METHODS AND RELATED COMPOSITIONS FOR MANUFACTURING FOOD AND FEED

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/450,038, filed on January 24, 2017, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/584,01 1 , filed on November 9, 2017, the contents of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

BACKGROUND

Arthropods, such as crickets, cicadas, grasshoppers, ants, insect larvae, caterpillars, and scorpions, have many traditional and potential new uses in the production of food and feed for humans and animals, respectively. Insects as food and feed emerge as an especially relevant issue due to the rising cost of animal protein, food and feed insecurity, environmental pressures, population growth, and increasing demand for affordable and sustainable sources of nutrients for humans and animals (e.g., livestock). To cultivate beneficial arthropods for use in the food and feed industries, there is a need in the art for ways to promote the growth and fitness of such arthropods.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Disclosed herein are compositions and methods for modulating the fitness of insects for food and feed manufacturing. The composition includes an agent that alters a level, activity, or metabolism of one or more microorganisms resident in a host, the alteration resulting in a modulation in the host's fitness.

In one aspect, provided herein is a method for increasing a nutritional profile of an insect, the method including delivering an effective amount of methionine-producing bacteria to the insect.

In some embodiments, the insect is a cricket, a grasshopper, or a locust.

In some embodiments, the insect may be developmental^ an embryo, larva, pupa, or adult.

In some embodiments, the delivery may include delivering the composition to at least one habitat where the insect grows, lives, reproduces, or feeds.

In some embodiments, the methionine-producing bacteria may be delivered in an insect comestible composition for ingestion by the insect.

In some embodiments, the methionine-producing bacteria may be formulated with an agriculturally acceptable carrier as a liquid, a solid, an aerosol, a paste, a gel, or a gas composition.

In some embodiments, the carrier may be a seed coating.

In a second aspect, provided herein is a modified insect comprising exogenous methionine- producing bacteria resident in the insect.

In some embodiments of the second aspect, the insect is developmental^ an embryo, a larva, a pupa, or an adult.

In some embodiments of the second aspect, the methionine-producing bacteria alters microbiota in a gut and/or haemocoel of the insect.

In yet another aspect, the composition includes an agent that alters a level, activity, or metabolism of one or more microorganisms resident in an insect host, the alteration resulting in an increase in the insect host's fitness. In some embodiments of any of the above compositions, the one or more microorganisms may be a bacterium or fungus resident in the host. In some embodiments, the bacterium resident in the host is at least one selected from the group consisting of Candidatus spp, Buchenera spp, Blattabacterium spp, Baumania spp, Wigglesworthia spp, Wolbachia spp, Rickettsia spp, Orientia spp, Sodalis spp, Burkholderia spp, Cupriavidus spp, Frankia spp, Snirhizobium spp, Streptococcus spp, Wolinella spp, Xylella spp, Erwinia spp, Agrobacterium spp, Bacillus spp, Paenibacillus spp, Streptomyces spp, Micrococcus spp, Corynebacterium spp, Acetobacter spp, Cyanobacteria spp, Salmonella spp,

Rhodococcus spp, Pseudomonas spp, Lactobacillus spp, Enterococcus spp, Alcaligenes spp, Klebsiella spp, Paenibacillus spp, Arthrobacter spp, Corynebacterium spp, Brevibacterium spp, Thermus spp, Pseudomonas spp, Clostridium spp, and Escherichia spp. In some embodiments, the fungus resident in the host is at least one selected from the group consisting of Candida, Metschnikowia, Debaromyces, Starmerella, Pichia, Cryptococcus, Pseudozyma, Symbiotaphrina bucneri, Symbiotaphrina kochii, Scheffersomyces shehatae, Scheffersomyces stipites, Cryptococcus, Trichosporon, Amylostereum areolatum, Epichloe spp, Pichia pinus, Hansenula capsulate, Daldinia decipien, Ceratocytis spp, Ophiostoma spp, and Attamyces bromatificus. In certain instances, the bacteria is a naturally occurring bacteria that is capable of producing nutrients (e.g., amino acids, e.g., methionine).

In any of the above compositions, the agent, which hereinafter may also be referred to as a modulating agent, may alter the growth, division, viability, metabolism, and/or longevity of the

microorganism resident in the host. In any of the above embodiments, the modulating agent may decrease the viability of the one or more microorganisms resident in the host. In some embodiments, the modulating agent increases growth or viability of the one or more microorganisms resident in the host.

In any of the above embodiments, the modulating agent is a phage, a polypeptide, a small molecule, an antibiotic, a bacterium, or any combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the phage binds a cell surface protein on a bacterium resident in the host. In some embodiments, the phage is virulent to a bacterium resident in the host. In some embodiments, the phage is at least one selected from the group consisting of Myoviridae, Siphoviridae, Podoviridae, Lipothrixviridae, Rudiviridae, Ampullaviridae, Bicaudaviridae, Clavaviridae, Corticoviridae, Cystoviridae, Fuselloviridae, Gluboloviridae, Guttaviridae, Inoviridae, Leviviridae, Microviridae, Plasmaviridae, and Tectiviridae.

In some embodiments, the polypeptide is at least one of a bacteriocin, R-type bacteriocin, nodule

C-rich peptide, antimicrobial peptide, lysin, or bacteriocyte regulatory peptide.

In some embodiments, the small molecule is a metabolite.

In some embodiments, the antibiotic is a broad-spectrum antibiotic.

In some embodiments, the modulating agent is a naturally occurring bacteria. In some embodiments, the bacteria is at least one selected from the group consisting of Bartonella apis,

Parasaccharibacter apium, Frischella perrara, Snodgrassella alvi, Gilliamela apicola, Bifidobacterium spp, and Lactobacillus spp. In some embodiments, the bacterium is at least one selected from the group consisting of Candidatus spp, Buchenera spp, Blattabacterium spp, Baumania spp, Wigglesworthia spp, Wolbachia spp, Rickettsia spp, Orientia spp, Sodalis spp, Burkholderia spp, Cupriavidus spp, Frankia spp, Snirhizobium spp, Streptococcus spp, Wolinella spp, Xylella spp, Erwinia spp, Agrobacterium spp, Bacillus spp, Paenibacillus spp, Streptomyces spp, Micrococcus spp, Corynebacterium spp, Acetobacter spp, Cyanobacteria spp, Salmonella spp, Rhodococcus spp, Pseudomonas spp, Lactobacillus spp, Enterococcus spp, Alcaligenes spp, Klebsiella spp, Paenibacillus spp, Arthrobacter spp, Corynebacterium spp, Brevibacterium spp, Thermus spp, Pseudomonas spp, Clostridium spp, and Escherichia spp.

In any of the above compositions, host fitness may be measured by survival, reproduction, or metabolism of the host. In some embodiments, the modulating agent modulates the host's fitness by decreasing pesticidal susceptibility of the host (e.g., susceptibility to a pesticide listed in Table 12). In some embodiments, the pesticidal susceptibility is bactericidal or fungicidal susceptibility. In some embodiments, the pesticidal susceptibility is insecticidal susceptibility.

In any of the above compositions, the composition may include a plurality of different modulating agents. In some embodiments, the composition includes a modulating agent and a pesticidal agent (e.g., a pesticide listed in Table 12). In some embodiments, the pesticidal agent is a bactericidal or fungicidal agent. In some embodiments, the pesticidal agent is an insecticidal agent.

In any of the above compositions, modulating agent may be linked to a second moiety. In some embodiments, the second moiety is a modulating agent.

In any of the above compositions, the modulating agent may be linked to a targeting domain. In some embodiments, the targeting domain targets the modulating agent to a target site in the host. In some embodiments, the targeting domain targets the modulating agent to the one or more

microorganisms resident in the host.

In any of the above compositions, the modulating agent may include an inactivating pre- or pro- sequence, thereby forming a precursor modulating agent. In some embodiments, the precursor modulating agent is converted to an active form in the host.

In any of the above compositions, the modulating agent may include a linker. In some embodiments, the linker is a cleavable linker.

In any of the above compositions, the composition may further include a carrier. In some instances, the carrier may be an agriculturally acceptable carrier.

In any of the above compositions, the composition may further include a host bait, a sticky agent, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the host bait is a comestible agent and/or a

chemoattractant.

In any of the above compositions, the composition may be at a dose effective to modulate host fitness.

In any of the above embodiments, the modulating agent of the composition may be effective to increase production of a nutrient in the host relative to a reference level. In some embodiments, the modulating agent is a microorganism that produces the nutrient. In some embodiments, the

microorganism is a bacterium. In some embodiments, the nutrient is a vitamin, a carbohydrate, an amino acid, or a polypeptide. In certain embodiments, the amino acid is methionine.

In any of the above compositions, the composition may be formulated for delivery to a microorganism inhabiting the gut of the host.

In any of the above compositions, the composition may be formulated for delivery to a microorganism inhabiting a bacteriocyte of the host and/or the gut of the host. In some embodiments, the composition may be formulated for delivery to a plant. In some embodiments, the composition may be formulated for use in a host feeding station.

In any of the above compositions, the composition may be formulated as a liquid, a powder, granules, or nanoparticles. In some embodiments, the composition is formulated as one selected from the group consisting of a liposome, polymer, bacteria secreting peptide, and synthetic nanocapsule. In some embodiments, the synthetic nanocapsule delivers the composition to a target site in the host. In some embodiments, the target site is the gut of the host. In some embodiments, the target site is a bacteriocyte in the host.

In a further aspect, also provided herein are hosts that include any of the above compositions. In some embodiments, the host is an insect. In some embodiments, the insect is a species belonging to the order Anoplura, Araneae, Blattodea, Coleoptera, Dermaptera, Dictyoptera, Diplura, Diptera, Embioptera, Ephemeroptera, Grylloblatodea, Hemiptera, Homoptera, Hymenoptera, Isoptera, Lepidoptera, Mantodea, Mecoptera, Neuroptera, Odonata, Orthoptera, Phasmida, Plecoptera, Protura, Psocoptera, Siphonaptera, Siphunculata, Thysanura, Strepsiptera, Thysanoptera, Trichoptera, or Zoraptera. In certain

embodiments, the insect is a cricket. In certain embodiments, the insect is a grasshopper. In certain embodiments, the insect is a locust.

In yet a further aspect, also provided herein is a system for modulating a host's fitness comprising a modulating agent that targets a microorganism that is required for a host's fitness, wherein the system is effective to modulate the host's fitness, and wherein the host is an insect. The modulating agent may include any of the compositions described herein. In some embodiments, the modulating agent is formulated as a powder. In some embodiments, the modulating agent is formulated as a solvent. In some embodiments, the modulating agent is formulated as a concentrate. In some embodiments, the modulating agent is formulated as a diluent. In some embodiments, the modulating agent is prepared for delivery by combining any of the previous compositions with a carrier.

In another aspect, also provided herein are methods for modulating the fitness of an insect using any of the compositions described herein. In one instance, the method of modulating the fitness of an insect host includes delivering the composition of any one of the previous claims to the host, wherein the modulating agent targets the one or more microorganisms resident in the host, and thereby modulates the host's fitness. In another instance, the method of modulating microbial diversity in an insect host includes delivering the composition of any one of the previous claims to the host, wherein the modulating agent targets the one or more microorganisms resident in the host, and thereby modulates microbial diversity in the host.

In some embodiments of any of the above methods, the modulating agent may alter the levels of the one or more microorganisms resident in the host. In some embodiments of any of the above methods, the modulating agent may alter the function of the one or more microorganisms resident in the host. In some embodiments, the one or more microorganisms may be a bacterium and/or fungus. In some embodiments, the one or more microorganisms are required for host fitness. In some

embodiments, the one or more microorganisms are required for host survival.

In some embodiments of any of the above methods, the delivering step may include providing the modulating agent at a dose and time sufficient to effect the one or more microorganisms, thereby modulating microbial diversity in the host. In some embodiments, the delivering step includes topical application of any of the previous compositions to a plant. In some embodiments, the delivering step includes providing the modulating agent through a genetically engineered plant. In some embodiments, the delivering step includes providing the modulating agent to the host as a comestible. In some embodiments, the delivering step includes providing a host carrying the modulating agent. In some embodiments the host carrying the modulating agent can transmit the modulating agent to one or more additional hosts.

In some embodiments of any of the above methods, the composition is effective to increase health and/or survival of the host. In some embodiments, the composition is effective to increase host fitness, increase host lifespan, increase effective pollination, increase generation of a host product, increase host reproduction, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the composition is effective to decrease the host's sensitivity to a pesticidal agent (e.g., a pesticide listed in Table 12). In some embodiments, the pesticidal agent is a neonicotinoid. In some embodiments, the composition is effective to increase the host's resistance to an allelochemical agent produced by a plant. In some embodiments, the allelochemical agent is toxic to the host prior to delivery of the composition. In some embodiments, the allelochemical agent is caffeine, soyacystatin N, monoterpenes, diterpene acids, or phenolic compounds. In some embodiments, the composition is effective to increase nutrient production in the host, thereby increasing the nutrient content in the product derived from the host. In some embodiments, the nutrient is a vitamin, a carbohydrate, an amino acid, or a polypeptide.

In some embodiments of any of the above methods, at least one part of the host may be used in the manufacture of a consumable product. In some embodiments of any of the above methods, the host is an insect. In some embodiments, the insect is a species belonging to the order Anoplura, Araneae, Blattodea, Coleoptera, Dermaptera, Dictyoptera, Diplura, Diptera, Embioptera, Ephemeroptera,

Grylloblatodea, Hemiptera, Homoptera, Hymenoptera, Isoptera, Lepidoptera, Mantodea, Mecoptera, Neuroptera, Odonata, Orthoptera, Phasmida, Plecoptera, Protura, Psocoptera, Siphonaptera,

Siphunculata, Thysanura, Strepsiptera, Thysanoptera, Trichoptera, or Zoraptera. In certain

embodiments, the insect is a cricket. In certain embodiments, the insect is a grasshopper. In certain embodiments, the insect is a locust. In some embodiments, the product includes a food product for humans. In some embodiments, the product includes a nutritional supplement that supplements an animal feed or human food product. In some embodiments, the product includes feed for animals. In some embodiments, the animals are livestock or farm animals.

In another aspect, provided herein is a method of making a human or animal food product, includes (a) providing a plurality (e.g., 2, >2, >5, >10, >100, >1000, >5,000, >10,000, > 50,000, >100,000) of host insects, (b) delivering an ingestible composition described herein to the plurality of host insects, in an amount effective to modulate one or more microorganisms resident in the plurality, and (c) processing the plurality (e.g., grinding, optionally admixing with a carrier or another food component) into a food, food additive or food supplement. In some embodiments, the ingestible composition comprises a

microorganism. In some embodiments, the microorganism produces a nutrient, and the microorganism is effective to increase nutrient production in the host relative to a reference level. In some embodiments, the microorganism is a bacterium. In some embodiments, the nutrient is a vitamin, a carbohydrate, an amino acid, or a polypeptide. In some embodiments, the amino acid is methionine.

In some embodiments of any of the above methods, the delivering step includes delivering any of the previous compositions to a plant. In some embodiments, the plant is an agricultural crop. In some embodiments, the crop is an unharvested crop at the time of delivery. In some embodiments, the crop is a harvested crop at the time of delivery. The some embodiments, the crop comprises harvested fruits or vegetables. In some embodiments, the composition is delivered in an amount and for a duration effective to increase growth of the crop. In some embodiments, the crop includes corn, soybean, or wheat plants.

In another aspect, also provided herein are screening assays to identify modulating agent that modulate the fitness of a host. In one instance, the screening assay to identify a modulating agent that modulates the fitness of a host, includes the steps of (a) exposing a microorganism that can be resident in the host to one or more candidate modulating agents and (b) identifying a modulating agent that increases or decreases the fitness of the host.

In some embodiments of the screening assay, the modulating agent is a microorganism resident in the host. In some embodiments, the microorganism is a bacterium. In some embodiments, the bacterium, when resident in the host, increases host fitness. In some embodiments, the bacterium degrades a pesticide (e.g., a pesticide listed in Table 12). In some embodiments, the pesticide is a neonicotinoid. In some embodiments, the bacterium secretes an amino acid. In some embodiments, wherein the amino acid is methionine.

In some embodiments of the screening assay, the modulating agent affects an allelochemical- degrading microorganism. In some embodiments, the modulating agent is a phage, an antibiotic, or a test compound. In some embodiments, the antibiotic is timentin or azithromycin.

In some embodiments of the screening assay, the host may be an invertebrate. In some embodiments, the invertebrate is an insect. In some embodiments, the insect is a cricket. In certain embodiments, the insect is a grasshopper. In certain embodiments, the insect is a locust.

In any of the above embodiments of the screening assay, host fitness may be modulated by modulating the host microbiota.

Definitions

As used herein, the term "bacteriocin" refers to a peptide or polypeptide that possesses antimicrobial properties. Naturally occurring bacteriocins are produced by certain prokaryotes and act against organisms related to the producer strain, but not against the producer strain itself. Bacteriocins contemplated herein include, but are not limited to, naturally occurring bacteriocins, such as bacteriocins produced by bacteria, and derivatives thereof, such as engineered bacteriocins, recombinantly expressed bacteriocins, and chemically synthesized bacteriocins. In some instances, the bacteriocin is a functionally active variant of the bacteriocins described herein. In some instances, the variant of the bacteriocin has at least 70%, 71 %, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81 %, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91 %, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identity, e.g., over a specified region or over the entire sequence, to a sequence of a bacteriocin described herein or a naturally occurring bacteriocin. As used herein, the term "bacteriocyte" refers to a specialized cell found in certain insects where intracellular bacteria reside with symbiotic bacterial properties.

As used herein, the term "effective amount" refers to an amount of a modulating agent (e.g., a phage, lysin, bacteriocin, small molecule, or antibiotic) or composition including said agent sufficient to effect the recited result, e.g., to increase or promote the fitness of a host organism (e.g., insect); to reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of a modulating agent concentration inside a target host; to reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of a modulating agent concentration inside a target host gut; to reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of a modulating agent concentration inside a target host bacteriocyte; to modulate the level, or an activity, of one or more microorganism (e.g., endosymbiont) in the target host.

As used herein, the term "fitness" refers to the ability of a host organism to survive, and/or to produce surviving offspring. Fitness of an organism may be measured by one or more parameters, including, but not limited to, life span, nutrient production, reproductive rate, mobility, body weight, and metabolic rate. Fitness may additionally be measured based on measures of activity or product output.

As used herein, the term "gut" refers to any portion of a host's gut, including, the foregut, midgut, or hindgut of the host.

As used herein, the term "host" refers to an organism (e.g., insect) carrying resident

microorganisms (e.g., endogenous microorganisms, endosymbiotic microorganisms (e.g., primary or secondary endosymbionts), commensal organisms, and/or pathogenic microorganisms).

As used herein "increasing host fitness" or "promoting host fitness" refers to any favorable alteration in host physiology, or any activity carried out by said host, as a consequence of administration of a modulating agent, including, but not limited to, any one or more of the following desired effects: (1 ) increasing a population of a host by about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 99%, 100% or more; (2) increasing the reproductive rate of a host (e.g., insect) by about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 99%, 100% or more; (3) increasing the mobility of a host (e.g., insect) by about 1 0%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 99%, 100% or more; (4) increasing the body weight of a host (e.g., insect) by about 1 0%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 99%, 1 00% or more; (5) increasing the metabolic rate or activity of a host (e.g., insect) by about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 99%, 1 00% or more; (6) increasing production of host byproducts by about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 99%, 100% or more; (7) increasing nutrient content of the host (e.g., insect) (e.g., protein, fatty acids, or amino acids) by about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 99%, 100% or more; or (8) increasing host resistance to pesticides by about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 99%, 1 00% or more. An increase in host fitness can be determined in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered.

