METHODS AND APPARATUS FOR PRODUCING ACTIVATED CARBON

FROM BIOMASS THROUGH CARBONIZED ASH INTERMEDIATES

PRIORITY CLAIM

[0001] This application claims priority to U.S. provisional patent application serial no.

61/895,381, filed on October 24, 2013, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference and relied upon.

FIELD

[0002] The present disclosure generally relates to processes, systems, and apparatus for the production of activated carbon starting from biomass sources.

BACKGROUND

[0003] Activated carbon is a commonly used form of carbon and has traditionally been produced from fossil fuel. More recent developments have examined processes for producing activated carbon from renewable resources, such as biomass. Generally, best practices for combusting carbonaceous materials, e.g., for production of energy, include maximizing combustion (energy output) while minimizing residual waste, such as ash. Products for acid gas (e.g., H ₂ S) control are typically produced by combusting carbon-containing feedstock, followed by incorporation of one or more metal species such as calcium, potassium and/or magnesium by way of an additive.

SUMMARY

[0004] The present disclosure provides methods for combusting carbonaceous materials

(e.g., biomass) to produce energy, while increasing production of ash. In some embodiments, the ash is further processed to produce useful products such as activated carbon.

[0005] Some variations provide a process for producing an activated carbon product, the process comprising:

(a) providing a carbon-containing feedstock; (b) combusting, in a combustion unit, the feedstock with an oxidant comprising oxygen, to generate energy, combustion products, and ash, wherein the ash contains at least about 10 wt% carbon; and

(c) further processing the ash to increase the carbon content and/or the carbon activation, thereby generating an activated carbon product.

[0006] In some embodiments, the feedstock comprises biomass, coal, or a mixture of biomass and coal. The feedstock may be a wet feedstock.

[0007] The process is preferably controlled to intentionally achieve high carbon content of the ash. In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 20 wt% carbon, at least about 30 wt% carbon, or at least about 40 wt% carbon. In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 2% oxygen, for example at least about 2% oxygen, at least about 4% oxygen, at least about 6% oxygen, at least about 8% oxygen, at least about 10% oxygen, or at least about 12% oxygen. In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 50,000 ppm of calcium, at least about 5,000 ppm of potassium, and/or at least about 1,000 ppm of manganese.

[0008] In some embodiments, step (b) includes combusting at an oxygen/carbon ratio that is lower than the stoichiometric ratio for combustion. For example, step (b) may include overloading of the feedstock to the combustion unit. Alternatively, or additionally, step (b) may include restricting air flow to the combustion unit. In some embodiments, step (b) includes combusting at a combustion temperature that is lower than an optimal combustion temperature for the feedstock. In some embodiments, step (b) includes combusting at a feedstock residence time that is lower than an optimal residence time for the feedstock. In any of these or other embodiments, the process may include introducing water to the feedstock or to the combustion unit prior to or during step (b).

[0009] In some embodiments, step (c) may include separating and recovering at least a portion of the carbon contained in the ash. The separating step may be accomplished by a dry separation process, a wet separation process, or a combination (e.g., in either sequence). In some embodiments, step (c) includes chemical, thermal, mechanical, physical, and/or gravimetric separation or treatment to the ash.

[0010] In some embodiments of the disclosure, step (c) includes further activating the carbon contained in the ash. When step (c) includes separating and recovering at least a portion of the carbon contained in the ash, the process may further comprise activating the separated and recovered carbon from the ash. [0011] In some embodiments, step (c) includes pH adjustment of the ash (the pH as measured when the ash is submerged in water, for example). The pH adjustment may be achieved by addition of one or more additives to the ash. In certain embodiments, the pH may be reduced by addition of one or more organic or inorganic acids to the ash. When step (c) includes separating and recovering at least a portion of the carbon contained in the ash, the process may further include introducing one or more additives to the carbon.

[0012] In some embodiments, step (c) includes blending the ash with another source of carbon, to generate the activated carbon product. When step (c) includes separating and recovering at least a portion of the carbon contained in the ash, the recovered carbon may then be blended with another source of carbon, to generate the activated carbon product. The other source of carbon may include carbon that is derived from the combustion products that were separately processed to recover and recycle carbon.

[0013] In some embodiments, step (c) includes blending the ash with an additive. Any additive suitable for enhancing the absorption/adsorption capabilities of the activated carbon product towards one or more target compounds (e.g., mercury, H ₂ S, etc.).

[0014] In certain embodiments, the combustion products include carbon monoxide, the process further comprising utilizing the carbon monoxide as a fuel within the process or for another process. For example, the CO may be used as a direct or indirect fuel to a pyrolysis unit.

[0015] Other variations of the present disclosure provide a method for recovering an activated carbon product from combustion ash, the method comprising:

(a) providing or obtaining combustion ash, wherein the ash contains at least about 10 wt% carbon;

(b) separating and recovering at least a portion of the carbon contained in the ash, to generate separated carbon; and

(c) further activating or treating the separated carbon, to generate an activated carbon product.

[0016] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 20 wt% carbon, at least about

30 wt% carbon, or at least about 40 wt% carbon.

[0017] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 2% oxygen, for example at least about 2% oxygen, at least about 4% oxygen, at least about 6% oxygen, at least about 8% oxygen, at least about 10% oxygen, or at least about 12% oxygen. [0018] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 50,000 ppm of calcium, no more than about 20,000 ppm of iron, no more than about 15,000 ppm of aluminum, at least about 9,000 ppm of magnesium, at least about 5,000 ppm of potassium, at least about 1,000 ppm of manganese, at least about 4,000 ppm of sodium, at least about 80,000 ppm of silicon, no more than about 2,000 ppm of titanium, and/or at least about 1,000 ppm of phosphorous. In some embodiments, the content of any one or more of the metal species listed herein is entirely present, essentially present, or substantially present in the ash by way of the carbon-containing feedstock material (e.g., by concentrating the amount of one or more metals already present in the carbon- containing feedstock), and not by incorporation of an additive.

[0019] Separating in step (b) may be conducted by a dry separation process, a wet separation process, or a combination thereof. Either of steps (b) or (c) may include chemical, thermal, mechanical, physical, and/or gravimetric separation or treatment to the ash or the separated carbon.

[0020] Steps (b) or (c) may include pH adjustment of the ash or the separated carbon. In some embodiments, the pH adjustment is achieved by addition of one or more additives to the ash or the separated carbon. For example, the pH may be reduced by addition of one or more organic or inorganic acids to the ash or the separated carbon.

[0021] In some embodiments, steps (b) and/or (c) includes blending the ash with an additive. Any additive suitable for enhancing the absorption/adsorption capabilities of the activated carbon product towards one or more target compounds (e.g., mercury, H ₂ S, etc.).

[0022] In some embodiments, step (c) includes blending the separated carbon with another source of carbon, to generate the activated carbon product. The separated carbon may be further processed (e.g., further activated, pH-adjusted, purified, sized, etc.) prior to blending with another source of carbon, to generate the activated carbon product.

[0023] The present disclosure includes apparatus and systems configured to carry out the processes and methods disclosed. The present disclosure also includes activated carbon products produced by the disclosed processes, or processes that include the disclosed methods.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0024] This description will enable one skilled in the art to make and use the present inventions, and it describes several embodiments, adaptations, variations, alternatives, and uses of the present inventions. These and other embodiments, features, and advantages of the present disclosure will become more apparent to those skilled in the art when taken with reference to the following detailed description of the disclosure in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

[0025] As used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms "a," "an," and "the" include plural referents unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as is commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs.

[0026] Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing reaction conditions, stoichiometries, concentrations of components, and so forth used in the specification and claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term "about." Accordingly, unless indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in the following specification and attached claims are approximations that may vary depending at least upon a specific analytical technique.

[0027] The term "comprising," which is synonymous with "including," "containing," or

"characterized by" is inclusive or open-ended and does not exclude additional, unrecited elements or method steps. "Comprising" is a term of art used in claim language which means that the named claim elements are essential, but other claim elements may be added and still form a construct within the scope of the claim.

[0028] As used herein, the phase "consisting of excludes any element, step, or ingredient not specified in the claim. When the phrase "consists of (or variations thereof) appears in a clause of the body of a claim, rather than immediately following the preamble, it limits only the element set forth in that clause; other elements are not excluded from the claim as a whole. As used herein, the phase "consisting essentially of limits the scope of a claim to the specified elements or method steps, plus those that do not materially affect the basis and novel characteristic(s) of the claimed subject matter.

[0029] With respect to the terms "comprising," "consisting of," and "consisting essentially of," where one of these three terms is used herein, the presently disclosed and claimed subject matter may include the use of either of the other two terms. Thus in some embodiments not otherwise explicitly recited, any instance of "comprising" may be replaced by "consisting of or, alternatively, by "consisting essentially of." [0030] "Pyrolysis" and "pyrolyze" generally refer to thermal decomposition of a carbonaceous material. In pyrolysis, less oxygen is present than is required for complete combustion of the material, such as less than 10%, less than 5%, less than 1%, less than 0.5%, less than 0.1%, or less than 0.01% of the oxygen that is required for complete combustion. In some embodiments, pyrolysis is performed in the absence of oxygen.

[0031] For present purposes, "biogenic" is intended to mean a material (whether a feedstock, product, or intermediate) that contains an element, such as carbon, that is renewable on time scales of months, years, or decades. Non-biogenic materials may be non-renewable, or may be renewable on time scales of centuries, thousands of years, millions of years, or even longer geologic time scales. Note that a biogenic material may include a mixture of biogenic and non-biogenic sources.

[0032] For present purposes, "reagent" is intended to mean a material in its broadest sense; a reagent may be a fuel, a chemical, a material, a compound, an additive, a blend component, a solvent, and so on. A reagent is not necessarily a chemical reagent that causes or participates in a chemical reaction. A reagent may or may not be a chemical reactant; it may or may not be consumed in a reaction. A reagent may be a chemical catalyst for a particular reaction. A reagent may cause or participate in adjusting a mechanical, physical, or hydrodynamic property of a material to which the reagent may be added. For example, a reagent may be introduced to a metal to impart certain strength properties to the metal. A reagent may be a substance of sufficient purity (which, in the current context, is typically carbon purity) for use in chemical analysis or physical testing.

[0033] The biogenic activated carbon will have relatively high carbon content as compared to the initial feedstock utilized to produce the biogenic activated carbon. A biogenic activated carbon as provided herein will normally contain greater than about half its weight as carbon, since the typical carbon content of biomass is no greater than about 50 wt%. More typically, but depending on feedstock composition, a biogenic activated carbon will contain at least 55 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 65 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 75 wt%, at least 80 wt % 85 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 95 wt%, at least 96 wt%, at least 97 wt%, at least 98 wt%, at least 99 wt% carbon.

[0034] Notwithstanding the foregoing, the term "biogenic activated carbon" is used herein for practical purposes to consistently describe materials that may be produced by processes and systems of the disclosure, in various embodiments. Limitations as to carbon content, or any other concentrations, shall not be imputed from the term itself but rather only by reference to particular embodiments and equivalents thereof. For example it will be appreciated that a starting material having very low initial carbon content, subjected to the disclosed processes, may produce a biogenic activated carbon that is highly enriched in carbon relative to the starting material (high yield of carbon), but nevertheless relatively low in carbon (low purity of carbon), including less than 50 wt% carbon.

[0035] Some variations of the present disclosure are premised on the surprising discovery that biomass combustion processes may be adjusted to intentionally generate a carbon-containing ash, which is then utilized to produce activated carbon from the ash.

[0036] As intended herein, "ash" means any solid residue that remains following a combustion process, and is not limited in its composition. Ash is generally rich in metal oxides, such as Si0 ₂ , CaO, AI ₂ O ₃ , and K ₂ 0. "Carbon-containing ash" or "carbonized ash" means ash that has at least some carbon content. Fly ash, also known as flue ash, is one of the residues generated in combustion, and comprises the fine particles that rise with the flue gases. Ash which does not rise is termed bottom ash. Fly ash is generally captured by electrostatic precipitators or other particle filtration equipment before the flue gases are emitted. The bottom ash is typically removed from the bottom of the furnace.

[0037] Some variations provide a process for producing an activated carbon product, the process comprising:

(a) providing a carbon-containing feedstock;

(b) combusting, in a combustion unit, the feedstock with an oxidant comprising oxygen, to generate energy, combustion products, and ash, wherein the ash contains at least about 10 wt% carbon; and

(c) further processing the ash to increase the carbon content and/or the carbon activation, thereby generating an activated carbon product.

[0038] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 2% oxygen, for example at least about 2% oxygen, at least about 4% oxygen, at least about 6% oxygen, at least about 8% oxygen, at least about 10% oxygen, or at least about 12% oxygen.

[0039] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 50,000 ppm of calcium, for example at least about 50,000 ppm, at least about 55,000 ppm, at least about 60,000 ppm, at least about 65,000 ppm, at least about 70,000 ppm, at least about 75,000 ppm, at least about 80,000 ppm, at least about 85,000 ppm, at least about 90,000 ppm, at least about 95,000 ppm, at least about 100,000 ppm, at least about 105,000 ppm, at least about 110,000 ppm, at least about 115,000 ppm, at least about 120,000 ppm, at least about 125,000 ppm, at least about 130,000 ppm, at least about 135,000 ppm, at least about 140,000 ppm, at least about 145,000 ppm, at least about 150,000 ppm, at least about 155,000 ppm, at least about 160,000 ppm, at least about 165,000 ppm, at least about 170,000 ppm, at least about 175,000 ppm, at least about 180,000 ppm, at least about 185,000 ppm, at least about 190,000 ppm, at least about 195,000 ppm, at least about 200,000 ppm, at least about 205,000 ppm, at least about 210,000 ppm, at least about 215,000 ppm, at least about 220,000 ppm, at least about 215,000 ppm, at least about 230,000 ppm, at least about 235,000 ppm, at least about 240,000 ppm, at least about 245,000 ppm, at least about 250,000 ppm, at least about 255,000 ppm, at least about 260,000 ppm, at least about 265,000 ppm, at least about 270,000 ppm, at least about 275,000 ppm, at least about 280,000 ppm, at least about 285,000 ppm, at least about 290,000 ppm, at least about 295,000 ppm, or at least about 300,000 ppm of calcium.

[0040] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 5,000 ppm of potassium, for example at least about 5,000 ppm, at least about 5,500 ppm, at least about 6,000 ppm, at least about 6,500 ppm, at least about 7,000 ppm, at least about 7,500 ppm, at least about 8,000 ppm, at least about 8,500 ppm, at least about 9,000 ppm, at least about 9,500 ppm, at least about 10,000 ppm, at least about 10,500 ppm, at least about 11,000 ppm, at least about 11,500 ppm, at least about 12,000 ppm, at least about 12,500 ppm, at least about 13,000 ppm, at least about 13,500 ppm, at least about 14,000 ppm, at least about 14,500 ppm, at least about 15,000 ppm, at least about 15,500 ppm, at least about 16,000 ppm, at least about 16,500 ppm, at least about 17,000 ppm, at least about 17,500 ppm, at least about 18,000 ppm, at least about 18,500 ppm, at least about 19,000 ppm, at least about 19,500 ppm, at least about 20,000 ppm, at least about 20,500 ppm, at least about 21,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 22,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 23,000 ppm, at least about 23,500 ppm, at least about 24,000 ppm, at least about 24,500 ppm, at least about 25,000 ppm, at least about 25,500 ppm, at least about 26,000 ppm, at least about 26,500 ppm, at least about 27,000 ppm, at least about 27,500 ppm, at least about 28,000 ppm, at least about 28,500 ppm, at least about 29,000 ppm, at least about 29,500 ppm, at least about 30,000 ppm, at least about 30,500 ppm, at least about 31,000 ppm, at least about 31,500 ppm, at least about 32,000 ppm, at least about 32,500 ppm, at least about 33,000 ppm, at least about 33,500 ppm, at least about 34,000 ppm, at least about 34,500 ppm, at least about 35,000 ppm, at least about 35,500 ppm, at least about 36,000 ppm, at least about 36,500 ppm, at least about 37,000 ppm, at least about 37,500 ppm, at least about 38,000 ppm, at least about 38,500 ppm, at least about 39,000 ppm, at least about 39,500 ppm, at least about 40,000 ppm, at least about 40,500 ppm, at least about 41,000 ppm, at least about 41,500 ppm, at least about 42,000 ppm, at least about 42,500 ppm, at least about 43,000 ppm, at least about 43,500 ppm, at least about 44,000 ppm, at least about 44,500 ppm, at least about 45,000 ppm, at least about 45,500 ppm, at least about 46,000 ppm, at least about 46,500 ppm, at least about 47,000 ppm, at least about 47,500 ppm, at least about 48,000 ppm, at least about 48,500 ppm, at least about 49,000 ppm, at least about 49,500 ppm, at least about 50,000 ppm, at least about 50,500 ppm, at least about 51,000 ppm, at least about 51,500 ppm, at least about 52,000 ppm, at least about 52,500 ppm, at least about 53,000 ppm, at least about 53,500 ppm, at least about 54,000 ppm, at least about 54,500 ppm, at least about 55,000 ppm, at least about 55,500 ppm, at least about 56,000 ppm, at least about 56,500 ppm, at least about 57,000 ppm, at least about 57,500 ppm, at least about 58,000 ppm, at least about 58,500 ppm, at least about 59,000 ppm, at least about 59,500 ppm, at least about 60,000 ppm, at least about 60,500 ppm, at least about 61,000 ppm, at least about 61,500 ppm, at least about 62,000 ppm, at least about 62,500 ppm, at least about 63,000 ppm, at least about 63,500 ppm, at least about 64,000 ppm, at least about 64,500 ppm, at least about 65,000 ppm, at least about 65,500 ppm, at least about 66,000 ppm, at least about 66,500 ppm, at least about 67,000 ppm, at least about 67,500 ppm, at least about 68,000 ppm, at least about 68,500 ppm, at least about 69,000 ppm, at least about 69,500 ppm, at least about 70,000 ppm, at least about 70,500 ppm, at least about 71,000 ppm, at least about 71,500 ppm, at least about 72,000 ppm, at least about 72,500 ppm, at least about 73,000 ppm, at least about 73,500 ppm, at least about 74,000 ppm, at least about 74,500 ppm, at least about 75,000 ppm, at least about 75,500 ppm, at least about 76,000 ppm, at least about 76,500 ppm, at least about 77,000 ppm, at least about 77,500 ppm, at least about 78,000 ppm, at least about 78,500 ppm, at least about 79,000 ppm, at least about 79,500 ppm, at least about 80,000 ppm, at least about 80,500 ppm, at least about 81,000 ppm, at least about 81,500 ppm, at least about 82,000 ppm, at least about 82,500 ppm, at least about 83,000 ppm, at least about 83,500 ppm, at least about 84,000 ppm, at least about 84,500 ppm, at least about 85,000 ppm, at least about 85,500 ppm, at least about 86,000 ppm, at least about 86,500 ppm, at least about 87,000 ppm, at least about 87,500 ppm, at least about 88,000 ppm, at least about 88,500 ppm, at least about 89,000 ppm, at least about 89,500 ppm, at least about 90,000 ppm, at least about 90,500 ppm, at least about 91,000 ppm, at least about 91,500 ppm, at least about 92,000 ppm, at least about 92,500 ppm, at least about 93,000 ppm, at least about 93,500 ppm, at least about 94,000 ppm, at least about 94,500 ppm, at least about 95,000 ppm, at least about 95,500 ppm, at least about 96,000 ppm, at least about 96,500 ppm, at least about 97,000 ppm, at least about 97,500 ppm, at least about 98,000 ppm, at least about 98,500 ppm, at least about 99,000 ppm, at least about 99,500 ppm, or at least about 100,000 ppm of potassium.

