of an electron instantaneously traveling from the nucleus to infinity and back which violates conservation of energy; radial kinetic energy which violates conservation of energy and angular momentum, and acceleration of a charged particle without radiation which violates Maxwell\'s equations. Schrodinger had a different interpretation of ^( ) as a charge density function, but his interpretation also produces radiation which is contrary to experimentation. With respect to the interpretations of Born and Schrodinger, problems have arisen concerning the realization of kinetic energy, spin, and angular momentum of the electron. For instance, there is no time dependence of the stationary state wave equation; furthermore, the hypothesized electron-electron repulsions in multiple electron atoms violates the law of conservation of energy. Moreover, the Schrodinger equation provides no rational basis for the phenomenon of spin, the Pauli Exclusion Principle, or Hund\'s Rule. Also, bonding requires exchange of electrons between atoms which would result in violation of conservation of energy and angular momentum.

From the above discussion, it will be appreciated that the "laws" of physics are not fixed and that new and sometimes radical models and theories are frequently being developed to

rationalize observed experimental results. Many of these models explain a specifically observed phenomena but break down when applied to a large group of observed data while a very few offer unexpected but consistent explanations for a wide variety of observed phenomena.

In April, 1984, an abstract entitled "A Nucleon Cluster Model of the Nucleus and the Periodic Table of Beta-Stable Nuclides" was published in the Bulletin of the American Physical Society, page 679. This abstract by Mr. R. A. Brightsen, one of the inventors named in this application, is incorporated herein, for all purposes, by reference. In this abstract, a new model of the nucleus, with novel and unobvious implications regarding the structure of the proton, was described in general terms. In summary, the model (hereinafter the Nucleon Cluster Model (NCM) ) indicated that all nuclides were formed from clusters in one of three forms, NP clusters, NPN clusters and PNP clusters. An extension of this systematic model to the proton implies the existence of an extremely strong attractive nuclear force between unlike clusters of matter and anti-matter. A later article by Mr. R. A. Brightsen entitled "Cluster Model Said to Offer New Explanation of Nuclear Fission," which appeared in the April 20, 1989 issue of Nucleonics Week, and which is incorporated herein, for all purposes, by reference, announced the existence of a consistent explanation for observed thermal neutron fission of U-235 based on four absolutely systematic modes of fission derived from the NCM.

Recently noted and unexpected phenomena including so-called "cold fusion" and transmutation of elements induced by electro-

magnetic radiation, when analyzed in light of the NCM, provide novel and unexpected insights into the nature of matter as well as providing techniques and methods for controlling heretofore uncontrollable processes.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Utilizing a new Nucleon Cluster Model (NCM) of the nucleus, the overall nature of which is described in greater detail below, the process of, for example, thermal neutron fission can be described and known experimental results can be explained and quantified. Using the NCM, fission yield curves, the average number of prompt neutrons per fission ( υ ) and the emission of light charged particles (LCP) can all be derived. The quantita¬ tive relationships presented provide a precise explanation which fits the well-known data and which systematically describes a framework for the fission process.

The Nucleon Cluster Model (NCM) indicates that fission takes place in four modes, which delineate the light and heavy fragments formed for each fission mode, as well as their unique and systematic prompt neutron and light charged particle yields. Well established experimental results for thermal neutron fission of U-235, as well as U-233, Pu-239 and Pu-241, can be accurately reproduced for the first time since fission was discovered in 1939. From the NCM, and the insight the NCM provides into the structure of matter, a variety of methods for manufacturing, producing and providing improved products, including "kinetic energy" can be derived.

Thus, the principal purpose of the present invention is to provide improved methods for manufacturing predetermined products based on selection of constituent materials and/or predetermined resultants with respect to the internal configuration of the nucleus of at least one of the constituents and/or resultant products.

These and other objects, features and advantages of the present invention are provided by a method for generating high energy 2 He particles. This includes the steps of accumulating protons and deuterons in intimate contact with a lattice structure capable of storing the protons and deuterons and repeatedly reacting one of the protons and one of the deuterons to produce 2 He particles and an excess of energy greater than about 6 MeV for each of the 2 He particles. According to one aspect of the present invention, the accumulating step includes accumulating the protons and the deuterons in a predetermined loading sequence in the lattice structure. The excess energy produced according to the inventive method advantageously may be greater than 931 MeV for the each of the 2 He particles. These and other objects, features and advantages of the present invention are provided by a method for controlling an energy production reaction of isotopic hydrogen atoms. The method includes steps for storing a first isotope of hydrogen and a second isotope of hydrogen in intimate contact with a lattice structure capable of containing isotopic hydrogen atoms to produce a first ratio of the first isotope with respect to the second isotope of hydrogen from a mixture having a predetermined second ratio of the first isotope of hydrogen with respect to the

second isotope of hydrogen, adjusting the energy of the lattice structure to initiate the energy production reaction caused by the interaction of one nucleus of the first isotope of hydrogen with one nucleus of the second isotope of hydrogen and control- ling the second ratio so as to control the rate of the energy production reaction based on the interaction of the first isotope of hydrogen with the second isotope of hydrogen.

According to one aspect of the present invention, the storing step includes steps for accumulating the first isotope of hydrogen in the lattice structure and charging the lattice structure with isotopic hydrogen atoms to produce the first ratio from a mixture having the second ratio of the first isotope of hydrogen with respect to the second isotope of hydrogen. According to this preferred embodiment of the invention, the adjusting step permits adjusting the energy o ~ the lattice structure so as to produce the energy production reaction. The adjusting step additionally permits adjustment of the energy of the lattice structure for controlling lattice site displacement in the lattice structure, thereby producing the energy production reaction.

According to another aspect of the invention, the method for controlling an energy production reaction includes the step of forming the lattice structure. The formed lattice structure advantageously includes a plurality of sites at which the isotopic hydrogen atoms are disposed within the lattice struc¬ ture. The forming step includes controlling the size of a number of the sites to be less than a maximum volume.

According to yet another aspect of this preferred embodiment of the present invention, the forming step further comprises the step of supplying a third ratio of isotopic constituents of a material comprising one component of the lattice structure. An additional step for determining this third ratio producing a predetermined distance between the first isotope of hydrogen and the second isotope of hydrogen is also provided.

These and other objects, features and advantages according to still another preferred embodiment of the present invention are provided by a method for treating radioactive waste contain¬ ing long lived isotopes by transmuting these long lived isotopes to a product consisting of a selected one of a short lived isotope and a stable isotope. The method includes the steps of identifying the long lived isotope and then bombarding the long lived isotope with electromagnetic radiation, the electromagnetic radiation including coherent electromagnetic radiation and having a predetermined energy level sufficient to transmute the long lived isotope to the product. The magnetic moment of the long li d isotope advantageously can be determined and the electro- magnetic radiation can be adjusted based on the magnetic moment. The magnetic moment of a selected one of the NP cluster, the NPN cluster and the PNP cluster in each nucleus of the long lived isotope can also be determined.

According to one aspect of this preferred embodiment, the bombarding step includes bombarding the long lived isotope with the electromagnetic radiation having a predetermined energy level sufficient to induce emission of at least one cluster from each atom of the long lived isotope so as to transmute the long lived

isotope to the product. The emitted cluster is freely selected from an NP cluster, an NPN cluster and a PNP cluster.

These and other objects, features and advantages according to an additional preferred embodiment of the present invention are provided by a method for forming a superconductive material from a plurality of constituents. The method includes the steps of selecting at least one of the constituents from a group of materials consisting of isotopes having nucleon configurations producing corresponding electron shell configurations compatible with superconduction of electricity at a predetermined tempera¬ ture greater than 60 °K and forming the constituents into a solid.

According to a further preferred embodiment of the present invention, the invention is an improvement to a method for forming a semiconductor device. The improvement includes the step of implanting a material having a predetermined nuclear configuration corresponding to a predetermined electron shell configuration in a selected portion of the semiconductor device.