The term "insect" includes any organism belonging to the phylum Arthropoda and to the class Insecta or the class Arachnida, in any stage of development, i.e., immature and adult insects.

As used herein, "lysin" also known as endolysin, autolysin, murein hydrolase, peptidoglycan hydrolase, or cell wall hydrolase refers to a hydrolytic enzyme that can lyse a bacterium by cleaving peptidoglycan in the cell wall of the bacterium. Lysins contemplated herein include, but are not limited to, naturally occurring lysins, such as lysins produced by phages, lysins produced by bacteria, and derivatives thereof, such as engineered lysins, recombinantly expressed lysins, and chemically synthesized lysins. A functionally active variant of the bacteriocin may have at least 70%, 71 %, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81 %, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91 %, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identity, e.g., over a specified region or over the entire sequence, to a sequence of a synthetic, recombinant, or naturally derived bacteriocin, including any described herein.

As used herein, the term "microorganism" refers to bacteria or fungi. Microorganisms may refer to microorganisms resident in a host organism (e.g., endogenous microorganisms, endosymbiotic microorganisms (e.g., primary or secondary endosymbionts)) or microorganisms exogenous to the host, including those that may act as modulating agents. As used herein, the term "target microorganism" refers to a microorganism that is resident in the host and impacted by a modulating agent, either directly or indirectly.

As used herein, the term "modulating agent" or "agent" refers to an agent that is capable of altering the levels and/or functioning of microorganisms resident in a host organism (e.g., insect), and thereby modulate (e.g., increase) the fitness of the host organism (e.g., insect).

As used herein, "increasing a nutritional profile of an insect" refers to increased production of a nutrient that may increase protein content, body mass, and/or overall nutritional value of the insect.

As used herein, the term "pesticide" or "pesticidal agent" refers to a substance that can be used in the control of agricultural, environmental, or domestic/household pests, such as insects, fungi, bacteria, or viruses. The term "pesticide" is understood to encompass naturally occurring or synthetic insecticides (larvicides or adulticides), insect growth regulators, acaricides (miticides), nematicides, ectoparasiticides, bactericides, fungicides, or herbicides (substance which can be used in agriculture to control or modify plant growth). Further examples of pesticides or pesticidal agents are listed in Table 12. In some instances, the pesticide is an allelochemical. As used herein, "allelochemical" or "allelochemical agent" is a substance produced by an organism that can effect a physiological function (e.g., the germination, growth, survival, or reproduction) of another organism (e.g., a host insect).

As used herein, the term "peptide," "protein," or "polypeptide" encompasses any chain of naturally or non-naturally occurring amino acids (either D- or L-amino acids), regardless of length (e.g., at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 1 00, or more amino acids), the presence or absence of post-translational modifications (e.g., glycosylation or phosphorylation), or the presence of, e.g., one or more non-amino acyl groups (for example, sugar, lipid, etc.) covalently linked to the peptide, and includes, for example, natural proteins, synthetic, or recombinant polypeptides and peptides, hybrid molecules, peptoids, or peptidomimetics.

As used herein, "percent identity" between two sequences is determined by the BLAST 2.0 algorithm, which is described in Altschul et al., (1990) J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410. Software for performing BLAST analyses is publicly available through the National Center for Biotechnology Information.

As used herein, the term "bacteriophage" or "phage" refers to a virus that infects and replicates in bacteria. Bacteriophages replicate within bacteria following the injection of their genome into the cytoplasm and do so using either a lytic cycle, which results in bacterial cell lysis, or a lysogenic (non- lytic) cycle, which leaves the bacterial cell intact. The phage may be a naturally occurring phage isolate, or an engineered phage, including vectors, or nucleic acids that encode either a partial phage genome (e.g., including at least all essential genes necessary to carry out the life cycle of the phage inside a host bacterium) or the full phage genome.

As used herein, the term "plant" refers to whole plants, plant organs, plant tissues, seeds, plant cells, seeds, or progeny of the same. Plant cells include, without limitation, cells from seeds, suspension cultures, embryos, meristematic regions, callus tissue, leaves, roots, shoots, gametophytes, sporophytes, pollen, or microspores. Plant parts include differentiated or undifferentiated tissues including, but not limited to the following: roots, stems, shoots, leaves, pollen, seeds, tumor tissue, and various forms of cells and culture (e.g., single cells, protoplasts, embryos, or callus tissue). The plant tissue may be in a plant or in a plant organ, tissue, or cell culture. In addition, a plant may be genetically engineered to produce a heterologous protein or RNA, for example, of any of the modulating agents in the methods or compositions described herein.

The terms "obtainable by", "producible by" or the like are used to indicate that a claim or embodiment refers to compound, composition, product, etc. per se, i.e. that the compound, composition, product, etc. can be obtained or produced by a method which is described for manufacture of the compound, composition, product, etc., but that the compound, composition, product, etc. may be obtained or produced by other methods than the described one as well. The terms "obtained by," "produced by," or the like indicate that the compound, composition, product, is obtained or produced by a recited specific method. It is to be understood that the terms "obtainable by," "producible by" and the like also disclose the terms "obtained by", "produced by" and the like as a preferred embodiment of "obtainable by", "producible by" and the like.

Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following Detailed Description and the Claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

The figures are meant to be illustrative of one or more features, aspects, or embodiments of the invention and are not intended to be limiting.

Fig. 1 is a graph showing the time to reach adulthood from embryos in Drosophila melanogaster. Embryos of Drosophila melanogaster were either raised on diet seeded with Corynebacterium

glutamicum (a strain that produces glutamate - C. glutamicum Glu) or on axenic diet without any bacteria. The percentage of adults emerging from their pupa was measured every 12 hours from the time of the emergence of the first adult. The organisms raised on bacteria supplemented diet reach adulthood faster than their bacteria free counterparts.

Fig. 2A is a graph showing the effects of male gender on the developmental rate differences in Drosophila melanogaster. The adults emerging from Fig.1 1 were sexed and their rate of emergence was plotted.

Fig. 2B is a graph showing the effects of female gender on the developmental rate differences in Drosophila melanogaster. The adults emerging from Fig. 1 were sexed and their rate of emergence was plotted. The enhancement in the rate of development in the females due to the presence of bacteria in the diet is significantly more than in their male counterparts. The benefits of the presence of bacteria in the fly diet are higher in the females compared to the males.

Fig. 3 is a graph showing C. glutamicum strains promoted larval biomass. Larvae raised on diet supplemented with C. glutamicum strains either producing glutamate or methionine are bigger than those raised on sterile diet or diet supplemented with Escherichia coli. The areas of the larvae are measured as the number of pixels in the images of the larvae. The medians and the 95% confidence intervals are shown as lines on the graph.

Fig. 4 is a panel of graphs showing the results of a Seahorse flux assay for bacterial respiration. Bacteria were grown to logarithmic phase and loaded into Seahorse XFe96 plates for temporal measurements of oxygen consumption rate (OCR) and extracellular acidification rate (ECAR) as described in methods. Treatments were injected into the wells after approximately 20 minutes and bacteria were monitored to detect changes in growth. Rifampicin = 100 g/mL; Chloramphenicol = 25 μg/mL; Phages (T7 for E. coli and 0SmVL-C1 for Serratia marcescens) were lysates diluted either 1 :2 or 1 :100 in SM Buffer. The markers on each line are solely provided as indicators of the condition to which each line corresponds, and are not indicative of data points

Fig. 5 is a graph showing phage against S. marcescens reduced fly mortality. Flies that were pricked with S. marcescens were all dead within a day, whereas a sizeable portion of the flies that were pricked with both S. marcescens and the phage survived for five days after the treatment. Almost all of the control flies which were not treated in anyway survived till the end of the experiment. Log-rank test was used to compare the curves for statistical significance, asterisk denotes p<0.0001 .

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Provided herein are methods and compositions for food and feed applications, e.g., for altering a level, activity, or metabolism of one or more microorganisms resident in a host insect, the alteration resulting in an increase in the fitness of the host. The invention features a composition that includes a modulating agent (e.g., phage, peptide, small molecule, antibiotic, or combinations thereof) that can alter the host's microbiota in a manner that is beneficial to the host. By promoting favorable microbial levels, microbial activity, microbial metabolism, and/or microbial diversity, the modulating agent described herein may be used to increase the fitness of a variety of insects utilized in human food and animal feed industries.

The methods and compositions described herein are based, in part, on the examples which illustrate how different agents, for example methionine-producing microorganisms, can be used in insect hosts such as a cricket, a fly, a grasshopper, or a locust, to indirectly improve the health (e.g., increase methionine content, body mass, development rate, and/or survival) of these hosts by altering the level, activity or metabolism of microorganisms within these hosts. Methionine-producing microorganisms are a representative example of amino acid-producing microorganisms and more generally are representative of nutrient-producing microorganisms, and other microorganisms of this type may be useful in the invention. On this basis, the present disclosure describes a variety of different approaches for the use of agents that alter a level, activity, or metabolism of one or more microorganisms resident in a host, the alteration resulting in a modulation in the host's fitness. I. Hosts

/ ^' . Insects

The host of any of the compositions or methods described herein may be any organism belonging to the phylum Arthropoda (e.g., insects), including any arthropods described herein. In some instances, the host may be an insect or an arachnid that may be cultivated for a consumable product (e.g., food or feed). For example, the host may be a moth, butterfly, fly, cricket, grasshopper, locust, spider, or beetle. In some instances, the host is in the order Anoplura, Araneae, Blattodea, Coleoptera, Dermaptera, Dictyoptera, Diplura, Diptera, Embioptera, Ephemeroptera, Grylloblatodea, Hemiptera, Homoptera, Hymenoptera, Isoptera, Lepidoptera, Mantodea, Mecoptera, Neuroptera, Odonata,

Orthoptera, Phasmida, Plecoptera, Protura, Psocoptera, Siphonaptera, Siphunculata, Thysanura, Strepsiptera, Thysanoptera, Trichoptera, or Zoraptera.

In some examples, the host is a black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens), a common house fly, a lesser mealworm, a weaver ant, a silkworm (Bombyx mori), a grasshopper, a Chinese grasshopper (Acrida cinerea), a yellow mealworm (Clarias gariepinns), a moth (Anaphe infracta or Bombyx mori),

Spodoptera littoralis, a house cricket, a termite, a palm weevil (Rhynchophorus ferruginens), a giant water bug (Lethocerus indicus), a water beetle, a termite (Macrotermes subhyalinus), a drugstore beetle (Stegobium paniceum), Imbrasia belina, Rhynchophorus phoenicis, Oryctes rhinoceros, Macrotermes bellicosus, Ruspolia differens, Oryctes Monoceros, or Oecophylla smaragdina.

In particular instances, the modulating agents disclosed herein may be used to increase the fitness of crickets, grasshoppers, or locusts.

The host may be at any stage developmentally. For instance, the host may be an embryo, a larva, a pupa, or an adult. ii. Host Fitness

The methods and compositions provided herein may be used to increase the fitness of any of the hosts described herein. The increase in fitness may arise from any alterations in microorganisms resident in the host, wherein the alterations are a consequence of administration of a modulating agent and have beneficial or advantageous effects on the host.

In some instances, the increase in host fitness may manifest as an improvement in the physiology of the host (e.g., improved health or survival) as a consequence of administration of a modulating agent. In some instances, the fitness of an organism may be measured by one or more parameters, including, but not limited to, reproductive rate, lifespan, mobility, fecundity, body weight, metabolic rate or activity, or survival in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered. For example, the methods or compositions provided herein may be effective to improve the overall health of the host or to improve the overall survival of the host in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered. In some instances, the improved survival of the host is about 2%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 100%, or greater than 100% greater relative to a reference level (e.g., a level found in a host that does not receive a modulating agent). In some instances, the methods and compositions are effective to increase host reproduction (e.g., reproductive rate) in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered. In some instances, the methods and compositions are effective to increase other physiological parameters, such as mobility, body weight, life span, fecundity, or metabolic rate, by about 2%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 1 00%, or greater than 100% relative to a reference level (e.g., a level found in a host that does not receive a modulating agent).

In some instances, the increase in host fitness may manifest as an increase in the production of one or more nutrients in the host (e.g., vitamins, carbohydrates, amino acids, or polypeptides) in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered. In some instances, the methods or compositions provided herein may be effective to increase the production of nutrients in the host (e.g., vitamins, carbohydrates, amino acids, or polypeptides) by about 2%, 5%, 1 0%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 100%, or greater than 100% relative to a reference level (e.g., a level found in a host that does not receive a modulating agent). In some instances, the methods or compositions provided herein may increase nutrients in the host by increasing the production of nutrients by one or more microorganisms (e.g., endosymbiont) in the host in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered.

In some instances, the increase in host fitness may manifest as a decrease in the host's sensitivity to a pesticidal agent (e.g., a pesticide listed in Table 12) and/or an increase in the host's resistance to a pesticidal agent (e.g., a pesticide listed in Table 12) in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered. In some instances, the methods or compositions provided herein may be effective to decrease the host's sensitivity to a pesticidal agent by about 2%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 100%, or greater than 100% relative to a reference level (e.g., a level found in a host that does not receive a modulating agent). The pesticidal agent may be any pesticidal agent known in the art, including insecticidal agents. In some instances, the pesticidal agent is a neonicotinoid. In some instances, the methods or compositions provided herein may decrease the host's sensitivity to a pesticidal agent (e.g., a pesticide listed in Table 12) by increasing the host's ability to metabolize or degrade the pesticidal agent into usable substrates in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered.

In some instances, the increase in host fitness may manifest as a decrease in the host's sensitivity to an allelochemical agent and/or an increase in the host's resistance to an allelochemical agent in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered. In some instances, the methods or compositions provided herein may be effective to increase the host's resistance to an allelochemical agent by about 2%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 1 00%, or greater than 100% relative to a reference level (e.g., a level found in a host that does not receive a modulating agent). In some instances, the allelochemical agent is caffeine, soyacystatin N, monoterpenes, diterpene acids, or phenolic compounds in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered. In some instances, the methods or compositions provided herein may decrease the host's sensitivity to an allelochemical agent by increasing the host's ability to metabolize or degrade the allelochemical agent into usable substrates in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered. In some instances, the methods or compositions provided herein may be effective to increase the host's resistance to parasites or pathogens (e.g., fungal, bacterial, or viral pathogens; or parasitic mites) in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered. In some instances, the methods or compositions provided herein may be effective to increase the host's resistance to a pathogen or parasite (e.g., fungal, bacterial, or viral pathogens; or parasitic mites) by about 2%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 100%, or greater than 100% relative to a reference level (e.g., a level found in a host that does not receive a modulating agent).

In some instances, the increase in host fitness may manifest as other fitness advantages, such as improved tolerance to certain environmental factors (e.g., a high or low temperature tolerance), improved ability to survive in certain habitats, or an improved ability to sustain a certain diet (e.g., an improved ability to metabolize soy vs corn) in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered. In some instances, the methods or compositions provided herein may be effective to increase host fitness in any plurality of ways described herein. Further, the modulating agent may increase host fitness in any number of host classes, orders, families, genera, or species (e.g., 1 host species, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 ,10, 1 5, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 150, 200, 200, 250, 500, or more host species). In some instances, the modulating agent acts on a single host class, order, family, genus, or species.

Host fitness may be evaluated using any standard methods in the art. In some instances, host fitness may be evaluated by assessing an individual host. Alternatively, host fitness may be evaluated by assessing a host population. For example, an increase in host fitness may manifest as an increase in successful competition against other insects, thereby leading to an increase in the size of the host population.

// ^' / ^' . Host insects in feed/food production

Upon reaching a desired life stage, the host may be harvested and, if desired, processed for use in the manufacture of a consumable product. In some instances, the harvested insect may be distributed in a whole form (e.g., as the whole, unprocessed insect) as a consumable product. In some instances, the whole harvested insect is processed (e.g., ground up) and distributed as a consumable product. Alternatively, one or more parts of the insect (e.g., one or more body parts or one or more substances) may be extracted from the insect for use in the manufacture of a consumable product.

The consumable product may be any product safe for human or animal consumption (e.g., ingestion). In some instances, the host may be used in the manufacture of a feed for an animal. In some instances, the animal is livestock or a farm animal (e.g., chicken, cow, horse, or pig). In some instances, the animal is a bird, reptile, amphibian, mammal, or fish. In some instances, the host may be used in the manufacture of a product that replaces the normal feed of an animal. Alternatively, the host may be used in the manufacture of a product that supplements the normal feed of an animal. The host may also be used in the manufacture of a food, food additive, or food ingredient for humans. In some instances, the host is used in the manufacture of a nutritional supplement (e.g., protein supplement) for humans.

The host may be a wild or domesticated insect. Additionally, the host may be at any

developmental stage at the time of delivering or applying the compositions described herein. Further, the host may be at any developmental stage at the time of harvesting the host for use in the manufacture of a consumable product. In some instances, the host is a larva, pupa, or adult insect at the time of harvesting, using, processing, or manufacturing. The delivery of the modulating agent and the harvesting steps may occur at the same time or different times.

In some instances, an insect species is selected based upon their natural nutritional profile. In some instances, the modulating agent is used to improve the nutritional profile of the insect, wherein the modulating agent leads to an increased production of a nutrient in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered. Examples of nutrients include vitamins, carbohydrates, amino acids, polypeptides, or fatty acids. In some instances, the increased production may arise from increased production of a nutrient by a microorganism resident in the host. Alternatively, the increased production may arise from increased production of a nutrient by the host insect itself, wherein the host has increased fitness following delivery or administration of a modulating agent.

In some instances, in final processing, a first insect species is combined with a second insect species whose nutritional profile provides a complementary benefit to the overall nutritional value of the food or feed product. For example, a species containing a high protein profile could be combined with a species containing a high omega 3/6 fatty acid profile. In this manner, insect protein meal may be custom blended to suit the needs of humans or different species of animals.

II. Target Microorganisms

The microorganisms targeted by the modulating agent described herein may include any microorganism resident in or on the host, including, but not limited to, any bacteria and/or fungi described herein. Microorganisms resident in the host may include, for example, symbiotic (e.g., endosymbiotic microorganisms that provide beneficial nutrients or enzymes to the host), commensal, pathogenic, or parasitic microorganisms. A symbiotic microorganism (e.g., bacteria or fungi) may be an obligate symbiont of the host or a facultative symbiont of the host. Microorganisms resident in the host may be acquired by any mode of transmission, including vertical, horizontal, or multiple origins of transmission.