[0041] In some embodiments, the ash contains no more than about 20,000 ppm of iron, for example no more than about 5,000 ppm, no more than about 5,500 ppm, no more than about 6,000 ppm, no more than about 6,500 ppm, no more than about 7,000 ppm, no more than about 7,500 ppm, no more than about 8,000 ppm, no more than about 8,500 ppm, no more than about 9,000 ppm, no more than about 9,500 ppm, no more than about 10,000 ppm, no more than about 10,500 ppm, no more than about 11,000 ppm, no more than about 11,500 ppm, no more than about 12,000 ppm, no more than about 12,500 ppm, no more than about 13,000 ppm, no more than about 13,500 ppm, no more than about 14,000 ppm, no more than about 14,500 ppm, no more than about 15,000 ppm, no more than about 15,500 ppm, no more than about 16,000 ppm, no more than about 16,500 ppm, no more than about 17,000 ppm, no more than about 17,500 ppm, no more than about 18,000 ppm, no more than about 18,500 ppm, no more than about 19,000 ppm, no more than about 19,500 ppm, or no more than about 20,000 ppm of iron.

[0042] In some embodiments, the ash contains no more than about 15,000 ppm of aluminum, for example no more than about 5,000 ppm, no more than about 5,500 ppm, no more than about 6,000 ppm, no more than about 6,500 ppm, no more than about 7,000 ppm, no more than about 7,500 ppm, no more than about 8,000 ppm, no more than about 8,500 ppm, no more than about 9,000 ppm, no more than about 9,500 ppm, no more than about 10,000 ppm, no more than about 10,500 ppm, no more than about 11,000 ppm, no more than about 11,500 ppm, no more than about 12,000 ppm, no more than about 12,500 ppm, no more than about 13,000 ppm, no more than about 13,500 ppm, no more than about 14,000 ppm, no more than about 14,500 ppm, or no more than about 15,000 ppm of aluminum.

[0043] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 9,000 ppm of potassium, for example at least about 9,000 ppm, at least about 9,500 ppm, at least about 10,000 ppm, at least about 10,500 ppm, at least about 11,000 ppm, at least about 11,500 ppm, at least about 12,000 ppm, at least about 12,500 ppm, at least about 13,000 ppm, at least about 13,500 ppm, at least about 14,000 ppm, at least about 14,500 ppm, at least about 15,000 ppm, at least about 15,500 ppm, at least about 16,000 ppm, at least about 16,500 ppm, at least about 17,000 ppm, at least about 17,500 ppm, at least about 18,000 ppm, at least about 18,500 ppm, at least about 19,000 ppm, at least about 19,500 ppm, at least about 20,000 ppm, at least about 20,500 ppm, at least about 21,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 22,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 23,000 ppm, at least about 23,500 ppm, at least about 24,000 ppm, at least about 24,500 ppm, at least about 25,000 ppm, at least about 25,500 ppm, at least about 26,000 ppm, at least about 26,500 ppm, at least about 27,000 ppm, at least about 27,500 ppm, at least about 28,000 ppm, at least about 28,500 ppm, at least about 29,000 ppm, at least about 29,500 ppm, or at least about 30,000 ppm of magnesium.

[0044] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 1,000 ppm of manganese, for example at least about 1,000 ppm, at least about 1,500 ppm, at least about 2,000 ppm, at least about 2,500 ppm, at least about 3,000 ppm, at least about 3,500 ppm, at least about 4,000 ppm, at least about 4,500 ppm, at least about 5,000 ppm, at least about 5,500 ppm, at least about 6,000 ppm, at least about 6,500 ppm, at least about 7,000 ppm, at least about 7,500 ppm, at least about 8,000 ppm, at least about 8,500 ppm, at least about 9,000 ppm, at least about 9,500 ppm, at least about 10,000 ppm, at least about 10,500 ppm, at least about 11,000 ppm, at least about 11,500 ppm, at least about 12,000 ppm, at least about 12,500 ppm, at least about 13,000 ppm, at least about 13,500 ppm, at least about 14,000 ppm, at least about 14,500 ppm, at least about 15,000 ppm, at least about 15,500 ppm, at least about 16,000 ppm, at least about 16,500 ppm, at least about 17,000 ppm, at least about 17,500 ppm, at least about 18,000 ppm, at least about 18,500 ppm, at least about 19,000 ppm, at least about 19,500 ppm, at least about 20,000 ppm, at least about 20,500 ppm, at least about 21,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 22,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 23,000 ppm, at least about 23,500 ppm, at least about 24,000 ppm, at least about 24,500 ppm, at least about 25,000 ppm, at least about 25,500 ppm, at least about 26,000 ppm, at least about 26,500 ppm, at least about 27,000 ppm, at least about 27,500 ppm, at least about 28,000 ppm, at least about 28,500 ppm, at least about 29,000 ppm, at least about 29,500 ppm, or at least about 30,000 ppm of manganese.

[0045] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 4,000 ppm of sodium, for example at least about 4,000 ppm, at least about 4,500 ppm, at least about 5,000 ppm, at least about 5,500 ppm, at least about 6,000 ppm, at least about 6,500 ppm, at least about 7,000 ppm, at least about 7,500 ppm, at least about 8,000 ppm, at least about 8,500 ppm, at least about 9,000 ppm, at least about 9,500 ppm, at least about 10,000 ppm, at least about 10,500 ppm, at least about 11,000 ppm, at least about 11,500 ppm, at least about 12,000 ppm, at least about 12,500 ppm, at least about 13,000 ppm, at least about 13,500 ppm, at least about 14,000 ppm, at least about 14,500 ppm, at least about 15,000 ppm, at least about 15,500 ppm, at least about 16,000 ppm, at least about 16,500 ppm, at least about 17,000 ppm, at least about 17,500 ppm, at least about 18,000 ppm, at least about 18,500 ppm, at least about 19,000 ppm, at least about 19,500 ppm, at least about 20,000 ppm, at least about 20,500 ppm, at least about 21,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 22,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 23,000 ppm, at least about 23,500 ppm, at least about 24,000 ppm, at least about 24,500 ppm, at least about 25,000 ppm, at least about 25,500 ppm, at least about 26,000 ppm, at least about 26,500 ppm, at least about 27,000 ppm, at least about 27,500 ppm, at least about 28,000 ppm, at least about 28,500 ppm, at least about 29,000 ppm, at least about 29,500 ppm, or at least about 30,000 ppm of sodium.

[0046] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 80,000 ppm of silicon, for example at least about 80,000 ppm, at least about 85,000 ppm, at least about 90,000 ppm, at least about 95,000 ppm, at least about 100,000 ppm, at least about 105,000 ppm, at least about 110,000 ppm, at least about 115,000 ppm, at least about 120,000 ppm, at least about 125,000 ppm, at least about 130,000 ppm, at least about 135,000 ppm, at least about 140,000 ppm, at least about 145,000 ppm, at least about 150,000 ppm, at least about 155,000 ppm, at least about 160,000 ppm, at least about 165,000 ppm, at least about 170,000 ppm, at least about 175,000 ppm, at least about 180,000 ppm, at least about 185,000 ppm, at least about 190,000 ppm, at least about 195,000 ppm, at least about 200,000 ppm, at least about 205,000 ppm, at least about 210,000 ppm, at least about 215,000 ppm, at least about 220,000 ppm, at least about 215,000 ppm, at least about 230,000 ppm, at least about 235,000 ppm, at least about 240,000 ppm, at least about 245,000 ppm, at least about 250,000 ppm, at least about 255,000 ppm, at least about 260,000 ppm, at least about 265,000 ppm, at least about 270,000 ppm, at least about 275,000 ppm, at least about 280,000 ppm, at least about 285,000 ppm, at least about 290,000 ppm, at least about 295,000 ppm, or at least about 300,000 ppm of silicon.

[0047] In some embodiments, the ash contains no more than about 2,000 ppm of titanium, for example no more than about 2,000 ppm, no more than about 1,900 ppm, no more than about 1,800 ppm, no more than about 1,700 ppm, no more than about 1,600 ppm, no more than about 1,500 ppm, no more than about 1,400 ppm, no more than about 1,300 ppm, no more than about 1,200 ppm, no more than about 1,100 ppm, no more than about 1,000 ppm, no more than about 900 ppm, no more than about 800 ppm, no more than about 700 ppm, no more than about 600 ppm, no more than about 500 ppm, no more than about 400 ppm, no more than about 300 ppm, no more than about 200 ppm, no more than about 100 ppm of titanium.

[0048] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 1,000 ppm of phosphorus, for example at least about 1,000 ppm, at least about 1,500 ppm, at least about 2,000 ppm, at least about 2,500 ppm, at least about 3,000 ppm, at least about 3,500 ppm, at least about 4,000 ppm, at least about 4,500 ppm, at least about 5,000 ppm, at least about 5,500 ppm, at least about 6,000 ppm, at least about 6,500 ppm, at least about 7,000 ppm, at least about 7,500 ppm, at least about 8,000 ppm, at least about 8,500 ppm, at least about 9,000 ppm, at least about 9,500 ppm, at least about 10,000 ppm, at least about 10,500 ppm, at least about 11,000 ppm, at least about 11,500 ppm, at least about 12,000 ppm, at least about 12,500 ppm, at least about 13,000 ppm, at least about 13,500 ppm, at least about 14,000 ppm, at least about 14,500 ppm, at least about 15,000 ppm, at least about 15,500 ppm, at least about 16,000 ppm, at least about 16,500 ppm, at least about 17,000 ppm, at least about 17,500 ppm, at least about 18,000 ppm, at least about 18,500 ppm, at least about 19,000 ppm, at least about 19,500 ppm, at least about 20,000 ppm, at least about 20,500 ppm, at least about 21,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 22,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 23,000 ppm, at least about 23,500 ppm, at least about 24,000 ppm, at least about 24,500 ppm, at least about 25,000 ppm, at least about 25,500 ppm, at least about 26,000 ppm, at least about 26,500 ppm, at least about 27,000 ppm, at least about 27,500 ppm, at least about 28,000 ppm, at least about 28,500 ppm, at least about 29,000 ppm, at least about 29,500 ppm, or at least about 30,000 ppm of phosphorus.

[0049] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 50,000 ppm of calcium, no more than about 20,000 ppm of iron, no more than about 15,000 ppm of aluminum, at least about 9,000 ppm of magnesium, at least about 5,000 ppm of potassium, at least about 1,000 ppm of manganese, at least about 4,000 ppm of sodium, at least about 80,000 ppm of silicon, no more than about 2,000 ppm of titanium, and/or at least about 1,000 ppm of phosphorous. In some embodiments, the content of any one or more of the metal species listed herein is entirely present, essentially present, or substantially present in the ash by way of the carbon-containing feedstock material (e.g., by concentrating the amount of one or more metals already present in the carbon- containing feedstock), and not by incorporation of an additive. [0050] In some embodiments, the feedstock comprises biomass, coal, or a mixture of biomass and coal. "Biomass," for purposes of this disclosure, shall be construed as any biogenic feedstock or mixture of a biogenic and non-biogenic feedstock. Elementally, biomass includes at least carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The methods and apparatus of the present disclosure can accommodate a wide range of feedstocks of various types, sizes, and moisture contents.

[0051] Biomass includes, for example, plant and plant-derived material, vegetation, agricultural waste, forestry waste, wood waste, paper waste, animal-derived waste, poultry-derived waste, and municipal solid waste. In various embodiments of the present disclosure utilizing biomass, the biomass feedstock may include one or more materials selected from: timber harvesting residues, softwood chips, hardwood chips, tree branches, tree stumps, knots, leaves, bark, sawdust, off-spec paper pulp, cellulose, corn, corn stover, wheat straw, rice straw, sugarcane bagasse, switchgrass, miscanthus, animal manure, municipal garbage, municipal sewage, commercial waste, grape pumice, almond shells, pecan shells, coconut shells, coffee grounds, grass pellets, hay pellets, wood pellets, cardboard, paper, carbohydrates, plastic, and cloth. A person of ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciate that the feedstock options are virtually unlimited.

[0052] Various embodiments of the present disclosure are also be used for carbon- containing feedstocks other than biomass, such as a fossil fuel (e.g., coal or petroleum coke), or any mixtures of biomass and fossil fuels (such as biomass/coal blends). In some embodiments, a biogenic feedstock is, or includes, coal, oil shale, crude oil, asphalt, or solids from crude-oil processing (such as petcoke). Feedstocks may include waste tires, recycled plastics, recycled paper, and other waste or recycled materials. Any method, apparatus, or system described herein may be used with any carbonaceous feedstock. Carbon-containing feedstocks may be transportable by any known means, such as by truck, train, ship, barge, tractor trailer, or any other vehicle or means of conveyance.

[0053] Selection of a particular feedstock or feedstocks is not regarded as technically critical, but is carried out in a manner that tends to favor an economical process. Typically, regardless of the feedstocks chosen, there can be (in some embodiments) screening to remove undesirable materials. The feedstock may optionally be dried prior to processing. The feedstock may be a wet feedstock.

[0054] The feedstock employed may be provided or processed into a wide variety of particle sizes or shapes. For example, the feed material may be a fine powder, or a mixture of fine and coarse particles. The feed material may be in the form of large pieces of material, such as wood chips or other forms of wood (e.g., round, cylindrical, square, etc.). In some embodiments, the feed material comprises pellets or other agglomerated forms of particles that have been pressed together or otherwise bound, such as with a binder.

[0055] The process is preferably controlled to intentionally achieve high carbon content of the ash. In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 5 wt%, at least about 6 wt%, at least about 7 wt%, at least about 8 wt%, at least about 9 wt%, at least about 10 wt%, at least about 11 wt%, at least about 12 wt%, at least about 13 wt%, at least about 14 wt%, at least about 15 wt%, at least about 16 wt%, at least about 17 wt%, at least about 18 wt%, at least about 19 wt%, at least about 20 wt%, at least about 21 wt%, at least about 22 wt%, at least about 23 wt%, at least about 24 wt%, at least about 25 wt%, at least about 26 wt%, at least about 27 wt%, at least about 28 wt%, at least about 29 wt%, at least about 30 wt%, at least about 35 wt%, at least about 40 wt%, at least about 45 wt%, or at least about 50 wt% carbon. For example the process may be adjusted to produce ash with at least 20 wt% carbon, at least about 30 wt% carbon, or at least about 40 wt% carbon.

[0056] There are a variety of ways that the process may be adjusted to intentionally generate carbonized ash through incomplete combustion. In some embodiments, step (b) includes combusting at an oxygen/carbon ratio that is equal to or lower than the stoichiometric ratio for combustion. For example, step (b) may include overloading of the feedstock to the combustion unit. Alternatively, or additionally, step (b) may include restricting air flow to the combustion unit.

[0057] In some embodiments, step (b) includes combusting at a combustion temperature that is lower than an optimal combustion temperature for the feedstock. In some embodiments, step (b) includes combusting at a feedstock residence time that is lower than an optimal residence time for the feedstock. In any of these or other embodiments, the process may include introducing water to the feedstock or to the combustion unit prior to or during step (b). In any of these or other embodiments, the process may include introducing an inert gas or other diluent to the combustion unit prior to or during step (b).

[0058] Temperature, residence time, and composition may also be varied not just in time but in space, i.e., within the combustion unit. Different zones may be adjusted to control the overall amount of combustion. For example, it may be advantageous to bias the incomplete combustion towards the bottom of the combustion unit for ash removal). In some embodiments, combustion of the feedstock occurs in one or more zones. In some embodiments, one or more combustion zones may include an atmosphere comprising oxygen in an amount of no more than about 20% to no more than about 1%, for example no more than about 20%, no more than about 19%, no more than about 18%, no more than about 17%, no more than about 16%, no more than about 15%, no more than about 14%, no more than about 13%, no more than about 12%, no more than about 11%, no more than about 10%, no more than about 9%, no more than about 8%, no more than about 7%, no more than about 6%, no more than about 5%, no more than about 4%, no more than about 3%, no more than about 2%, or no more than about 1%.