Yet another preferred embodiment of the invention is provided by a method for forming crystalline structures, wherein the improvement includes the step of supplying a component of the atomic crystalline structure having a predetermined ratio of isotopic constituents. The crystalline structure advantageously may be either an atomic or a molecular crystalline structure. According to a still further aspect of the present inven¬ tion, an apparatus for producing controlled emissions of high energy 2 He particles includes a device for accumulating protons and deuterons in a lattice structure, a device for repeatedly

reacting one of the protons and one of the deuterons to produce 2 He particles and an excess of energy greater than about 6 MeV for each of the 2 He particles and a device for directing the 2 He particles along a selected emission path. According to one aspect of this preferred embodiment, the apparatus can be adapted as a motor.

These and other objects, features and advantages of the invention are disclosed in or apparent from the following description of preferred embodiments.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The preferred embodiments are described with reference to the drawings, in which like elements are denoted throughout by like or similar numbers, and in which: Figs. 1A through IE are charts illustrating mass-charge symmetries for selected elements which are useful in understand¬ ing the present invention;

Fig. 2 is a Periodic Table of Nuclides illustrating the principles on which the present invention is based; Fig. 3 is a chart illustrating features of the Nucleon Cluster Model;

Fig. 4 is a chart depicting experimental results of thermal neutron fission of U-235;

Fig. 5 is a chart illustrating Fission Mode C according to the Nucleon Cluster Model;

Figs. 6A and 6B are charts illustrating Fission Mode D according to the Nucleon Cluster Model;

Fig. 7 is a chart comparing experimental Thermal Neutron Fission yields with calculated fission product yields derived from the Nucleon Cluster Model;

Fig. 8 is a chart showing calculated average prompt neutron generation υ during Thermal Neutron Fission according to the Nucleon Cluster Model;

Fig. 9 is a chart depicting calculation of the alpha (α) particle generation according to the Fission Modes illustrated in Fig. 8; Fig. 10 is a chart comparing experimental Thermal Neutron Fission yields with calculated fission product yields derived from the Nucleon Cluster Model;

Fig. 11 is a table showing calculated average prompt neutron generation during Thermal Neutron Fission with respect to Fissile Mass Number A according to the Nucleon Cluster Model

Fig. 12 is a chart comparing experimental Thermal Neutron Fission yields with calculated fission product yields for U-233 derived from the Nucleon Cluster Model;

Fig. 13 is a chart comparing experimental Thermal Neutron Fission yields with calculated fission product yields for Pu-239 derived from the Nucleon Cluster Model;

Fig. 14 is a chart comparing experimental Thermal Neutron Fission yields with calculated fission product yields for Pu-241 derived from the Nucleon Cluster Model; Fig. 15 is a chart illustrating the interface between matter and anti-matter according to the Nucleon Cluster Model;

Fig. 16 is a Periodic Table of Beta-Stable Nuclides according to the Nucleon Cluster Model;

Fig. 17 is an illustration depicting an energy producing apparatus according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention;

Fig. 18 is an illustration depicting yet another energy producing apparatus according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention;

Fig. 19 is a chart illustrating radionuclide decay; and

Fig. 20 is a chart illustrating formation of transuranic elements.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

I. Description of the Nucleon Cluster Model (NCM)

Prior to describing the various embodiments of the present invention, a detailed description of the NCM, from which the inventive methods and apparatuses according to the present invention are derived, will first be provided.

Thermal neutron fission of U-235, discovered in 1939 by Hahn and Strassman (See O. Hahn, and F. Strassman, Naturwissenschaff- ten 27, 89 (1939).), has been investigated intensively by physicists the world over for more than five decades. An immense amount of experimental data has been accumulated on nuclear fission. Despite this data accumulation, a comprehensive theory or model which accounts for all the known data has not yet been developed. More specifically, at least four of the major unresolved questions regarding thermal neutron fission can be stated as follows:

1. What accounts for the asymmetric mass distribution, reported by K. F. Flynn and L. E. Glendenin in Report ANL-7749

of Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois, 1970, of the fission fragments in thermal neutron fission of U-233, U-235, Pu-239 and Pu-241?

2. What is the origin of the prompt neutrons that produce, in the aggregate, the experimentally observed average number of neutrons per fission (υ)?

3. What mass splits account for the variation in υ from zero in some mass splits to as many as six in others?

4. What is the origin of the many light charged particles (especially He-4 and H-3) observed in fission?

A new concept in nuclear clustering, the Nucleon Cluster Model (NCM) , provides deterministic answers to these four major unresolved questions. For a comprehensive review of nuclear clustering, see "Clustering Phenomena in the Nuclear System," D. Allan Bromley, pps. 1-32, 4th Annual Conf. on Clustering Aspects of Nuclear Structure and Nuclear Reactions, Chester, U.K. , D. Reidel Pub. Co., 1984.

The NCM resulted from a long and persistent search for beta- stability selection rules that would be applicable across the entire mass range. That research uncovered systematics that are valid from the lightest to the heaviest nuclides. The key was the discovery that all nuclides can be described by three nucleon clusters (NPN, PNP and NP) . Such cluster structures are in striking contrast with conventional nuclear physics, which describes all nuclides, with only two parameters N and Z (where Z ≡ P) . Convincing evidence supporting the NCM has now been developed. Such evidence, with respect to thermal neutron fission, is presented immediately below. It will be appreciated

that this explains, for the first time and in a remarkably accurate and deterministic manner, many of the observed experi¬ mental results of thermal neutron fission.

At the same time, it may be important to point out what the NCM does not yet explain. It does not deal with the "morphology" of the nuclides, i.e., it does not address the manner in which the clusters are arranged within each nucleus, nor does it deal with the shape or size of the clusters. While these questions will ultimately be answered, at present the NCM leads one to conclusions regarding the structure of matter permitting control of matter in startling and unobvious ways. Not the least of these conclusions is the deduction that there are at least two significantly different binding energies involved in nuclear binding: the binding energies within and between the clusters. A key observation leading to the development of the NCM was the recognition of heretofore unreported mass-charge symmetry systems among certain groups of beta-stable nuclides. Such symmetry becomes apparent in Z (proton) versus N (neutron) plots, which are illustrated for selected elements in Figs. 1A through IE.

It will be immediately apparent that these centers of symmetry have a simple relationship among the mass numbers, i.e. , 19 + 48 = 67 and 29 + 38 = 67, but no obvious relationship connecting the nuclear charge (Z) values. The three slopes (NPN, PNP and NP slopes) evident in Figs. 1A - IE in these mass-charge symmetry systems imply that nuclei contain clusters consisting of NPN, PNP and NP.

The probable connection of the NCM to fission was first noticed in two relationships:

1. A = 67 is very close to the beginning of the light "tail" in fission; and

2. a pronounced fine structure peak in thermal neutron fission of U-235 occurs at A = 134 (2 x 67) .

Further research in the application of the NCM to the fission process resulted in the development of a "Periodic Table of Nuclides", a selected portion of which is shown in Fig. 2. The horizontal scale of the independent variable A is folded into Periods of ΔA = 67, and each Period is folded into two subgroups. This latter folding, together with symmetry considerations, require two junctions for each period in the Periodic Table of Nuclides. In the fission fragment mass range shown in Fig. 2, the following three junctions occur:

Table 1

Referring again to Fig. 2, the vertical scale of the dependent variable Σ 3 represents the number of triplet clusters (NPN plus PNP) in each mass number A plotted. The numbers in the circles represent the number of doublet clusters (NP) in each of the plotted A values, all along the sloping lines connecting squares that are inscribed with the mass numbers. The regular periodicity of ΔA = 67 is evident in Fig. 2. It should be noted

that this periodicity continL". -or mass numbers lighter than, as well as heavier t , thos " -und in fission.

The periodicity ±. ΔA = * . is an inherent property of the

NCM. The significance of ΔA - 67 advantageously may be revealed when the mathematical/theoretical bases of the NCM are developed.

Note the frequent occurrence of this number in Fig. 3, which is derived from Fig. 2.