/ ^' . Bacteria

Exemplary bacteria that may be targeted in accordance with the methods and compositions provided herein, include, but are not limited to, Xenorhabdus spp, Photorhabdus spp, Candidates spp, Buchnera spp, Blattabacterium spp, Baumania spp, Wigglesworthia spp, Wolbachia spp, Rickettsia spp, Orientia spp, Sodalis spp, Burkholderia spp, Cupriavidus spp, Frankia spp, Snirhizobium spp,

Streptococcus spp, Wolinella spp, Xylella spp, Erwinia spp, Agrobacterium spp, Bacillus spp,

Paenibacillus spp, Streptomyces spp, Micrococcus spp, Corynebacterium spp, Acetobacter spp, Cyanobacteria spp, Salmonella spp, Rhodococcus spp, Pseudomonas spp, Lactobacillus spp,

Enterococcus spp, Alcaligenes spp, Klebsiella spp, Paenibacillus spp, Arthrobacter spp, Corynebacterium spp, Brevibacterium spp, Thermus spp, Pseudomonas spp, Clostridium spp, and Escherichia spp. Non- limiting examples of bacteria that may be targeted by the methods and compositions provided herein are shown in Table 1 . Table 1 : Exam les of Tar et Bacteria and Host Insects

T ATCT AAG C ATTTC ACTG CT ACT

CCTG AA ATTCT AATTTCTTCTTTT

ATACTCAAG 1 1 1 ATAAGTATTAA

TTTCAATATTAAATTAC 1 1 1 AATA

AATTTAAAAATTAATTTTTAAAAA

CAACCTGCACACCC 1 1 1 ACGCC

CAATAATTCCGATTAACGCTTGC

ACCCCTCGTATTACCGCGGCTG

CTGGCACGAAGTTAGCCGGTGC

TTC 1 1 1 1 ACAAATAACGTCAAAG

ATAATATTTTTTTATTATAAAATC

TCTTCTTAC 1 1 1 GTTGAAAGTGT

TTTACAACCCTAAGGCCTTCTTC

AC AC ACG CG AT AT AG CTGGATC

AAGC 1 1 1 CG CTC ATTGTCC AATA

TCCCCCACTGCTGCCTTCCGTA

AAAG 1 1 1 GGGCCGTGTCTCAGT

CCCAATGTGGTTGTTCATCCTCT

AAGATCAACTACGAATCATAGTC

TTGTTAAG CTTTTACTTTAAC AA

CTAACTAATTCG AT AT AAG CTCT

TCT ATT AG CG AACG AC ATTCTC

GTTC 1 1 1 ATCC ATT AG GAT AC AT

ATTGAATTACTATACA 1 1 1 CTATA

TAC 1 1 1 1 CT A AT ACT AATAG G T A

GATTCTTATATATTACTCACCCG

TTCG CTG CT AATT ATTTTTTT A AT

AATTCG C AC AACTTG C ATGTGTT

AAGCTTATCGCTAGCGTTCAAT

CTGAGCTATGATCAAACTCA

(SEQ ID NO: 1 )

Portiera aleyrodidarum whiteflyes bacteriocytes AAG AGTTTG ATC ATG G CTC AG A

BT-B (Aleyrodoidea) TTG AACG CTAG CGG C AG AC ATA

AC AC ATG C AAGTCG AG CG GC AT CAT AC AG G TTG G C A AG CG G CG CACGGGTGAGTAATACATGTAA AT AT ACCT AA AAGTG G G G AATA ACGTACGGAAACGTACGCTAAT ACCGCAT AATT ATT ACGAGATAA AGCAGGGGCTTG AT A AAA A AAA

TCAACCTTGCGCTTTTAGAAAAT

T AC ATG CCG G ATT AG CT AG TTG

GTAGAGTAAAAGCCTACCAAGG

TAACGATCCGTAGCTGGTCTGA

G AG G ATG ATC AG CC AC ACTG GG

ACTGAGAAAAGGCCCAGACTCC

TACGGGAGGCAGCAGTGGGGA

AT ATTG G AC A ATG GGGGGAACC

CTGATCCAGTCATGCCGCGTGT

GTGAAGAAGGCCTTTGGGTTGT

AAAG C ACTTTC AG CG AAG AAG A

AAAGTTAGAAAATAAAAAGTTAT

AACTATGACGGTACTCGCAGAA

GAAGCACCGGCTAACTCCGTGC

CAGCAGCCGCGGTAAGACGGA

G G GTG C AAG CG TT A ATC AG A AT

TACTG GG CGTAAAG GG C ATGTA

GGTGGTTTGTTAAGCTTTATGTG

AAAG CCCTATG CTTAAC AT AG G

AACGGAATAAAGAACTGACAAA

CTAGAGTGCAGAAGAGGAAGGT

AGAATTCCCGGTGTAGCGGTGA

AATGCGTAGATATCTGGAGGAA

TACCAGTTGCGAAGGCGACCTT

CTGGGCTGACACTGACACTGAG

ATGCGAAAGCGTGGGGAGCAA

ACAGGATTAGATACCCTGGTAG

TCCACGCTGTAAACGATATCAA

CT AG CCG TTG G ATTCTT AAAG A

ATTTTGTGGCGTAGCTAACGCG

ATAAGTTGATCGCCTGGGGAGT

ACGGTCGCAAGGCTAAAACTCA

AATGAATTGACGGGGGCCCGCA

C A AG CG G TGGAGCATGTGG TTT

AATTCGATGCAACGCGCAAAAC

CTTACCTACTCTTGACATCCAAA

GTACTTTCCAGAGATGGAAGGG

TGCCTTAGGGAACTTTGAGACA

GGTGCTGCATGGCTGTCGTCAG G G CG AA AG CCTG ATG C AG CT AT

GCCGCGTGTATGAAGAAGGCCT

TAGGGTTGTAAAGTACTTTCAG

CGGGGAGG AAA AAA AT AAA ACT

AATAATTTTATTTCGTGACGTTA

CCCGCAGAAGAAGCACCGGCT

AACTCCGTGCCAGCAGCCGCG

GTAATACG G AGG GTGC AAG CGT

T AATC AG A ATT ACTG G G CG T AA

AGAGCGCGTAGGTGGTTTTTTA

AGTCAGGTGTGAAATCCCTAGG

CTC A ACCT AG G AACTG C ATTTG

AAACTGGAAAACTAGAGTTTCG

TAGAGGGAGGTAGAATTCTAGG

TGTAGCGGTGAAATGCGTAGAT

ATCTGGAGGAATACCCGTGGCG

AAAGCGGCCTCCTAAACGAAAA

CTGACACTGAGGCGCGAAAGC

GTGGGGAGCAAACAGGATTAGA

TACCCTGGTAGTCCATGCCGTA

AACG ATGTCG ACTTG G AG GTTG

TTTCCAAGAGAAGTGACTTCCG

AAGCTAACGCATTAAGTCGACC

GCCTGGGGAGTACGGCCGCAA

G G CT A AA ACTC A A ATG AATTG A

CGGGGGCCCGCACAAGCGGTG

GAGCATGTGGTTTAATTCGATG

CAACGCGAAAAACCTTACCTGG

TCTTGACATCCACAGAATTCTTT

AGAAATAAAGAAGTGCCTTCGG

GAGCTGTGAGACAGGTGCTGCA

TGGCTGTCGTCAGCTCGTGTTG

TGAAATGTTGGGTTAAGTCCCG

CAACGAGCGCAACCCTTATCCC

CTGTTGCCAGCGGTTCGGCCG

GGAACTCAGAGGAGACTGCCG

GTTATAAACCGGAGGAAGGTGG

GGACGACGTCAAGTCATCATGG

CCCTTACGACCAGGGCTACACA

CG TG CT AC A ATG GTTT AT AC A A A AG CG TT A ATC AG A ATT ACTG G G

CGTAAAGAGCACGTAGGTGGTT

TTTTAAGTCAGATGTGAAATCCC

TAGGCTTAACCTAGGAACTGCA

TTTGAAACTGAAATGCTAGAGTA

TCGTAGAGGGAGGTAGAATTCT

AGGTGTAGCGGTGAAATGCGTA

GATATCTGGAGGAATACCCGTG

GCGAAAGCGGCCTCCTAAACGA

ATACTGACACTGAGGTGCGAAA

GCGTGGGGAGCAAACAGGATTA

GATACCCTGGTAGTCCATGCCG

TAAACGATGTCGACTTGGAGGT

TGTTTCCAAGAGAAGTGACTTC

CGAAGCTAACGCGTTAAGTCGA

CCGCCTGGGGAGTACGGCCGC

AAGGCTAAAACTCAAATGAATTG

ACGGGGGCCCGCACAAGCGGT

GGAGCATGTGGTTTAATTCGAT

GCAACGCGAAAAACCTTACCTG

GTCTTGACATCCACAGAATTTTT

TAGAAATAAAAAAGTGCCTTCG

GGAACTGTGAGACAGGTGCTGC

ATGGCTGTCGTCAGCTCGTGTT

GTGAAATGTTGGGTTAAGTCCC

GCAACGAGCGCAACCCTTATCC

CCTGTTGCCAGCGGTTCGGCC

GGGAACTCAGAGGAGACTGCC

GGTTATAAACCGGAGGAAGGTG

GGGACGACGTCAAGTCATCATG

GCCCTTACGACCAGGGCTACAC

ACGTGCTACAATGGTTTATACAA

AGAGAAGCAAATCTGTAAAGAC

AAG C AAACCTC ATAAAGTAAATC

GTAGTCCGGACTGGAGTCTGCA

ACTCGACTCCACGAAGTCGGAA

TCGCTAGTAATCGTGGATCAGA

ATGCCACGGTGAATACGTTCCC

GGGCCTTGTACACACCGCCCGT

CACACCATGGGAGTGGGTTGCA TCTTACGGGAGGCAGCAGTGG

G G A AT ATTG C AC A ATG G G CG C A

AGCCTGATGCAGCTATGTCGCG

TGTATGAAGAAGACCTTAGGGT

TGTAAAGTACTTTCGATAGCATA

AGAAGATAATGAGACTAATAATT

TTATTGTCTGACGTTAGCTATAG

AAGAAGCACCGGCTAACTCCGT

GCCAGCAGCCGCGGTAATACG

GGGGGTGCTAGCGTTAATCGGA

ATTACTGGGCGTAAAGAGCATG

TAGGTGGTTTATTAAGTCAGATG

TG AAATCCCTG G ACTTAATCTAG

GAACTGCATTTGAAACTAATAG

GCTAGAGTTTCGTAGAGGGAGG

TAGAATTCTAGGTGTAGCGGTG

AAATGCATAGATATCTAGAGGA

ATATCAGTGGCGAAGGCGACCT

TCTG G ACG AT A ACTG ACG CT AA

AATG CG A A AG C ATG G G TAG C A A

ACAGGATTAGATACCCTGGTAG

TCCATGCTGTAAACGATGTCGA

CTAAGAGGTTGGAGGTATAACT

TTTAATCTCTGTAGCTAACGCGT

TAAGTCGACCGCCTGGGGAGTA

CG GTCG C AAGG CTAAAACTC AA

ATGAATTGACGGGGGCCTGCAC

AAG CG G TGGAGCATGTGG TTT A

ATTCGATGCAACGCGTAAAACC

TTACCTGGTCTTGACATCCACA

GAATTTTACAGAAATGTAGAAGT

GCAATTTGAACTGTGAGACAGG

TGCTG C ATGG CTGTCGTC AG CT

CGTGTTGTGAAATGTTGGGTTA

AGTCCCGCAACGAGCGCAACC

CTTGTCCTTTGTTACCATAAGAT

TT AAG G AACTC AA AG G AG ACTG

CCGGTGATAAACTGGAGGAAGG

CGGGGACGACGTCAAGTCATCA

TGGCCCTTATGACCAGGGCTAC CTTCGCGTTGCATCGAATTAAA

CCACATGCTCCACCGCTTGTGC

GGGCCCCCGTCAATTCATTTGA

GTTTTAACCTTGCGGCCGTACT

CCCCAGGCGGTCGATTTAACGC

GTTAACTACGAAAGCCACAGTT

CAAGACCACAGCTTTCAAATCG

ACATAGTTTACGGCGTGGACTA

CCAGGGTATCTAATCCTGTTTG

CTCCCCACGCTTTCGTACCTGA

GCGTCAGTATTCGTCCAGGGGG

CCGCCTTCGCCACTGGTATTCC

TCCAGATATCTACACATTTCACC

GCTACACCTGGAATTCTACCCC

CCTCTACGAGACTCTAGCCTAT

CAGTTTCAAATGCAGTTCCTAG

GTTAAGCCCAGGGATTTCACAT

CTGACTTAATAAACCGCCTACG

TACTCTTTACGCCCAGTAATTCC

GATTAACGCTTGCACCCTCCGT

ATTACCGCGGCTGCTGGCACG

GAGTTAGCCGGTGCTTCTTCTG

TAGGTAACGTCAATCAATAACC

GTATTAAGGATATTGCCTTCCTC

CCTACTG AAAGTG CTTTAC AAC

CCGAAGGCCTTCTTCACACACG

CGGCATGGCTGCATCAGGG TTT

CCCCCATTGTGCAATATTCCCC

ACTGCTGCCTCCCGTAGGAGTC

TGGACCGTGTCTCAGTTCCAGT

GTGGCTGGTCATCCTCTCAGAC

CAGCTAGGGATCGTCGCCTAGG

TAAG CTATTACCTC ACCTACTAG

CTAATCCCATCTGGGTTCATCT

GAAGGTGTGAGGCCAAAAGGTC

CCCCACTTTGGTCTTACGACATT

ATGCGGTATTAGCTACCGTTTC

CAGCAGTTATCCCCCTCCATCA

GGCAGATCCCCAGACTTTACTC

ACCCGTTCGCTGCTCGCCGGCA GCGGCATCGGAAAGTAAATTAA

TTACTTTGCCGGCAAGCGGCGA

ACGGGTGAGTAATATCTGGGGA

TCT ACCTT ATG G AG AG G G AT A A

CT ATTG G AA ACG AT AG CT AAC A

CCGCATAATGTCGTCAGACCAA

A ATG GGGGACCTAATTTAGGCC

TCATGCCATAAGATGAACCCAG

ATGAGATTAGCTAGTAGGTGAG

ATAATAGCTCACCTAGGCAACG

ATCTCTAGTTGGTCTGAGAGGA

TGACCAGCCACACTGGAACTGA

GACACGGTCCAGACTCCTACGG

GAGGCAGCAGTGGGGAATCTT

GCACAATGGGGGAAACCCTGAT

GCAGCTATACCGCGTGTGTGAA

GAAGGCCTTCGGGTTGTAAAGC

ACTTTC AG CG G G G A AG AAA ATG

AAG TT ACT AAT AAT AATTG TC AA

TTGACGTTACCCGCAAAAGAAG

CACCGGCTAACTCCGTGCCAGC

AGCCGCGGTAAGACGGAGGGT

G C AAG CG TT AATCG G AATT ACT

GGGCGTAAAGCGTATGTAGGC

GGTTTATTTAGTCAGGTGTGAAA

GCCCTAGGCTTAACCTAGGAAT

TG C ATTTG A AACTG GT A AG CT A

GAGTCTCGTAGAGGGGGGGAG

AATTCCAGGTGTAGCGGTGAAA

TGCGTAGAGATCTGGAAGAATA

CCAGTGGCGAAGGCGCCCCCC

TGGACGAAAACTGACGCTCAAG

TACGAAAGCGTGGGGAGCAAAC

AGGATTAGATACCCTGGTAGTC

CACGCTGTAAACGATGTCGATT

TGAAGGTTGTAGCCTTGAGCTA

TAGCTTTCG AAG CTAACG C ATTA

AATCG ACCGCCTGGGGAGTAC

G ACCG C AAG GTTAAAACTC AAA

TGAATTGACGGGGGCCCGCAC CACCTAGGCGACGATCCCTAGC

TGGTCTGAGAGGATGACCAGTC

ACACTGGAACTGAGACACGGTC

CAGACTCCTACGGGAGGCAGC

AGTG G G G A AT ATTG C AC AATG G

GGGAAACCCTGATGCAGCCATG

CCGCGTGTGTGAAGAAGGCCTT

CG G G TTGT AA AG C ACTTTC AG C

GGGGAGGAAGGCGATGGCGTT

AATAGCGCTATCGATTGACGTT

ACCCGCAGAAGAAGCACCGGC

TAACTCCGTGCCAGCAGCCGCG

GTAATACGGAGGGTGCGAGCG

TT AATCG G AATT ACTG G G CG T A

AAGCGTACGCAGGCGGTCTGTT

AAGTCAGATGTGAAATCCCCGG

GCTCAACCTGGGAACTGCATTT

GAAACTGGCAGGCTAGAGTCTC

GTAGAGGGGGGTAGAATTCCAG

GTGTAGCGGTGAAATGCGTAGA

GATCTGGAGGAATACCGGTGGC

GAAGGCGGCCCCCTGGACGAA

GACTGACGCTCAGGTACGAAAG

CGTGGGGAGCAAACAGGATTAG

ATACCCTGGTAGTCCACGCTGT

AAACGATGTCGATTTGAAGGTT

GTGGCCTTGAGCCGTGGCTTTC

GGAGCTAACGTGTTAAATCGAC

CGCCTGGGGAGTACGGCCGCA

AG G TT A AA ACTC AA ATG A ATTG A

CGGGGGCCCGCACAAGCGGTG

GAGCATGTGGTTTAATTCGATG

CAACGCGAAGAACCTTACCTAC

TCTTG AC ATCC AG AG AACTTG G

CAGAGATGCTTTGGTGCCTTCG

GGAACTCTGAGACAGGTGCTGC

ATGGCTGTCGTCAGCTCGTGTT

GTGAAATGTTGGGTTAAGTCCC

GCAACGAGCGCAACCCTTATCC

TTTATTGCCAGCGATTCGGTCG AATACGGAGGGTGCAAGCGTTA

ATCGGAATTACTGGGCGTAAAG

CGCACGCAGGCGG TT A ATT AAG

TTAGATGTGAAAGCCCCGGGCT

TAACCCAGGAATAGCATATAAAA

CTGGTCAACTAGAGTATTGTAG

AGGGGGGTAGAATTCCATGTGT

AGCGGTGAAATGCGTAGAGATG

TGGAGGAATACCAGTGGCGAAG

GCGGCCCCCTGGACAAAAACTG

ACGCTC AAATG CG AAAG CGTG G

GGAGCAAACAGGATTAGATACC

CTGGTAGTCCATGCTGTAAACG

ATGTCGATTTGGAGGTTGTTCC

CTTGAGGAGTAGCTTCCGTAGC

TAACGCGTTAAATCGACCGCCT

GGGGGAGTACGACTGCAAGGT

TAAAACTCAAATGAATTGACGG

GGGCCCGCACAAGCGGTGGAG

CATGTGGTTTAATTCGATGCAAC

GCGAAAAACCTTACCTACTCTT

GACATCCAGATAATTTAGCAGA

AATGCTTTAGTACCTTCGGGAA

ATCTG AG AC AG G TG CTG C ATG G

CTGTCGTCAGCTCGTGTTGTGA

AATGTTGGGTTAAGTCCCGCAA

CGAGCGCAACCCTTATCCTTTG

TTGCCAGCGATTAGGTCGGGAA

CTCAAAGGAGACTGCCGGTGAT

AAACCGGAGGAAGGTGGGGAT

GACGTCAAGTCATCATGGCCCT

TACGAGTAGGGCTACACACGTG

CT AC AATG G CAT AT AC A A AG G G

AAGCAACCTCGCGAGAGCAAGC

GAAACTCATAAATTATGTCGTAG

TTCAGATTGGAGTCTGCAACTC

GACTCCATGAAGTCGGAATCGC

TAGTAATCGTAGATCAGAATGCT

ACGGTGAATACGTTCCCGGGCC

TTGTACACACCGCCCGTCACAC GAGTTTTAACCTTGCGGCCGTA

CTCCCCAGGCGGTCGACTTGTG

CGTTAGCTGCACCACTGAAAAG

G AAAACTG CCC AATG GTTAGTC

AAC ATCGTTTAG GG C ATG G ACT

ACCAGGGTATCTAATCCTGTTT

GCTCCCCATGCTTTAGTGTCTG

AGCGTCAGTAACGAACCAGGAG

GCTGCCTACGCTTTCGGTATTC

CTCCACATCTCTACACATTTCAC

TG CT AC ATG CG G AATTCT ACCT

CCCCCTCTCGTACTCCAGCCTG

CCAGTAACTGCCGCATTCTGAG

GTTAAG CCTC AG CCTTTC AC AG

CAATCTTAAC AG GC AG CCTG C A

CACCCTTTACGCCCAATAAATCT

GATTAACGCTCGCACCCTACGT

ATTACCGCGGCTGCTGGCACGT

AGTTTGCCGGTGCTTATTCTTTC

GGTACAGTCACACCACCAAATT

GTTAGTTGGGTGGCTTTCTTTC

CG AAC A A A AG TG CTTT AC A ACC

CAAAGGCCTTCTTCACACACGC

GGCATTGCTGGATCAGGCTTCC

GCCCATTGTCCAAGATTCCTCA

CTG CTG CCTTCCTC AG AAGTCT

GGGCCGTGTCTCAGTCCCAGTG

TGGCTGGCCGTCCTCTCAGACC

AGCTACCGATCATTGCCTTGGG

AAG CC ATTACCTTTCC AAC AAG

CTAATCAGACATCAGCCAATCT

CAG AGCG C AAG GC AATTG GTCC

CCTG CTTTC ATTCTG CTTG G TAG

AGAACTTTATGCGGTATTAATTA

GGCTTTCACCTAGCTGTCCCCC

ACTCTGAGGCATGTTCTGATGC

ATTACTCACCCGTTTGCCACTTG

CCACCAAGCCTAAGCCCGTGTT

GCCGTTCGACTTGCATGTGTAA s (Hemiptera: TTTCAAAGTAGCGTATAGGTGA Cicadellidae) GTATAACATTTAAACATACCTTA