[0059] In some embodiments, combustion occurs in a reactor heated, powered and/or fueled, at least in part, by a gas stream produced by a pyrolysis reactor. In some embodiments, combustion occurs in an atmosphere comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of a gas stream produced by a pyrolysis reactor.

[0060] Step (c) may include separating and recovering at least a portion of the carbon contained in the ash. The separating step may be accomplished by a dry separation process, a wet separation process, or a combination (e.g., in either sequence). Exemplary wet separation processes include flotation with gravity separation by settling, or flotation with centrifugation to separate carbon from ash. Solid separation (dry) may be accomplished, for example, by employing one or more cyclones, one or more screens, one or more sieves and/or one or more baghouses. Any additional wet or dry separation technique known in the art may be employed.

[0061] Generally, step (c) may include various chemical, thermal, mechanical, physical, and/or gravimetric separation or treatments to the ash. Additives may be introduced at any point, to adjust properties including density, viscosity, acidity, pH, particle size, binding, surface area, and so on.

[0062] In some embodiments, ash is treated, at least in part, according to U.S. Patent No.

5,513,755 to Heavilon et al. (granted May 7, 1996) or U.S. Patent App. Pub. No. 2009/0314185 to Whellock (published Dec. 24, 2009).

[0063] In some embodiments of the present disclosure, step (c) includes further activating the carbon contained in the ash. When step (c) includes separating and recovering at least a portion of the carbon contained in the ash, the process may further comprise activating the separated and recovered carbon from the ash. Methods to activate carbon are described in more detail below. [0064] In some embodiments, step (c) includes pyrolyzing the ash, for example at a temperature of about 300°C to about 1300°C, such as about 300°C, about 325°C, about 335°C, about 350°C, about 375°C, about 400°C, about 425°C, about 450°C, about 475°C, about 500°C, about 525°C, about 550°C, about 575°C, about 600°C, about 625°C, about 650°C, about 675°C, about 700°C, about 725°C, about 750°C, about 775°C, about 800°C, about 825°C, about 850°C, about 875°C, about 900°C, about 925°C, about 950°C, about 975°C, about 1000°C, about 1025°C, about 1050°C, about 1075°C, about 1100°C, about 1125°C, about 1150°C, about 1175°C, about 1200°C, about 1225°C, about 1250°C, about 1275°C, or about 1300°C.

[0065] In some embodiments, step (c) includes pH adjustment of the ash. The pH of the ash may be measured when the ash is submerged in water, for example. The pH adjustment may be achieved by addition of one or more additives to the ash. In certain embodiments, the pH may be reduced by addition of one or more organic acids (e.g., H ₂ SO ₄ or HC1) or inorganic acids (e.g., acetic acid or citric acid) to the ash. When step (c) includes separating and recovering at least a portion of the carbon contained in the ash, the process may further include introducing one or more additives to the carbon. Additives for activated carbon are described in more detail below.

[0066] In some embodiments, step (c) includes blending the ash with an additive. Any additive suitable for enhancing the absorption/adsorption capabilities of the activated carbon product towards one or more target compounds (e.g., mercury, H ₂ S, etc.). In some embodiments, step (c) includes adding one or more halogens or halogen-containing compounds to enhance mercury-absorption properties of the activated carbon. In some embodiments, step (c) includes adding moisture to enhance hydrogen sulfide absorption properties of the activated carbon.

[0067] In some embodiments, step (c) includes blending the ash with another source of carbon, to generate the activated carbon product. When step (c) includes separating and recovering at least a portion of the carbon contained in the ash, the recovered carbon may then be blended with another source of carbon, to generate the activated carbon product. The final activated carbon product may include, for example, about 1%, about 5%, about 10%, about 20%>, about 30%>, about 40%), about 50%), or more than about 50%> (but less than 100%) of another source of activated carbon.

[0068] In certain embodiments, the other source of carbon may include carbon that is derived from the combustion products that were separately processed to recover and recycle carbon. That is, combustion products (e.g., including CO), in a separate process, may be utilized to enrich the carbon content of a carbon-containing material, and that carbon-containing material may be combined with the activated carbon produced according to the disclosed process herein.

[0069] In certain embodiments, the combustion products include carbon monoxide, the process further comprising utilizing the carbon monoxide as a fuel within the process or for another process. For example, the CO may be used as a direct or indirect fuel to a pyrolysis unit.

[0070] Other variations of the present disclosure provide a method for recovering an activated carbon product from combustion ash, the method comprising:

(a) providing or obtaining combustion ash, wherein the ash contains at least about 10 wt% carbon;

(b) separating and recovering at least a portion of the carbon contained in the ash, to generate separated carbon; and

(c) further activating or treating the separated carbon, to generate an activated carbon product.

[0071] The combustion ash of step (a) may include ash from any suitable source. In some embodiments, the ash comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of ash from a utility process. In some embodiments, the ash comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of ash from a process unit. In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 20 wt% carbon, at least about 30 wt% carbon, or at least about 40 wt% carbon.

[0072] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 2% oxygen, for example at least about 2% oxygen, at least about 4% oxygen, at least about 6% oxygen, at least about 8% oxygen, at least about 10% oxygen, or at least about 12% oxygen.

[0073] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 50,000 ppm of calcium, for example at least about 50,000 ppm, at least about 55,000 ppm, at least about 60,000 ppm, at least about 65,000 ppm, at least about 70,000 ppm, at least about 75,000 ppm, at least about 80,000 ppm, at least about 85,000 ppm, at least about 90,000 ppm, at least about 95,000 ppm, at least about 100,000 ppm, at least about 105,000 ppm, at least about 110,000 ppm, at least about 115,000 ppm, at least about 120,000 ppm, at least about 125,000 ppm, at least about 130,000 ppm, at least about 135,000 ppm, at least about 140,000 ppm, at least about 145,000 ppm, at least about 150,000 ppm, at least about 155,000 ppm, at least about 160,000 ppm, at least about 165,000 ppm, at least about 170,000 ppm, at least about 175,000 ppm, at least about 180,000 ppm, at least about 185,000 ppm, at least about 190,000 ppm, at least about 195,000 ppm, at least about 200,000 ppm, at least about 205,000 ppm, at least about 210,000 ppm, at least about 215,000 ppm, at least about 220,000 ppm, at least about 215,000 ppm, at least about 230,000 ppm, at least about 235,000 ppm, at least about 240,000 ppm, at least about 245,000 ppm, at least about 250,000 ppm, at least about 255,000 ppm, at least about 260,000 ppm, at least about 265,000 ppm, at least about 270,000 ppm, at least about 275,000 ppm, at least about 280,000 ppm, at least about 285,000 ppm, at least about 290,000 ppm, at least about 295,000 ppm, or at least about 300,000 ppm of calcium.

[0074] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 5,000 ppm of potassium, for example at least about 5,000 ppm, at least about 5,500 ppm, at least about 6,000 ppm, at least about 6,500 ppm, at least about 7,000 ppm, at least about 7,500 ppm, at least about 8,000 ppm, at least about 8,500 ppm, at least about 9,000 ppm, at least about 9,500 ppm, at least about 10,000 ppm, at least about 10,500 ppm, at least about 11,000 ppm, at least about 11,500 ppm, at least about 12,000 ppm, at least about 12,500 ppm, at least about 13,000 ppm, at least about 13,500 ppm, at least about 14,000 ppm, at least about 14,500 ppm, at least about 15,000 ppm, at least about 15,500 ppm, at least about 16,000 ppm, at least about 16,500 ppm, at least about 17,000 ppm, at least about 17,500 ppm, at least about 18,000 ppm, at least about 18,500 ppm, at least about 19,000 ppm, at least about 19,500 ppm, at least about 20,000 ppm, at least about 20,500 ppm, at least about 21,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 22,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 23,000 ppm, at least about 23,500 ppm, at least about 24,000 ppm, at least about 24,500 ppm, at least about 25,000 ppm, at least about 25,500 ppm, at least about 26,000 ppm, at least about 26,500 ppm, at least about 27,000 ppm, at least about 27,500 ppm, at least about 28,000 ppm, at least about 28,500 ppm, at least about 29,000 ppm, at least about 29,500 ppm, at least about 30,000 ppm, at least about 30,500 ppm, at least about 31,000 ppm, at least about 31,500 ppm, at least about 32,000 ppm, at least about 32,500 ppm, at least about 33,000 ppm, at least about 33,500 ppm, at least about 34,000 ppm, at least about 34,500 ppm, at least about 35,000 ppm, at least about 35,500 ppm, at least about 36,000 ppm, at least about 36,500 ppm, at least about 37,000 ppm, at least about 37,500 ppm, at least about 38,000 ppm, at least about 38,500 ppm, at least about 39,000 ppm, at least about 39,500 ppm, at least about 40,000 ppm, at least about 40,500 ppm, at least about 41,000 ppm, at least about 41,500 ppm, at least about 42,000 ppm, at least about 42,500 ppm, at least about 43,000 ppm, at least about 43,500 ppm, at least about 44,000 ppm, at least about 44,500 ppm, at least about 45,000 ppm, at least about 45,500 ppm, at least about 46,000 ppm, at least about 46,500 ppm, at least about 47,000 ppm, at least about 47,500 ppm, at least about 48,000 ppm, at least about 48,500 ppm, at least about 49,000 ppm, at least about 49,500 ppm, at least about 50,000 ppm, at least about 50,500 ppm, at least about 51,000 ppm, at least about 51,500 ppm, at least about 52,000 ppm, at least about 52,500 ppm, at least about 53,000 ppm, at least about 53,500 ppm, at least about 54,000 ppm, at least about 54,500 ppm, at least about 55,000 ppm, at least about 55,500 ppm, at least about 56,000 ppm, at least about 56,500 ppm, at least about 57,000 ppm, at least about 57,500 ppm, at least about 58,000 ppm, at least about 58,500 ppm, at least about 59,000 ppm, at least about 59,500 ppm, at least about 60,000 ppm, at least about 60,500 ppm, at least about 61,000 ppm, at least about 61,500 ppm, at least about 62,000 ppm, at least about 62,500 ppm, at least about 63,000 ppm, at least about 63,500 ppm, at least about 64,000 ppm, at least about 64,500 ppm, at least about 65,000 ppm, at least about 65,500 ppm, at least about 66,000 ppm, at least about 66,500 ppm, at least about 67,000 ppm, at least about 67,500 ppm, at least about 68,000 ppm, at least about 68,500 ppm, at least about 69,000 ppm, at least about 69,500 ppm, at least about 70,000 ppm, at least about 70,500 ppm, at least about 71,000 ppm, at least about 71,500 ppm, at least about 72,000 ppm, at least about 72,500 ppm, at least about 73,000 ppm, at least about 73,500 ppm, at least about 74,000 ppm, at least about 74,500 ppm, at least about 75,000 ppm, at least about 75,500 ppm, at least about 76,000 ppm, at least about 76,500 ppm, at least about 77,000 ppm, at least about 77,500 ppm, at least about 78,000 ppm, at least about 78,500 ppm, at least about 79,000 ppm, at least about 79,500 ppm, at least about 80,000 ppm, at least about 80,500 ppm, at least about 81,000 ppm, at least about 81,500 ppm, at least about 82,000 ppm, at least about 82,500 ppm, at least about 83,000 ppm, at least about 83,500 ppm, at least about 84,000 ppm, at least about 84,500 ppm, at least about 85,000 ppm, at least about 85,500 ppm, at least about 86,000 ppm, at least about 86,500 ppm, at least about 87,000 ppm, at least about 87,500 ppm, at least about 88,000 ppm, at least about 88,500 ppm, at least about 89,000 ppm, at least about 89,500 ppm, at least about 90,000 ppm, at least about 90,500 ppm, at least about 91,000 ppm, at least about 91,500 ppm, at least about 92,000 ppm, at least about 92,500 ppm, at least about 93,000 ppm, at least about 93,500 ppm, at least about 94,000 ppm, at least about 94,500 ppm, at least about 95,000 ppm, at least about 95,500 ppm, at least about 96,000 ppm, at least about 96,500 ppm, at least about 97,000 ppm, at least about 97,500 ppm, at least about 98,000 ppm, at least about 98,500 ppm, at least about 99,000 ppm, at least about 99,500 ppm, or at least about 100,000 ppm of potassium.

[0075] In some embodiments, the ash contains no more than about 20,000 ppm of iron, for example no more than about 5,000 ppm, no more than about 5,500 ppm, no more than about 6,000 ppm, no more than about 6,500 ppm, no more than about 7,000 ppm, no more than about 7,500 ppm, no more than about 8,000 ppm, no more than about 8,500 ppm, no more than about 9,000 ppm, no more than about 9,500 ppm, no more than about 10,000 ppm, no more than about 10,500 ppm, no more than about 11,000 ppm, no more than about 11,500 ppm, no more than about 12,000 ppm, no more than about 12,500 ppm, no more than about 13,000 ppm, no more than about 13,500 ppm, no more than about 14,000 ppm, no more than about 14,500 ppm, no more than about 15,000 ppm, no more than about 15,500 ppm, no more than about 16,000 ppm, no more than about 16,500 ppm, no more than about 17,000 ppm, no more than about 17,500 ppm, no more than about 18,000 ppm, no more than about 18,500 ppm, no more than about 19,000 ppm, no more than about 19,500 ppm, or no more than about 20,000 ppm of iron.

[0076] In some embodiments, the ash contains no more than about 15,000 ppm of aluminum, for example no more than about 5,000 ppm, no more than about 5,500 ppm, no more than about 6,000 ppm, no more than about 6,500 ppm, no more than about 7,000 ppm, no more than about 7,500 ppm, no more than about 8,000 ppm, no more than about 8,500 ppm, no more than about 9,000 ppm, no more than about 9,500 ppm, no more than about 10,000 ppm, no more than about 10,500 ppm, no more than about 11,000 ppm, no more than about 11,500 ppm, no more than about 12,000 ppm, no more than about 12,500 ppm, no more than about 13,000 ppm, no more than about 13,500 ppm, no more than about 14,000 ppm, no more than about 14,500 ppm, or no more than about 15,000 ppm of aluminum.

[0077] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 9,000 ppm of potassium, for example at least about 9,000 ppm, at least about 9,500 ppm, at least about 10,000 ppm, at least about 10,500 ppm, at least about 11,000 ppm, at least about 11,500 ppm, at least about 12,000 ppm, at least about 12,500 ppm, at least about 13,000 ppm, at least about 13,500 ppm, at least about 14,000 ppm, at least about 14,500 ppm, at least about 15,000 ppm, at least about 15,500 ppm, at least about 16,000 ppm, at least about 16,500 ppm, at least about 17,000 ppm, at least about 17,500 ppm, at least about 18,000 ppm, at least about 18,500 ppm, at least about 19,000 ppm, at least about 19,500 ppm, at least about 20,000 ppm, at least about 20,500 ppm, at least about 21,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 22,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 23,000 ppm, at least about 23,500 ppm, at least about 24,000 ppm, at least about 24,500 ppm, at least about 25,000 ppm, at least about 25,500 ppm, at least about 26,000 ppm, at least about 26,500 ppm, at least about 27,000 ppm, at least about 27,500 ppm, at least about 28,000 ppm, at least about 28,500 ppm, at least about 29,000 ppm, at least about 29,500 ppm, or at least about 30,000 ppm of magnesium.

[0078] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 1,000 ppm of manganese, for example at least about 1,000 ppm, at least about 1,500 ppm, at least about 2,000 ppm, at least about 2,500 ppm, at least about 3,000 ppm, at least about 3,500 ppm, at least about 4,000 ppm, at least about 4,500 ppm, at least about 5,000 ppm, at least about 5,500 ppm, at least about 6,000 ppm, at least about 6,500 ppm, at least about 7,000 ppm, at least about 7,500 ppm, at least about 8,000 ppm, at least about 8,500 ppm, at least about 9,000 ppm, at least about 9,500 ppm, at least about 10,000 ppm, at least about 10,500 ppm, at least about 11,000 ppm, at least about 11,500 ppm, at least about 12,000 ppm, at least about 12,500 ppm, at least about 13,000 ppm, at least about 13,500 ppm, at least about 14,000 ppm, at least about 14,500 ppm, at least about 15,000 ppm, at least about 15,500 ppm, at least about 16,000 ppm, at least about 16,500 ppm, at least about 17,000 ppm, at least about 17,500 ppm, at least about 18,000 ppm, at least about 18,500 ppm, at least about 19,000 ppm, at least about 19,500 ppm, at least about 20,000 ppm, at least about 20,500 ppm, at least about 21,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 22,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 23,000 ppm, at least about 23,500 ppm, at least about 24,000 ppm, at least about 24,500 ppm, at least about 25,000 ppm, at least about 25,500 ppm, at least about 26,000 ppm, at least about 26,500 ppm, at least about 27,000 ppm, at least about 27,500 ppm, at least about 28,000 ppm, at least about 28,500 ppm, at least about 29,000 ppm, at least about 29,500 ppm, or at least about 30,000 ppm of manganese.