There is a stri d ing correspondence between the branches of the Periodic Table of Nuclides shown in Fig. 2 and the five major features of fission yield-curves for each of the four fissile nuclides (U-233, U-235, Pu-233 and Pu-241) . The five features of those yield curves are: (1) light tall, (2) light peak, (3) valley, (4) heavy peak, and (5) heavy tail. In the discussion which follows, the major emphasis is placed on the correspondence between Fig. 2 and one of the fissile nuclides, namely the experimental fission yield curve of U-235, shown in Fig. 4. The correlation between those two systems, the Nucleon Cluster Model and an experimentally determined fission yield curve, applies to fission fragments ranging from A = 66 (known in fission) to A = 169 (not yet found in fission) .

An inspection of Fig. 2 reveals the following:

1. The junction in Period 2B corresponds to the "valley" in thermal neutron fission of U-235.

2. In thermal neut-on fission of U-235, the junction of Period 2A and 2B corre nds the "light peak", while the junction of Period 2B a 3A c elat---..*; with the "heavy peak", respectively.

3. Periods 2A and 3A represent the "tail" from the light peak and heavy peak, respectively.

The strong correlations between the characteristics of Fig. 2, which are summarized in Fig. 3, and the experimental U-235 fission yield curve shown in Fig. 4 precipitated a decision to conduct research on U-235 thermal neutron fission to test the validity of the Nucleon Cluster Model. This research was supported, in part, by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) . It should be noted that when U-235 absorbs a thermal neutron, it becomes the fissioning, compound nucleus, U-236. Fission occurs in four distinct modes, explained in further detail below, that are characterized by the type and number of particles emitted and by the mass range of the mode. Mode A releases one neutron. Mode B generates two neutrons. Mode C boils off six neutrons while Mode D emits three neutrons as well as alpha particles and tritons.

The unique correspondence between the two systems — the Periodic Table of Nuclides and the experimental fission yield curve — is no coincidence. A. Fission Mode A

This fission mode is derived directly from the Periodic Table of Nuclides. Period 2A and 3A (Fig. 2) sum to 235, implying that this mode systematically releases one neutron per fission. The light fragments of this mode extend from A = 66 (the lowest A value found in fission — excluding the very light charged particles) to A = 102, with corresponding initial heavy partners from A = 170 to A = 134.

Each fission in Mode A emits one neutron, from the heavy fragment. This is consistent with experimental evidence, which indicates that more neutrons are produced by heavy fragments than by light fragments. Thus, subsequent to a single neutron emission from the heavy fragment, the mass of the light and heavy fragments sum to 235 as follows:

Table 2

It will be noted from examination of Fig. 4 that A = 66 is the beginning of the "light tail" in the fission yield curve, while A = 169 is the end of the "heavy tail." It will also be noted that A = 102 is part of the light peak and A = 133 part of the heavy peak in the fission yield curve. In addition, it will be apparent from Fig. 3 that A = 66, 102, 133 and 169 are key A values of the NCM.

B. Fission Mode B

This fission mode is also derived directly from the Periodic Table of Nuclides. The two sub-groups of Period 2B sum to 234 (Fig. 2) suggesting a mode which systematically generates two neutrons per fission. The initial light fragments in Mode B begin at A = 100 and extend to A = 120, while the heavy initial fragments correspond to A = 136 through A = 116. Each fission in Mode B releases 2 neutrons, one from the heavy fragment and one from the light fragment. Thus, subsequent to neutron

emission, the mass of the light and heavy fragments sum to 234 as follows:

Table 3

For Mode C, it should be noted that A = 115 and 119 are at the approximate center of the "valley" in the fission yield curve shown in Fig. 4 while A = 99 and 135 are part of the light and heavy peaks in the fission yield curve. It will also be appreci¬ ated from Fig. 3 that A = 99, 115, 119 and 135 are key A values of the NCM.

Clearly, no combination of Modes A and B could yield an experimentally known value of 2.416 ± .008 for ~ , the average number of prompt neutrons per fission. Consequently, research was initiated using the NCM as a guide to develop one or more modes to:

1. explain the experimentally known fact that, in U-235 fission, v has values of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 for various mass splits;

2. explain the influence of the well known, so-called "magic numbers", N = 50 and N = 82; and

3. explain the experimentally observed ratios of the light charged particles, especially the He-4 and H-3 ratio of 16. C. Fission Mode C

It has long been known that, in thermal neutron fission, the light side of the heavy peak fission yield is nearly a constant

and this persistent pattern has been attributed in part to the closed-neutron (N = 82) shell found in this mass region. This knowledge led to a postulate that systematic neutron emission might occur when the initial fragments contained 83, 84, 85, 86, 87 and 88 and neutrons, with no neutron emission when the initial fragment contained 82 neutrons. Such a model would clearly account for the experimentally observed variation of υ , while explaining the influence of N = 82. This "boil-off" model advantageously may also be extended to N = 50. After considerable research. Fission Mode C, as depicted in Fig. 5, was developed. This systematic but complex mode boils off six neutrons for each fission, with twice as many neutrons coming from heavy fragments as from light fragments. In this system, one fragment may release X neutrons (with X having values of 0 to 6) while the other fragment will release 6-X. It should be noted that the final heavy fragments in the upper left quadrant all contain 82 neutrons, while their light fragment counterparts contain 56 neutrons. Similarly, the final light fragments in the lower right quadrant all contain 50 neutrons, while their heavy counterparts contain 88 neutrons. Finally, it should be noted that the postulated Mode C indicates that the initial light fragments commence at A = 84 and terminate at A = 102, while the initial heavy fragments commence at A = 134 and terminate at A = 152. These A values are all key NCM A values, as shown in Fig. 3.

D. Fission Mode D

This mode was postulated and developed to account for the origin of alpha particles and tritons in fission. Two key experimental results had to be incorporated: 1. Alpha particles are observed in about one out of 300- 500 fissions; and

2. The experimental ratio of alpha particles to tritons is extremely close to sixteen.

The model developed for Mode D consists of 2 sub-systems, each of which produces 48 fissions and 3 neutrons per fission. Each sub-system releases 8 alpha particles, producing an alpha particle per fission ratio of 16/96 (.16667) for Mode D. In the unique case of completely symmetric fission, in which the mass and charge of both fragments are identical (46-118 + 46-118) one fragment emits 3 neutrons to become 46-115, while the other fragment emits a triton, to become 45-115. Fission Mode D is shown in Fig. 6. In summary, Mode D not only emits 3 neutrons per fission, but also sixteen alpha particles and one triton. Thus, the NCM produces an alpha particle to triton ratio of 16, in excellent agreement with the experimental value of 15.9-16.1. Careful examination of Fig. 6 will reveal that key NCM A values, as well as N = 50 and N = 82, play a significant role in Mode D. Using the final fragment mass ranges for each mode, neutron emissions from the four modes, and experimental fission yields as well as a constraint that υ be very close to 2.416, a preliminary fission yield curve was derived as explained immediately below, which is shown in Fig. 7.

Call the distribution curves for the individual modes the A-curve, the B-curve, the C-curve, and the D-curve. Since Mode A emits 1 neutron, the A-curve is symmetric around 117.5 (one-half of 236-1) . Similarly, the B-curve is symmetric around 117, the C-curve around 115, and the D-curve around 116.5. The total yield curve is the sum of these four

The restrictions on the curves are the following: They must yield the desired total distributions for A, B, C, and D. They are defined only in the appropriate ranges (for example, the C-curve only runs from A = 84 to A = 96 and, by symmetry, from A = 134 to A = 146) . It is also reasonable to require that the curves be fairly smooth, having only minor local -tariations.

It is easy to see that the above restrictions are fairly rigid. For example, if the percentages of C are made larger, then the percentages for A for the same mass numbers must be made smaller. Since these mass numbers form most of the peaks, there is not enough yield elsewhere to make A large enough to compen¬ sate. Since six neutrons are produced in Mode C, while only 1 is produced for each fission in A, this would raise the value of υ . Correspondingly, lowering the percentages for C would tend to lower υ . It follows that the values for C should be moderate¬ ly large.