AAGTTCGGAATACCCCGATGAA

AATCGGTATAATACCGTATAAAA

G T ATTT A AG A ATT A A AG C G G G G

AAAACCTCGTGCTATAAGATTGT

T AAATG CCTG ATT AGTTTG TTG G

TTTTTAAG GTAAAAG CTTACCAA

GACTTTGATCAGTAGCTATTCTG

TG AG G ATGTATAG CC AC ATTG G

GATTGAAATAATGCCCAAACCT

CTACGGAGGGCAGCAGTGGGG

AATATTGGACAATGAGCGAAAG

CTTGATCCAGCAATGTCGCGTG

TGCGATTAAGGGAAACTGTAAA

G C ACTTTTTTTT A AG AATA AG A A

ATTTTAATTAATAATTAAAATTTT

TGAATGTATTAAAAGAATAAGTA

CCG ACTAATC ACGTG CC AG C AG

TCGCGGTAATACGTGGGGTGC

GAGCGTTAATCGGATTTATTGG

GCGTAAAGTGTATTCAGGCTGC

TTAAAAAGATTTATATTAAATATT

TAAATTAAATTTAAAAAATGTATA

AATT ACT ATT A AG CT AG AG TTT A

GTATAAGAAAAAAGAATTTTATG

TGTAGCAGTGAAATGCGTTGAT

ATATAAAGGAACGCCGAAAGCG

AAAGCATTTTTCTGTAATAGAAC

TGACGCTTATATACGAAAGCGT

GGGTAGCAAACAGGATTAGATA

CCCTGGTAGTCCACGCCCTAAA

CTATGTCAATTAACTATTAGAAT

TTTTTTTAGTGGTGTAGCTAACG

CGTTAAATTGACCGCCTGGGTA

TTACGATCGCAAGATTAAAACTC

AAAG G AATTG ACG GG G ACC AG C

ACAAGCGGTGGATGATGTGGAT

TAATTCGATGATACGCGAAAAA

CCTTACCTG CCCTTG AC ATG GT TG ATCC AG C AATACCG CGTG AG

TGATGAAGGCCTTAGGGTCGTA

AAACTCTTTTGTTAGGAAAGAAA

TAATTTTAAATAATATTTAAAATT

GATGACGGTACCTAAAGAATAA

GCACCGGCTAACTACGTGCCAG

CAGCCGCGGTAATACGTAGGGT

G C AAG CG TT AATCG G AATT ATT

GGGCGTAAAGAGTGCGTAGGC

TGTTATATAAGATAGATGTGAAA

TACTTAAG CTTAACTTAAG AACT

GCATTTATTACTGTTTAACTAGA

GTTTATTAGAGAGAAGTGGAATT

TTATGTGTAGCAGTGAAATGCG

TAGATATATAAAGGAATATCGAT

GGCGAAGGCAG CTTCTTG G A AT

AATACTGACGCTGAGGCACGAA

AGCGTGGGGAGCAAACAGGATT

AGATACCCTGGTAGTCCACGCC

CTAAACTATGTCTACTAGTTATT

AAATTAAAAATAAAATTTAGTAA

CG TAG CT A ACG C ATT A AG TAG A

CCGCCTGGGGAGTACGATCGC

AAG ATT A AA ACTC AA AG G AATTG

ACGGGGACCCGCACAAGCGGT

GGATGATGTGGATTAATTCGAT

GCAACACGAAAAACCTTACCTA

CTCTTGACATGTTTGGAATTTTA

AAGAAATTTAAAAGTGCTTGAAA

AAG A AC C AAA AC AC AG G TG CTG

CATGGCTGTCGTCAGCTCGTGT

CGTGAGATGTTGGGTTAAGTCC

CGCAACGAGCGCAACCCTTGTT

ATT ATTTG CT AAT AA AA AG AACT

TTAATAAGACTGCCAATGACAAA

TTGGAGGAAGGTGGGGATGAC

GTCAAGTCCTCATGGCCCTTAT

GAG TAG G G CTTC AC ACG TC AT A

C A ATG AT AT AT AC AATG G G TAG

CAAATTTGTGAAAATGAGCCAAT TTTATTGGGCGTAAAGGGTGTC

C AG G TTG CT A AG T AAGTT AAC A

AC A A AATCTTG AG ATTC AACCTC

ATAACGTTCGGTTAATACTACTA

AGCTCGAGCTTGGATAGAGACA

AACGGAATTCCGAGTGTAGAGG

TGAAATTCGTTGATACTTGGAG

GAACACCAGAGGCGAAGGCGG

TTTGTCATACCAAGCTGACACT

GAAGACACGAAAGCATGGGGA

GCAAACAGGATTAGATACCCTG

GTAGTCCATGCCCTAAACGTTG

AGTG CTAAC AGTTCG ATC AAG C

CACATGCTATGATCCAGGATTG

TACAGCTAACGCGTTAAGCACT

CCGCCTGGGTATTACGACCGCA

AG G TT A AA ACTC AA AG G AATTG

ACGGAGACCCGCACAAGCGGT

GGAGCATGTGGTTTAATTCGAA

GCTACACGAAGAACCTTACCAG

CCCTTGACATACCATGGCCAAC

C ATCCTG G AA AC AG G ATG TTGT

TCAAGTTAAACCCTTGAAATGCC

AGGAACAGGTGCTGCATGGCTG

TTGTCAGTTCGTGTCGTGAGAT

GTATGGTTAAGTCCCAAAACGA

ACACAACCCTCACCCATAGTTG

CCATAAACACAATTGGGTTCTCT

ATGGGTACTGCTAACGTAAGTT

AGAGGAAGGTGAGGACCACAA

CAAGTCATCATGGCCCTTATGG

GCTGGGCCACACACATGCTACA

ATGGTG GTTAC AAAG AG CCG C A

ACGTTGTGAGACCGAGCAAATC

TCCAAAGACCATCTCAGTCCGG

ATTGTACTCTGCAACCCGAGTA

CATG AAG TAG G AATCG CTAGTA

ATCGTGGATCAGCATGCCACGG

TGAATACGTTCTCGGGTCTTGT

ACACGCCGCCCGTCACACCATG AAG G ATT ACTG ACTTC AG G T AC

CCCCGACTCCCATGGCTTGACG

GGCGGTGTGTACAAGGTTCGAG

AACATATTCACCGCGCCATTGC

TGATGCGCGATTACTAGCGATT

CCTG CTTC ATAG AGTCG AATTG

CAGACTCCAATCCGAACTGAGA

CTGGTTTTAGAGATTAGCTCCT

GATCACCCAGTGGCTGCCCTTT

GTAACCAGCCATTGTAGCACGT

GTGTAGCCCAAGGCATAGAGGC

CATGATGATTTGACATCATCCCC

ACCTTCCTCACAGTTTACACCG

GCAGTTTTGTTAGAGTCCCCGG

CTTTACCCGATGGCAACTAACA

ATAGGGGTTGCGCTCGTTATAG

GACTTAACCAAACACTTCACAG

CACGAACTGAAGACAACCATGC

AGCACCTTGTAATACGTCGTATA

GACTAAG CTGTTTCC AG CTTATT

CG T AAT AC ATTT AAG CCTTG GT A

AGGTTCCTCGCGTATCATCGAA

TTAAACCACATGCTCCACCGCT

TGTGCGAACCCCCGTCAATTCC

TTTG AGTTTC A ATCTTG CG ACTG

TACTTCCCAGGTGGATCACTTAT

CGCTTTCGCTAAGCCACTGAAT

ATCGTTTTTCCAATAGCTAGTGA

TCATCGTTTAGGGCGTGGACTA

CCAGGGTATCTAATCCTGTTTG

CTCCCCACGCTTTCGTGCACTG

AG CG TC AG T AA AG ATTT AG C A A

CCTG CCTTCGCTATCG GTGTTC

TGT ATG AT ATCT ATG C ATTTC AC

CG CTAC ACC ATAC ATTCC AG AT

G CTCC AATCTT ACTC A AG TTT AC

CAGTATC AAT AG C AATTTTAC AG

TTAAGCTGTAAGCTTTCACTACT

G ACTTAATAAAC AG CCTAC AC A

CCCTTTAAACCCAATAAATCCGA AACTTCT ACG G A AG G CTG C AG T

G AG G AATATTG GTC AATG G AGG

AAACTCTGAACCAGCCACTCCG

CGTGCAGGATGAAAGAAAGCCT

TATTGGTTGTAAACTGCTTTTGT

ATATGAATAAAAAATTCTAATTAT

AG A A AT A ATTG AAG G T AAT AT AC

GAATAAGTATCGACTAACTCTGT

GCCAGCAGTCGCGGTAAGACA

GAGGATACAAGCGTTATCCGGA

TTT ATTG GGTTTAAAGGGTGCG

TAGGCGGTTTTTAAAGTCAGTA

GTG AAATCTTAAAG CTTAACTTT

AAAAGTGCTATTGATACTGAAAA

ACT AG AG T AAG G TTG G AG T AAC

TGGAATGTGTGGTGTAGCGGTG

AAATG C ATAG ATATC AC AC AG AA

CACCGATAGCGAAAGCAAGTTA

CTAACCCTATACTGACGCTGAG

TCACGAAAGCATGGGGAGCAAA

CAGGATTAGATACCCTGGTAGT

CCATGCCGTAAACGATGATCAC

TAACTATTGGGTTTTATACGTTG

TAATTC AGTG GTG AAG CG AAAG

TGTTAAGTGATCCACCTGAGGA

GTACGACCGCAAGGTTGAAACT

CAAAGGAATTGACGGGGGCCC

GCACAATCGGTGGAGCATGTGG

TTTAATTCGATGATACACGAGGA

ACCTTACCAAGACTTAAATGTAC

TACGAATAAATTGGAAACAATTT

AGTCAAGCGACGGAGTACAAGG

TGCTGCATGGTTGTCGTCAGCT

CGTGCCGTGAGGTGTAAGGTTA

AGTCCTTTAAACGAGCGCAACC

CTTATTATTAGTTGCCATCGAGT

AATG TC AG G G G ACTCT AAT AAG

ACTGCCGGCGCAAGCCGAGAG

GAAGGTGGGGATGACGTCAAAT

CATCACGGCCCTTACGTCTTGG GGTAATTCC AG CTCC AATAG CG

TATATTAAAGTTGTTGCAGTTAA

AAAGCTCGTAGTTGAACCTTGG

GCCTGGCTGGCCGGTCCGCCT

AACCGCGTGTACTGGTCCGGCC

GGGCCTTTCCTTCTGGGGAGCC

GCATGCCCTTCACTGGGTGTGT

CG GG G AACC AG G ACTTTTACTT

TGAAAAAATTAGAGTGTTCAAAG

CAGGCCTATGCTCGAATACATT

AG C ATG G AAT AATAG AAT AG G A

CGTGCGGTTCTATTTTGTTGGTT

TCTAGGACCGCCGTAATGATTA

ATAGGGATAGTCGGGGGCATCA

GTATTCAATTGTCAGAGGTGAA

ATTCTTGGATTTATTGAAGACTA

ACTACTGCGAAAGCATTTGCCA

AG G ATGTTTTC ATT AATC AGTG A

ACGAAAGTTAGGGGATCGAAGA

CGATCAGATACCGTCGTAGTCT

TAACC ATAAACTATG CCG ACTA

GGGATCGGGCGATGTTATTATT

TTG ACTCG CTCG GC ACCTTACG

AGAAATCAAAGTCTTTGGGTTCT

GGGGGGAGTATGGTCGCAAGG

CTGAAACTTAAAGAAATTGACG

GAAGGGCACCACCAGGAGTGG

AGCCTGCGG CTT AATTTG ACTC

AACACGGGGAAACTCACCAGGT

CCAGACACATTAAGGATTGACA

GATTGAGAGCTCTTTCTTGATTA

TGTGGGTGGTGGTGCATGGCC

GTTCTTAGTTGGTGGAGTGATTT

GTCTGCTTAATTGCGATAACGA

ACGAGACCTTAACCTGCTAAAT

AGCCCGGTCCGCTTTGGCGGG

CCG CTG G CTTCTT AG AG G G ACT

ATCGGCTCAAGCCGATGGAAGT

TTG AGG C AATAAC AG GTCTGTG

ATGCCCTTAGATGTTCTGGGCC GAGTACAATTTAAATCCCTTAAC

GAGGAACAATTGGAGGGCAAGT

CTGGTGCCAGCAGCCGCGGTA

ATTCCAGCTCCAATAGCGTATAT

TAAAGTTGTTGCAGTTAAAAAGC

TCGTAGTTGAACCTTGGGCCTG

GCTGGCCGGTCCGCCTAACCG

CGTGTACTGGTCCGGCCGGGC

CTTTCCTTCTGGGGAGCCGCAT

GCCCTTCACTGGGTGTGTCGGG

GAACCAGGACTTTTACTTTGAAA

AAATTAG AGTGTTC AAAG C AG G

CCTATGCTCGAATACATTAGCAT

GGAATAATAGAATAGGACGTGT

GGTTCTATTTTGTTGGTTTCTAG

GACCGCCGTAATGATTAATAGG

GATAGTCGGGGGCATCAGTATT

C A ATTGTC AG AG G TG AA ATTCTT

GGATTTATTGAAGACTAACTACT

GCGAAAGCATTTGCCAAGGATG

TTTTCATTAATCAGTGAACGAAA

GTTAGGGGATCGAAGACGATCA

GATACCGTCGTAGTCTTAACCA

TAAACTATG CCG ACTAGG G ATC

GGGCGATGTTATTATTTTGACTC

GCTCGGCACCTTACGAGAAATC

AAAG TCTTTG GGTTCTGGGGGG

AGTATGGTCGCAAGGCTGAAAC

TT AA AG A AATTG ACG G AAG G G C

ACCACCAGGAGTGGAGCCTGC

G G CTT AATTTG ACTC A AC ACG G

GGAAACTCACCAGGTCCAGACA

CATTAAGGATTGACAGATTGAG

AGCTCTTTCTTGATTATGTGGGT

GGTGGTGCATGGCCGTTCTTAG

TTGGTGGAGTGATTTGTCTGCT

TAATTGCGATAACGAACGAGAC

CTTAACCTGCTAAATAGCCCGG

TCCGCTTTGGCGGGCCGCTGG

CTTCTT AG AG G G ACT ATCG G CT CTCCTACGGGAGGCAGCAGTG

G G G AATTTTG G AC AATG G G G G C

AACCCTGATCCAGCAATGCCGC

GTGTGTGAAGAAGGCTTCGGGT

TGTAAAGCACTTTTGTCCGGAA

AGAAAACTTCGTCCCTAATATG

GATGGAGGATGACGGTACCGG

AAGAATAAGCACCGGCTAACTA

CGTGCCAGCAGCCGCGGTAATA

CGTAGGGTGCGAGCGTTAATCG

GAATTACTGGGCGTAAAGCGTG

CG C AG GCG GTCTGTTAAG ACCG

ATGTGAAATCCCCGGGCTTAAC

CTGGGAACTGCATTGGTGACTG

GCAGGCTTTGAGTGTGGCAGAG

GGGGGTAGAATTCCACGTGTAG

CAGTGAAATGCGTAGAGATGTG

GAGGAATACCGATGGCGAAGG

CAGCCCCCTGGGCCAACTACTG

ACGCTCATGCACGAAAGCGTGG

GGAGCAAACAGGATTAGATACC

CTGGTAGTCCACGCCCTAAACG

ATGTC AACT AG TTGTTG G G G AT

TCATTTCCTTAGTAACGTAGCTA

ACGCGTGAAGTTGACCGCCTGG

GGAGTACGGTCGCAAGATTAAA

ACTCAAAGGAATTGACGGGGAC

CCGCACAAGCGGTGGATGATGT

GGATTAATTCGATGCAACGCGA

AAAACCTTACCTACCCTTGACAT

GGTCGGAACCCTGCTGAAAGGT

GGGGGTGCTCGAAAGAGAACC

GGCGCACAGGTGCTGCATGGC

TGTCGTCAGCTCGTGTCGTGAG

ATGTTGGGTTAAGTCCCGCAAC

GAGCGCAACCCTTGTCCTTAGT

TGCTACGCAAGAGCACTCTAAG

GAGACTGCCGGTGACAAACCG

GAGGAAGGTGGGGATGACGTC

AAGTCCTCATGGCCCTTATGGG GGAACTGCATTGGTGACTGGCA

GGCTTTGAGTGTGGCAGAGGG

GGGTAGAATTCCACGTGTAGCA

GTGAAATGCGTAGAGATGTGGA

GGAATACCGATGGCGAAGGCA

GCCCCCTGGGCCAACACTGAC

GCTCATGCACGAAAGCGTGGG

GAGCAAACAGGATTAGATACCC

TGGTAGTCCACGCCCTAAACGA

TGTCAACTAGTTGTTGGGGATT

CATTTCCTTAGTAACGTAGCTAA

CGCGTGAAGTTGACCGCCTGG

GGAGTACGGTCGCAAGATTAAA

ACTCAAAGGAATTGACGGGGAC

CCGCACAAGCGGTGGATGATGT

GGATTAATTCGATGCAACGCGA

AAAACCTTACCTACCCTTGACAT

GGTCGGAAGTCTGCTGAGAGGT

GGACGTGCTCGAAAGAGAACC

GGCGCACAGGTGCTGCATGGC

TGTCGTCAGCTCGTGTCGTGAG

ATGTTGGGTTAAGTCCCGCAAC

GAGCGCAACCCTTGTCCTTAGT

TGCTACGCAAGAGCACTCTAAG

GAGACTGCCGGTGACAAACCG

GAGGAAGGTGGGGATGACGTC

AAGTCCTCATGGCCCTTATGGG

TAG G G CTTC AC ACG TC AT AC AA

TGGTCGGAACAGAGGGTTGCCA

AGCCGCGAGGTGGAGCCAATC

CCAGAAAACCGATCGTAGTCCG

GATCGCAGTCTGCAACTCGACT

GCGTGAAGCTGGAATCGCTAGT

AATCGCGGATCAGCATGCCGCG

GTGAATACGTTCCCGGGTCTTG

TACACACCGCCCGTCACACCAT

GGGAGTGGGTTTCACCAGAAGT

AGGTAGCCTAACCGCAAGGAG

GGCGCTTACCACGGTGGGATTC

ATGACTGGGGTGAAGT CCAAGGCGACGATCCATAGCG

GGTCTGAGAGGATGATCCGCCA

CATTGGGACTGAGACACGGCCC

AAACTCCTACGG G AGG C AG C AG

TG G G G AATTTTG G AC AATG G G G

GGAACCCTGATCCAGCCATGCC

GCGTGTCTGAAGAAGGCCTTCG

GGTTGTAAAGGACTTTTGTTAG

GGAAGAAAAGCCGGGTGTTAAT

ACCATCTGGTGCTGACGGTACC

TAAAGAATAAGCACCGGCTAAC

TACGTGCCAGCAGCCGCGGTAA

TACGTAGGGTGCGAGCGTTAAT

CG G AATTACTG GG CGTAAAGCG

AGCGCAGACGG TT A ATT A AG TC

AGATGTGAAATCCCCGAGCTCA

ACTTG G G ACG TG C ATTTG A A AC

TGGTTAACTAGAGTGTGTCAGA

GGGAGGTAGAATTCCACGTGTA

GCAGTGAAATGCGTAGAGATGT

GGAGGAATACCGATGGCGAAG

GCAGCCTCCTGGGATAACACTG

ACGTTCATGCTCGAAAGCGTGG

GTAG C AAAC AG G ATT AG ATACC

CTGGTAGTCCACGCCCTAAACG

ATG AC AATT AG CTGTTG G G AC A

CTAGATGTCTTAGTAGCGAAGC

TAACGCGTGAAATTGTCCGCCT

GGGGAGTACGGTCGCAAGATTA

AA ACTC A A AG G A ATTG ACG G G G

ACCCGCACAAGCGGTGGATGAT

GTGGATTAATTCGATGCAACGC

G AAG AACCTTACCTG GTCTTG A

CATGTACG G AATCTCTTAG AG A

TAGGAGAGTGCCTTCGGGAACC

GTAACACAGGTGCTGCATGGCT

GTCGTCAGCTCGTGTCGTGAGA

TGTTGGGTTAAGTCCCGCAACG

AGCGCAACCCTTGTCATTAGTT

G CC ATC ATT A AG TTGGGCACTC TTAATTACAGAAGAAGCACCGG

CTAACTCCGTGCCAGCAGCCGC

GGTAATACGGAGGGTGCGAGC

GTTAATCGGAATGACTGGGCGT

AAAGGGCATGTAGGCGGATAAT

TAAGTTAGGTGTGAAAGCCCTG

G G CTC A ACCT AG G AATTG C ACT

T AAA ACTG GTT AACT AG AG T ATT

GTAG AG G AAG GTAG AATTCC AC

GTGTAGCGGTGAAATGCGTAGA

GATGTGGAGGAATACCGGTGG

CGAAGGCGGCCTTCTGGACAG

ATACTGACGCTGAGATGCGAAA

GCGTGGGGAGCAAACAGGATTA

GATACCCTGGTAGTCCACGCTG

TAAACGATGTCGATTTGGAGTTT

GTTGCCTAGAGTGATGGGCTCC

GAAGCTAACGCGATAAATCGAC

CGCCTGGGGAGTACGGCCGCA

AGGTTAAAACTCAAATGAATTGA

CGGGGGCCCGCACAAGCGGTG

GAGCATGTGGTTTAATTCGATG

CAACGCGAAGAACCTTACCTGG

TCTTGACATCCACAGAATCTTGC

AGAGATGCGGGAGTGCCTTCG

GGAACTGTGAGACAGGTGCTGC

ATGGCTGTCGTCAGCTCGTGTT

GTGAAATGTTGGGTTAAGTCCC

GCAACGAGCGCAACCCTTATCC

TTTGTTGCCATCGGTTAGGCCG

GGAACTCAAAGGAGACTGCCGT

TGATAAAGCGGAGGAAGGTGG

GGACGACGTCAAGTCATCATGG

CCCTTACGACCAGGGCTACACA

CG TG CT AC A ATG G CGT AT AC A A

AGGGAGGCGACCTCGCGAGAG

CAAGCGGACCTCATAAAGTACG

TCTAAGTCCGGATTGGAGTCTG

CAACTCGACTCCATGAAGTCGG

AATCGCTAGTAATCGTGAATCA ATTCGTAGATATTCGGAGGAAC

ACCAGTGGCGAAGGCGGCTTA

CTGGTCCATTACTGACGCTGAG

GTGCGAAAGCGTGGGGAGCAA

ACAGGATTAGATACCCTGGTAG

TCCACGCTGTAAACGATGAATG

TTAG CCGTTG G AC AGTTTACTG

TTCGGTGGCGCAGCTAACGCAT

TAAACATTCCGCCTGGGGAGTA

CG GTCG C AAG ATTAAAACTC AA

AGGAATTGACGGGGGCCCGCA

C A AG CG G TGGAGCATGTGG TTT

AATTCGAAGCAACGCGCAGAAC

CTTACCAGCCCTTGACATCCCG

ATCGCGGATGGTGGAGACACC

GTCTTTCAGTTCGGCTGGATCG