[0079] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 4,000 ppm of sodium, for example at least about 4,000 ppm, at least about 4,500 ppm, at least about 5,000 ppm, at least about 5,500 ppm, at least about 6,000 ppm, at least about 6,500 ppm, at least about 7,000 ppm, at least about 7,500 ppm, at least about 8,000 ppm, at least about 8,500 ppm, at least about 9,000 ppm, at least about 9,500 ppm, at least about 10,000 ppm, at least about 10,500 ppm, at least about 11,000 ppm, at least about 11,500 ppm, at least about 12,000 ppm, at least about 12,500 ppm, at least about 13,000 ppm, at least about 13,500 ppm, at least about 14,000 ppm, at least about 14,500 ppm, at least about 15,000 ppm, at least about 15,500 ppm, at least about 16,000 ppm, at least about 16,500 ppm, at least about 17,000 ppm, at least about 17,500 ppm, at least about 18,000 ppm, at least about 18,500 ppm, at least about 19,000 ppm, at least about 19,500 ppm, at least about 20,000 ppm, at least about 20,500 ppm, at least about 21,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 22,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 23,000 ppm, at least about 23,500 ppm, at least about 24,000 ppm, at least about 24,500 ppm, at least about 25,000 ppm, at least about 25,500 ppm, at least about 26,000 ppm, at least about 26,500 ppm, at least about 27,000 ppm, at least about 27,500 ppm, at least about 28,000 ppm, at least about 28,500 ppm, at least about 29,000 ppm, at least about 29,500 ppm, or at least about 30,000 ppm of sodium.

[0080] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 80,000 ppm of silicon, for example at least about 80,000 ppm, at least about 85,000 ppm, at least about 90,000 ppm, at least about 95,000 ppm, at least about 100,000 ppm, at least about 105,000 ppm, at least about 110,000 ppm, at least about 115,000 ppm, at least about 120,000 ppm, at least about 125,000 ppm, at least about 130,000 ppm, at least about 135,000 ppm, at least about 140,000 ppm, at least about 145,000 ppm, at least about 150,000 ppm, at least about 155,000 ppm, at least about 160,000 ppm, at least about 165,000 ppm, at least about 170,000 ppm, at least about 175,000 ppm, at least about 180,000 ppm, at least about 185,000 ppm, at least about 190,000 ppm, at least about 195,000 ppm, at least about 200,000 ppm, at least about 205,000 ppm, at least about 210,000 ppm, at least about 215,000 ppm, at least about 220,000 ppm, at least about 215,000 ppm, at least about 230,000 ppm, at least about 235,000 ppm, at least about 240,000 ppm, at least about 245,000 ppm, at least about 250,000 ppm, at least about 255,000 ppm, at least about 260,000 ppm, at least about 265,000 ppm, at least about 270,000 ppm, at least about 275,000 ppm, at least about 280,000 ppm, at least about 285,000 ppm, at least about 290,000 ppm, at least about 295,000 ppm, or at least about 300,000 ppm of silicon.

[0081] In some embodiments, the ash contains no more than about 2,000 ppm of titanium, for example no more than about 2,000 ppm, no more than about 1,900 ppm, no more than about 1,800 ppm, no more than about 1,700 ppm, no more than about 1,600 ppm, no more than about 1,500 ppm, no more than about 1,400 ppm, no more than about 1,300 ppm, no more than about 1,200 ppm, no more than about 1,100 ppm, no more than about 1,000 ppm, no more than about 900 ppm, no more than about 800 ppm, no more than about 700 ppm, no more than about 600 ppm, no more than about 500 ppm, no more than about 400 ppm, no more than about 300 ppm, no more than about 200 ppm, no more than about 100 ppm of titanium.

[0082] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 1,000 ppm of phosphorus, for example at least about 1,000 ppm, at least about 1,500 ppm, at least about 2,000 ppm, at least about 2,500 ppm, at least about 3,000 ppm, at least about 3,500 ppm, at least about 4,000 ppm, at least about 4,500 ppm, at least about 5,000 ppm, at least about 5,500 ppm, at least about 6,000 ppm, at least about 6,500 ppm, at least about 7,000 ppm, at least about 7,500 ppm, at least about 8,000 ppm, at least about 8,500 ppm, at least about 9,000 ppm, at least about 9,500 ppm, at least about 10,000 ppm, at least about 10,500 ppm, at least about 11,000 ppm, at least about 11,500 ppm, at least about 12,000 ppm, at least about 12,500 ppm, at least about 13,000 ppm, at least about 13,500 ppm, at least about 14,000 ppm, at least about 14,500 ppm, at least about 15,000 ppm, at least about 15,500 ppm, at least about 16,000 ppm, at least about 16,500 ppm, at least about 17,000 ppm, at least about 17,500 ppm, at least about 18,000 ppm, at least about 18,500 ppm, at least about 19,000 ppm, at least about 19,500 ppm, at least about 20,000 ppm, at least about 20,500 ppm, at least about 21,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 22,000 ppm, at least about 21,500 ppm, at least about 23,000 ppm, at least about 23,500 ppm, at least about 24,000 ppm, at least about 24,500 ppm, at least about 25,000 ppm, at least about 25,500 ppm, at least about 26,000 ppm, at least about 26,500 ppm, at least about 27,000 ppm, at least about 27,500 ppm, at least about 28,000 ppm, at least about 28,500 ppm, at least about 29,000 ppm, at least about 29,500 ppm, or at least about 30,000 ppm of phosphorus.

[0083] In some embodiments, the ash contains at least about 50,000 ppm of calcium, no more than about 20,000 ppm of iron, no more than about 15,000 ppm of aluminum, at least about 9,000 ppm of magnesium, at least about 5,000 ppm of potassium, at least about 1,000 ppm of manganese, at least about 4,000 ppm of sodium, at least about 80,000 ppm of silicon, no more than about 2,000 ppm of titanium, and/or at least about 1,000 ppm of phosphorous. In some embodiments, the content of any one or more of the metal species listed herein is entirely present, essentially present, or substantially present in the ash by way of the carbon-containing feedstock material (e.g., by concentrating the amount of one or more metals already present in the carbon- containing feedstock), and not by incorporation of an additive.

[0084] Separating in step (b) may be conducted by a dry separation process, a wet separation process, or a combination thereof. Either of steps (b) or (c) may include chemical, thermal, mechanical, physical, and/or gravimetric separation or treatment to the ash or the separated carbon.

[0085] Steps (b) or (c) may include pH adjustment of the ash or the separated carbon. In some embodiments, the pH adjustment is achieved by addition of one or more additives to the ash or the separated carbon. For example, the pH may be reduced by addition of one or more organic or inorganic acids to the ash or the separated carbon.

[0086] In some embodiments, steps (b) and/or (c) include blending the ash with an additive.

Any additive suitable for enhancing the absorption/adsorption capabilities of the activated carbon product towards one or more target compounds (e.g., mercury, H ₂ S, etc.). In some embodiments, steps (b) and/or (c) include adding one or more halogens or halogen-containing compounds to enhance mercury-absorption properties of the activated carbon. In some embodiments, steps (b) and/or (c) include adding moisture to enhance hydrogen sulfide absorption properties of the activated carbon.

[0087] In some embodiments, steps (b) and/or (c) include contacting or exposing the separated carbon to a gas. In some embodiments, the gas is provided at a temperature of about 300°C to about 1300°C, such as about 300°C, about 325°C, about 335°C, about 350°C, about 375°C, about 400°C, about 425°C, about 450°C, about 475°C, about 500°C, about 525°C, about 550°C, about 575°C, about 600°C, about 625°C, about 650°C, about 675°C, about 700°C, about 725°C, about 750°C, about 775°C, about 800°C, about 825°C, about 850°C, about 875°C, about 900°C, about 925°C, about 950°C, about 975°C, about 1000°C, about 1025°C, about 1050°C, about 1075°C, about 1100°C, about 1125°C, about 1150°C, about 1175°C, about 1200°C, about 1225°C, about 1250°C, about 1275°C, or about 1300°C. In some embodiments, the gas comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of C0 ₂ , H ₂ 0 and/or N ₂ .

[0088] In some embodiments, step (c) includes blending the separated carbon with another source of carbon, to generate the activated carbon product. The separated carbon may be further processed (e.g., further activated, pH-adjusted, purified, sized, etc.) prior to blending with another source of carbon, to generate the activated carbon product.

[0089] In some embodiments, step (c) includes pyrolyzing the ash, for example at a temperature of about 300°C to about 1300°C, such as about 300°C, about 325°C, about 335°C, about 350°C, about 375°C, about 400°C, about 425°C, about 450°C, about 475°C, about 500°C, about 525°C, about 550°C, about 575°C, about 600°C, about 625°C, about 650°C, about 675°C, about 700°C, about 725°C, about 750°C, about 775°C, about 800°C, about 825°C, about 850°C, about 875°C, about 900°C, about 925°C, about 950°C, about 975°C, about 1000°C, about 1025°C, about 1050°C, about 1075°C, about 1100°C, about 1125°C, about 1150°C, about 1175°C, about 1200°C, about 1225°C, about 1250°C, about 1275°C, or about 1300°C. [0090] The present disclosure includes apparatus and systems configured to carry out the processes and methods disclosed. The present disclosure also includes activated carbon products produced by the disclosed processes, or processes that include the disclosed methods.

[0091] In some embodiments, carbon that is separated from ash is subjected to further pyrolysis. The temperature of the pyrolysis may be selected from about 250°C to about 1,000°C, such as about 300°C, about 350°C, about 400°C, about 450°C, about 500°C, about 550°C, about 600°C, about 650°C, 700°C, about 750°C, about 800°C, about 850°C, about 900°C, about 950°C, or about 1,000°C. Preheated biomass undergoes pyrolysis chemistry to release gases and condensable vapors, leaving a significant amount of solid material as a high-carbon reaction intermediate. Biomass components (primarily cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin) decompose and create vapors, which escape by penetrating through pores or creating new pores. The temperature will at least depend on the residence time of the pyrolysis zone, as well as the nature of the feedstock and product properties.

[0092] It is noted that size reduction is a costly and energy-intensive process. Pyrolyzed material can be sized with significantly less energy input, i.e. it can be more energy efficient to reduce the particle size of the product, not the feedstock. This is an option in the present disclosure because the process does not require a fine starting material, and there is not necessarily any particle-size reduction during processing. The present disclosure provides the ability to process very large pieces of feedstock. Notably, some market applications of the activated carbon product actually require large sizes (e.g., on the order of centimeters), so that in some embodiments, large pieces are fed, produced, and sold. It should be appreciated that, while not necessary in all embodiments of this disclosure, smaller sizing has resulted in higher fixed carbon numbers under similar process conditions and may be utilized in some applications that typically call for small sized activated carbon products and/or higher fixed carbon content.

[0093] When it is desired to produce a final carbonaceous biogenic activated carbon product that has structural integrity, such as in the form of cylinders, there are at least two options in the context of this present disclosure. First, the material produced from the process is collected and then further process mechanically into the desired form. For example, the product is pressed or pelletized, with a binder. The second option is to utilize feed materials that generally possess the desired size and/or shape for the final product, and employ processing steps that do not destroy the basic structure of the feed material. In some embodiments, the feed and product have similar geometrical shapes, such as spheres, cylinders, or cubes.

[0094] The ability to maintain the approximate shape of feed material throughout the process is beneficial when product strength is important. Also, this control avoids the difficulty and cost of pelletizing high fixed-carbon materials.

[0095] As will be described in detail below, there are a large number of options as to intermediate input and output (purge or probe) streams of one or more phases present in any particular reactor, various mass and energy recycle schemes, various additives that may be introduced anywhere in the process, adjustability of process conditions including both reaction and separation conditions in order to tailor product distributions, and so on. Zone or reactor-specific input and output streams enable good process monitoring and control, such as through FTIR sampling and dynamic process adjustments.

[0096] Any references to "zones" shall be broadly construed to include regions of space within a single physical unit, physically separate units, or any combination thereof. The demarcation of zones may relate to structure, such as the presence of flights or distinct heating elements to provide heat to separate zones. Alternatively, or additionally, in various embodiments, the demarcation of zones relates to function, such as at least: distinct temperatures, fluid flow patterns, solid flow patterns, and extent of reaction. In a single batch reactor, "zones" are operating regimes in time, rather than in space. It will be appreciated that there are not necessarily abrupt transitions from one zone to another zone.

[0097] All references to zone temperatures in this specification should be construed in a non-limiting way to include temperatures that may apply to the bulk solids present, or the gas phase, or the reactor walls (on the process side). It will be understood that there will be a temperature gradient in each zone, both axially and radially, as well as temporally (i.e., following start-up or due to transients). Thus, references to zone temperatures may be references to average temperatures or other effective temperatures that may influence the actual kinetics. Temperatures may be directly measured by thermocouples or other temperature probes, or indirectly measured or estimated by other means.

[0098] Various flow patterns may be desired or observed. With chemical reactions and simultaneous separations involving multiple phases in multiple zones, the fluid dynamics can be quite complex. Typically, the flow of solids may approach plug flow (well-mixed in the radial dimension) while the flow of vapor may approach fully mixed flow (fast transport in both radial and axial dimensions). Multiple inlet and outlet ports for vapor may contribute to overall mixing.

[0099] An optional step of separating at least a portion of the condensable vapors and at least a portion of the non-condensable gases from the hot pyrolyzed solids may be accomplished in the reactor itself, or using a distinct separation unit. A substantially inert sweep gas may be introduced into one or more of the zones. Condensable vapors and non-condensable gases are then carried away from the zone (s) in the sweep gas.

[00100] The sweep gas may be N ₂ , Ar, CO, C0 ₂ , H ₂ , H ₂ 0, CH ₄ , other light hydrocarbons, or combinations thereof, for example. The sweep gas may first be preheated prior to introduction, or possibly cooled if it is obtained from a heated source.

[00101] The sweep gas more thoroughly removes volatile components, by getting them out of the system before they can condense or further react. The sweep gas allows volatiles to be removed at higher rates than would be attained merely from volatilization at a given process temperature. Or, use of the sweep gas allows milder temperatures to be used to remove a certain quantity of volatiles. The reason the sweep gas improves the volatiles removal is that the mechanism of separation is not merely relative volatility but rather liquid/vapor phase disengagement assisted by the sweep gas. The sweep gas can both reduce mass-transfer limitations of volatilization as well as reduce thermodynamic limitations by continuously depleting a given volatile species, to cause more of it to vaporize to attain thermodynamic equilibrium.

[00102] It is important to remove gases laden with volatile organic carbon from subsequent processing stages, in order to produce a product with high fixed carbon. Without removal, the volatile carbon can adsorb or absorb onto the pyrolyzed solids, thereby requiring additional energy (cost) to achieve a purer form of carbon which may be desired. By removing vapors quickly, it is also speculated that porosity may be enhanced in the pyrolyzing solids.

[00103] In certain embodiments, the sweep gas in conjunction with a relatively low process pressure, such as atmospheric pressure, provides for fast vapor removal without large amounts of inert gas necessary.

[00104] In some embodiments, the sweep gas flows countercurrent to the flow direction of feedstock. In other embodiments, the sweep gas flows cocurrent to the flow direction of feedstock. In some embodiments, the flow pattern of solids approaches plug flow while the flow pattern of the sweep gas, and gas phase generally, approaches fully mixed flow in one or more zones. [00105] The sweep may be performed in any one or more of the zones. In some embodiments, the sweep gas is introduced into the cooling zone and extracted (along with volatiles produced) from the cooling and/or pyrolysis zones. In some embodiments, the sweep gas is introduced into the pyrolysis zone and extracted from the pyrolysis and/or preheating zones. In some embodiments, the sweep gas is introduced into the preheating zone and extracted from the pyrolysis zone. In these or other embodiments, the sweep gas may be introduced into each of the preheating, pyrolysis, and cooling zones and also extracted from each of the zones.

[00106] The sweep gas may be introduced continuously, especially when the solids flow is continuous. When the pyrolysis reaction is operated as a batch process, the sweep gas may be introduced after a certain amount of time, or periodically, to remove volatiles. Even when the pyrolysis reaction is operated continuously, the sweep gas may be introduced semi-continuously or periodically, if desired, with suitable valves and controls.

[00107] The volatiles-containing sweep gas may exit from the one or more zones, and may be combined if obtained from multiple zones. The resulting gas stream, containing various vapors, may then be fed to a process gas heater for control of air emissions. Any known thermal-oxidation unit may be employed. In some embodiments, the process gas heater is fed with natural gas and air, to reach sufficient temperatures for substantial destruction of volatiles contained therein.

[00108] The effluent of the process gas heater will be a hot gas stream comprising water, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen. This effluent stream may be purged directly to air emissions, if desired. In some embodiments, the energy content of the process gas heater effluent is recovered, such as in a waste-heat recovery unit. The energy content may also be recovered by heat exchange with another stream (such as the sweep gas). The energy content may be utilized by directly or indirectly heating, or assisting with heating, a unit elsewhere in the process, such as the dryer or the reactor. In some embodiments, essentially all of the process gas heater effluent is employed for indirect heating (utility side) of the dryer. The process gas heater may employ other fuels than natural gas.

[00109] Carbonaceous solids may be introduced into a cooler. In some embodiments, solids are collected and simply allowed to cool at slow rates. If the carbonaceous solids are reactive or unstable in air, it may be desirable to maintain an inert atmosphere and/or rapidly cool the solids to, for example, a temperature less than 40°C, such as ambient temperature. In some embodiments, a water quench is employed for rapid cooling. In some embodiments, a fluidized-bed cooler is employed. A "cooler" should be broadly construed to also include containers, tanks, pipes, or portions thereof.

[00110] In some embodiments, the process further comprises operating the cooler to cool the warm pyrolyzed solids with steam, thereby generating the cool pyrolyzed solids and superheated steam; wherein the drying is carried out, at least in part, with the superheated steam derived from the cooler. Optionally, the cooler may be operated to first cool the warm pyrolyzed solids with steam to reach a first cooler temperature, and then with air to reach a second cooler temperature, wherein the second cooler temperature is lower than the first cooler temperature and is associated with a reduced combustion risk for the warm pyrolyzed solids in the presence of the air.