When these principles are carried out numerically, then adjusted to get a better fit, it is seen that the total percent- age for C must be approximately the 22% given. Likewise, though B has a large range, most curves of it lie in a region where the experimental yield is small. The part of the curve corresponding to the peaks is for yields that must be shared with A. Again,

as above, the balance between the two modes is fairly rigidly determined by v. The fact that the different curves have different centers of symmetry plays a major role in the final determination of the percentages. For example, suppose the value for B for mass 99 is raised. Then the percentage for A for mass 99 must be lowered. By symmetry, the value for B for mass 135 must be raised and the value for A for mass 136 must be lowered. This latter change can be offset by raising the value of C for mass 136, hence by symmetry also raising the value for C for mass 94. The value of A for mass 94 can now be lowered, etc. So, a change in one value results in a change in many values. This introduces a lot of rigidity into the system, and causes the final distributions of percentages to be determined fairly accurately. One feature of putting together four curves with different centers of symmetries is that the sum of the four curves will not be smooth, and will have local variations such as those occurring at the peaks. These irregularities have been observed experimen¬ tally and are not explained by other models. The overall conclusion is that it is possible to have four modes as described, each with its own distribution curve, and still be consistent with the experimental yield curve. The rigidity of the situation, as described above, indicates that this consistency would probably fail if variations were to be introduced in the individual modes.

Referring again to Fig. 7, the yield per cent attributable to each mode was calculated as follows:

Final Mass Range

Since the percent yields for each fission mode can, of course, be expressed as integral frequencies, research was initiated to see whether the percent yield information shown above could be expressed as integral frequencies, resulting in:

1. The correct value, within experimental error, of υ for thermal neutron fission of U-235 (2.416 ± .008); and 2. The approximately correct value, within experimental uncertainty, of the number of alpha particles per U-235 fission

(1 alpha particle in every 300-500 fissions) .

For integral frequencies it is evident that f D (the frequency of Mode D) cannot be less than 1. Two other observations were made, based on the percent yield data above:

3. The ratio of the fission yield for Mode B (27.40%) and that for Mode C (22.83%) is exactly 1.20; and

4. The sum of the fission yields for Modes B and C is 50.23%, very close to the fission yield of Mode A (49.73%).

This led to the postulate that the sum of the fission yields of Mode B and C equals the fission yield of Mode A.

Thus, the following frequency conditions were established: 1. All frequency values are integral; 2. f D = 1;

3. f B /f c = 1.20; and

4. f B + f c = f A .

Figure 8 shows the υ values calculated for five possible ∑ f values (23, 45, 67, 89 and 111). As can be noted, all frequen- cies except ∑ f = 23 result in υ values within experimental error. To select the correct ∑ f , the alpha particles per fission (α/∑ f ) have been calculated using the following simple relation¬ ship: α/∑ f = (f D f ) ( /f D ) where α/f D has previously been shown (see Mode D) to be 16/96. Figure 9 shows the results of these calculations. Only ∑ f = 67 provides for the correct solution for both υ and α/∑ f , as discussed in detail above. It is striking that the total frequency of the four fission modes should be 67, a value identical to the key mass number in the Nucleon Cluster Model. Figure 10 shows the final NCM-generated fission yield curve (solid circles) using ∑ f *= 67, as well as the experimentally determined fission yield data (computer-trace line) . As can be noted, the agreement is excellent, especially when it is recognized that experimental fission yields are, in most cases, uncertain by 10-20%.

Further research, utilizing the uniquely determined frequency ∑ f = 67, the four NCM fission modes, and the appropri-

ate fission yield curves, produced υ values in excellent agreement with experimental values for U-233, Pu-239 and Pu-241, shown in Fig. 11. Examination of mode frequencies for these fissile nuclides shows that, while ∑ f is constant, mode frequen- cies are shifted. The corresponding fission yield curves, also in remarkable agreement with experimental data, are shown in Figs. 12, 13 and 14.

It will be appreciated from the discussion above that the NCM has been successfully utilized to derive a completely systematic model for thermal neutron fission of U-235 which:

1. reproduces the experimental fission yield curve;

2. reproduces the experimental value of υ ;

3. accounts for neutron emission ranging from 0 to 6, and identifies the source of all prompt fission neutrons; 4. identifies the origins of alpha particles and tritons (the principal light charged particles [ (LCP) ]) and produces excellent agreement with the experimental ratio;

5. produces the approximately correct yield of alpha particles in fission; and 6. shows the prominent influence of N = 50 and 82.

The most significant conclusion from this research is that the Nucleon Cluster Model has been tested and derives, for the first time, key experimental results in thermal neutron fission, not only in U-235, but also in U-233, Pu-239 and Pu-241, never before explained.

Additional details regarding the NCM will be provided below with respect to Figs. 15 and 16.

With this information in mind, the preferred embodiments of the present invention will now be described. II. Methods for Releasing Energy

Since the March 23, 1989, announcement of "cold fusion" in an electrolytic cell, the scientific community has been divided into two camps regarding the reality of "cold fusion." The classical physicists in one camp argue that the heat generated in "cold fusion" cannot be accounted for by conventional fusion reactions, which are discussed in detail below. The opposing camp argues that it must be "cold fusion" since conventional electrochemical processes will not account for both the nuclides and heat generated in the electrolytic cells. According to a first embodiment of the present invention, both camps are right, but not for the reasons stated in their respective arguments. Before discussing the first preferred embodiment of the present invention, a brief but detailed review of the principal arguments regarding "cold fusion" will be presented to lay the groundwork for discussion regarding the energy generation method according to the present invention. Nuclear fusion is an ideal source of energy since one of the potential fuels, deuterium, occurs in vast amounts in the oceans. In addition there is relatively little radioactivity associated with fusion compared with nuclear fission as an energy source. Because of the conversion of mass to energy, substantially more energy is produced than the energy input into the system.

Much work has been done for over three decades on high temperature plasma controlled fusion. However, the achievement of sustained controlled fusion in high-temperature plasmas still

seems remote. Moreover, the apparatus is expensive and cumber¬ some.

In another approach, called muon catalyzed fusion, the electrons orbiting the hydrogen nuclei are replaced by uons. This decreases the orbit size, i.e. the radius of the hydrogen isotope, by the ratio of muon mass to the electron mass, which is a factor of approximately 200. This reduction in the width of the Coulomb barrier by a factor of 200 increases the tunneling probability by many orders of magnitude for fusing the nuclei of hydrogen isotopes (H) such as deuterium and/or tritium. Muonic fusion occurs at low temperatures. However, this method presents great difficulties in the production of the muons, their capture by the fusion reaction products, and to a lesser extent the very short half-life of the muons (of the order of microseconds) . In March, 1989, Professors Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischm- ann ("P&F") announced their achievement of sustained controlled fusion at room temperature in a palladium (Pd) electrolytic cell using heavy water (deuterium oxide) as the electrolyte. Liquid solutions of deuterium oxide and of tritium oxide have densities comparable to that of the deuterium in the palladium in the P&F demonstration of fusion. Yet fusion has not been seen in these liquids. In addition, palladium and other hydrogen absorbing solids (HAS) such as platinum (Pt) have been used to purify hydrogen and its isotopes from other gases as the hydrogen isotopes move readily through windows of these HAS, but other gases do not - not even helium. Fusion has not been observed in these circumstances. Therefore for these reasons, hitherto

unconsidered physical mechanisms must be present for the fusion to occur at the observed levels.