GTGACAGGTGCTGCATGGCTGT

CGTCAGCTCGTGTCGTGAGATG

TTGGGTTAAGTCCCGCAACGAG

CG C AACCCTCG CCCTTAGTTG C

CATC ATTT AGTTG G G C ACTCT AA

GGGGACTGCCGGTGATAAGCC

GAGAGGAAGGTGGGGATGACG

TCAAGTCCTCATGGCCCTTACG

GGCTGGGCTACACACGTGCTAC

AATGGTGGTGACAGTGGGCAG

CGAGACCGCGAGGTCGAGCTA

ATCTCCAAAAGCCATCTCAGTTC

GGATTGCACTCTGCAACTCGAG

TGCATGAAGTTGGAATCGCTAG

TAATCGTG G ATC AGC ATG CC AC

GGTGAATACGTTCCCGGGCCTT

GTACACACCGCCCGTCACACCA

TGGGAGTTGGTTTTACCCGAAG

GTGCTGTG CTAACCG C AAG G AG

GCAGGCAACCACGGTAGGGTC

AGCGACTGGGGTGAAGTCGTAA

CAAGGTAGCCGTAGGGGAACCT

GCGGCTGGATCACCTCCTTTCT

AAGGAAGATGAAGAATTGGAA TTTCG CG ACTCGTTGTACC ATC

CATTGTAGCACGTGTGTAGCCC

AGCTCATAAGGGGCATGATGAT

TTGACGTCGTCCCCACCTTCCT

CCGGTTTATCACCGGCAGTCTC

ACT AG AG TG CCC A ACT A A ATG C

TG G C A ACT A AT A AT A AG G G TTG

CGCTCGTTGCGGGACTTAACCC

AACATCTCACGACACGAGCTGA

CGACAACCATGCACCACCTGTC

ATTCTGTCCCCGAAGGGAACGC

CC A ATCTCTTG G GTTG G C AG A A

GATGTCAAGAGCTGGTAAGGTT

CTTCGCGTAGCATCGAATTAAA

CCACATGCTCCACCACTTGTGC

GGGCCCCCGTCAATTCCTTTGA

GTTTCAACCTTGCGGTCGTACT

CCCCAGGCGGAATACTTAATGC

GTTAGCTGCGGCACTGAAGGG

CGGAAACCCTCCAACACCTAGT

ATTC ATCGTTTACG GC ATG G AC

TACCAGGGTATCTAATCCTGTTC

GCTACCCATGCTTTCGAGCCTC

AG CG TC AG T AAC AG AC C AG A A A

GCCGCCTTCGCCACTGGTGTTC

TTCCATATATCTACGCATTTCAC

CG CTAC AC ATG G AGTTCC ACTT

TCCTCTTCTGTACTCAAGTTTTG

TAGTTTCC ACTG C ACTTCCTC AG

TTGAGCTGAGGGCTTTCACAGC

AGACTTACAAAACCGCCTGCGC

TCGCTTTACGCCCAATAAATCC

GG AC AACG CTTG CC ACCTACGT

ATTACCGCGGCTGCTGGCACGT

AGTTAGCCGTGGCTTTCTGGTT

AAATACCGTCAAAGTGTTAACA

GTTACTCTAACACTTGTTCTTCT

TTAACAACAGAGTTTTACGATCC

GAAAACCTTCATCACTCACGCG

GCGTTGCTCCATCAGACTTTCG AGAACGGTTGTGAGAGTAACTG

CTCATAACGTGACGGTAATCAA

CCAGAAAGTCACGGCTAACTAC

GTGCCAGCAGCCGCGGTAATAC

GTAGGTGGCAAGCGTTGTCCG

GATTTATTGGGCGTAAAGGGAG

CG C AG G CG GTCTTTT A AG TCTG

AATGTGAAAGCCCTCAGCTTAA

CTG AG G AAG AG C ATCG G AAACT

GAG AG ACTTG AGTG C AG AAG AG

GAGAGTGGAACTCCATGTGTAG

CGGTGAAATGCGTAGATATATG

GAAGAACACCAGTGGCGAAGG

CGGCTCTCTGGTCTGTTACTGA

CGCTGAGGCTCGAAAGCATGG

GTAGCGAACAGGATTAGATACC

CTGGTAGTCCATGCCGTAAACG

ATGAGTGCTAAGTGTTGGGAGG

TTTCCGCCTCTCAGTGCTGCAG

CTAACG C ATT AAG C ACTCCG CC

TGGGGAGTACGACCGCAAGGTT

GAAACTCAAAGGAATTGACGGG

GGCCCGCACAAGCGGTGGAGC

ATGTGGTTTAATTCGAAGCAAC

GCGAAGAACCTTACCAGGTCTT

GACATCTCCTGCAAGCCTAAGA

GATTAGGGGTTCCCTTCGGGGA

CAGGAAGACAGGTGGTGCATG

GTTGTCGTCAGCTCGTGTCGTG

AGATGTTGGGTTAAGTCCCGCA

ACGAGCGCAACCCTTGTTACTA

GTTGCCAGCATTAAGTTGGGCA

CTCTAGTGAGACTGCCGGTGAC

AAACCGGAGGAAGGTGGGGAC

GACGTCAAATCATCATGCCCCT

TATGACCTGGGCTACACACGTG

CT AC AATG G ATG GT AC A ATG AG

AAGCGAACTCGCGAGGGGAAG

CTGATCTCTGAAAACCATTCTCA

GTTCGGATTGCAGGCTGCAACT Delftia Bombyx mori Gut CAGAAAGGAGGTGATCCAGCC

GCACCTTCCGATACGGCTACCT

TGTTACGACTTCACCCCAGTCA

CGAACCCCGCCGTGGTAAGCG

CCCTCCTTGCGGTTAGGCTACC

TACTTCTGGCGAGACCCGCTCC

CATGGTGTGACGGGCGGTGTG

TACAAGACCCGGGAACGTATTC

ACCGCGGCATGCTGATCCGCG

ATTACTAGCGATTCCGACTTCAC

GCAGTCGAGTTGCAGACTGCGA

TCCG G ACTACG ACTG GTTTTAT

GGGATTAGCTCCCCCTCGCGG

GTTGGCAACCCTCTGTACCAGC

CATTGTATGACGTGTGTAGCCC

CACCTATAAG GG CC ATG AG G AC

TTGACGTCATCCCCACCTTCCT

CCGGTTTGTCACCGGCAGTCTC

ATTAGAGTGCTCAACTGAATGTA

GCAACTAATGACAAGGGTTGCG

CTCGTTGCGGGACTTAACCCAA

CATCTCACGACACGAGCTGACG

ACAGCCATGCAGCACCTGTGTG

C AG G TTCTCTTTCG AG C ACG A A

TCCATCTCTGGAAACTTCCTGC

CATGTC AAAG GTG GGTAAG GTT

TTTCGCGTTGCATCGAATTAAAC

CACATCATCCACCGCTTGTGCG

GGTCCCCGTCAATTCCTTTGAG

TTTCAACCTTGCGGCCGTACTC

CCCAGGCGGTCAACTTCACGCG

TTAG CTTCGTTACTG AG AAAACT

AATTCCCAACAACCAGTTGACAT

CGTTTAGGGCGTGGACTACCAG

GGTATCTAATCCTGTTTGCTCCC

CACGCTTTCGTGCATGAGCGTC

AGTACAGGTCCAGGGGATTGCC

TTCGCCATCGGTGTTCCTCCGC

ATATCTACG C ATTTC ACTG CTAC

ACGCGGAATTCCATCCCCCTCT TGGAGCGGCCGATATCAGATTA

GGTAGTTGGTGGGGTAAAGGC

CCACCAAGCCAACGATCTGTAG

CTGGTCTGAGAGGACGACCAG

CCACACTGGGACTGAGACACG

GCCCAGACTCCTACGGGAGGC

AGCAGTGGGGAATTTTGGACAA

TGGGCGCAAGCCTGATCCAGC

CATGCCGCGTGCGGGAAGAAG

GCCTTCGGGTTGTAAACCGCTT

TTGTCAGGGAAGAAAAGGTTCT

GGTTAATACCTGGGACTCATGA

CG GTACCTG AAG AATAAG C ACC

GGCTAACTACGTGCCAGCAGCC

GCGGTAATACGTAGGGTGCAAG

CGTTAATCGGAATTACTGGGCG

TAAAGCGTGCGCAGGCGGTTAT

GCAAGACAGAGGTGAAATCCCC

GGGCTCAACCTGGGAACTGCCT

TTGTG ACTG CAT AG CT AG AG T A

CGGTAGAGGGGGATGGAATTC

CGCGTGTAGCAGTGAAATGCGT

AGATATGCGGAGGAACACCGAT

GGCGAAGGCAATCCCCTGGAC

CTGTACTGACGCTCATGCACGA

AAGCGTGGGGAGCAAACAGGA

TTAGATACCCTGGTAGTCCACG

CCCTAAACGATGTCAACTGGTT

GTTGGGAGGGTTTCTTCTCAGT

AACGTANNTAACGCGTGAAGTT

GACCGCCTGGGGAGTACGGCC

G C AAG G TTG AA ACTC A A AG G AA

TTGACGGGGACCCGCACAAGC

GGTGGATGATGTGGTTTAATTC

GATGCAACGCGAAAAACCTTAC

CTACCCTTGACATGCCAGGAAT

CCTGAAGAGATTTGGGAGTGCT

CGAAAGAGAACCTGGACACAGG

TGCTGCATGGCCGTCGTCAGCT

CGTGTCGTGAGATGTTGGGTTA

Any number of bacterial species may be targeted by the compositions or methods described herein. For example, in some instances, the modulating agent may target a single bacterial species. In some instances, the modulating agent may target at least about any of 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 5, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 1 00, 150, 200, 250, 500, or more distinct bacterial species. In some instances, the modulating agent may target any one of about 1 to about 5, about 5 to about 10, about 10 to about 20, about 20 to about 50, about 50 to about 100, about 100 to about 200, about 200 to about 500, about 10 to about 50, about 5 to about 20, or about 10 to about 100 distinct bacterial species. In some instances, the modulating agent may target at least about any of 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 1 00, or more phyla, classes, orders, families, or genera of bacteria.

In some instances, the modulating agent may increase a population of one or more bacteria (e.g., symbiotic bacteria) by at least about any of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% or more in the host in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered. In some instances, the modulating agent may reduce the population of one or more bacteria (e.g., pathogenic or parasitic bacteria) by at least about any of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or more in the host in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered. In some instances, the modulating agent may eradicate the population of a bacterium (e.g., a pathogenic or parasitic bacteria) in the host. In some instances, the modulating agent may increase the level of one or more symbiotic bacteria by at least about any of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% or more in the host and/or decreases the level of one or more pathogenic bacteria by at least about any of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or more in the host in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered.

In some instances, the modulating agent may alter the bacterial diversity and/or bacterial composition of the host. In some instances, the modulating agent may increase the bacterial diversity in the host relative to a starting diversity by at least about any of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or more in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered. In some instances, the modulating agent may decrease the bacterial diversity in the host relative to a starting diversity by at least about any of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or more in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered.

In some instances, the modulating agent may alter the function, activity, growth, and/or division of one or more bacterial cells. For example, the modulating agent may alter the expression of one or genes in the bacteria. In some instances, the modulating agent may alter the function of one or more proteins in the bacteria. In some instances, the modulating agent may alter the function of one or more cellular structures (e.g., the cell wall, the outer or inner membrane) in the bacteria. In some instances, the modulating agent may kill (e.g., lyse) the bacteria.

The target bacterium may reside in one or more parts of the insect. Further, the target bacteria may be intracellular or extracellular. In some instances, the bacteria reside in or on one or more parts of the host gut, including, e.g., the foregut, midgut, and/or hindgut. In some instances, the bacteria reside as an intracellular bacteria within a cell of the host insect. In some instances, the bacteria reside in a bacteriocyte of the host insect.

Changes to the populations of bacteria in the host may be determined by any methods known in the art, such as microarray, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), real-time PCR, flow cytometry, fluorescence microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, fluorescence in situ hybridization (e.g., FISH), spectrophotometry, matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS), and DNA sequencing. In some instances, a sample of the host treated with a modulating agent is sequenced (e.g., by metagenomics sequencing of 16S rRNA or rDNA) to determine the microbiome of the host after delivery or administration of the modulating agent. In some instances, a sample of a host that did not receive the modulating agent is also sequenced to provide a reference.

/ ^' / ^' . Fungi

Exemplary fungi that may be targeted in accordance with the methods and compositions provided herein, include, but are not limited to Amylostereum areolatum, Epichloe spp, Pichia pinus, Hansenula capsulate, Daldinia decipien, Ceratocytis spp, Ophiostoma spp, and Attamyces bromatificus. Non-limiting examples of yeast and yeast-like symbionts found in insects include Candida, Metschnikowia,

Debaromyces, Scheffersomyces shehatae and Scheffersomyces stipites, Starmerella, Pichia,

Trichosporon, Cryptococcus, Pseudozyma, and yeast-like symbionts from the subphylum Pezizomycotina (e.g., Symbiotaphrina bucneri and Symbiotaphrina kochii). Non-limiting examples of yeast that may be targeted by the methods and compositions herein are listed in Table 2. Table 2

Insect Species Order: Family Yeast Location (Species)

Stegobium paniceum Coleoptera: Anobiidae Mycetomes

(= Sitodrepa panicea) (Saccharomyces)

Cecae ( Torulopsis buchnerii)

Mycetome between foregut and midgut

Mycetomes (Symbiotaphrina buchnerii)

Mycetomes and digestive tube ( Torulopsis buchnerii)

Gut cecae (Symbiotaphrina buchnerii)

Lasioderma serricorne Coleoptera: Anobiidae Mycetome between foregut and midgut

(Symbiotaphrina kochii)

Ernobius abietis Coleoptera: Anobiidae Mycetomes ( Torulopsis karawaiewii)

(Candida karawaiewii)

Ernobius mollis Coleoptera: Anobiidae Mycetomes ( Torulopsis ernobii)

(Candida ernobii)

Hemicoelus gibbicollis Coleoptera: Anobiidae Larval mycetomes

Xestobium plumbeum Coleoptera: Anobiidae Mycetomes ( Torulopsis xestobii)

(Candida xestobii)

Criocephalus rusticus Coleoptera: Cerambycidae Mycetomes

Phoracantha Coleoptera: Cerambycidae Alimentary canal (Candida

semipunctata guilliermondii, C. tenuis)

Cecae around midgut (Candida guilliermondii)

Harpium inquisitor Coleoptera: Cerambycidae Mycetomes (Candida rhagii)

Harpium mordax Coleoptera: Cerambycidae Cecae around midgut (Candida tenuis) H. sycophanta

Gaurotes virginea Coleoptera: Cerambycidae Cecae around midgut (Candida rhagii)

Leptura rubra Coleoptera: Cerambycidae Cecae around midgut (Candida tenuis)

Cecae around midgut (Candida parapsilosis)

Leptura maculicornis Coleoptera: Cerambycidae Cecae around midgut (Candida

parapsilosis) L. cerambyciformis

Leptura sanguinolenta Coleoptera: Cerambycidae Cecae around midgut (Candida sp.)