[00111] Following cooling to ambient conditions, the carbonaceous solids may be recovered and stored, conveyed to another site operation, transported to another site, or otherwise disposed, traded, or sold. The solids may be fed to a unit to reduce particle size. A variety of size-reduction units are known in the art, including crushers, shredders, grinders, pulverizers, jet mills, pin mills, and ball mills.

[00112] Screening or some other means for separation based on particle size may be included. The screening may be upstream or downstream of grinding, if present. A portion of the screened material (e.g., large chunks) may be returned to the grinding unit. The small and large particles may be recovered for separate downstream uses. In some embodiments, cooled pyrolyzed solids are ground into a fine powder, such as a pulverized carbon or activated carbon product or increased strength.

[00113] Various additives may be introduced throughout the process, before, during, or after any step disclosed herein. The additives may be broadly classified as process additives, selected to improve process performance such as carbon yield or pyrolysis time/temperature to achieve a desired carbon purity; and product additives, selected to improve one or more properties of the biogenic activated carbon, or a downstream product incorporating the reagent. Certain additives may provide enhanced process and product characteristics, such as overall yield of biogenic activated carbon product compared to the amount of biomass feedstock.

[00114] The additive may be added at any suitable time during the entire process. For example and without limitation, the additive may be added before, during or after a feedstock drying step; before, during or after a feedstock deaerating step; before, during or after a combustion step; before, during or after a pyrolysis step; before, during or after a separation step; before, during or after any cooling step; before, during or after a biogenic activated carbon recovery step; before, during or after a pulverizing step; before, during or after a sizing step; and/or before, during or after a packaging step. Additives may be incorporated at or on feedstock supply facilities, transport trucks, unloading equipment, storage bins, conveyors (including open or closed conveyors), dryers, process heaters, or any other units. Additives may be added anywhere into the pyro lysis process itself, using suitable means for introducing additives. Additives may be added after carbonization, or even after pulverization, if desired.

[00115] In some embodiments, an additive is selected from ash, a metal, a metal oxide, a metal hydroxide, or a combination thereof. For example an additive may be selected from, but is by no means limited to, magnesium, manganese, aluminum, nickel, chromium, silicon, boron, cerium, molybdenum, phosphorus, tungsten, vanadium, iron halide, iron chloride, iron bromide, magnesium oxide, dolomite, dolomitic lime, fluorite, fluorospar, bentonite, calcium oxide, lime, and combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the additive, for example ash, is added to a reactor. In one embodiment, the ash increases product yield and/or quality.

[00116] In some embodiments, an additive is selected from an acid, a base, or a salt thereof.

For example an additive may be selected from, but is by no means limited to, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, magnesium oxide, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen chloride, sodium silicate, potassium permanganate, organic acids (e.g., citric acid), or combinations thereof.

[00117] In some embodiments, an additive is selected from a metal halide. Metal halides are compounds between metals and halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine). The halogens can form many compounds with metals. Metal halides are generally obtained by direct combination, or more commonly, neutralization of basic metal salt with a hydrohalic acid. In some embodiments, an additive is selected from iron halide (FeX ₂ and/or FeX ₃ ), iron chloride (FeCl ₂ and/or FeCl ₃ ), iron bromide (FeBr ₂ and/or FeBr ₃ ), or hydrates thereof, and any combinations thereof.

[00118] In some variations, a biogenic activated carbon composition comprises, on a dry basis:

55 wt% or more total carbon;

15 wt% or less hydrogen;

1 wt% or less nitrogen;

0.5 wt% or less phosphorus; 0.2 wt% or less sulfur;

an additive selected from an acid, a base, a salt, a metal, a metal oxide, a metal hydroxide, a metal halide, iodine, an iodine compound, or a combination thereof.

[00119] In some embodiments, the additive comprises iodine or an iodine compound, or a combination of iodine and one or more iodine compounds. When the additive comprises iodine, it may be present in the biogenic activated carbon composition as absorbed or intercalated molecular I ₂ , as physically or chemically adsorbed molecular I ₂ , as absorbed or intercalated atomic I, as physically or chemically adsorbed atomic I, or any combination thereof.

[00120] When the additive comprises one or more iodine compounds, they may be selected from the group consisting of iodide ion, hydrogen iodide, an iodide salt, a metal iodide, ammonium iodide, an iodine oxide, triiodide ion, a triiodide salt, a metal triiodide, ammonium triiodide, iodate ion, an iodate salt, a polyiodide, iodoform, iodic acid, methyl iodide, an iodinated hydrocarbon, periodic acid, orthoperiodic acid, metaperiodic acid, and combinations, salts, acids, bases, or derivatives thereof.

[00121] In some embodiments, the additive comprises iodine or an iodine compound, or a combination of iodine and one or more iodine compounds, optionally dissolved in a solvent. Various solvents for iodine or iodine compounds are known in the art. For example, alkyl halides such as (but not limited to) n-propyl bromide or n-butyl iodide may be employed. Alcohols such as methanol or ethanol may be used. In some embodiments, a tincture of iodine may be employed to introduce the additive into the composition.

[00122] In some embodiments, the additive comprises iodine that is introduced as a solid that sublimes to iodine vapor for incorporation into the biogenic activated carbon composition. At room temperature, iodine is a solid. Upon heating, the iodine sublimes into a vapor. Thus, solid iodine particles may be introduced into any stream, vessel, pipe, or container (e.g. a barrel or a bag) that also contains the biogenic activated carbon composition. Upon heating the iodine particles will sublime, and the I ₂ vapor can penetrate into the carbon particles, thus incorporating iodine as an additive on the surface of the particles and potentially within the particles.

[00123] Some variations provide a method of using a biogenic activated carbon composition to reduce emissions, the method comprising:

(a) providing activated-carbon particles comprising a biogenic activated carbon composition; (b) providing a gas-phase emissions stream comprising at least one selected contaminant;

(c) providing an additive selected to assist in removal of the selected contaminant from the gas-phase emissions stream;

(d) introducing the activated-carbon particles and the additive into the gas-phase emissions stream, to adsorb at least a portion of the selected contaminant onto the activated-carbon particles, thereby generating contaminant-adsorbed carbon particles within the gas-phase emissions stream; and

(e) separating at least a portion of the contaminant-adsorbed carbon particles from the gas- phase emissions stream, to produce a contaminant-reduced gas-phase emissions stream.

[00124] In some embodiments, the biogenic activated carbon composition comprises 55 wt% or more total carbon; 15 wt% or less hydrogen; 1 wt% or less nitrogen; 0.5 wt% or less phosphorus; and 0.2 wt% or less sulfur. The additive may be provided as part of the activated-carbon particles. Alternatively, or additionally, the additive may be introduced directly into the gas-phase emissions stream.

[00125] The additive (to assist in removal of the selected contaminant from the gas-phase emissions stream) may be selected from an acid, a base, a salt, a metal, a metal oxide, a metal hydroxide, a metal halide, iodine, an iodine compound, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the additive comprises iodine or an iodine compound, or a combination of iodine and one or more iodine compounds, optionally dissolved in a solvent.

[00126] In some embodiments, the selected contaminant is a metal, such as a metal selected from the group consisting of mercury, boron, selenium, arsenic, and any compound, salt, and mixture thereof. In some embodiments, the selected contaminant is a hazardous air pollutant or a volatile organic compound. In some embodiments, the selected contaminant is a non-condensable gas selected from the group consisting of nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, methane, ethane, ethylene, ozone, ammonia, and combinations thereof.

[00127] In some embodiments, the contaminant-adsorbed carbon particles include, in absorbed, adsorbed, or reacted form, at least one, two, three, or all contaminants selected from the group consisting of carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, mercury, and sulfur dioxide.

[00128] In some embodiments, the gas-phase emissions stream is derived from combustion of a fuel comprising the biogenic activated carbon composition. In certain embodiments, the gas- phase emissions stream is derived from co-combustion of coal and the biogenic activated carbon composition.

[00129] In some embodiments, the separating in step (e) comprises filtration, which may for example utilize fabric filters. In some embodiments, separating in step (e) comprises electrostatic precipitation. Scrubbing (including wet or dry scrubbing) may also be employed. Optionally, the contaminant-adsorbed carbon particles may be treated to regenerate the activated-carbon particles. In some embodiments, the contaminant-adsorbed carbon particles are thermally oxidized catalytically or non-catalytically. The contaminant-adsorbed carbon particles, or a regenerated form thereof, may be combusted to provide energy and/or gasified to provide syngas.

[00130] In some variations, a method of using a biogenic activated carbon composition to reduce mercury emissions, comprises:

(a) providing activated-carbon particles comprising a biogenic activated carbon composition that includes an additive comprising iodine or an iodine-containing compound;

(b) providing a gas-phase emissions stream comprising mercury;

(c) introducing the activated-carbon particles into the gas-phase emissions stream, to adsorb at least a portion of the mercury onto the activated-carbon particles, thereby generating mercury- adsorbed carbon particles within the gas-phase emissions stream; and

(d) separating at least a portion of the mercury-adsorbed carbon particles from the gas-phase emissions stream using electrostatic precipitation, to produce a mercury-reduced gas-phase emissions stream.

[00131] In some variations, a process for energy production is provided, the process comprising:

(a) providing a carbon-containing feedstock comprising a biogenic activated carbon composition; and

(b) oxidizing the carbon-containing feedstock to generate energy and a gas-phase emissions stream,

wherein the presence of the biogenic activated carbon composition within the carbon- containing feedstock is effective to adsorb at least one contaminant produced as a byproduct of the oxidizing or derived from the carbon-containing feedstock, thereby reducing emissions of the contaminant, and wherein the biogenic activated carbon composition further includes an additive that is selected from an acid, a base, a salt, a metal, a metal oxide, a metal hydroxide, a metal halide, iodine, an iodine compound, or a combination thereof.

[00132] In some embodiments, the contaminant, or a precursor thereof, is contained within the carbon-containing feedstock. In some embodiments, the contaminant is produced as a byproduct of the oxidizing. The carbon-containing feedstock further comprises biomass, coal, or another carbonaceous feedstock, in various embodiments.

[00133] The selected contaminant may be a metal selected from the group consisting of mercury, boron, selenium, arsenic, and any compound, salt, and mixture thereof; a hazardous air pollutant; a volatile organic compound; or a non-condensable gas selected from the group consisting of nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, methane, ethane, ethylene, ozone, ammonia; and combinations thereof.

[00134] In some variations, a method of using a biogenic activated carbon composition to purify a liquid, comprises:

(a) providing activated-carbon particles comprising a biogenic activated carbon composition;

(b) providing a liquid comprising at least one selected contaminant;

(c) providing an additive selected to assist in removal of the selected contaminant from the liquid; and

(d) contacting the liquid with the activated-carbon particles and the additive, to adsorb at least a portion of the at least one selected contaminant onto the activated-carbon particles, thereby generating contaminant-adsorbed carbon particles and a contaminant-reduced liquid.

[00135] The biogenic activated carbon composition comprises, in some embodiments, 55 wt% or more total carbon; 15 wt% or less hydrogen; 1 wt% or less nitrogen; 0.5 wt% or less phosphorus; and 0.2 wt% or less sulfur.

[00136] The additive may be provided as part of the activated-carbon particles and/or introduced directly into the liquid. The additive may be selected from an acid, a base, a salt, a metal, a metal oxide, a metal hydroxide, a metal halide, iodine, an iodine compound, or a combination thereof.

[00137] In some embodiments, the additive comprises iodine that is present in the biogenic activated carbon composition as absorbed or intercalated molecular I ₂ , physically or chemically adsorbed molecular I ₂ , absorbed or intercalated atomic I, physically or chemically adsorbed atomic I, or a combination thereof.

[00138] In some embodiments, the additive comprises an iodine-containing compound, such as (but not limited to) an iodine-containing compound is selected from the group consisting of iodide ion, hydrogen iodide, an iodide salt, a metal iodide, ammonium iodide, an iodine oxide, triiodide ion, a triiodide salt, a metal triiodide, ammonium triiodide, iodate ion, an iodate salt, a polyiodide, iodoform, iodic acid, methyl iodide, an iodinated hydrocarbon, periodic acid, orthoperiodic acid, metaperiodic acid, and combinations, salts, acids, bases, or derivatives thereof.

[00139] Additives may result in a final product with higher energy content (energy density).

An increase in energy content may result from an increase in total carbon, fixed carbon, volatile carbon, or even hydrogen. Alternatively or additionally, the increase in energy content may result from removal of non-combustible matter or of material having lower energy density than carbon. In some embodiments, additives reduce the extent of liquid formation, in favor of solid and gas formation, or in favor of solid formation.

[00140] In various embodiments, additives chemically modify the starting biomass, or the treated biomass prior to pyrolysis, to reduce rupture of cell walls for greater strength/integrity. In some embodiments, additives may increase fixed carbon content of biomass feedstock prior to pyrolysis.

[00141] Additives may result in a final biogenic activated carbon product with improved mechanical properties, such as yield strength, compressive strength, tensile strength, fatigue strength, impact strength, elastic modulus, bulk modulus, or shear modulus. Additives may improve mechanical properties by simply being present (e.g., the additive itself imparts strength to the mixture) or due to some transformation that takes place within the additive phase or within the resulting mixture. For example, reactions such as vitrification may occur within a portion of the biogenic activated carbon product that includes the additive, thereby improving the final strength.

[00142] Chemical additives may be applied to wet or dry biomass feedstocks. The additives may be applied as a solid powder, a spray, a mist, a liquid, or a vapor. In some embodiments, additives may be introduced through spraying of a liquid solution (such as an aqueous solution or in a solvent), or by soaking in tanks, bins, bags, or other containers. [00143] In certain embodiments, dip pretreatment is employed wherein the solid feedstock is dipped into a bath comprising the additive, either batchwise or continuously, for a time sufficient to allow penetration of the additive into the solid feed material.

[00144] In some embodiments, additives applied to the feedstock may reduce energy requirements for the pyrolysis, and/or increase the yield of the carbonaceous product. In these or other embodiments, additives applied to the feedstock may provide functionality that is desired for the intended use of the carbonaceous product, as will be further described below regarding compositions.

[00145] In some embodiments, the process for producing a biogenic activated carbon further comprises a step of sizing (e.g., sorting, screening, classifying, etc.) the warm or cool pyrolyzed solids to form sized pyrolyzed solids. The sized pyrolyzed solids can then be used in applications which call for an activated carbon product having a certain particle size characteristic.

[00146] The throughput, or process capacity, may vary widely from small laboratory-scale units to full commercial-scale biorefmeries, including any pilot, demonstration, or semi-commercial scale. In various embodiments, the process capacity is at least about 1 kg/day, at least about 10 kg/day, at least about 100 kg/day, at least about 1 ton/day (all tons are metric tons), at least about 10 tons/day, at least about 100 tons/day, at least about 500 tons/day, at least about 1000 tons/day, at least about 2000 tons/day, or more than 2000 tons/day.

[00147] Solid, liquid, and gas streams produced or existing within the process can be independently recycled, passed to subsequent steps, or removed/purged from the process at any point.

[00148] Gas outlets (probes) allow precise process monitoring and control across various stages of the process, up to and potentially including all stages of the process. Precise process monitoring would be expected to result in yield and efficiency improvements, both dynamically as well as over a period of time when operational history can be utilized to adjust process conditions.

[00149] In some embodiments, a reaction gas probe is disposed in operable communication a process zone. Such a reaction gas probe may be useful to extract gases and analyze them, in order to determine extent of reaction, pyrolysis selectivity, or other process monitoring. Then, based on the measurement, the process may be controlled or adjusted in any number of ways, such as by adjusting feed rate, rate of inert gas sweep, temperature (of one or more zones), pressure (of one or more zones), additives, and so on. [00150] As intended herein, "monitor and control" via reaction gas probes should be construed to include any one or more sample extractions via reaction gas probes, and optionally making process or equipment adjustments based on the measurements, if deemed necessary or desirable, using well-known principles of process control (feedback, feedforward, proportional- integral-derivative logic, etc.).

[00151] A reaction gas probe may be configured to extract gas samples in a number of ways.

For example, a sampling line may have a lower pressure than the pyrolysis reactor pressure, so that when the sampling line is opened an amount of gas can readily be extracted from pyrolysis zone. The sampling line may be under vacuum, such as when the pyrolysis zone is near atmospheric pressure. Typically, a reaction gas probe will be associated with one gas output, or a portion thereof (e.g., a line split from a gas output line).

[00152] In some embodiments, both a gas input and a gas output are utilized as a reaction gas probe by periodically introducing an inert gas into a zone, and pulling the inert gas with a process sample out of the gas output ("sample sweep"). Such an arrangement could be used in a zone that does not otherwise have a gas inlet/outlet for the substantially inert gas for processing, or, the reaction gas probe could be associated with a separate gas inlet/outlet that is in addition to process inlets and outlets. A sampling inert gas that is introduced and extracted periodically for sampling (in embodiments that utilize sample sweeps) could even be different than the process inert gas, if desired, either for reasons of accuracy in analysis or to introduce an analytical tracer.

[00153] For example, acetic acid concentration in the gas phase may be measured using a gas probe to extract a sample, which is then analyzed using a suitable technique (such as gas chromatography, GC; mass spectroscopy, MS; GC-MS, or Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, FTIR). CO and/or C0 ₂ concentration in the gas phase could be measured and used as an indication of the pyrolysis selectivity toward gases/vapors, for example. Terpene concentration in the gas phase could be measured and used as an indication of the pyrolysis selectivity toward liquids, and so on.