There are four essential items for sustained controlled hot nuclear fusion: (1) Collision Frequency; (2) Tunneling Probabili- ty; (3) Fusion Probability; and (4) Sustaining the reaction. The power delivered by nuclear fusion (fusion rate) is proportional to the product of the first three items. The fourth item relates to prevention of poisoning the reactions and replenishment of fuel (deuterium and tritium) . The basic or generally recognized deuteron-deuteron fusion reactions are as follows: H + H → 2 He + n + 3.3 MeV (2) κ + H 2 He + 24 MeV ( 3 ) At high energies (i.e. at right temperatures) , reactions (1) and (2) occur with about equal probability while reaction (3) occurs only about one-millionth of the time in high temperature plasmas. Reaction (3) apparently does not occur at normal pressures and temperatures. P&F initially reported approximately a 20-watt cm "3 output. This would seem to imply 10 to 10 fusions per second, but the measured neutron and other radioactivity levels seem to imply a rate many orders of magnitude lower. One possible reason is that the fusion rate is indeed low and the additional energy is being supplied by coexisting exothermic chemical reactions. Two other possible reasons are much more exciting, and if correct, have great practical import. One possibility is that at the low temperatures (energies) of the P&F experiment, reaction (1)

occurs at a much higher frequency than reaction (2) . This would explain why the power output is so such higher than the radioac¬ tivity count — simply because this reaction does not produce neutrons, and reaction (2) is greatly suppressed in comparison. Reaction (1) may be favored at low energy of the fusing particles because this provides time for mutual polarization of two approaching deuterons. Since the center-of-mass does not coincide with the center-of- charge for the deuteron, at low energy the Coulomb repulsion between the two protons in the two deuterons approaching on a collision course will orient the nuclei so the neutrons are facing each other and the protons are as far apart as possible. This favors reaction (1) . The other possibility is that reaction (3) is also favored at low energy in a solid. In any event, the desirability of reactions that do not produce neutrons is manifest since neutrons and the energy they carry are lost to the system unless there is a great deal of shielding. Additionally, the neutrons can produce undesirable radioactivity in the ambient environment. If H and He are available, the following reactions can also take place: ξH + 3 H → 2 He + n + 17.6 MeV (4) H + 2 He → 2 He + ]H + 18.3 MeV (5)

A rare reaction that occurs in stars but might occur in a solid is:

]H + ]H → ,H + e + + v + 2.2 MeV (6)

Reaction (5) is particularly desirable since it is also neutronless, and the end products are charged. Reactions (l) ,

(3), (5), and (6) allow the possibility of direct energy conversion to electricity, and would thus avoid the penalty of Carnot conversion efficiency in a heat cycle.

The probability for reaction (3) , and others that may not be seen in the plasma state, is enhanced due to the increased probability for a many-body collision per reaction in the solid state which increases the number of reactions that can conserve energy and momentum compared with two body collisions.

Three other reactions for fusing particles may be possible. These are:

]H + *H → 2 He + 7 + 20 MeV (8)

*H + E → 2 He + n + n + 10 MeV (9)

As discussed above, and as illustrated in Fij. 15, the NCM offers another and non-obvious explanation for the energy release demonstrated in the ("P&H") . More specifically, according to the NCM, the energy released by the hydrogen isotopes in intimate contact with one another within the HAS lattice structure, is generated in an annihilation reaction between a proton and a deuteron.

According to the NCM, all nuclides are formed from one or more clusters having one of three forms, an NP cluster, a PNP cluster and an NPN cluster. Since a proton, according to classical physics, includes only one particle, it would apparent- ly be impossible to form a proton from any of the NCM clusters. However, the NCM extends to both matter and anti-matter, the latter including particles such as anti-deuterons, i.e., anti¬ matter NP clusters, which can be combined with other clusters to

satisfy the postulates of the NCM. In other words, the internal structure of the proton can be expressed, in its simplest form, as a combination of a PNP cluster and an anti-deuteron, i.e., a NP anti-matter cluster. Thus, the structure of the proton P or can be expressed as [ (PNP) + (NP) ] .

Fig. 15 is a chart according to the NCM illustrating the interface between the anti-matter and matter systems, particular¬ ly the interface between these two systems which occurs in the proton. The darkly shaded areas to the left of and below the ,H isotope indicate anti-matter while the lightly shaded regions to the right of and above ,H indicate conventional matter.

In the matter regions of Fig. 15, numbers represent mass numbers (A values) , where each of the numbers represent stable nuclides. Take, for example, the horizontal line including the values 12, 14 and 16. This horizontal line corresponds to a constant Σ 3 value, e.g., 12 ÷ 3 = 4, [14 - 2] + 3 = 4 and [16 - 4] ÷ 3 = 4. The numbers in the top line of the chart of Fig. 15 represent the number of NP clusters in the nuclides directly below that number. For example, 16 is below the value 2 in the top line of the chart, indicating that 1 g O includes two NP clusters in its nuclear configuration.

The corresponding line in the matter column immediately to the right of the column in which "12 14 16" appears, i.e., the line "18 20 22", represents the case where Σ 3 = 6, where the stable isotope represented by 18 is void of NP clusters, the stable isotope 20 includes one NP cluster and the stable isotope 22 contains two NP clusters.

It should be noted that in the matter column represented by "12 14 16" and that represented by "18 20 22", when overlapped or folded onto one another, with respect to an imaginary vertical line between the columns, all A values sum to Σ A = 34. It should also be mentioned that the lower set of A values in the matter system, i.e., the lower portions of the adjacent right hand columns, correspond to Σ A = 100. Similar relationships are applicable to the anti-matter system, i.e., the darkly shaded areas on the left of Fig. 15, with the exception that in the anti-matter system, the A values in the upper portions of the columns sum to ∑ A = -100 while the lower columns sum to ∑ A = -34.

*ι Finally, it should be noted that 1 H, the proton, has the structure corresponding to ∑ 3 = 1, i.e., 2 He, plus one anti- deuteron, i.e., one NP cluster. This complex nuclear configura- tion appears no where else in the entire system.

Referring to Fig. 15 once again, it should also be noted that the Σ A = -34 connects to Σ A = 100 by ΔΣ A = 134 (2 x 67) . Similarly, Σ A •= -100 connects to Σ A = 34 by Δ∑ A = 134 (2 x 67). It will be appreciated that the Periodic Table of Beta Stable Nuclides illustrated in Fig. 16 depicts the extension of the matter portion of the system shown in the right hand portion of Fig. 15. Interpretation of Fig. 16 is done in the same manner as interpretation of Fig. 15. All stable isotopes represented by Fig. 16 can be derived by extrapolation from Fig. 15, as will be appreciated from side-by-side review of Figs. 15 and 16.

The periodicity of the system with respect to ΔΣ A = 134 (2 x 67) can be appreciated from the top and bottom of the Fig. 16.

It will also be noted that ∑ 3 values can easily be deduced from Fig. 16.

In analyzing the postulated structure of proton P, those of ordinary skill in art will no doubt speculate as to why the structure would be stable. In other words, that one would ask why the two clusters would not immediately combine to produce a particle P\' (to distinguish this particle from proton P) plus 3724 MeV of free energy. That one should remind himself that like or mirror image particles, e.g., electrons and positrons, combine in an annihilation reaction, while unlike particles apparently are non-reactive. Thus, there is no indication that a neutron and a positron or a nucleus and a positron react in any way.

The NCM has led to a complete explanation of: 1. all here-to-fore experimentally observed "cold fusion" phenomena, i.e., heat, tritium, neutrons and 2 He, all found in "cold fusion" experiments performed by many experts; and

2. all that has not \'been observed, but which was expected by conventional physics, i.e. , intense neutron and tritium fluxes consistent with the observed heat output, and gamma radiation associated with conventional fusion reactions.

Referring to expression (7) above, the expression can be rewritten according to the NCM as follows: [(PNP) + (NP) 1 + (NP) → (PNP) + E a (11) where E a is annihilation energy of the reaction. It will be appreciated that E a , by conventional physics, is equal to the total conversion of 4 atomic mass units (AMUs) to energy, i.e.,

3724 MeV of energy per annihilation reaction. It will also be noted that the conventional fusion reaction according to expression (7) produces a mere 5.4 MeV per fusion. While the majority of the annihilation energy apparently is retained by the liberated 2 He particle as kinetic energy, i.e., momentum of the particle, some of this energy advantageously can be localized. In other words, a small but measurable fraction of annihilation energy E a is imparted to the lattice structure and its surround¬ ings and is measured as an increase in temperature. Of course, other proton structures are possible according to the NCM. For example, a proton having the structure [ (NP) + (NP) + (NPN) 1 is also possible. Thus a proton-triton reaction can be postulated as follows: [(NP) + (NP) + 1NPN1] + (NPN) → [NP + NP] + Ε a (13) where E a is again the annihilation energy. It will be noted that energy E a for the annihilation reaction denoted Ly expressions (12) and (13) would be equal to direct conversion of 6 AMUs, i.e. , 5586 MeV. The energy production reaction according to the present invention, i.e., the annihilation reaction, thus accounts for the measured increase in temperature in the so-called "cold fusion" cells, as well as accounting for the erratic measurements of neutrons and tritons observed by researchers involved in "cold fusion" investigations. While some reactions between two deuter¬ ons, as suggested in expressions (1) and (2) above cannot be ruled out, the majority reactions are the annihilation reactions denoted in expressions (10) through (13) .