Rhagium bifasciatum Coleoptera: Cerambycidae Cecae around midgut (Candida tenuis)

Rhagium inquisitor Coleoptera: Cerambycidae Cecae around midgut (Candida

guilliermondii)

Rhagium mordax Coleoptera: Cerambycidae Cecae around midgut (Candida)

Carpophilus Coleoptera: Nitidulidae Intestinal tract (10 yeast species) hemipterus

Odontotaenius Coleoptera: Passalidae Hindgut (Enteroramus dimorphus) disjunctus

Odontotaenius Coleoptera: Passalidae Gut (Pichia stipitis, P. segobiensis, disjunctus Candida shehatae)

Verres sternbergianus (C. ergatensis)

Scarabaeus Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae Digestive tract (1 0 yeast species) semipunctatus

Chironitis furcifer

Unknown species Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae Guts ( Trichosporon cutaneum)

Dendroctonus and Ips Coleoptera: Scolytidae Alimentary canal (13 yeast species) spp.

Dendroctonus frontalis Coleoptera: Scolytidae Midgut (Candida sp.)

Ips sexdentatus Coleoptera: Scolytidae Digestive tract (Pichia bovis, P.

rhodanensis)

Hansenula holstii (Candida rhagii)

Digestive tract

(Candida pulcherina)

Ips typographus Coleoptera: Scolytidae Alimentary canal

Alimentary tracts (Hansenula capsulata, Candida parapsilosis)

Guts and beetle homogenates

(Hansenula holstii, H. capsulata, Candida diddensii, C. mohschtana, C. nitratophila, Cryptococcus albidus, C. laurentii)

Trypodendron Coleoptera: Scolytidae Not specified

lineatum Xyloterinus politus Coleoptera: Scolytidae Head, thorax, abdomen (Candida,

Pichia, Saccharomycopsis)

Periplaneta americana Dictyoptera: Blattidae Hemocoel (Candida sp. nov.)

Blatta orientalis Dictyoptera: Blattidae Intestinal tract (Kluyveromyces blattae)

Blatella germanica Dictyoptera: Blattellidae Hemocoel

Cryptocercus Dictyoptera: Cryptocercidae Hindgut (1 yeast species)

punctulatus

Philophylla heraclei Diptera: Tephritidae Hemocoel

Aedes (4 species) Diptera: Culicidae Internal microflora (9 yeast genera)

Drosophila Diptera: Drosophilidae Alimentary canal (24 yeast species) pseudoobscura

Drosophila (5 spp.) Diptera: Drosophilidae Crop (42 yeast species)

Drosophila Diptera: Drosophilidae Crop (8 yeast species)

melanogaster

Drosophila (4 spp.) Diptera: Drosophilidae Crop (7 yeast species)

Drosophila (6 spp.) Diptera: Drosophilidae Larval gut (1 7 yeast species)

Drosophila (20 spp.) Diptera: Drosophilidae Crop (20 yeast species)

Drosophila (8 species Diptera: Drosophilidae Crop (Kloeckera, Candida, groups) Kluyveromyces)

Drosophila serido Diptera: Drosophilidae Crop (18 yeast species)

Drosophila (6 spp.) Diptera: Drosophilidae Intestinal epithelium (Coccidiascus legeri)

Protaxymia Diptera Unknown (Candida, Cryptococcus, melanoptera Sporoblomyces)

Astegopteryx styraci Homoptera: Aphididae Hemocoel and fat body

Tuberaphis sp. Homoptera: Aphididae Tissue sections

Hamiltonaphis styraci

Glyphinaphis

bambusae

Cerataphis sp.

Hamiltonaphis styraci Homoptera: Aphididae Abdominal hemocoel

Cofana unimaculata Homoptera: Cicadellidae Fat body Leofa unicolor Homoptera: Cicadellidae Fat body

Lecaniines, etc. Homoptera:Coccoidea d Hemolymph, fatty tissue, etc.

Lecanium sp. Homoptera: Coccidae Hemolymph, adipose tissue

Ceroplastes (4 sp.) Homoptera: Coccidae Blood smears

Laodelphax striatellus Homoptera: Delphacidae Fat body

Eggs

Eggs (Candida)

Nilaparvata lugens Homoptera: Delphacidae Fat body

Eggs (2 unidentified yeast species)

Eggs, nymphs (Candida)

Eggs (7 unidentified yeast species)

Eggs (Candida)

Nisia nervosa Homoptera: Delphacidae Fat body

Nisia grandiceps

Perkinsiella spp.

Sardia rostrata

Sogatella furcifera

Sogatodes orizicola Homoptera: Delphacidae Fat body

Amrasca devastans Homoptera: Jassidae Eggs, mycetomes, hemolymph

Tachardina lobata Homoptera: Kerriidae Blood smears ( Torulopsis)

Laccifer (=Lakshadia) Homoptera: Kerriidae Blood smears ( Torula variabilis) sp.

Comperia merceti Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae Hemolymph, gut, poison gland

Solenopsis invicta Hymenoptera: Formicidae Hemolymph (Myrmecomyces annellisae)

S. quinquecuspis

Solenopsis invicta Hymenoptera: Formicidae Fourth instar larvae (Candida parapsilosis, Yarrowia lipolytica)

Gut and hemolymph (Candida parapsilosis, C. lipolytica, C. guillermondii, C. rugosa, Debaryomyces

hansenii)

Apis mellifera Hymenoptera: Apidae Digestive tracts ( Torulopsis sp.)

Intestinal tract ( Torulopsis apicola)

Digestive tracts (8 yeast species)

Intestinal contents (12 yeast species)

Intestinal contents (7 yeast species)

Intestines (14 yeast species)

Intestinal tract (Pichia melissophila)

Intestinal tracts (7 yeast species)

Alimentary canal (Hansenula silvicola)

Crop and gut (13 yeast species)

Apis mellifera Hymenoptera: Apidae Midguts (9 yeast genera)

Anthophora Hymenoptera:Anthophoridae

occidentalis

Nomia melanderi Hymenoptera:Halictidae

Halictus rubicundus Hymenoptera:Halictidae

Megachile rotundata Hymenoptera:Megachilidae

Any number of fungal species may be targeted by the compositions or methods described herein. For example, in some instances, the modulating agent may target a single fungal species. In some instances, the modulating agent may target at least about any of 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 1 00, 150, 200, 250, 500, or more distinct fungal species. In some instances, the modulating agent may target any one of about 1 to about 5, about 5 to about 10, about 10 to about 20, about 20 to about 50, about 50 to about 100, about 100 to about 200, about 200 to about 500, about 10 to about 50, about 5 to about 20, or about 10 to about 100 distinct fungal species. In some instances, the modulating agent may target at least about any of 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 1 0, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, or more phyla, classes, orders, families, or genera of fungi.

In some instances, the modulating agent may increase a population of one or more fungi (e.g., symbiotic fungi) by at least about any of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% or more in the host in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered. In some instances, the modulating agent may reduce the population of one or more fungi (e.g., pathogenic or parasitic fungi) by at least about any of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% or more in the host in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered. In some instances, the modulating agent may eradicate the population of a fungi (e.g., a pathogenic or parasitic fungi) in the host. In some instances, the modulating agent may increase the level of one or more symbiotic fungi by at least about any of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% or more in the host and/or may decrease the level of one or more pathogenic fungi by at least about any of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% or more in the host in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered.

In some instances, the modulating agent may alter the fungal diversity and/or fungal composition of the host. In some instances, the modulating agent may increase the fungal diversity in the host relative to a starting diversity by at least about any of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or more in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered. In some instances, the modulating agent may decrease the fungal diversity in the host relative to a starting diversity by at least about any of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or more in comparison to a host organism to which the modulating agent has not been administered.

In some instances, the modulating agent may alter the function, activity, growth, and/or division of one or more fungi. For example, the modulating agent may alter the expression of one or more genes in the fungus. In some instances, the modulating agent may alter the function of one or more proteins in the fungus. In some instances, the modulating agent may alter the function of one or more cellular components in the fungus. In some instances, the modulating agent may kill the fungus.

Further, the target fungus may reside in one or more parts of the insect. In some instances, the fungus resides in or on one or more parts of the insect gut, including, e.g., the foregut, midgut, and/or hindgut. In some instances, the fungus lives extracellularly in the hemolymph, fat bodies or in specialized structures in the host.

Changes to the population of fungi in the host may be determined by any methods known in the art, such as microarray, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), real-time PCR, flow cytometry, fluorescence microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, fluorescence in situ hybridization (e.g., FISH), spectrophotometry, matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS), and DNA sequencing. In some instances, a sample of the host treated with a modulating agent is sequenced (e.g., by metagenomics sequencing) to determine the microbiome of the host after delivery or administration of the modulating agent. In some instances, a sample of a host that did not receive the modulating agent is also sequenced to provide a reference.

III. Modulating Agents

The modulating agent of the methods and compositions provided herein may include a phage, a polypeptide, a small molecule, an antibiotic, a secondary metabolite, a bacterium, a fungus, or any combination thereof.

/ ^' . Phage

The modulating agent described herein may include a phage (e.g., a lytic phage or a non-lytic phage). In some instances, an effective concentration of any phage described herein may altering a level, activity, or metabolism of one or more microorganisms (as described herein) resident in a host described herein, the alteration resulting in an increase in the host's fitness. In some instances, the modulating agent includes at least one phage selected from the order Tectiviridae, Myoviridae,

Siphoviridae, Podoviridae, Caudovirales, Lipothrixviridae, Rudiviridae, or Ligamenvirales. In some instances, the composition includes at least one phage selected from the family Myoviridae, Siphoviridae, Podoviridae, Lipothrixviridae, Rudiviridae, Ampullaviridae, Bicaudaviridae, Clavaviridae, Corticoviridae, Cystoviridae, Fuselloviridae, Gluboloviridae, Guttaviridae, Inoviridae, Leviviridae, Microviridae, Plasmaviridae, and Tectiviridae. Further non-limiting examples of phages useful in the methods and compositions are listed in Table 3.

Table 3: Exam les of Pha e and Tar eted Bacteria

Phil (NC_009821 ) Enterococcus Schistocerca gragaria

sp.

0KMV (NC_005045), Pseudomonas Lymantria dispar; Apidae

0EL(AJ697969.1 ), ΦΚΖ (NC_004629) sp. family

A2 (NC_0041 12), phigl e (NC_004305) Lactobacilli sp. Apidae family; Drosophila

family; Varroa destructor

KLPN1 (NC_028760) Klebsiella sp C. capitata

vB_AbaM_Acibel004 (NC_025462), Acinetobacter Schistocerca gragaria

vB_AbaP_Acibel007 (NC_025457) sp.

In some instances, a modulating agent includes a lytic phage. Thus, after delivery of the lytic phage to a bacterial cell resident in the host, the phage causes lysis in the target bacterial cell. In some instances, the lytic phage targets and kills a bacterium resident in a host insect to increase the fitness of the host. Alternatively or additionally, the phage of the modulating agent may be a non-lytic phage (also referred to as lysogenic or temperate phage). Thus, after delivery of the non-lytic phage to a bacterial cell resident in the host, the bacterial cell may remain viable and able to stably maintain expression of genes encoded in the phage genome. In some instances, a non-lytic phage is used to alter gene expression in a bacterium resident in a host insect to increase the fitness of the host. In some instances, the modulating agent includes a mixture of lytic and non-lytic phage.

The modulating agent described herein may include phage with either a narrow or broad bacterial target range. In some instances, the phage has a narrow bacterial target range. In some instances, the phage is a promiscuous phage with a large bacterial target range. For example, the promiscuous phage may target at least about any of 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, or more bacterium resident in the host. A phage with a narrow bacterial target range may target a specific bacterial strain in the host without affecting another, e.g., non-targeted, bacterium in the host. For example, the phage may target no more than about any of 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2, or 1 bacterium resident in the host.

The compositions described herein may include any number of phage, such as at least about any one of 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100, or more phage. In some instances, the composition includes phage from one or more (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more phage) families, one or more orders (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more phage), or one or more species (e.g., 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100, or more phage). Compositions including one or more phage are also referred herein as "phage cocktails." Phage cocktails are useful because they allow for targeting of a wider host range of bacteria. Furthermore, they allow for each bacterial strain (i.e. subspecies) to be targeted by multiple orthogonal phages, thereby preventing or significantly delaying the onset of resistance. In some instances, a cocktail includes multiple phages targeting one bacterial species. In some instances, a cocktail includes multiple phages targeting multiple bacterial species. In some instances, a one-phage "cocktail" includes a single promiscuous phage (i.e. a phage with a large host range) targeting many strains within a species.

Suitable concentrations of the phage in the modulating agent described herein depends on factors such as efficacy, survival rate, transmissibility of the phage, number of distinct phage, and/or lysin types in the compositions, formulation, and methods of application of the composition. In some instances, the phage is in a liquid or a solid formulation. In some instances, the concentration of each phage in any of the compositions described herein is at least about any of 10 ² , 1 0 ³ , 10 ⁴ , 1 0 ⁵ , 10 ⁶ , 10 ⁷ , 10 ⁸ , 1 0 ⁹ , 10 ¹⁰ or more pfu/ml. In some instances, the concentration of each phage in any of the compositions described herein is no more than about any of 10 ² , 1 0 ³ , 10 ⁴ , 10 ⁵ , 10 ⁶ , 10 ⁷ , 10 ⁸ , 10 ⁹ pfu/ml. In some instances, the concentration of each phage in the composition is any of about 10 ² to about 10 ³ , about 10 ³ to about 10 ⁴ , about 10 ⁴ to about 1 0 ⁵ , about 10 ⁵ to about 10 ⁶ , about 1 0 ⁷ to about 10 ⁸ , about 10 ⁸ to about 10 ⁹ , about 10 ² to about 10 ⁴ , about 10 ⁴ to about 10 ⁶ , about 10 ⁶ to about 10 ⁹ , or about 10 ³ to about 10 ⁸ pfu/ml. In some instances, wherein the composition includes at least two types of phages, the concentration of each type of the phages may be the same or different. For example, in some instances, the concentration of one phage in the cocktail is about 10 ⁸ pfu/ml and the concentration of a second phage in the cocktail is about 10 ⁶ pfu/ml.

A modulating agent including a phage as described herein can be contacted with the target host in an amount and for a time sufficient to: (a) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of phage concentration inside a target host; (b) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of phage concentration inside a target host gut; (c) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of phage concentration inside a target host bacteriocyte; (d) modulate the level, or an activity, of one or more microorganism (e.g., endosymbiont) in the target host; or/and (e) modulate fitness of the target host.

As illustrated by Example 7 and 9, phages can be used as a modulating agents by eliminating bacterial pathogens such as Serratia marcescens, Erwinia catotovora, and Pseudomonas enzomophila from insect hosts, such as crickets.

/ ^' / ^' . Polypeptides

Numerous polypeptides (e.g., a bacteriocin, R-type bacteriocin, nodule C-rich peptide, antimicrobial peptide, lysin, or bacteriocyte regulatory peptide) may be used in the compositions and methods described herein. In some instances, an effective concentration of any peptide or polypeptide described herein may alter a level, activity, or metabolism of one or more microorganisms (as described herein) resident in a host, the alteration resulting in an increase in the host's fitness. Polypeptides included herein may include naturally occurring polypeptides or recombinantly produced variants. For example, the polypeptide may be a functionally active variant of any of the polypeptides described herein with at least 70%, 71 %, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81 %, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91 %, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identity, e.g., over a specified region or over the entire sequence, to a sequence of a polypeptide described herein or a naturally occurring polypeptide.

A modulating agent comprising a polypeptide as described herein can be contacted with the target host in an amount and for a time sufficient to: (a) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of concentration inside a target host; (b) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of concentration inside a target host gut; (c) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of concentration inside a target host bacteriocyte; (d) modulate the level, or an activity, of one or more microorganism (e.g., endosymbiont) in the target host; or/and (e) modulate fitness of the target host.

(a) Bacteriocins

The modulating agent described herein may include a bacteriocin. In some instances, the bacteriocin is naturally produced by Gram-positive bacteria, such as Pseudomonas, Streptomyces, Bacillus, Staphylococcus, or lactic acid bacteria (LAB, such as Lactococcus lactis). In some instances, the bacteriocin is naturally produced by Gram-negative bacteria, such as Hafnia alvei, Citrobacter freundii, Klebsiella oxytoca, Klebsiella pneumonia, Enterobacter cloacae, Serratia plymithicum, Xanthomonas campestris, Erwinia carotovora, Ralstonia solanacearum, or Escherichia coli. Exemplary bacteriocins include, but are not limited to, Class l-IV LAB antibiotics (such as lantibiotics), colicins, microcins, and pyocins. Non-limiting examples of bacteriocins are listed in Table 4.

Table 4: Examples of Bacteriocins

In some instances, the bacteriocin is a colicin, a pyocin, or a microcin produced by Gram- negative bacteria. In some instances, the bacteriocin is a colicin. The colicin may be a group A colicin (e.g., uses the Tol system to penetrate the outer membrane of a target bacterium) or a group B colicin (e.g., uses the Ton system to penetrate the outer membrane of a target bacterium). In some instances, the bacteriocin is a microcin. The microcin may be a class I microcin (e.g., < 5 kDa, has post-translational modifications) or a class II microcin (e.g., 5-10 kDa, with or without post-translational modifications). In some instances, the class II microcin is a class Ma microcin (e.g., requires more than one genes to synthesize and assemble functional peptides) or a class lib microcin (e.g., linear peptides with or without post-translational modifications at C-terminus). In some instances, the bacteriocin is a pyocin. In some instances, the pyocin is an R-pyocin, F-pyocin, or S-pyocin.

In some instances, the bacteriocin is a class I, class II, class III, or class IV bacteriocin produced by Gram-positive bacteria. In some instances, the modulating agent includes a Class I bacteriocin (e.g., lanthionine-containing antibiotics (lantibiotics) produced by a Gram-positive bacteria). The class I bacteriocins or lantibiotic may be a low molecular weight peptide (e.g., less than about 5 kDa) and may possess post-translationally modified amino acid residues (e.g., lanthionine, β-methyllanthionine, or dehydrated amino acids).

In some instances, the bacteriocin is a Class II bacteriocin (e.g., non-lantibiotics produced by Gram-positive bacteria). Many are positively charged, non-lanthionine-containing peptides, which unlike lantibiotics, do not undergo extensive post-translational modification. The Class II bacteriocin may belong to one of the following subclasses: "pediocin-like" bacteriocins (e.g., pediocin PA-1 and carnobacteriocin X (Class Ma)); two-peptide bacteriocins (e.g., lactacin F and ABP-1 1 8 (Class Mb)); circular bacteriocins (e.g., carnocyclin A and and enterocin AS-48 (Class lie)); or unmodified, linear, non-pediocin-like bacteriocins (e.g., epidermicin NI01 and lactococcin A (Class lid)).