[00154] In some embodiments, the system further comprises at least one additional gas probe disposed in operable communication with the cooling zone, or with the drying zone (if present) or the preheating zone (if present).

[00155] A gas probe for the cooling zone could be useful to determine the extent of any additional chemistry taking place in the cooling zone, for example. A gas probe in the cooling zone could also be useful as an independent measurement of temperature (in addition, for example, to a thermocouple disposed in the cooling zone). This independent measurement may be a correlation of cooling temperature with a measured amount of a certain species. The correlation could be separately developed, or could be established after some period of process operation.

[00156] A gas probe for the drying zone could be useful to determine the extent of drying, by measuring water content, for example. A gas probe in the preheating zone could be useful to determine the extent of any mild pyrolysis taking place, for example.

[00157] In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the system further includes a process gas heater disposed in operable communication with the outlet at which condensable vapors and non-condensable gases are removed. The process gas heater can be configured to receive a separate fuel (such as natural gas) and an oxidant (such as air) into a combustion chamber, adapted for combustion of the fuel and at least a portion of the condensable vapors. Certain non-condensable gases may also be oxidized, such as CO or CH ₄ , to C0 ₂ .

[00158] When a process gas heater is employed, the system may include a heat exchanger disposed between the process gas heater and the dryer, configured to utilize at least some of the heat of the combustion for the dryer. This embodiment can contribute significantly to the overall energy efficiency of the process.

[00159] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a material enrichment unit, disposed in operable communication with a cooler, configured for combining condensable vapors, in at least partially condensed form, with the solids. The material enrichment unit may increase the carbon content of the biogenic activated carbon.

[00160] The system may further include a separate pyrolysis zone adapted to further pyrolyze the biogenic activated carbon to further increase its carbon content. The separate pyrolysis zone may be a relatively simply container, unit, or device, such as a tank, barrel, bin, drum, tote, sack, or roll-off.

[00161] The overall system may be at a fixed location, or it may be made portable. The system may be constructed using modules which may be simply duplicated for practical scale-up. The system may also be constructed using economy-of-scale principles, as is well-known in the process industries.

[00162] In some embodiments, the process for producing a biogenic activated carbon further comprises a step of sizing (e.g., sorting, screening, classifying, etc.) the warm or cool pyrolyzed solids to form sized pyrolyzed solids. The sized pyrolyzed solids can then be used in applications which call for an activated carbon product having a certain particle size characteristic.

[00163] In some embodiments, the biogenic activated carbon comprises at least about 55 wt.%, for example at least 55 wt.%, at least 60 wt.%, at least 65 wt.%, at least 70 wt%, at least 75 wt.%), at least 80 wt%>, at least 85 wt.%, at least 90 wt%, at least 95 wt%, at least 96 wt%, at least 97 wt%, at least 98 wt%, or at least 99 wt% total carbon on a dry basis. The total carbon includes at least fixed carbon, and may further include carbon from volatile matter. In some embodiments, carbon from volatile matter is about at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 25%, or at least 50% of the total carbon present in the biogenic activated carbon. Fixed carbon may be measured using ASTM D3172, while volatile carbon may be estimated using ASTM D3175, for example.

[00164] Biogenic activated carbon according to the present disclosure may comprise about 0 wt% to about 8 wt% hydrogen. In some embodiments, biogenic activated carbon comprises greater than about 0.5 wt% hydrogen, for example about 0.6 wt%, about 0.7 wt%, about 0.8 wt%, about 0.9 wt%, about 1 wt%, about 1.2 wt%, about 1.4 wt%, about 1.6 wt%>, about 1.8 wt%>, about 2 wt%, about 2.2 wt%, about 2.4 wt%, about 2.6 wt%, about 2.8 wt%, about 3 wt%, about 3.2 wt%>, about 3.4 wt%, about 3.6 wt%, about 3.8 wt%, about 4 wt%, or greater than about 4 wt% hydrogen. The hydrogen content of biogenic activated carbon may be determined by any suitable method known in the art, for example by the combustion analysis procedure outlined in ASTM D5373. In some embodiments, biogenic activated carbon has a hydrogen content that is greater than the hydrogen content of activated carbon derived from fossil fuel sources. Typically, fossil fuel based activated carbon products have less than 1 wt% hydrogen, for example about 0.6 wt% hydrogen. In some embodiments, the characteristics of an activated carbon product can be optimized by blending an amount of a fossil fuel based activated carbon product (i.e., with a very low hydrogen content) with a suitable amount of a biogenic activated carbon product having a hydrogen content greater than that of the fossil fuel based activated carbon product.

[00165] The biogenic activated carbon may comprise about 10 wt% or less, such as about 5 wt% or less, hydrogen on a dry basis. The biogenic activated carbon product may comprise about 1 wt% or less, such as about 0.5 wt% or less, nitrogen on a dry basis. The biogenic activated carbon product may comprise about 0.5 wt% or less, such as about 0.2 wt% or less, phosphorus on a dry basis. The biogenic activated carbon product may comprise about 0.2 wt% or less, such as about 0.1 wt% or less, sulfur on a dry basis. [00166] In certain embodiments, the biogenic activated carbon includes oxygen, such as up to

20 wt% oxygen, for example about 0.2 wt%, about 0.5 wt%, about 1 wt%, about 2 wt%, about 3 wt%, about 4 wt%, about 5 wt%, about 6 wt%, about 7 wt%, about 7.5 wt%, about 8 wt%, about 9 wt%, about 10 wt%, about 11 wt%, about 12 wt%, about 13 wt%, about 14 wt%, about 15 wt%, about 16 wt%, about 17 wt%, about 18 wt%, about 19 wt%, or about 20 wt% oxygen. The presence of oxygen may be beneficial in the activated carbon for certain applications, such as mercury capture, especially in conjunction with the presence of a halogen (such as chlorine or bromine). In some embodiments, biogenic activated carbon has a oxygen content that is greater than the oxygen content of activated carbon derived from fossil fuel sources. Typically, fossil fuel based activated carbon products have less than 10 wt% oxygen, for example about 7 wt% oxygen or about 0.3 wt% oxygen. In some embodiments, the characteristics of an activated carbon product can be optimized by blending an amount of a fossil fuel based activated carbon product (i.e., with a very low oxygen content) with a suitable amount of a biogenic activated carbon product having a oxygen content greater than that of the fossil fuel based activated carbon product.

[00167] Carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen may be measured using ASTM D5373 for ultimate analysis, for example. Oxygen may be estimated using ASTM D3176, for example. Sulfur may be measured using ASTM D3177, for example.

[00168] Certain embodiments provide reagents with little or essentially no hydrogen (except from any moisture that may be present), nitrogen, phosphorus, or sulfur, and are substantially carbon plus any ash and moisture present. Therefore, some embodiments provide a material with up to and including 100% carbon, on a dry/ash-free (DAF) basis.

[00169] Various amounts of non-combustible matter, such as ash, may be present in the final product. The biogenic activated carbon may comprise about 10 wt% or less, such as about 5 wt%, about 2 wt%, about 1 wt% or less than about 1 wt% of non-combustible matter on a dry basis. In certain embodiments, the reagent contains little ash, or even essentially no ash or other non- combustible matter. Therefore, some embodiments provide essentially pure carbon, including 100% carbon, on a dry basis.

[00170] Various amounts of moisture may be present. On a total mass basis, the biogenic activated carbon may comprise at least 1 wt%, at least 2 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 15 wt%>, at least 25 wt%>, at least 35 wt%>, at least 50 wt%>, or more than 50 wt%> of moisture. As intended herein, "moisture" is to be construed as including any form of water present in the biogenic activated carbon product, including absorbed moisture, adsorbed water molecules, chemical hydrates, and physical hydrates. The equilibrium moisture content may vary at least with the local environment, such as the relative humidity. Also, moisture may vary during transportation, preparation for use, and other logistics. Moisture may be measured by any suitable method known in the art, including ASTM D3173, for example.

[00171] The biogenic activated carbon may have various "energy content" which for present purposes means the energy density based on the higher heating value associated with total combustion of the bone-dry reagent. For example, the biogenic activated carbon may possess an energy content of about at least 11,000 Btu/lb, at least 12,000 Btu/lb, at least 13,000 Btu/lb, at least 14,000 Btu/lb, or at least 15,000 Btu/lb. In certain embodiments, the energy content is between about 14,000-15,000 Btu/lb. The energy content may be measured by any suitable method known in the art, including ASTM D5865, for example.

[00172] The biogenic activated carbon may be formed into a powder, such as a coarse powder or a fine powder. For example, the reagent may be formed into a powder with an average mesh size of about 200 mesh, about 100 mesh, about 50 mesh, about 10 mesh, about 6 mesh, about 4 mesh, or about 2 mesh, in embodiments. In some embodiments, the biogenic activated carbon has an average particle size of up to about 500 μιη, for example less than about 10 μιη, about 10 μιη, less than about 15 μιη, about 15 μιη, less than about 20 μιη, about 20 μιη, about 25 μιη, about 50 μιη, about 75 μιη, about 100 μιη, about 200 μιη, about 300 μιη, about 400 μιη, or about 500 μιη.

[00173] The biogenic activated carbon may be produced as powder activated carbon, which generally includes particles with a size predominantly less than 0.21 mm (70 mesh). The biogenic activated carbon may be produced as granular activated carbon, which generally includes irregularly shaped particles with sizes ranging from 0.2 mm to 5 mm. The biogenic activated carbon may be produced as pelletized activated carbon, which generally includes extruded and cylindrically shaped objects with diameters from 0.8 mm to 5 mm.

[00174] In some embodiments, the biogenic activated carbon is formed into structural objects comprising pressed, binded, or agglomerated particles. The starting material to form these objects may be a powder form of the reagent, such as an intermediate obtained by particle-size reduction. The objects may be formed by mechanical pressing or other forces, optionally with a binder or other means of agglomerating particles together. [00175] Following formation from pyrolysis, the biogenic activated carbon may be pulverized to form a powder. "Pulverization" in this context is meant to include any sizing, milling, pulverizing, grinding, crushing, extruding, or other primarily mechanical treatment to reduce the average particle size. The mechanical treatment may be assisted by chemical or electrical forces, if desired. Pulverization may be a batch, continuous, or semi-continuous process and may be carried out at a different location than that of formation of the pyrolyzed solids, in some embodiments.

[00176] In some embodiments, the biogenic activated carbon is produced in the form of structural objects whose structure substantially derives from the feedstock. For example, feedstock chips may produce product chips of biogenic activated carbon. Or, feedstock cylinders may produce biogenic activated carbon cylinders, which may be somewhat smaller but otherwise maintain the basic structure and geometry of the starting material.

[00177] A biogenic activated carbon according to the present disclosure may be produced as, or formed into, an object that has a minimum dimension of at least about 1 cm, at least about 2 cm, at least about 3 cm, at least about 4 cm, at least about 5 cm, at least about 6 cm, at least about 7 cm, at least about 8 cm, at least about 9 cm, at least about 10 cm, or higher. In various embodiments, the minimum dimension or maximum dimension can be a length, width, or diameter.

[00178] Other variations of the present disclosure relate to the incorporation of additives into the process, into the product, or both. In some embodiments, the biogenic activated carbon includes at least one process additive incorporated during the process. In these or other embodiments, the activated carbon includes at least one product additive introduced to the activated carbon following the process.

[00179] Other variations of the present disclosure relate to the incorporation of additives into the process, into the product, or both. In some embodiments, the biogenic activated carbon includes at least one process additive incorporated during the process. In these or other embodiments, the reagent includes at least one product additive introduced to the reagent following the process.

[00180] In some embodiments, a biogenic activated carbon comprises, on a dry basis:

55 wt% or more total carbon;

5 wt% or less hydrogen;

1 wt% or less nitrogen;

optionally from 0.5 wt% to 10 wt% oxygen;

0.5 wt% or less phosphorus; 0.2 wt% or less sulfur; and

an additive selected from a metal, a metal oxide, a metal hydroxide, a metal halide, or a combination thereof.

[00181] The additive may be selected from, but is by no means limited to, iron chloride, iron bromide, magnesium, manganese, aluminum, nickel, chromium, silicon, magnesium oxide, dolomite, dolomitic lime, fluorite, fluorospar, bentonite, calcium oxide, lime, or combinations thereof.

[00182] In some embodiments, a biogenic activated carbon comprises, on a dry basis:

55 wt% or more total carbon;

5 wt% or less hydrogen;

1 wt% or less nitrogen;

optionally from 0.5 wt% to 10 wt% oxygen;

0.5 wt% or less phosphorus;

0.2 wt% or less sulfur; and

an additive selected from an acid, a base, or a salt thereof.

[00183] The additive may be selected from, but is by no means limited to, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, magnesium oxide, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen chloride, sodium silicate, potassium permanganate, organic acids (e.g., citric acid), or combinations thereof.

[00184] In certain embodiments, a biogenic activated carbon comprises, on a dry basis:

55 wt% or more total carbon;

5 wt% or less hydrogen;

1 wt% or less nitrogen;

optionally from 0.5 wt% to 10 wt% oxygen;

0.5 wt% or less phosphorus;

0.2 wt% or less sulfur;

a first additive selected from a metal, metal oxide, metal hydroxide, a metal halide, or a combination thereof; and

a second additive selected from an acid, a base, or a salt thereof,

wherein the first additive is different from the second additive.

[00185] The first additive may be selected from iron chloride, iron bromide, magnesium, manganese, aluminum, nickel, chromium, silicon, magnesium oxide, dolomite, dolomitic lime, fluorite, fluorospar, bentonite, calcium oxide, lime, or combinations thereof, while the second additive may be independently selected from sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, magnesium oxide, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen chloride, sodium silicate, potassium permanganate, organic acids (e.g., citric acid), or combinations thereof.

[00186] A certain biogenic activated carbon consists essentially of, on a dry basis, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur, non-combustible matter, and an additive selected from the group consisting of iron chloride, iron bromide, magnesium, manganese, aluminum, nickel, chromium, silicon, magnesium oxide, dolomite, dolomitic lime, fluorite, fluorospar, bentonite, calcium oxide, lime, and combinations thereof.

[00187] A certain biogenic activated carbon consists essentially of, on a dry basis, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur, non-combustible matter, and an additive selected from the group consisting of sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, magnesium oxide, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen chloride, sodium silicate, and combinations thereof.

[00188] The amount of additive (or total additives) may vary widely, such as from about 0.01 wt% to about 25 wt%, including about 0.1 wt%, about 1 wt%, about 5 wt%, about 10 wt%, or about 20 wt% on a dry basis. It will be appreciated then when relatively large amounts of additives are incorporated, such as higher than about 1 wt%, there will be a reduction in energy content calculated on the basis of the total activated carbon weight (inclusive of additives). Still, in various embodiments, the biogenic activated carbon with additive(s) may possess an energy content of about at least 1 1 ,000 Btu/lb, at least 12,000 Btu/lb, at least 13,000 Btu/lb, at least 14,000 Btu/lb, or at least 15,000 Btu/lb, when based on the entire weight of the biogenic activated carbon (including the additive(s)).

[00189] The above discussion regarding product form applies also to embodiments that incorporate additives. In fact, certain embodiments incorporate additives as binders or other modifiers to enhance final properties for a particular application.

[00190] In some embodiments, the majority of carbon contained in the biogenic activated carbon is classified as renewable carbon. In some embodiments, substantially all of the carbon is classified as renewable carbon. There may be certain market mechanisms (e.g., Renewable Identification Numbers, tax credits, etc.) wherein value is attributed to the renewable carbon content within the biogenic activated carbon. In some embodiments, the additive itself is derived from biogenic sources or is otherwise classified as derived from a renewable carbon source. For example, some organic acids such as citric acid are derived from renewable carbon sources. Thus, in some embodiments, the carbon content of a biogenic activated carbon consists of, consists essentially of, or consists substantially of renewable carbon. For example, a fully biogenic activated carbon formed by methods as disclosed herein consist of, consist essentially of, or consist substantially of (a) pyrolyzed solids derived solely from biomass from renewable carbon sources and (b) one or more additives derived solely from renewable carbon sources

[00191] The biogenic activated carbon produced as described herein is useful for a wide variety of carbonaceous products. In variations, a product includes any of the biogenic activated carbons that may be obtained by the disclosed processes, or that are described in the compositions set forth herein, or any portions, combinations, or derivatives thereof.

[00192] Generally speaking, the biogenic activated carbons may be combusted to produce energy (including electricity and heat); partially oxidized or steam-reformed to produce syngas; utilized for their adsorptive or absorptive properties; utilized for their reactive properties during metal refining (such as reduction of metal oxides) or other industrial processing; or utilized for their material properties in carbon steel and various other metal alloys. Essentially, the biogenic activated carbons may be utilized for any market application of carbon-based commodities or advanced materials (e.g., graphene), including specialty uses to be developed.