At about this point, the classical physicists will no doubt raise the issue of the Coulomb barrier noted with respect to high temperature plasma fusion reactions. However, the NCM advanta¬ geously accounts for this, and many other physical effects, which are discussed in greater detail below, by recognizing that each nuclide, because of its unique nuclear structure, exhibits small but significantly different physical effects on the atomic and the molecular level.

It has long been known from optical spectroscopy that one isotope of an element will exhibit a spectrum which is slightly shifted with respect to another isotope of that element. This is commonly referred to in the literature as the "isotope effect". See, for example, J. J. Brehm et al, Introduction to the Structure of Matter: A Course in Nuclear Physics, pg. 154, John Wiley & Sons (1989).

Other anomalies indicating that shifts in isotopic percent¬ ages of a material produce one or more measurable physical characteristic changes have also been reported. By way of example, palladium is not a superconductor, but palladium hydride, Pd χ H y , is a superconductor at about 10 °K. Moreover, contrary to standard theory, the heavier isotopes of hydrogen have higher transition temperatures, rather than lower ones. Thus, palladium deuteride, Pd χ D y , has a transition temperature of about 12 °K, and palladium tritide, Pd χ T y , has a temperature of about 13 °K. According to the Rabinowitz theory as described in the article "Quantum-Gas Mod^l Estimate for Wide Range of Superconducting Temperatures" (Intl. J. Theo. Phys., vol 28, No. 2, pp. 137-145, 1989), fine filaments of Pd χ H may be super-

conducting at close to room temperature. Fine filaments on the order of 100 A in diameter of Pd χ D y and Pd χ T y may be supercon¬ ducting above room temperature, at about 324 °K and 351 °K respectively. Quasi-two-dimensional Pd χ D y and Pd x T y will have appreciably higher critical temperatures than their three-dimen¬ sional forms. As described in the Rabinowitz paper, highly compressed hydrogen in three dimensions may be a superconductor at 300 °K; and quasi-one- and quasi-two-dimensional hydrogen and its isotopes may exist in the solid and may also be supercon- ducting at even higher temperatures.

In 1990, an article by T. R. Anthony et al. entitled "Thermal Diffusivity of Isotopically Enriched 12 C Diamond," Physical Review B. Vol. 42, No. 2, pages 1104-1108 (October, 1990) reported property changes in diamonds wherein the normal 6 C : 6 C ratio was changed from 1:100 to 1:1000. The depleted diamonds with a low 6 C content are reportedly able to conduct heat at least 50% more efficiently than conventional diamonds. Later work by the same team of researchers indicates that diamonds enriched in 13 6 C have atoms spaced approximately .015% closer together than their conventional counterparts. Thus, the

6 C enriched diamonds contain more atoms per unit volume than any other known solid. See "A Gem of an Idea," Popular Science, pps.

25-26, October, 1990.

While these reported isotope effects are interesting in and of themselves, they provide additional confirmation of the structure of matter postulated by the NCM. According to the NCM, since each isotopic nucleus is formed from NP, PNP and NPN clusters, each isotopic nucleus must be fundamentally different

from other isotopic nuclei of the same element. For example, 4 2 He is more than just a 2 He atom which has somehow picked up and extra neutron. The PNP cluster forming the nucleus of the 2 He isotope of helium is physically replaced by two NP clusters forming the nucleus of the 4 2 He isotope of heli.um. Si.nce the nuclear structures of these two isotopes are significantly different, the NCM predicts that the physical properties of these isotopes are not only measurably different but significantly different from one another. This postulate of the NCM plays an important role in not only the preferred embodiment of the invention being discussed in this section but also in other preferred embodiments discusses in detail below.

Referring again to expressions (10) and (11) , it will be noted that the nuclear structure of the proton P differs radically from the structure of the deuteron D, i.e., the nuclear configuration of .,H differs markedly from the nuclear configura- ion of 1 H. Once nuclear structures can be viewed from the perspective of the NCM, additional and unobvious insights can be achieved. In particular, the NCM clearly shows that ,H must be physically larger than 2 1 H. The importance of this insight will be appreciated from the discussion with respect to selection rules below.

The literature on "cold fusion" includes numerous citations with respect to the Pd electrodes inserted in the reaction cells used by P&F and others in their experiments. It will of course be noted that other HAS materials including titanium, lanthanum, zirconium, to name but a few, have been reported and can be used to provide suitable storage sites for protons and deuterons.

These citations focus on the gross physical phenomena associated with the electrodes including surface conditions, e.g., cracks and voids, surface contamination and bulk contamination. One fact that has apparently escaped the notice of the various researchers is that naturally occurring Pd includes six stable isotopes, i.e., Pd-102, Pd-104, Pd-105, Pd-106, Pd-108 and Pd- 110. From the perspective of the NCM, the composition of Pd, assuming that Pd is the material of choice in a device employing the energy production method according to the present invention, the isotopic concentrations in the Pd lattice structure becomes critical for at least two reasons. Protons, deuterons and tritons all diffuse into the face centered cubic (FCC) lattice structure of Pd. By changing the isotopic ratio of Pd, one is expected to be able to markedly affect the size of potential proton P and deuteron D storage sites in the Pd lattice struc¬ ture. In addition, one is expected to be able to advantageously affect the minimum separation, i.e., the minimum distance, between each proton P and each deuteron D at storage sites within or on the Pd lattice structure. Turning once again to the issue of the Coulomb barrier, which classical physicists are expected to argue prevents the reactions denoted by expressions (10) through (13) , two points should be noted. First, muonic fusion is a demonstrated technique for producing fusion reactions and depends on reducing the physical separation between nuclides enough to promote tunnelling through the Coulomb barrier due to strong nuclear forces between the constituents of the closely spaced nuclei. Second, the strong nuclear forces exhibited between the reactants

in expressions (10) through (13) , particularly the strong nuclear forces between the NP and NP clusters, are expected to be greater than or equal to the strong nuclear forces promoting muonic fusion. Thus, when the minimum separation between the reactants in expressions (10) through (13) is reduced by selection of the constituents of the lattice structure, the reactions can be expected to proceed vigorously.

From the discussion above, it is now possible to establish rules for selecting advantageous conditions wherein the energy production reactions denoted by expressions (10) through (13) can occur. Careful control of these conditions advantageously permit control of the rate at which the identified energy production reactions transpire. It will be noted that the conditions promoting and controlling the reactions listed in expressions (10) through (13) advantageously can simultaneously influence and control other reactions noted by "cold fusion" r.searchers and described in detail above.

Rule 1: Both protons and deuterons must be present for the energy production reaction of expressions (10) through (13) to occur. Thus, both protons and deuterons must be accumulated in close proximity in order for the reactions to occur. Preferably, the protons and deuterons are loaded into or onto a lattice structure capable of storing isotopic hydrogen. The lattice structure advantageously can be formed from known HAS materials and composites including palladium.

Rule 2: The storage sites for protons and deuterons must be controlled in order to maintain a predetermined ratio between the reactants.