In some instances, the bacteriocin is a Class III bacteriocin (e.g., produced by Gram-positive bacteria). Class III bacteriocins may have a molecular weight greater thanl 0 kDa and may be heat unstable proteins. The Class III bacteriocins can be further subdivided into Group MIA and Group 1MB bacteriocins. The Group IMA bacteriocins include bacteriolytic enzymes which kill sensitive strains by lysis of the cell well, such as Enterolisin A. Group 1MB bacteriocins include non-lytic proteins, such as Caseicin 80, Helveticin J, and lactacin B.

In some instances, the bacteriocin is a Class IV bacteriocin (e.g., produced by Gram-positive bacteria). Class IV bacteriocins are a group of complex proteins, associated with other lipid or carbohydrate moieties, which appear to be required for activity. They are relatively hydrophobic and heat stable. Examples of Class IV bacteriocins leuconocin S, lactocin 27, and lactocin S.

In some instances, the bacteriocin is an R-type bacteriocin. R-type bacteriocins are contractile bacteriocidal protein complexes. Some R-type bacteriocins have a contractile phage-tail-like structure. The C-terminal region of the phage tail fiber protein determines target-binding specificity. They may attach to target cells through a receptor-binding protein, e.g., a tail fiber. Attachment is followed by sheath contraction and insertion of the core through the envelope of the target bacterium. The core penetration results in a rapid depolarization of the cell membrane potential and prompt cell death.

Contact with a single R-type bacteriocin particle can result in cell death. An R-type bacteriocin, for example, may be thermolabile, mild acid resistant, trypsin resistant, sedimentable by centrifugation, resolvable by electron microscopy, or a combination thereof. Other R-type bacteriocins may be complex molecules including multiple proteins, polypeptides, or subunits, and may resemble a tail structure of bacteriophages of the myoviridae family. In naturally occurring R-type bacteriocins, the subunit structures may be encoded by a bacterial genome, such as that of C. difficile or P. aeruginosa and form R-type bacteriocins to serve as natural defenses against other bacteria. In some instances, the R-type bacteriocin is a pyocin. In some instances, the pyocin is an R-pyocin, F-pyocin, or S-pyocin.

In some instances, the bacteriocin is a functionally active variant of the bacteriocins described herein. In some instances, the variant of the bacteriocin has at least 70%, 71 %, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81 %, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91 %, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identity, e.g., over a specified region or over the entire sequence, to a sequence of a bacteriocin described herein or a naturally occurring bacteriocin.

In some instances, the bacteriocin may be bioengineered, according to standard methods, to modulate their bioactivity, e.g., increase or decrease or regulate, or to specify their target

microorganisms. In other instances, the bacteriocin is produced by the translational machinery (e.g. a ribosome, etc.) of a microbial cell. In some instances, the bacteriocin is chemically synthesized. Some bacteriocins can be derived from a polypeptide precursor. The polypeptide precursor can undergo cleavage (e.g., processing by a protease) to yield the polypeptide of the bacteriocin itself. As such, in some instances, the bacteriocin is produced from a precursor polypeptide. In some other instances, the bacteriocin includes a polypeptide that has undergone post-translational modifications, for example, cleavage, or the addition of one or more functional groups.

The bacteriocins described herein may be formulated in a composition for any of the uses described herein. The compositions disclosed herein may include any number or type (e.g., classes) of bacteriocins, such as at least about any one of 1 bacteriocin, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 1 5, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100, or more bacteriocins. Suitable concentrations of each bacteriocin in the compositions described herein depends on factors such as efficacy, stability of the bacteriocin, number of distinct bacteriocin types in the compositions, formulation, and methods of application of the composition. In some instances, each bacteriocin in a liquid composition is from about 0.01 ng/ml to about 1 00 mg/mL. In some instances, each bacteriocin in a solid composition is from about 0.01 ng/g to about 100 mg/g. In some instances, wherein the composition includes at least two types of bacteriocins, the concentration of each type of the bacteriocins may be the same or different. In some instances, the bacteriocin is provided in a composition including a bacterial cell that secretes the bacteriocin. In some instances, the bacteriocin is provided in a composition including a polypeptide (e.g., a polypeptide isolated from a bacterial cell).

Bacteriocins may neutralize (e.g., kill) at least one microorganism other than the individual bacterial cell in which the polypeptide is made, including cells clonally related to the bacterial cell and other microbial cells. As such, a bacterial cell may exert cytotoxic or growth-inhibiting effects on a plurality of microbial organisms by secreting bacteriocins. In some instances, the bacteriocin targets and kills one or more species of bacteria resident in the host via cytoplasmic membrane pore formation, cell wall interference (e.g., peptidoglycanase activity), or nuclease activity (e.g., DNase activity, 16S rRNase activity, or tRNase activity). In some instances, the bacteriocin has a neutralizing activity. Neutralizing activity of bacteriocins may include, but is not limited to, arrest of microbial reproduction, or cytotoxicity. Some bacteriocins have cytotoxic activity, and thus can kill microbial organisms, for example bacteria, yeast, algae, and the like. Some bacteriocins can inhibit the reproduction of microbial organisms, for example bacteria, yeast, algae, and the like, for example by arresting the cell cycle.

In some instances, the bacteriocin has killing activity. The killing mechanism of bacteriocins is specific to each group of bacteriocins. In some instances, the bacteriocin has narrow-spectrum bioactivity. Bacteriocins are known for their very high potency against their target strains. Some bacteriocin activity is limited to strains that are closely related to the bacteriocin producer strain (narrow- spectrum bioactivity). In some instances, the bacteriocin has broad-spectrum bioactivity against a wide range of genera.

In some instances, bacteriocins interact with a receptor molecule or a docking molecule on the target bacterial cell membrane. For example, nisin is extremely potent against its target bacterial strains, showing antimicrobial activity even at a single-digit nanomolar concentration. The nisin molecule has been shown to bind to lipid II, which is the main transporter of peptidoglycan subunits from the cytoplasm to the cell wall

In some instances, the bacteriocin has anti-fungal activity. A number of bacteriocins with anti- yeast or anti-fungal activity have been identified. For example, bacteriocins from Bacillus have been shown to have neutralizing activity against some yeast strains (see, for example, Adetunji and Olaoye, Malaysian Journal of Microbiology 9:130-13, 2013). In another example, an Enterococcus faecalis peptide has been shown to have neutralizing activity against Candida species (see, for example, Shekh and Roy, BMC Microbiology 12:132, 2012). In another example, bacteriocins from Pseudomonas have been shown to have neutralizing activity against fungi, such as Curvularia lunata, Fusarium species, Helminthosporium species, and Biopolaris species (see, for example, Shalani and Srivastava, The Internet Journal of Microbiology Volume 5 Number 2, 2008). In another example, botrycidin AJ1316 and alirin B1 from B. subtilis have been shown to have antifungal activities.

A modulating agent including a bacteriocin as described herein can be contacted with the target host in an amount and for a time sufficient to: (a) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of bacteriocin concentration inside a target host; (b) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of bacteriocin concentration inside a target host gut; (c) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of bacteriocin concentration inside a target host bacteriocyte; (d) modulate the level, or an activity, of one or more microorganism (e.g., endosymbiont) in the target host; or/and (e) modulate fitness of the target host. (b) Lysins

The modulating agent described herein may include a lysin (e.g., also known as a murein hydrolase or peptidoglycan autolysin). Any lysin suitable for inhibiting a bacterium resident in the host may be used. In some instances, the lysin is one that can be naturally produced by a bacterial cell. In some instances, the lysin is one that can be naturally produced by a bacteriophage. In some instances, the lysin is obtained from a phage that inhibits a bacterium resident in the host. In some instances, the lysin is engineered based on a naturally occurring lysin. In some instances, the lysin is engineered to be secreted by a host bacterium, for example, by introducing a signal peptide to the lysin. In some instances, the lysin is used in combination with a phage holin. In some instances, a lysin is expressed by a recombinant bacterium host that is not sensitive to the lysin. In some instances, the lysin is used to inhibit a Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacterium resident in the host.

The lysin may be any class of lysin and may have one or more substrate specificities. For example, the lysin may be a glycosidase, an endopeptidase, a carboxypeptidase, or a combination thereof. In some instances, the lysin cleaves the yS-1 -4 glycosidic bond in the sugar moiety of the cell wall, the amide bond connecting the sugar and peptide moieties of the bacterial cell wall, and/or the peptide bonds between the peptide moieties of the cell wall. The lysin may belong to one or more specific lysin groups, depending on the cleavage site within the peptidoglycan. In some instances, the lysin is a /V-acetyl- /?-D-muramidase (e.g., lysozyme), lytic transglycosylase, A/-acetyl-/?-D- glucosaminidase, /V-acetylmuramyl-L-alanine amidase, L,D-endopeptidase, D,D-endopeptidase, D,D- carboxypeptidase, L,D-carboxypeptidase, or L,D-transpeptidase. Non-limiting examples of lysins and their activities are listed in Table 5.

Table 5: Examples of Lysins

VDRGQQYTPHLKTNRK

DSQGNSNPSMMGRNK

STTQDMEKAVDKFLNG

QNEATTGLNQALYQLKE

ISKLNRRSESLSRRASA

SGYMSFQQYSNFTGDR

RTVQQTYG GLKTAN R E

RVLELSGQATGISKELD

RLNSKKGLTAREGEERK

KLMRQLEGIDAELTARK

KLNSSLDETTSNMEKFN

QSLVDAQVSVKPERGT

MRGMMYERAPAIALAIG

GAITATIGKLYSEGGNH

SKAMRPDEMYVGQQTG

AVGANWRPNRTATMRS

GLGNHLGFTGQEMMEF

QSNYLSANGYHGAEDM

KA ATTG QATFARATGLG

SDEVKDFFNTAYRSGGI

DGNQTKQFQNAFLGAM

KQSGAVGREKDQLKAL

NGILSSMSQNRTVSNQ

DMMRTVGLQSAISSSG

VASLQGTKGGALMEQL

DNGIREGFNDPQMRVL

FGQGTKYQGMGGRAAL

RKQMEKGISDPDNLNTL

IDASKASAGQDPAEQAE

VLATLASKMGVNMSSD

QARGLIDLQPSGKLTKE

NIDKVMKEGLKEGSIES

AKRDKAYSESKASIDNS

SEAATAKQATELNDMG

SKLRQANAALGGLPAPL

YT A IAAVVAFTAAVAGS

ALMFKGASWLKGGMAS

KYGGKGGKGGKGGGT

GGGGGAGGAAATGAG

AAAGAGGVGAAAAGEV In some instances, the lysin is a functionally active variant of the lysins described herein. In some instances, the variant of the lysin has at least 70%, 71 %, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81 %, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91 %, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identity, e.g., over a specified region or over the entire sequence, to a sequence of a lysin described herein or a naturally occurring lysin.

In some instances, the lysin may be bioengineered to modulate its bioactivity, e.g., increase or decrease or regulate, or to specify a target microorganism. In some instances, the lysin is produced by the translational machinery (e.g. a ribosome, etc.) of a microbial cell. In some instances, the lysin is chemically synthesized. In some instances, the lysin is derived from a polypeptide precursor. The polypeptide precursor can undergo cleavage (for example, processing by a protease) to yield the polypeptide of the lysin itself. As such, in some instances, the lysin is produced from a precursor polypeptide. In some instances, the lysin includes a polypeptide that has undergone post-translational modifications, for example, cleavage, or the addition of one or more functional groups.

The lysins described herein may be formulated in a composition for any of the uses described herein. The compositions disclosed herein may include any number or type (e.g., classes) of lysins, such as at least about any one of 1 lysin, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1 0, 15, 20, or more lysins. A suitable concentration of each lysin in the composition depends on factors such as efficacy, stability of the lysin, number of distinct lysin, the formulation, and methods of application of the composition. In some instances, each lysin in a liquid composition is from about 0.1 ng/mL to about 1 00 mg/mL. In some instances, each lysin in a solid composition is from about 0.1 ng/g to about 100 mg/g. In some instances, wherein the composition includes at least two types of lysins, the concentration of each type of lysin may be the same or different.

A modulating agent including a lysin as described herein can be contacted with the target host in an amount and for a time sufficient to: (a) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of lysin concentration inside a target host; (b) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of lysin concentration inside a target host gut; (c) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of lysin concentration inside a target host bacteriocyte; (d) modulate the level, or an activity, of one or more microorganism (e.g., endosymbiont) in the target host; or/and (e) modulate fitness of the target host. (c) Antimicrobial Peptides

The modulating agent described herein may include an antimicrobial peptide (AMP). Any AMP suitable for inhibiting a microorganism resident in the host may be used. AMPs are a diverse group of molecules, which are divided into subgroups on the basis of their amino acid composition and structure. The AMP may be derived or produced from any organism that naturally produces AMPs, including AMPs derived from plants (e.g., copsin), insects (e.g., drosocin, scorpion peptide (e.g., Uy192, UyCT3, D3, D10, Uy17, Uy192), mastoparan, poneratoxin, cecropin, moricin, melittin), frogs (e.g., magainin, dermaseptin, aurein), and mammals (e.g., cathelicidins, defensins and protegrins). For example, the AMP may be a scorpion peptide, such as Uy192 (5'- FLSTIWNGIKGLL-3'; SEQ ID NO: 221 ), UyCT3 (5'- LSAIWSGIKSLF-3; SEQ ID NO: 222), D3 (5'- LWGKLWEGVKSLI-3'; SEQ ID NO: 223), and D10 (5'- FPFLKLSLKIPKSAIKSAIKRL-3'; SEQ ID NO: 224), Uy17 (5 - ILSAIWSGIKGLL-3'; SEQ ID NO: 225), or a combination thereof. Other non-limiting examples of AMPs are listed in Table 6.

Table 6: Examples of Antimicrobial Peptides

The AMP may be active against any number of target microorganisms. In some instances, the AMP may have antibacterial and/or antifungal activities. In some instances, the AMP may have a narrow- spectrum bioactivity or a broad-spectrum bioactivity. For example, some AMPs target and kill only a few species of bacteria or fungi, while others are active against both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria as well as fungi.

Further, the AMP may function through a number of known mechanisms of action. For example, the cytoplasmic membrane is a frequent target of AMPs, but AMPs may also interfere with DNA and protein synthesis, protein folding, and cell wall synthesis. In some instances, AMPs with net cationic charge and amphipathic nature disrupt bacterial membranes leading to cell lysis. In some instances,

AMPs may enter cells and interact with intracellular target to interfere with DNA, RNA, protein, or cell wall synthesis. In addition to killing microorganisms, AMPs have demonstrated a number of

immunomodulatory functions that are involved in the clearance of infection, including the ability to alter host gene expression, act as chemokines and/or induce chemokine production, inhibit lipopolysaccharide induced pro-inflammatory cytokine production, promote wound healing, and modulating the responses of dendritic cells and cells of the adaptive immune response.

In some instances, the AMP is a functionally active variant of the AMPs described herein. In some instances, the variant of the AMP has at least 70%, 71 %, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81 %, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91 %, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identity, e.g., over a specified region or over the entire sequence, to a sequence of an AMP described herein or a naturally derived AMP.

In some instances, the AMP may be bioengineered to modulate its bioactivity, e.g., increase or decrease or regulate, or to specify a target microorganism. In some instances, the AMP is produced by the translational machinery (e.g. a ribosome, etc.) of a cell. In some instances, the AMP is chemically synthesized. In some instances, the AMP is derived from a polypeptide precursor. The polypeptide precursor can undergo cleavage (for example, processing by a protease) to yield the polypeptide of the AMP itself. As such, in some instances, the AMP is produced from a precursor polypeptide. In some instances, the AMP includes a polypeptide that has undergone post-translational modifications, for example, cleavage, or the addition of one or more functional groups.

The AMPs described herein may be formulated in a composition for any of the uses described herein. The compositions disclosed herein may include any number or type (e.g., classes) of AMPs, such as at least about any one of 1 AMP, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, or more AMPs. For example, the compositions may include a cocktail of AMPs (e.g., a cocktail of scorpion peptides, e.g., UyCT3, D3, D10, and Uy1 7). A suitable concentration of each AMP in the composition depends on factors such as efficacy, stability of the AMP, number of distinct AMP in the composition, the formulation, and methods of application of the composition. In some instances, each AMP in a liquid composition is from about 0.1 ng/mL to about 100 mg/mL. In some instances, each AMP in a solid composition is from about 0.1 ng/g to about 100 mg/g. In some instances, wherein the composition includes at least two types of AMPs, the concentration of each type of AMP may be the same or different.

A modulating agent including an AMP as described herein can be contacted with the target host in an amount and for a time sufficient to: (a) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of AMP concentration inside a target host; (b) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of AMP concentration inside a target host gut; (c) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of AMP concentration inside a target host bacteriocyte; (d) modulate the level, or an activity, of one or more microorganism (e.g., endosymbiont) in the target host; or/and (e) modulate fitness of the target host.

(d) Nodule C-rich Peptides

The modulating agent described herein may include a nodule C-rich peptide (NCR peptide). NCR peptides are produced in certain leguminous plants and play an important role in the mutualistic, nitrogen-fixing symbiosis of the plants with bacteria from the Rhizobiaceae family (rhizobia), resulting in the formation of root nodules where plant cells contain thousands of intracellular endosymbionts. NCR peptides possess anti-microbial properties that direct an irreversible, terminal differentiation process of bacteria, e.g., to permeabilize the bacterial membrane, disrupt cell division, or inhibit protein synthesis. For example, in Medicago truncatula nodule cells infected with Sinorhizobium meliloti, hundreds of NCR peptides are produced which direct irreversible differentiation of the bacteria into large polyploid nitrogen- fixing bacteroids.). Non-limiting examples of NCR peptides are listed in Table 7.

Table 7: Examples of NCR Peptides

Any NCR peptide known in the art is suitable for use in the methods or compositions described herein. NCR peptide-producing plants include but are not limited to Pisum sativum (pea), Astragalus sinicus (IRLC legumes), Phaseolus vulgaris (bean), Vigna unguiculata (cowpea), Medicago truncatula (barrelclover), and Lotus japonicus. For example, over 600 potential NCR peptides are predicted from the M. truncatula genome sequence and almost 150 different NCR peptides have been detected in cells isolated from root nodules by mass spectrometry.

The NCR peptides described herein may be mature or immature NCR peptides. Immature NCR peptides have a C-terminal signal peptide that is required for translocation into the endoplasmic reticulum and cleaved after translocation. The N-terminus of a NCR peptide includes a signal peptide, which may be cleavable, for targeting to a secretory pathway. NCR peptides are generally small peptides with disulfide bridges that stabilize their structure. Mature NCR peptides have a length in the range of about 20 to about 60 amino acids, about 25 to about 55 amino acids, about 30 to about 50 amino acids, about 35 to about 45 amino acids, or any range therebetween. NCR peptides may include a conserved sequence of cysteine residues with the rest of the peptide sequence highly variable. NCR peptides generally have about four or eight cysteines.