[00193] Biogenic activated carbon prepared according to the processes disclosed herein has the same or better characteristics as traditional fossil fuel-based activated carbon. In some embodiments, biogenic activated carbon has a surface area that is comparable to, equal to, or greater than surface area associated with fossil fuel-based activated carbon. In some embodiments, biogenic activated carbon can control pollutants as well as or better than traditional activated carbon products. In some embodiments, biogenic activated carbon has an inert material (e.g., ash) level that is comparable to, equal to, or less than an inert material (e.g., ash) level associated with a traditional activated carbon product. In some embodiments, biogenic activated carbon has a particle size and/or a particle size distribution that is comparable to, equal to, greater than, or less than a particle size and/or a particle size distribution associated with a traditional activated carbon product. In some embodiments, a biogenic activated carbon product has a particle shape that is comparable to, substantially similar to, or the same as a particle shape associated with a traditional activated carbon product. In some embodiments, a biogenic activated carbon product has a particle shape that is substantially different than a particle shape associated with a traditional activated carbon product. In some embodiments, a biogenic activated carbon product has a pore volume that is comparable to, equal to, or greater than a pore volume associated with a traditional activated carbon product. In some embodiments, a biogenic activated carbon product has pore dimensions that are comparable to, substantially similar to, or the same as pore dimensions associated with a traditional activated carbon product. In some embodiments, a biogenic activated product has an attrition resistance of particles value that is comparable to, substantially similar to, or the same as an attrition resistance of particles value associated with a traditional activated carbon product. In some embodiments, a biogenic activated carbon product has a hardness value that is comparable to, substantially similar to, or the same as a hardness value associated with a traditional activated carbon product. In some embodiments, a biogenic activated carbon product has a hardness value that is comparable to, substantially less than, or less than a hardness value associated with a traditional activated carbon product. In some embodiments, a biogenic activated carbon product has a bulk density value that is comparable to, substantially similar to, or the same as a bulk density value associated with a traditional activated carbon product. In some embodiments, a biogenic activated carbon product has a bulk density value that is comparable to, substantially less than, or less than a bulk density value associated with a traditional activated carbon product. In some embodiments, a biogenic activated carbon product has an absorptive capacity that is comparable to, substantially similar to, or the same as an absorptive capacity associated with a traditional activated carbon product.

[00194] Prior to suitability or actual use in any product applications, the disclosed biogenic activated carbons may be analyzed, measured, and optionally modified (such as through additives) in various ways. Some properties of potential interest, other than chemical composition and energy content, include density, particle size, surface area, microporosity, absorptivity, adsorptivity, binding capacity, reactivity, desulfurization activity, basicity, hardness, and Iodine Number.

[00195] Some variations of the present disclosure provide various activated carbon products.

Activated carbon is used in a wide variety of liquid and gas-phase applications, including water treatment, air purification, solvent vapor recovery, food and beverage processing, sugar and sweetener refining, automotive uses, and pharmaceuticals. For activated carbon, key product attributes may include particle size, shape, and composition; surface area, pore volume and pore dimensions, particle-size distribution, the chemical nature of the carbon surface and interior, attrition resistance of particles, hardness, bulk density, and adsorptive capacity. [00196] The surface area of the biogenic activated carbon may vary widely. Exemplary surface areas range from about 400 m ² /g to about 2000 m ² /g or higher, such as about 500 m ² /g, about 600 m ² /g, about 800 m ² /g, about 1000 m ² /g, about 1200 m ² /g, about 1400 m ² /g, about 1600 m ² /g, about 1800 m ² /g, about 2000 m ² /g, or more than about 2000 m ² /g. Surface area generally correlates to adsorption capacity.

[00197] The Iodine Number is a parameter used to characterize activated carbon performance. The Iodine Number measures the degree of activation of the carbon, and is a measure of micropore (e.g., 0-20 A) content. It is an important measurement for liquid-phase applications. In some embodiments, a biogenic activated carbon has an Iodine Number of about 500, about 600, about 750, about 900, about 1000, about 1100, about 1200, about 1300, about 1500, about 1600, about 1750, about 1900, about 2000, about 2100, or about 2200.

[00198] Other pore-related measurements include Methylene Blue, which measures mesopore content (e.g., 20-500 A); and Molasses Number, which measures macropore content (e.g., >500 A). The pore-size distribution and pore volume are important to determine ultimate performance. A typical bulk density for the biogenic activated carbon is about 400 to 500 g/liter, such as about 450 g/liter.

[00199] Hardness or Abrasion Number is measure of activated carbon's resistance to attrition. It is an indicator of activated carbon's physical integrity to withstand frictional forces and mechanical stresses during handling or use. Some amount of hardness is desirable, but if the hardness is too high, excessive equipment wear can result. Exemplary Abrasion Numbers, measured according to ASTM D3802, range from about 1% to great than about 99%, such as about 1%, about 5%, about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, about 96%, about 97%, about 98%, about 99%, or greater than about 99%.

[00200] In some embodiments, an optimal range of hardness can be achieved in which the biogenic activated carbon is reasonably resistant to attrition but does not cause abrasion and wear in capital facilities that process the activated carbon. This optimum is made possible in some embodiments of this present disclosure due to the selection of feedstock as well as processing conditions. [00201] For example, it is known that coconut shells tend to produce Abrasion Numbers of

99% or higher, so coconut shells would be a less-than-optimal feedstock for achieving optimum hardness. In some embodiments in which the downstream use can handle high hardness, the process of this present disclosure may be operated to increase or maximize hardness to produce biogenic activated carbon products having an Abrasion Number of about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, about 96%, about 97%, about 98%, about 99%, or greater than about 99%.

[00202] The biogenic activated carbon provided by the present disclosure has a wide range of commercial uses. For example, without limitation, the biogenic activated carbon may be utilized in emissions control, water purification, groundwater treatment, wastewater treatment, air stripper applications, PCB removal applications, odor removal applications, soil vapor extractions, manufactured gas plants, industrial water filtration, industrial fumigation, tank and process vents, pumps, blowers, filters, pre-filters, mist filters, ductwork, piping modules, adsorbers, absorbers, and columns.

[00203] In one embodiment, a product suitable for H ₂ S control (e.g., H ₂ S adsorption) comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of a biogenic activated carbon according to the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the biogenic activated carbon is sized (average or median size) of about 4 mesh to about 10 mesh, for example about 4 mesh, about 5 mesh, about 6 mesh, about 7 mesh, about 8 mesh, about 9 mesh, or about 10 mesh. In some embodiments, the biogenic activated carbon comprises moisture in an amount of about 20 wt% to about 50 wt%, for example about 20 wt%, about 22 wt%, about 23 wt%, about 24 wt%, about 25 wt%, about 26 wt%, about 27 wt%, about 28 wt%, about 29 wt%, about 30 wt%, about 31 wt%, about 32 wt%, about 33 wt%, about 34 wt%, about 35 wt%, about 36 wt%, about 37 wt%, about 38 wt%, about 39 wt%, about 40 wt%, about 41 wt%, about 42 wt%, about 43 wt%, about 44 wt%, about 45 wt%, about 46 wt%, about 47 wt%, about 48 wt%, about 49 wt%, or about 50 wt%. In some embodiments, the product for H ₂ S control comprises moisture in an amount greater than 50 wt%. In some embodiments, the product for H ₂ S control is housed in a vessel through which a vapor comprising H ₂ S can be passed.

[00204] In some embodiments, a product consistent with the present disclosure is useful as a soil amendment. In some embodiments, the product improves one or more soil properties such as, but not limited to, water retention, water capacity, water availability, permeability, water

infiltration, drainage, aeration, structure, nutrient availability, nutrient infiltration, nutrient capacity, microbal activity/growth, and carbon sequestration. In some embodiments, a soil amendment comprises, consists of, or consists essentially of a product consistent with the present disclosure.

[00205] Some embodiments of this disclosure provide a method of using a biogenic activated carbon composition to reduce emissions, the method comprising:

(a) providing activated carbon particles comprising a biogenic activated carbon composition;

(b) providing a gas-phase emissions stream comprising at least one selected contaminant;

(c) providing an additive selected to assist in removal of the selected contaminant from the gas-phase emissions stream;

(d) introducing the activated carbon particles and the additive into the gas-phase emissions stream, to adsorb at least a portion of the selected contaminant onto the activated carbon particles, thereby generating contaminant-adsorbed carbon particles within the gas-phase emissions stream; and

(e) separating at least a portion of the contaminant-adsorbed carbon particles from the gas- phase emissions stream, to produce a contaminant-reduced gas-phase emissions stream.

[00206] The additive for the biogenic activated carbon composition may be provided as part of the activated carbon particles. Alternatively, or additionally, the additive may be introduced directly into the gas-phase emissions stream, into a fuel bed, or into a combustion zone. Other ways of directly or indirectly introducing the additive into the gas-phase emissions stream for removal of the selected contaminant are possible, as will be appreciated by one of skill in the art.

[00207] A selected contaminant (in the gas-phase emissions stream) may be a metal, such as a metal is selected from the group consisting of mercury, boron, selenium, arsenic, and any compound, salt, and mixture thereof. A selected contaminant may be a hazardous air pollutant, an organic compound (such as a VOC), or a non-condensable gas, for example. In some embodiments, a biogenic activated carbon product adsorbs, absorbs and/or chemisorbs a selected contaminant in greater amounts than a comparable amount of a non-biogenic activated carbon product. In some such embodiments, the selected contaminant is a metal, a hazardous air pollutant, an organic compound (such as a VOC), a non-condensable gas, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the selected contaminant comprises mercury. In some embodiments, the selected contaminant comprises one or more VOCs. In some embodiments, the selected contaminant comprises H ₂ S. In some embodiments, the biogenic activated carbon comprises at least about 1 wt% hydrogen and/or at least about 10 wt% oxygen. [00208] Hazardous air pollutants are those pollutants that cause or may cause cancer or other serious health effects, such as reproductive effects or birth defects, or adverse environmental and ecological effects. Section 112 of the Clean Air Act, as amended, is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. Pursuant to the Section 112 of the Clean Air Act, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is mandated to control 189 hazardous air pollutants. Any current or future compounds classified as hazardous air pollutants by the EPA are included in possible selected contaminants in the present context.

[00209] Volatile organic compounds, some of which are also hazardous air pollutants, are organic chemicals that have a high vapor pressure at ordinary, room-temperature conditions. Examples include short-chain alkanes, olefins, alcohols, ketones, and aldehydes. Many volatile organic compounds are dangerous to human health or cause harm to the environment. EPA regulates volatile organic compounds in air, water, and land. EPA's definition of volatile organic compounds is described in 40 CFR Section 51.100, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

[00210] Non-condensable gases are gases that do not condense under ordinary, room- temperature conditions. Non-condensable gas may include, but are not limited to, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, methane, ethane, ethylene, ozone, ammonia, or combinations thereof.

[00211] Multiple contaminants may be removed by the activated carbon particles. In some embodiments, the contaminant-adsorbed carbon particles include at least two contaminants, at least three contaminants, or more. The biogenic activated carbon as disclosed herein can allow multi- pollutant control as well as control of certain targeted pollutants (e.g. selenium).

[00212] In certain embodiments, the contaminant-adsorbed carbon particles include at least one, at least two, at least three, or all of, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, mercury, and sulfur dioxide (in any combination).

[00213] The separation in step (e) may include filtration (e.g., fabric filters) or electrostatic precipitation (ESP), for example. Fabric filters, also known as baghouses, may utilize engineered fabric filter tubes, envelopes, or cartridges, for example. There are several types of baghouses, including pulse-jet, shaker-style, and reverse-air systems. The separation in step (e) may also include scrubbing. [00214] An electrostatic precipitator, or electrostatic air cleaner, is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulate matter from the air stream. An electrostatic precipitator applies energy only to the particulate matter being collected and therefore is very efficient in its consumption of energy (electricity).

[00215] The electrostatic precipitator may be dry or wet. A wet electrostatic precipitator operates with saturated gas streams to remove liquid droplets such as sulfuric acid mist from industrial process gas streams. Wet electrostatic precipitators may be useful when the gases are high in moisture content, contain combustible particulate, or have particles that are sticky in nature.

[00216] In some embodiments, the contaminant-adsorbed carbon particles are treated to regenerate the activated carbon particles. In some embodiments, the method includes thermally oxidizing the contaminant-adsorbed carbon particles. The contaminant-adsorbed carbon particles, or a regenerated form thereof, may be combusted to provide energy.

[00217] In some embodiments, the additive is selected from an acid, a base, a salt, a metal, a metal oxide, a metal hydroxide, a metal halide, or a combination thereof. In certain embodiments, the additive is selected from the group consisting of magnesium, manganese, aluminum, nickel, iron, chromium, silicon, boron, cerium, molybdenum, phosphorus, tungsten, vanadium, iron chloride, iron bromide, magnesium oxide, dolomite, dolomitic lime, fluorite, fluorospar, bentonite, calcium oxide, lime, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen chloride, sodium silicate, potassium permanganate, organic acids (e.g., citric acid), and combinations thereof.

[00218] In some embodiments, the gas-phase emissions stream is derived from combustion of a fuel comprising the biogenic activated carbon composition.

[00219] In some embodiments relating specifically to mercury removal, a method of using a biogenic activated carbon composition to reduce mercury emissions comprises:

(a) providing activated carbon particles comprising a biogenic activated carbon composition that includes iron or an iron-containing compound;

(b) providing a gas-phase emissions stream comprising mercury; (c) introducing the activated carbon particles into the gas-phase emissions stream, to adsorb at least a portion of the mercury onto the activated carbon particles, thereby generating mercury- adsorbed carbon particles within the gas-phase emissions stream; and

(d) separating at least a portion of the mercury-adsorbed carbon particles from the gas-phase emissions stream using electrostatic precipitation or filtration, to produce a mercury-reduced gas- phase emissions stream.

[00220] In some embodiments, a method of using a biogenic activated carbon composition to reduce emissions (e.g., mercury) further comprises using the biogenic activated carbon as a fuel source. In such embodiments, the high heat value of the biogenic activated carbon product can be utilized in addition to its ability to reduce emissions by adsorbing, absorbing and/or chemisorbing potential pollutants. Thus, in an example embodiment, the biogenic activated carbon product, when used as a fuel source and as a mercury control product, prevents at least 70% of mercury from emanating from a power plant, for example about 70%>, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, about 96%, about 97%, about 98%, 98.5%, about 99%, about 99.1%, about 99.2%, about 99.3%, about 99.4%, about 99.5%, about 99.6%, about 99.7%, about 99.8%, about 99.9%, or greater than about 99.9% of mercury.

[00221] As an exemplary embodiment, biogenic activated carbon may be injected (such as into the ductwork) upstream of a particulate matter control device, such as an electrostatic precipitator or fabric filter. In some cases, a flue gas desulfurization (dry or wet) system may be downstream of the activated carbon injection point. The activated carbon may be pneumatically injected as a powder. The injection location will typically be determined by the existing plant configuration (unless it is a new site) and whether additional downstream particulate matter control equipment is modified.

[00222] For boilers currently equipped with particulate matter control devices, implementing biogenic activated carbon injection for mercury control could entail: (i) injection of powdered activated carbon upstream of the existing particulate matter control device (electrostatic precipitator or fabric filter); (ii) injection of powdered activated carbon downstream of an existing electrostatic precipitator and upstream of a retrofit fabric filter; or (iii) injection of powdered activated carbon between electrostatic precipitator electric fields.

[00223] In some embodiments, powdered biogenic activated carbon injection approaches may be employed in combination with existing S0 ₂ control devices. Activated carbon could be injected prior to the S0 ₂ control device or after the S0 ₂ control device, subject to the availability of a means to collect the activated carbon sorbent downstream of the injection point.

[00224] When electrostatic precipitation is employed, the presence of iron or an iron- containing compound in the activated carbon particles can improve the effectiveness of electrostatic precipitation, thereby improving mercury control.

[00225] The method optionally further includes separating the mercury-adsorbed carbon particles, containing the iron or an iron-containing compound, from carbon or ash particles that do not contain the iron or an iron-containing compound. The carbon or ash particles that do not contain the iron or an iron-containing compound may be recovered for recycling, selling as a co- product, or other use. Any separations involving iron or materials containing iron may employ magnetic separation, taking advantage of the magnetic properties of iron.

[00226] A biogenic activated carbon composition that includes iron or an iron-containing compound is a "magnetic activated carbon" product. That is, the material is susceptible to a magnetic field. The iron or iron-containing compound may be separated using magnetic separation devices. Additionally, the biogenic activated carbon, which contains iron, may be separated using magnetic separation. When magnetic separation is to be employed, magnetic metal separators may be magnet cartridges, plate magnets, or another known configuration.

[00227] Inclusion of iron or iron-containing compounds may drastically improve the performance of electrostatic precipitators for mercury control. Furthermore, inclusion of iron or iron-containing compounds may drastically change end-of-life options, since the spent activated carbon solids may be separated from other ash.

[00228] In some embodiments, a magnetic activated carbon product can be separated out of the ash stream. Under the ASTM standards for use of fly ash in cement, the fly ash must come from coal products. If wood-based activated carbon can be separated from other fly ash, the remainder of the ash may be used per the ASTM standards for cement production. Similarly, the ability to separate mercury-laden ash may allow it to be better handled and disposed of, potentially reducing costs of handling all ash from a certain facility.

[00229] In some embodiments, the same physical material may be used in multiple processes, either in an integrated way or in sequence. Thus, for example, an activated carbon may, at the end of its useful life as a performance material, then be introduced to a combustion process for energy value or to a metal process, etc. [00230] For example, an activated carbon injected into an emissions stream may be suitable to remove contaminants, followed by combustion of the activated carbon particles and possibly the contaminants, to produce energy and thermally destroy or chemically oxidize the contaminants.

[00231] In some variations, a process for energy production comprises:

(a) providing a carbon-containing feedstock comprising a biogenic activated carbon composition (which may include one or more additives); and

(b) oxidizing the carbon-containing feedstock to generate energy and a gas-phase emissions stream,

wherein the presence of the biogenic activated carbon composition within the carbon- containing feedstock is effective to adsorb at least one contaminant produced as a byproduct of the oxidizing or derived from the carbon-containing feedstock, thereby reducing emissions of the contaminant.

[00232] In some embodiments, the contaminant, or a precursor thereof, is contained within the carbon-containing feedstock. In other embodiments, the contaminant is produced as a byproduct of the oxidizing.