It will be appreciated that while it is explicit in expres¬ sions (10) through (13) that individual reactant constituents react in a one-to-one ratio, i.e., one proton P reacts with one deuteron D, it does not follow that a one-to-one atom ratio of these isotopes accumulated in proximity within the lattice structure produces an optimal rate of reaction. Thus, a predetermined ratio, e.g., a P/D ratio, must be maintained between the reactants. Due to a number of factors such as lattice structure configuration, pressure, temperature as well as temperature range and size of the device, to name but a few, all of which are considered design choices well within the skill of those of ordinary skill in the art, the exact value of this ratio must be determined experimentally for each device configu¬ ration. It will be appreciated that optimization by experimenta- tion, particularly when only two reactants need be considered, is also well within the expertise of one of ordinary skill in the art.

It should also be noted that accumulation of the reactants and control of the rate of reaction advantageously may be enhanced by the use of two or more P/D ratios. In an exemplary case, accumulation of reactants in intimate contact with the lattice structure is performed using a first P/D ratio to enhance the rate of accumulation while control of the energy production reaction is performed using a second P/D ratio optimized for ease of control of the reaction. Preferably, the second P/D ratio defines a range selected to permit control of the reaction rate, including rapid shutdown of the energy production reaction, by controlling the P/D ratio within the predetermined range.

It will also be apparent that the reactants advantageously may be loaded or accumulated sc arrtely when the physical constraints are derived or when tt. manufacturing facility so dictates. For example, it is well documented that the solubility of ,H is greater than the solubility of - j H at a constant tempera- ture. In an exemplary case where i .t i.s desi.red to accumulate ,ιH and ijH in a predetermined ratio, it may be faster or more cost effective to load the lattice structure with each hydrogen isotope separately. After initial loading of the lattice structure, a predetermined P/D ratio advantageously can be used to control the rate of reaction.

Rule 3: The minimum separation between reactant isotopes must be suppressed at storage sites in and surrounding the lattice structure. Preferably, the isotopic composition of the lattice structure is selected to promote minimum separation between the reactants.

Expansion of Rule 3, or a corollary to it, is that the lattice structure is controlled to optimize the size of a majority of the storage sites associated with the lattice structure. As discussed above, the NCM indicates that protons P and deuterons D are different in size. Thus, it is necessary to control the size of the storage sites in order to promote optimal storage of the reactants. Again, the isotopic composi¬ tion of the lattice structure advantageously may be adjusted to "fine tune" the lattice structure, while careful fabrication control can be used for gross adjustment of the size of the storage sites.

It will be appreciated that almost any quantity of any desired isotope is commercially available from a number of sources located around the world. Thus, the optimal isotopic composition, i.e., an isotope ratio in the form I.,*I 2 : ... :I n , for any desired material, alloy or compound used as the lattice structure is easily obtained by experimental testing well within the skill of those of ordinary skill in the art. It will also be appreciated that improvements in these materials will continue for the foreseeable future. Rule 4: The energy of the lattice structure is adjusted to initiate the reaction. It will be appreciated that control of both the temperature of the lattice structure and external electromagnetic radiation applied to the lattice structure advantageously can be used to control the lattice site displace- ment to promote the energy production reaction.

Now that a workable set of rules have been established, design of a device suitable for initiating, controlling and exploiting the energy production reaction of expressions (10) through (13) is well within the skills of those of ordinary skill in the art. Preferred embodiments of an energy production device will now be described while referring to Figs. 17 and 18.

Referring first to Fig. 17, an energy production apparatus 1 according to the present invention includes a reaction vessel 10 supporting a lattice structure 12. Preferably, lattice structure 12 advantageously is formed from a predetermined isotopic ratio of palladium isotopes, where the ratio is selected to promote a predetermined storage site size throughout lattice structure 12 as well as to minimize the nuclide separation

between the reactants. Preferably, vessel 10 supports an electromagnetic radiator 14 connected to a suitable power supply (not shown) for controlling the amount of electromagnetic radiation applied to lattice structure 12. Radiator 14 advanta- geously can supply a selected one of infrared radiation, microwave radiation or coherent radiation. Other means for controlling the energy of the lattice structure so as to control lattice site displacement will suggest themselves to those of ordinary skill in the art and these means are considered to be within the scope of the present invention.

Preferably, vessel 10 is connected to first and second gas storage cylinders 22 and 24 via control valves 18 and 20, respec¬ tively. Control valves 18 and 20 advantageously are connected to a controller 26 for controlling the release of, in an exemplary case, hydrogen and deuterium gases from cylinders 22 and 24, respectively. Surrounding and supporting vessel 10 is a heat sink 100, which advantageously can be, in an exemplary case, a steam generator for providing steam for turning a conventional turbine generator. According to another preferred embodiment of the present invention illustrated in Fig. 18, heat sink 100 is replaced by a electromagnetic field generator 200 surrounding predetermined portions of vessel 10. Generator 200 advantageously produces an electromagnetic field for limiting the output of energetic 2 He particles resulting from the energy production reaction to a predetermined direction indicated by the arrow denoting a conical region radiating from vessel 10. It will be appreciated that device 1 can be operated in a pulsed manner to produce intermit-

tent particle bursts useful in communications and other fields. It will also be apparent that momentum advantageously can be imparted to vessel 10 due to the emission of energetic 2 He particles, allowing device 1 to operate as a motor suitable for propulsion and the like.

In any event, operation of device 1 is achieved by the steps of accumulating first and second reactants in intimate contact with lattice structure 12 and then repeatedly reacting the first and second reactants with one another to produce 2 He particles and energy. The amount of energy is greater than about 6 MeV and advantageously can be greater than 931 MeV. According to the device 1 illustrated in Fig. 17, a measurable fraction of the energy released by reacting the first and second reactants is received by heat sink 100 as thermal energy, which can be converted to electricity and other useful products, e.g., steam, by conventional techniques. However, according to device 1 of Fig. 2, the desired product is the high energy 2 He particle, which is used directly in communication and propulsion processes. III. Transmutation Processes Transmutation, the process by which one isotope is trans¬ formed into another isotope, is occurring every hour of every day. Fig. 19 is a chart illustrating the more common decay paths by which several radioactive isotopes decay to isotopes of lead. Fig. 20, on the other hand, is a chart illustrating the sequence by which transuranic elements are produced. Both of these processes are included within the general definition of transmu¬ tation.

Recently, reports have begun circulating of transmutation which is initiated by the application of low levels of electro¬ magnetic radiation. Here, the term "low levels of electromagnet¬ ic radiation" is used to distinguish the applied energy from high energy particle beams and the like normally associated with accelerators, test reactors and the other tools of particle physicists. According to this preferred embodiment of the present invention, low levels of electromagnetic radiation advantageously can include both coherent and non-coherent forms of energy.

According to the NCM, the binding energy of the nucleus known in classical physics is distributed by the binding energy of the clusters forming the nucleus and the binding energy between these clusters. In other words, the energy binding a cluster to the nucleus is some fraction of the binding energy calculated according to classical physics. Extrapolation of this postulate leads to the inescapable conclusion that the binding energy between the clusters is the weaker of the two binding energies at work in the nucleus. Thus, one or more clusters advantageously can be removed by application of predetermined amount of electromagnetic energy.

While this postulate is not applicable to exotic processes for turning lead into fissionable isotopes, it has other, and potentially more useful, applications in other industries. In particular, the NCM indicates that transmutation of radioisotopes resulting from nuclear fission, i.e., nuclear waste, can be employed to reduce the staggering stockpile of this type of waste by converting long lived isotopes to short lived or stable

isotopes. While classical physicists are expected to scoff at this postulate, they are free to fall back on their tested theory for explaining radionuclide decay, i.e., it just happens. It would also be well to keep in mind two facts. First, while statistics can predict the probability with which a decay event will occur, the probability says nothing about the underlying cause triggering the event. Second, until the NCM provided insight into transmutation, no one, excluding alchemists searching for the chemical reaction for turning lead into gold, had ever systematically explored the possibility that low levels of electromagnetic energy could be used to eject clusters from the nucleus of an atom.

According to the NCM transmutation postulate, the process for transmuting one isotope to another isotope is relatively simple. First, it is, of course, necessary to " identify the isotope to be transmuted. The target isotope advantageously can be a long lived radioactive isotope, such as fission fragments produced by nuclear fission. It will be appreciated that this prefer_3d embodiment of the present invention is not limited to transmuting fission wastes, thus transmutation of other isotopes is considered within the scope of the present invention. The second essential step of the transmutation process is to bombard the target isotope with electromagnetic radiation. Preferably, the electromagnetic radiation includes coherent electromagnetic radiation. The total electromagnetic radiation applied advanta¬ geously has a predetermined energy level sufficient to transmute the isotope to the desired product, i.e., the desired resultant isotope. It will be noted that the predetermined energy level

is defined to be the energy level sufficient to induce emission of at least one cluster- from each atom of the target isotope, thus transmuting the target isotope to the desired isotope. It will also be apparent ithat the predetermined energy level will differ depending on the isotope as well as the type of cluster being ejected from the nucleus.

It should be noted that the amount of electromagnetic radiation can be "fine tuned" by determining a magnetic moment of the target isotope and then adjusting the electromagnetic radiation based on the magnetic moment, as discussed in greater detail below. Whenever possible, the fine tuning advantageously can be enhanced by determining a magnetic moment of the selected cluster to be removed from the nuclei of the target isotope. It will be apparent that magnetic moment determination is particu- larly advantageous when the target isotope has an odd atomic mass number.

Relating the NCM to other physical principles allows further postulates to be developed. The ability to induce transmutation via removal of an (NP + NP) cluster advantageously may be demon- strated based on the presence or absence of a magnetic moment for an element. From the NCM, it can be extrapolated that clusters in the nucleus advantageously can have magnetic moraents indepen¬ dent of the overall magnetic moment of the entire atom. Further extrapolation allows the inference that by determining the magnetic moment for particular clusters in a nucleus, it advantageously may be feasible to determine which clusters may be removed by application of an external energy through coupling of external fields and radiation. Preferably, this same means

can permit the kind and amount of energy required to initiate a selective transmutation which involves the removal of any NCM cluster to be determined. The knowledge of the magnetic moment of a cluster advantageously may provide a means for determining the energy to be put into a nucleus as a whole. IV. Process for Forming Superconductors

The search for useful superconductors, i.e., material that are superconductors of electricity at temperatures above 273 °K and which are sufficiently ductile to permit the formation of wires and the like, has been going on for many years.

As discussed in detail above, some researchers have noted unexpected results including shifts in transition temperatures when various isotopes of hydrogen are absorbed in HAS materials. Until now, these observations have been lumped in with all the other anomalous observations reported by physicists the world over. Until now, the NCM was not available to indicate that the nucleus of each isotope is different from the nucleus of all the others and that these differences produce novel and totally unexpected results when materials are engineered according to isotopic ratio control.

By way of example, copper, the most commonly used conductor, is found in at least two stable isotopes, 29 Cu and 29 Cu. The literature does not reveal any experimentation with respect to variation of the isotopic ratio of 29 Cu to 29 Cu to induce changes in conductivity. In short, no one ever looked for such effects because classical physics theorizes that the only variations between isotopes of an element of interest is due to mass effects.

Again, the NCM postulates that each isotope of an element must have markedly different properties due to the radical differences in the construction of the nucleus. Extrapolation of this postulate to its logical conclusion leads one to realize that distinguishable differences in the configuration of each nucleus are manifested in the electron shells as well. Thus, changes in characteristics normally associated with electron shells advantageously are controllable, at least in part, by isotopic ratio control. Further extrapolation of the electron shell configuration postulate of the NCM leads one to a method for forming supercon¬ ductors. This method includes the steps of selecting at least one constituent of a conductor from a group of materials consist¬ ing of isotopes having nuclear configurations producing corre- sponding electron shell configurations compatible with super¬ conduction of electricity at a predetermined temperature greater than 60 °K and then forming all of the materials including the selected constituent into a solid.

While the method for forming superconductors may, at first blush, appear to be trivial, this is decidedly not the case. Researchers in this field have already assumed away the possibil¬ ity that superconductors can be produced as a variant of any of the commonly employed conductors. In short, these researchers automatically assume that isotopic variations could not account for the observed effects.

V. Process for Forming Improved Semiconductor Devices

The variety of methods for forming semiconductor devices are almost too numerous to count. Competing methods for depositing

semiconductors and metals as layers, removing and cutting layers, growing and forming crystal structures, implanting both impurity ions and ions of the substrate material are all well known to those of ordinary skill in this art. However, processes for implementing isotopic ratio control during the formation and fabrication of semiconductor devices are completely unknown.

As discussed in several of the previous sections above, the NCM postulates material differences in the various isotopes of an element die to the variation in nuclear configuration. For example, according the NCM the three stable isotopes of silicon, Si-28, Si-29 and Si-30, each have physical characteristics noticeably different from the other isotopes in the silicon elemental group. Thus, variations in the characteristics of a semiconductor device advantageously may be controlled by variation of silicon isotope concentrations to achieve isotope ratio control. Using conventional techniques, both bulk isotopic ratio control, e.g., controlling the isotopic ratio during, for example, epitaxial crystal growth, and regional isotopic ratio control by ion implantation can be produced. Implantation of a selected isotope of silicon to produce regional variations in isotopic concentration is expected to be the dominant method of isotopic ratio control in the semiconduc¬ tor industry due to the fact that most, if not all, of the semiconductor devices currently in use rely on electrical interaction between regions, not bulk substrate effects. It will be appreciated that other forms of isotopic ratio control, e.g., isotopic ratio control of impurity ions to control dielectric

constants and the like, advantageously may be used to improve semiconductor devices in a variety of unexpected ways. VI. Methods for Forming Improved Structures

Another preferred embodiment according to the present invention provides improved methods for fabrication of atomic, molecular and ionic structures by implementing isotope ratio control according to the NCM.

With respect to most structures, the NCM provides novel and unexpected insights into the composition of such structures. In particular, the NCM advantageously may provide insights for explaining why crystals of some elements preferentially form structures such as body centered cubic, face centered cubic or hexagon close packed at particular ranges of energy levels. While the NCM does yet provide a compxete explanation for the observed variations and varieties in crystal structures, the NCM does provide sufficient insight to allow the fine tuning of crystalline structures to promote desired effects.

As discussed previously in this application, the NCM dictates that structures advantageously can be varied by isotope ratio control. This is particularly true with respect to atomic and molecular crystals, as well as ionic compounds, since simultaneous isotope ratio control of more than one elemental group of isotopes is performed during the conventional fabrica¬ tion or formation process. Simply stated, another preferred embodiment of the present invention is the improvement in methods for forming structures by isotope ratio control of the constituents. It will be appreciated that isotopic ratio control can most easily be

implemented when the number of stable isotopes or the number of stable and unstable but well behaved isotopes are limited a small integer number of such isotopes. It should be noted that well behaved unstable isotopes are defined as unstable isotopes having relatively benign radiation characteristics as well as half lives long enough to allow fabrication of products having reasonably long shelf lives. Preferably, the half lives of the well behaved isotopes are greater than about 5 years.

It should be noted that products manufactured according to this embodiment of the present advantageously may include oxide compounds, wherein an improved method can be achieved by including a step for forming a portion of the oxide compound utilizing an oxygen molecule consisting of a pair of oxygen-17 atoms. It will be noted from a review of Fig. 16 that the pair of oxygen-17 atoms exhibit a value of Σ A = 34.

The NCM offers rare insights into the structure of molecular and crystalline materials. This insight is based on the under¬ standing that the nature of each nucleus, as defined by the NCM, is both unique and is reflected in the nature of the electron shell of each atom. Extrapolation of this impact on the nature of the electron shell of given atoms advantageously permits improvements in most, if not all, specialties in the field of chemistry.

Additional details regarding the method according to this preferred embodiment of the present invention is presented above and will not be repeated here in the interest of brevity.

Other modifications and variations to the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from the foregoing disclo-

sure and teachings. Thus, while only certain embodiments of the invention have been specifically described herein, it will be apparent that numerous modifications may be made thereto without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.