[00233] The carbon-containing feedstock may further include biomass, coal, or any other carbonaceous material, in addition to the biogenic activated carbon composition. In certain embodiments, the carbon-containing feedstock consists essentially of the biogenic activated carbon composition as the sole fuel source.

[00234] The selected contaminant may be a metal selected from the group consisting of mercury, boron, selenium, arsenic, and any compound, salt, and mixture thereof; a hazardous air pollutant; an organic compound (such as a VOC); a non-condensable gas selected from the group consisting of nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, methane, ethane, ethylene, ozone, and ammonia; or any combinations thereof. In some embodiments, a biogenic activated carbon product adsorbs, absorbs and/or chemisorbs a selected contaminant in greater amounts than a comparable amount of a non-biogenic activated carbon product. In some such embodiments, the selected contaminant is a metal, a hazardous air pollutant, an organic compound (such as a VOC), a non-condensable gas, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the selected contaminant comprises mercury. In some embodiments, the selected contaminant comprises one or more VOCs. In some embodiments, the biogenic activated carbon comprises at least about 1 wt% hydrogen and/or at least about 10 wt% oxygen.

[00235] The biogenic activated carbon and the principles of the present disclosure may be applied to liquid-phase applications, including processing of water, aqueous streams of varying purities, solvents, liquid fuels, polymers, molten salts, and molten metals, for example. As intended herein, "liquid phase" includes slurries, suspensions, emulsions, multiphase systems, or any other material that has (or may be adjusted to have) at least some amount of a liquid state present.

[00236] A method of using a biogenic activated carbon composition to purify a liquid, in some variations, includes the following steps:

(a) providing activated carbon particles comprising a biogenic activated carbon composition;

(b) providing a liquid comprising at least one selected contaminant;

(c) providing an additive selected to assist in removal of the selected contaminant from the liquid; and

(d) contacting the liquid with the activated carbon particles and the additive, to adsorb at least a portion of the at least one selected contaminant onto the activated carbon particles, thereby generating contaminant-adsorbed carbon particles and a contaminant-reduced liquid.

[00237] The additive may be provided as part of the activated carbon particles. Or, the additive may be introduced directly into the liquid. In some embodiments, additives— which may be the same, or different— are introduced both as part of the activated carbon particles as well as directly into the liquid.

[00238] In some embodiments relating to liquid-phase applications, an additive is selected from an acid, a base, a salt, a metal, a metal oxide, a metal hydroxide, a metal halide, or a combination thereof. For example an additive may be selected from the group consisting of magnesium, manganese, aluminum, nickel, iron, chromium, silicon, boron, cerium, molybdenum, phosphorus, tungsten, vanadium, iron chloride, iron bromide, magnesium oxide, dolomite, dolomitic lime, fluorite, fluorospar, bentonite, calcium oxide, lime, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, hydrogen bromide, hydrogen chloride, sodium silicate, potassium permanganate, organic acids (e.g., citric acid), and combinations thereof.

[00239] In some embodiments, the selected contaminant (in the liquid to be treated) is a metal, such as a metal selected from the group consisting of arsenic, boron, selenium, mercury, and any compound, salt, and mixture thereof. In some embodiments, the selected contaminant is an organic compound (such as a VOC), a halogen, a biological compound, a pesticide, or a herbicide. The contaminant-adsorbed carbon particles may include two, three, or more contaminants. In some embodiments, a biogenic activated carbon product adsorbs, absorbs and/or chemisorbs a selected contaminant in greater amounts than a comparable amount of a non-biogenic activated carbon product. In some such embodiments, the selected contaminant is a metal, a hazardous air pollutant, an organic compound (such as a VOC), a non-condensable gas, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the selected contaminant comprises mercury. In some embodiments, the selected contaminant comprises one or more VOCs. In some embodiments, the biogenic activated carbon comprises at least about 1 wt% hydrogen and/or at least about 10 wt% oxygen.

[00240] The liquid to be treated will typically be aqueous, although that is not necessary for the principles of this present disclosure. In some embodiments, step (c) includes contacting the liquid with the activated carbon particles in a fixed bed. In other embodiments, step (c) includes contacting the liquid with the activated carbon particles in solution or in a moving bed.

[00241] Some variations provide a method of using a biogenic activated carbon composition to remove at least a portion of a sulfur-containing contaminant from a liquid, the method comprising:

(a) providing activated-carbon particles comprising a biogenic activated carbon composition;

(b) providing a liquid containing a sulfur-containing contaminant;

(c) providing an additive selected to assist in removal of the sulfur-containing contaminant from the liquid; and

(d) contacting the liquid with the activated-carbon particles and the additive, to adsorb or absorb at least a portion of the sulfur-containing contaminant onto or into the activated-carbon particles.

[00242] In some embodiments, the sulfur-containing contaminant is selected from the group consisting of elemental sulfur, sulfuric acid, sulfurous acid, sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, sulfate anions, bisulfate anions, sulfite anions, bisulfite anions, thiols, sulfides, disulfides, polysulfides, thioethers, thioesters, thioacetals, sulfoxides, sulfones, thiosulfinates, sulfimides, sulfoximides, sulfonediimines, sulfur halides, thioketones, thioaldehydes, sulfur oxides, thiocarboxylic acids, thioamides, sulfonic acids, sulfuric acids, sulfenic acids, sulfonium, oxosulfonium, sulfuranes, persulfuranes, and combinations, salts, or derivatives thereof. For example, the sulfur-containing contaminant may be a sulfate, in anionic and/or salt form.

[00243] In some embodiments, the biogenic activated carbon composition comprises 55 wt% or more total carbon; 15 wt% or less hydrogen; and 1 wt% or less nitrogen; and an additive if provided as part of the activated-carbon particles. The additive may be selected from an acid, a base, a salt, a metal, a metal oxide, a metal hydroxide, a metal halide, iodine, an iodine compound, or a combination thereof. The additive may alternatively (or additionally) be introduced directly into the liquid.

[00244] In some embodiments, step (d) includes filtration of the liquid. In these or other embodiments, step (d) includes osmosis of the liquid. The activated-carbon particles and the additive may be directly introduced to the liquid prior to osmosis. The activated-carbon particles and the additive may be employed in pre-filtration prior to osmosis. In certain embodiments, the activated-carbon particles and the additive are incorporated into a membrane for osmosis. For example, known membrane materials such as cellulose acetate may be modified by introducing the activated-carbon particles and/or additives within the membrane itself or as a layer on one or both sides of the membrane. Various thin-film carbon-containing composites could be fabricated with the activated-carbon particles and additives.

[00245] In some embodiments, step (d) includes direct addition of the activated-carbon particles to the liquid, followed by for example sedimentation of the activated-carbon particles with the sulfur-containing contaminant from the liquid.

[00246] The liquid may be an aqueous liquid, such as water. In some embodiments, the water is wastewater associated with a process selected from the group consisting of metal mining, acid mine drainage, mineral processing, municipal sewer treatment, pulp and paper, ethanol, and any other industrial process that is capable of discharging sulfur-containing contaminants in wastewater. The water may also be (or be part of) a natural body of water, such as a lake, river, or stream.

[00247] Some variations provide a process to reduce the concentration of sulfates in water, the process comprising:

(a) providing activated-carbon particles comprising a biogenic activated carbon composition;

(b) providing a volume or stream of water containing sulfates; (c) providing an additive selected to assist in removal of the sulfates from the water; and

(d) contacting the water with the activated-carbon particles and the additive, to adsorb or absorb at least a portion of the sulfates onto or into the activated-carbon particles.

[00248] In some embodiments, the sulfates are reduced to a concentration of about 50 mg/L or less in the water, such as a concentration of about 10 mg/L or less in the water. In some embodiments, the sulfates are reduced, as a result of absorption and/or adsorption into the biogenic activated carbon composition, to a concentration of about 100 mg/L, about 75 mg/L, about 50 mg/L, about 25 mg/L, about 20 mg/L, about 15 mg/L, about 12 mg/L, about 10 mg/L, about 8 mg/L, or less than about 8 mg/L in the wastewater stream. In some embodiments, the sulfate is present primarily in the form of sulfate anions and/or bisulfate anions. Depending on pH, the sulfate may also be present in the form of sulfate salts.

[00249] The water may be derived from, part of, or the entirety of a wastewater stream.

Exemplary wastewater streams are those that may be associated with a metal mining, acid mine drainage, mineral processing, municipal sewer treatment, pulp and paper, ethanol, or any other industrial process that could discharge sulfur-containing contaminants to wastewater. The water may be a natural body of water, such as a lake, river, or stream. In some embodiments, the process is conducted continuously. In other embodiments, the process is conducted in batch.

[00250] The biogenic activated carbon composition comprises 55 wt% or more total carbon;

15 wt% or less hydrogen; and 1 wt% or less nitrogen, in some embodiments. The additive may be selected from an acid, a base, a salt, a metal, a metal oxide, a metal hydroxide, a metal halide, iodine, an iodine compound, or a combination thereof. The additive is provided as part of the activated-carbon particles and/or is introduced directly into the water.

[00251] Step (d) may include, but is not limited to, filtration of the water, osmosis of the water, and/or direct addition (with sedimentation, clarification, etc.) of the activated-carbon particles to the water.

[00252] When osmosis is employed, the activated carbon can be used in several ways within, or to assist, an osmosis device. In some embodiments, the activated-carbon particles and the additive are directly introduced to the water prior to osmosis. The activated-carbon particles and the additive are optionally employed in pre-filtration prior to the osmosis. In certain embodiments, the activated-carbon particles and the additive are incorporated into a membrane for osmosis. [00253] This present disclosure also provides a method of using a biogenic activated carbon composition to remove a sulfur-containing contaminant from a gas phase, the method comprising:

(a) providing activated-carbon particles comprising a biogenic activated carbon composition;

(b) providing a gas-phase emissions stream comprising at least one sulfur-containing contaminant;

(c) providing an additive selected to assist in removal of the sulfur-containing contaminant from the gas-phase emissions stream;

(d) introducing the activated-carbon particles and the additive into the gas-phase emissions stream, to adsorb or absorb at least a portion of the sulfur-containing contaminant onto the activated-carbon particles; and

(e) separating at least a portion of the activated-carbon particles from the gas-phase emissions stream.

[00254] In some embodiments, the sulfur-containing contaminant is selected from the group consisting of elemental sulfur, sulfuric acid, sulfurous acid, sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, sulfate anions, bisulfate anions, sulfite anions, bisulfite anions, thiols, sulfides, disulfides, polysulfides, thioethers, thioesters, thioacetals, sulfoxides, sulfones, thiosulfinates, sulfimides, sulfoximides, sulfonediimines, sulfur halides, thioketones, thioaldehydes, sulfur oxides, thiocarboxylic acids, thioamides, sulfonic acids, sulfuric acids, sulfenic acids, sulfonium, oxosulfonium, sulfuranes, persulfuranes, and combinations, salts, or derivatives thereof.

[00255] The biogenic activated carbon composition may include 55 wt% or more total carbon; 15 wt% or less hydrogen; 1 wt% or less nitrogen; and an additive selected from an acid, a base, a salt, a metal, a metal oxide, a metal hydroxide, a metal halide, iodine, an iodine compound, or a combination thereof. The additive may be provided as part of the activated-carbon particles, or may be introduced directly into the gas-phase emissions stream.

[00256] In some embodiments, the gas-phase emissions stream is derived from combustion of a fuel comprising the biogenic activated carbon composition. For example, the gas-phase emissions stream may be derived from co-combustion of coal and the biogenic activated carbon composition.

[00257] In some embodiments, separating in step (e) comprises filtration. In these or other embodiments, separating in step (e) comprises electrostatic precipitation. In any of these embodiments, separating in step (e) may include scrubbing, which may be wet scrubbing, dry scrubbing, or another type of scrubbing.

[00258] The biogenic activated carbon composition may comprise 55 wt% or more total carbon; 15 wt% or less hydrogen; 1 wt% or less nitrogen; 0.5 wt% or less phosphorus; and 0.2 wt% or less sulfur. In various embodiments, the additive is selected from an acid, a base, a salt, a metal, a metal oxide, a metal hydroxide, a metal halide, iodine, an iodine compound, or a combination thereof. The additive is provided as part of the activated-carbon particles, in some embodiments; alternatively or additionally, the additive may be introduced directly into the gas-phase emissions stream.

[00259] In certain embodiments, the gas-phase emissions stream is derived from combustion of a fuel comprising the biogenic activated carbon composition. For example, the gas-phase emissions stream may be derived from co-combustion of coal and the biogenic activated carbon composition.

[00260] The biogenic activated carbon composition comprises 55 wt% or more total carbon;

15 wt% or less hydrogen; 1 wt% or less nitrogen; 0.5 wt% or less phosphorus; and 0.2 wt% or less sulfur, in some embodiments. The additive may be selected from an acid, a base, a salt, a metal, a metal oxide, a metal hydroxide, a metal halide, iodine, an iodine compound, or a combination thereof. The additive may be provided as part of the activated-carbon particles. The additive may optionally be introduced directly into the wastewater stream.

[00261] The contaminant-adsorbed carbon particles may be further treated to regenerate the activated carbon particles. After regeneration, the activated carbon particles may be reused for contaminant removal, or may be used for another purpose, such as combustion to produce energy. In some embodiments, the contaminant-adsorbed carbon particles are directly oxidized (without regeneration) to produce energy. In some embodiments, with the oxidation occurs in the presence of an emissions control device (e.g., a second amount of fresh or regenerated activated carbon particles) to capture contaminants released from the oxidation of the contaminant-absorbed carbon particles.

[00262] In some embodiments, biogenic activated carbon according to the present disclosure can be used in any other application in which traditional activated carbon might be used. In some embodiments, the biogenic activated carbon is used as a total (i.e., 100%) replacement for traditional activated carbon. In some embodiments, biogenic activated carbon comprises essentially all or substantially all of the activated carbon used for a particular application. In some embodiments, an activated carbon composition comprises about 1% to about 100% of biogenic activated carbon, for example, about 1%, about 2%, about 5%, about 10%>, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, about 96%, about 97%), about 98%, about 99%, or about 100% biogenic activated carbon.

[00263] For example and without limitation, biogenic activated carbon can be used— alone or in combination with a traditional activated carbon product— in filters. In some embodiments, a filter comprises an activated carbon component consisting of, consisting essentially of, or consisting substantially of a biogenic activated carbon. In some embodiments, a filter comprises an activated carbon component comprising about 1% to about 100% of biogenic activated carbon, for example, about 1%), about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, about 96%, about 97%, about 98%, about 99%), or about 100%) biogenic activated carbon.

[00264] In some embodiments, a packed bed or packed column comprises an activated carbon component consisting of, consisting essentially of, or consisting substantially of a biogenic activated carbon. In some embodiments, a packed bed or packed column comprises an activated carbon component comprising about 1% to about 100% of biogenic activated carbon, for example, about 1%), about 2%, about 5%, about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, about 96%, about 97%, about 98%, about 99%, or about 100% biogenic activated carbon. In such embodiments, the biogenic activated carbon has a size characteristic suitable for the particular packed bed or packed column.

[00265] The above description should not be construed as limiting in any way as to the potential applications of the biogenic activated carbon. Injection of biogenic activated carbon into gas streams may be useful for control of contaminant emissions in gas streams or liquid streams derived from coal-fired power plants, biomass-fired power plants, metal processing plants, crude -oil refineries, chemical plants, polymer plants, pulp and paper plants, cement plants, waste incinerators, food processing plants, gasification plants, and syngas plants. [00266] Essentially any industrial process or site that employs fossil fuel or biomass for generation of energy or heat, can benefit from gas treatment by the biogenic activated carbon provided herein. For liquid-phase applications, a wide variety of industrial processes that use or produce liquid streams can benefit from treatment by the biogenic activated carbon provided herein.

[00267] Additionally, when the biogenic activated carbon is co-utilized as a fuel source, either in parallel with its use for contaminant removal or in series following contaminant removal (and optionally following some regeneration), the biogenic activated carbon (i) has lower emissions per Btu energy output than fossil fuels; (ii) has lower emissions per Btu energy output than biomass fuels; and (iii) can reduce emissions from biomass or fossil fuels when co-fired with such fuels. It is noted that the biogenic activated carbon may also be mixed with coal or other fossil fuels and, through co-combustion, the activated carbon enables reduced emissions of mercury, S0 ₂ , or other contaminants.

EXAMPLE

[00268] Carbonaceous material obtained from a carbon-containing feedstock was combusted according to the present disclosure. Proximate analysis of the intermediate material after initial combustion (Columns A to D), and after combustion and drying (Columns E to G) appear in Table 1 below, along with proximate analyses for comparative examples of commercially available coal- based and wood-based activated carbon products (Columns H to L).

Table 1. Proximate Analysis of Activated Carbon Products Obtained from Carbonaceous Ash.

Table 1 (con't.)

[00269] In this detailed description, reference has been made to multiple embodiments of the present disclosure and non-limiting examples relating to how the present disclosure can be understood and practiced. Other embodiments that do not provide all of the features and advantages set forth herein may be utilized, without departing from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure. This present disclosure incorporates routine experimentation and optimization of the methods and systems described herein. Such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of the present disclosure defined by the claims.

[00270] All publications, patents, and patent applications cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety as if each publication, patent, or patent application were specifically and individually put forth herein.

[00271] Where methods and steps described above indicate certain events occurring in certain order, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the ordering of certain steps may be modified and that such modifications are in accordance with the variations of the present disclosure. Additionally, certain of the steps may be performed concurrently in a parallel process when possible, as well as performed sequentially.

[00272] Therefore, to the extent there are variations of the present disclosure, which are within the spirit of the disclosure or equivalent to the embodiments found in the appended claims, it is the intent that this patent will cover those variations as well. The present disclosure shall only be limited by what is claimed.