NCR peptides may be anionic, neutral, or cationic. In some instances, synthetic cationic NCR peptides having a pi greater than about eight possess antimicrobial activities. For example, NCR247 (pi = 10.15) (RNGCIVDPRCPYQQCRRPLYCRRR; SEQ ID NO: 1 98) and NCR335 (pi = 1 1 .22)

(MAQFLLFVYSLIIFLSLFFGEAAFERTETRMLTIPCTSDDNCPKVISPCHTKCFDG FCGWYIEGSYEGP; SEQ ID NO: 1 99) are both effective against gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria as well as fungi. In some instances, neutral and/or anionic NCR peptides, such as NCR001 , do not possess antimicrobial activities at a pi greater than about 8.

In some instances, the NCR peptide is effective to kill bacteria. In some instances, the NCR peptide is effective to kill S. meliloti, Xenorhabdus spp, Photorhabdus spp, Candidatus spp, Buchnera spp, Blattabacterium spp, Baumania spp, Wigglesworthia spp, Wolbachia spp, Rickettsia spp, Orientia spp, Sodalis spp, Burkholderia spp, Cupriavidus spp, Frankia spp, Snirhizobium spp, Streptococcus spp, Wolinella spp, Xylella spp, Erwinia spp, Agrobacterium spp, Bacillus spp, Paenibacillus spp,

Streptomyces spp, Micrococcus spp, Corynebacterium spp, Acetobacter spp, Cyanobacteria spp, Salmonella spp, Rhodococcus spp, Pseudomonas spp, Lactobacillus spp, Enterococcus spp, Alcaligenes spp, Klebsiella spp, Paenibacillus spp, Arthrobacter spp, Corynebacterium spp, Brevibacterium spp, Thermus spp, Pseudomonas spp, Clostridium spp, or Escherichia spp.

In some instances, the NCR peptide is a functionally active variant of a NCR peptide described herein. In some instances, the variant of the NCR peptide has at least 70%, 71 %, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81 %, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91 %, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identity, e.g., over a specified region or over the entire sequence, to a sequence of a NCR peptide described herein or naturally derived NCR peptide.

In some instances, the NCR peptide may be bioengineered to modulate its bioactivity, e.g., increase or decrease or regulate, or to specify a target microorganism. In some instances, the NCR peptide is produced by the translational machinery (e.g. a ribosome, etc.) of a cell. In some instances, the NCR peptide is chemically synthesized. In some instances, the NCR peptide is derived from a polypeptide precursor. The polypeptide precursor can undergo cleavage (for example, processing by a protease) to yield the NCR peptide itself. As such, in some instances, the NCR peptide is produced from a precursor polypeptide. In some instances, the NCR peptide includes a polypeptide that has undergone post-translational modifications, for example, cleavage, or the addition of one or more functional groups.

The NCR peptide described herein may be formulated in a composition for any of the uses described herein. The compositions disclosed herein may include any number or type of NCR peptides, such as at least about any one of 1 NCR peptide, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100, or more NCR peptides. A suitable concentration of each NCR peptide in the composition depends on factors such as efficacy, stability of the NCR peptide, number of distinct NCR peptide, the formulation, and methods of application of the composition. In some instances, each NCR peptide in a liquid composition is from about 0.1 ng/mL to about 100 mg/mL. In some instances, each NCR peptide in a solid composition is from about 0.1 ng/g to about 100 mg/g. In some instances, wherein the composition includes at least two types of NCR peptides, the concentration of each type of NCR peptide may be the same or different.

A modulating agent including a NCR peptide as described herein can be contacted with the target host in an amount and for a time sufficient to: (a) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of NCR peptide concentration inside a target host; (b) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of NCR peptide concentration inside a target host gut; (c) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of NCR peptide concentration inside a target host bacteriocyte; (d) modulate the level, or an activity, of one or more microorganism (e.g., endosymbiont) in the target host; or/and (e) modulate fitness of the target host.

(e) Bacteriocyte Regulatory Peptides

The modulating agent described herein may include a bacteriocyte regulatory peptide (BRP). BRPs are peptides expressed in the bacteriocytes of insects. These genes are expressed first at a developmental time point coincident with the incorporation of symbionts and their bacteriocyte-specific expression is maintained throughout the insect's life. In some instances, the BRP has a hydrophobic amino terminal domain, which is predicted to be a signal peptide. In addition, some BRPs have a cysteine-rich domain. In some instances, the bacteriocyte regulatory peptide is a bacteriocyte-specific cysteine rich (BCR) protein. Bacteriocyte regulatory peptides have a length between about 40 and 150 amino acids. In some instances, the bacteriocyte regulatory peptide has a length in the range of about 45 to about 145, about 50 to about 140, about 55 to about 135, about 60 to about 130, about 65 to about 125, about 70 to about 120, about 75 to about 1 15, about 80 to about 1 10, about 85 to about 105, or any range therebetween. Non-limiting examples of BRPs and their activities are listed in Table 8.

In some instances, the BRP alters the growth and/or activity of one or more bacteria resident in the bacteriocyte of the host. In some instances, the BRP may be bioengineered to modulate its bioactivity (e.g., increase, decrease, or regulate) or to specify a target microorganism. In some instances, the BRP is produced by the translational machinery (e.g. a ribosome, etc.) of a cell. In some instances, the BRP is chemically synthesized. In some instances, the BRP is derived from a polypeptide precursor. The polypeptide precursor can undergo cleavage (for example, processing by a protease) to yield the polypeptide of the BRP itself. As such, in some instances, the BRP is produced from a precursor polypeptide. In some instances, the BRP includes a polypeptide that has undergone post-translational modifications, for example, cleavage, or the addition of one or more functional groups.

Functionally active variants of the BRPs as described herein are also useful in the compositions and methods described herein. In some instances, the variant of the BRP has at least 70%, 71 %, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81 %, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91 %, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identity, e.g., over a specified region or over the entire sequence, to a sequence of a BRP described herein or naturally derived BRP.

The BRP described herein may be formulated in a composition for any of the uses described herein. The compositions disclosed herein may include any number or type (e.g., classes) of BRPs, such as at least about any one of 1 BRP, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1 0, 15, 20, or more BRPs. A suitable concentration of each BRP in the composition depends on factors such as efficacy, stability of the BRP, number of distinct BRP, the formulation, and methods of application of the composition. In some instances, each BRP in a liquid composition is from about 0.1 ng/mL to about 100 mg/mL. In some instances, each BRP in a solid composition is from about 0.1 ng/g to about 100 mg/g. In some instances, wherein the composition includes at least two types of BRPs, the concentration of each type of BRP may be the same or different.

A modulating agent including a BRP as described herein can be contacted with the target host in an amount and for a time sufficient to: (a) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of BRP concentration inside a target host; (b) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of BRP concentration inside a target host gut; (c) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of BRP concentration inside a target host bacteriocyte; (d) modulate the level, or an activity, of one or more microorganism (e.g., endosymbiont) in the target host; or/and (e) modulate fitness of the target host.

// ^' / ^' . Small Molecules

Numerous small molecules (e.g., an antibiotic or a metabolite) may be used in the compositions and methods described herein. In some instances, an effective concentration of any small molecule described herein may alter the level, activity, or metabolism of one or more microorganisms (as described herein) resident in a host, the alteration resulting in an increase in the host's fitness.

A modulating agent comprising a small molecule as described herein can be contacted with the target host in an amount and for a time sufficient to: (a) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of a small molecule concentration inside a target host; (b) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of small molecule concentration inside a target host gut; (c) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of a small molecule concentration inside a target host bacteriocyte; (d) modulate the level, or an activity, of one or more microorganism (e.g.,

endosymbiont) in the target host; or/and (e) modulate fitness of the target host.

(a) Antibiotics

The modulating agent described herein may include an antibiotic. Any antibiotic known in the art may be used. Antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. The antibiotic described herein may target any bacterial function or growth processes and may be either bacteriostatic (e.g., slow or prevent bacterial growth) or bactericidal (e.g., kill bacteria). In some instances, the antibiotic is a bactericidal antibiotic. In some instances, the bactericidal antibiotic is one that targets the bacterial cell wall (e.g., penicillins and cephalosporins); one that targets the cell membrane (e.g., polymyxins); or one that inhibits essential bacterial enzymes (e.g., rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides). In some instances, the bactericidal antibiotic is an aminoglycoside. In some instances, the antibiotic is a bacteriostatic antibiotic. In some instances the bacteriostatic antibiotic targets protein synthesis (e.g., macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines).

Additional classes of antibiotics that may be used herein include cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), or lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin). Examples of antibiotics include oxytetracycline, doxycycline, rifampicin, ciprofloxacin, ampicillin, and polymyxin B. Other non-limiting examples of antibiotics are found in Table 9.

Table 9: Examples of Antibiotics

The antibiotic described herein may have any level of target specificity (e.g., narrow- or broad- spectrum). In some instances, the antibiotic is a narrow-spectrum antibiotic, and thus targets specific types of bacteria, such as gram-negative or gram-positive bacteria. Alternatively, the antibiotic may be a broad-spectrum antibiotic that targets a wide range of bacteria.

The antibiotics described herein may be formulated in a composition for any of the uses described herein. The compositions disclosed herein may include any number or type (e.g., classes) of antibiotics, such as at least about any one of 1 antibiotic, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, or more antibiotics (e.g., a combination of rifampicin and doxycycline, or a combination of ampicillin and rifampicin). A suitable concentration of each antibiotic in the composition depends on factors such as efficacy, stability of the antibiotic, number of distinct antibiotics, the formulation, and methods of application of the composition. In some instances, wherein the composition includes at least two types of antibiotics, the concentration of each type of antibiotic may be the same or different.

A modulating agent including an antibiotic as described herein can be contacted with the target host in an amount and for a time sufficient to: (a) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of antibiotic concentration inside a target host; (b) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of antibiotic concentration inside a target host gut; (c) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of antibiotic concentration inside a target host bacteriocyte; (d) modulate the level, or an activity, of one or more microorganism (e.g., endosymbiont) in the target host; or/and (e) modulate fitness of the target host.

(b) Secondary Metabolites

In some instances, the modulating agent of the compositions and methods described herein includes a secondary metabolite. Secondary metabolites are derived from organic molecules produced by an organism. Secondary metabolites may act (i) as competitive agents used against bacteria, fungi, amoebae, plants, insects, and large animals; (ii) as metal transporting agents; (iii) as agents of symbiosis between microbes and plants, insects, and higher animals; (iv) as sexual hormones; and (v) as differentiation effectors. Non-limiting examples of secondary metabolites are found in Table 10.

Table 10: Examples of Secondary Metabolites

The secondary metabolite used herein may include a metabolite from any known group of secondary metabolites. For example, secondary metabolites can be categorized into the following groups: alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, glycosides, natural phenols, e.g., gossypol acetic acid), enals (e.g., trans-cinnamaldehyde), phenazines, biphenols and dibenzofurans, polyketides, fatty acid synthase peptides, nonribosomal peptides, ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides, polyphenols, polysaccharides (e.g., chitosan), and biopolymers. For an in-depth review of secondary metabolites see, for example, Vining, Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 44:395-427, 1 990. Secondary metabolites useful for compositions and methods described herein include those that alter a natural function of an endosymbiont (e.g., primary or secondary endosymbiont), bacteriocyte, or extracellular symbiont. In some instances, one or more secondary metabolites described herein is isolated from a high throughput screening (HTS) for antimicrobial compounds. For example, a HTS screen identified 49 antibacterial extracts that have specificity against gram positive and gram negative bacteria from over 39,000 crude extracts from organisms growing in diverse ecosystems of one specific region. In some instances, the secondary metabolite is transported inside a bacteriocyte.

In some instances, the small molecule is an inhibitor of vitamin synthesis. In some instances, the vitamin synthesis inhibitor is a vitamin precursor analog. In certain instances, the vitamin precursor analog is pantothenol.

In some instances, the small molecule is an amino acid analog. In certain instances, the amino acid analog is L-canvanine, D-arginine, D-valine, D-methionine, D-phenylalanine, D-histidine, D- tryptophan, D-threonine, D-leucine, L-NG-nitroarginine, or a combination thereof.

In some instances the small molecule is a natural antimicrobial compound, such as propionic acid, levulinic acid, trans-cinnemaldehdye, nisin, or low molecular weight chitosan.

The secondary metabolite described herein may be formulated in a composition for any of the uses described herein. The compositions disclosed herein may include any number or type (e.g., classes) of secondary metabolites, such as at least about any one of 1 secondary metabolite, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 1 5, 20, or more secondary metabolites. A suitable concentration of each secondary metabolite in the composition depends on factors such as efficacy, stability of the secondary metabolite, number of distinct secondary metabolites, the formulation, and methods of application of the composition. In some instances, wherein the composition includes at least two types of secondary metabolites, the

concentration of each type of secondary metabolite may be the same or different.

A modulating agent including a secondary metabolite as described herein can be contacted with the target host in an amount and for a time sufficient to: (a) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of secondary metabolite concentration inside a target host; (b) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of secondary metabolite concentration inside a target host gut; (c) reach a target level (e.g., a predetermined or threshold level) of secondary metabolite concentration inside a target host bacteriocyte; (d) modulate the level, or an activity, of one or more microorganism (e.g., endosymbiont) in the target host; or/and (e) modulate fitness of the target host. iv. Bacteria as modulating agents

In some instances, the modulating agent described herein includes one or more bacteria.

Numerous bacteria are useful in the compositions and methods described herein. In some instances, the agent is a bacterial species endogenously found in the host. In some instances, the bacterial modulating agent is an endosymbiotic bacterial species. Non-limiting examples of bacteria that may be used as modulating agents include all bacterial species described herein in Section II of the detailed description and those listed in Table 1 . For example, the modulating agent may be a bacterial species from any bacterial phyla present in insect guts and/or haemocoel, including Gammaproteobacteria,

Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes (e.g., Lactobacillus and Bacillus spp.), Clostridia, Actinomycetes, Spirochetes, Verrucomicrobia, and Actinobacteria.

In some instances, the modulating agent is a bacterium that promotes microbial diversity or otherwise alters the microbiota of the host in a favorable manner. In one instance, bacteria may be provided to promote microbiome development in insects. The bacterial modulating agents discussed herein can be used to alter the level, activity, or metabolism of target microorganisms as indicated in the sections for increasing the fitness of insects, such as, crickets, grasshoppers, or locusts.

In some instances, such bacterial modulating agents are bacteria which are capable of producing nutrients, including amino acids (e.g., methionine). The nutrient-producing bacteria may be naturally occurring bacteria, e.g., naturally occurring bacteria exogenous to the insect host. Such bacteria may be isolated from a population of bacteria, such as that found in an environmental sample. Bacteria can be isolated that produce one or more amino acids in a manner that increases production of amino acids in the host relative to a host who has not been administered the amino-acid producing bacteria. Amino acids that can be produced by the bacteria in the host include methionine, alanine, arginine, asparagine, asparatic acid, cysteine, glutamine, glutamic acid, glutamate, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, serine, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine, or valine. In certain instances, the amino acid-producing bacteria is a methionine-producing bacteria.

In some instances, the nutrient-producing bacteria (e.g., amino acid-producing bacteria, e.g., methionine-producing bacteria) are at a concentration of at least 100,000 cells/ml (e.g., at least about 100,000 cells/ml, at least about 150,000 cells/ml, at least about 200,000 cells/ml, at least about 250,000 cells/ml, at least about 300,000 cells/ml, at least about 350,000 cells/ml, at least about 400,000 cells/ml, at least about 450,000 cells/ml, or at least about 500,000 cells/ml).

Examples 1 to 4 and 8 describe how methionine-producing microorganisms can be identified which can then be used as modulating agents in insect hosts, such as crickets or in the model organism Drosophila, to increase the fitness of the hosts (e.g., increase amino acid content (e.g., methionine content). For example, in certain instances, nutrient content is increased in the host prior to use of the host in manufacturing of food or feed.

In some instances, such bacterial modulating agents are bacteria which are capable of degrading pesticides as laid out in Table 12 including insecticides. Such insecticides include neonicotinoids such as imidacloprid, or organophosphorus insecticides, such as fenitrothion. In some instances, the pesticide- metabolizing bacteria are at a concentration of at least 100,000 cells/ml (e.g., at least about 1 00,000 cells/ml, at least about 150,000 cells/ml, at least about 200,000 cells/ml, at least about 250,000 cells/ml, at least about 300,000 cells/ml, at least about 350,000 cells/ml, at least about 400,000 cells/ml, at least about 450,000 cells/ml, or at least about 500,000 cells/ml).

Examples 5 and 6 describe how imidacloprid and fenitrothion degrading microorganisms can be identified which can then be used a modulating agents in insect hosts, such as crickets, giving the treated insect hosts a competitive advantage. Administering such pesticide-degrading microorganisms, for example imidacloprid- or fenitrothion-degrading microorganisms to insect hosts such as honeybees is understood to be encompassed by the alteration of a level, activity, or metabolism of one or more microorganisms resident in the host. v. Modifications to modulating agents

(a) Fusions

Any of the modulating agents described herein may be fused or linked to an additional moiety. In some instances, the modulating agent includes a fusion of one or more additional moieties (e.g., 1 additional moiety, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more additional moieties). In some instances, the additional moiety is any one of the modulating agents described herein (e.g., a peptide, polypeptide, small molecule, or antibiotic). Alternatively, the additional moiety may not act as modulating agent itself but may instead serve a secondary function. For example, the additional moiety may to help the modulating agent access, bind, or become activated at a target site in the host (e.g., at a host gut or a host bacteriocyte) or at a target microorganism resident in the host (e.g., a cricket, a grasshopper, or a locust).

In some instances, the additional moiety may help the modulating agent penetrate a target host cell or target microorganism resident in the host. For example, the additional moiety may include a cell penetrating peptide. Cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) may be natural sequences derived from proteins; chimeric peptides that are formed by the fusion of two natural sequences; or synthetic CPPs, which are synthetically designed sequences based on structure-activity studies. In some instances, CPPs have the capacity to ubiquitously cross cellular membranes (e.g., prokaryotic and eukaryotic cellular membranes) with limited toxicity. Further, CPPs may have the capacity to cross cellular membranes via energy- dependent and/or independent mechanisms, without the necessity of a chiral recognition by specific receptors. CPPs can be bound to any of the modulating agents described herein. For example, a CPP can be bound to an antimicrobial peptide (AMP), e.g., a scorpion peptide, e.g., UY192 fused to a cell penetrating peptide (e.g., YGRKKRRQRRRFLSTIWNGIKGLLFAM; SEQ ID NO: 226). Non-limiting examples of CPPs are listed in Table 1 1 .

Table 1 1 : Exam les of Cell Penetratin Pe tides CPPs

In other instances, the additional moiety helps the modulating agent bind a target microorganism (e.g., a fungi or bacterium) resident in the host. The additional moiety may include one or more targeting domains. In some instances, the targeting domain may target the modulating agent to one or more microorganisms (e.g., bacterium or fungus) resident in the gut of the host. In some instances, the targeting domain may target the modulating agent to a specific region of the host (e.g., host gut or bacteriocyte) to access microorganisms that are generally present in said region of the host. For example, the targeting domain may target the modulating agent to the foregut, midgut, or hindgut of the host. In other instances, the targeting domain may target the modulating agent to a bacteriocyte in the host and/or one or more specific bacteria resident in a host bacteriocyte.

(b) Pre- or Pro-domains

In some instances, the modulating agent may include a pre- or pro- amino acid sequence. For example, the modulating agent may be an inactive protein or peptide that can be activated by cleavage or post-translational modification of a pre- or pro-sequence. In some instances, the modulating agent is engineered with an inactivating pre- or pro-sequence. For example, the pre- or pro-sequence may obscure an activation site on the modulating agent, e.g., a receptor binding site, or may induce a conformational change in the modulating agent. Thus, upon cleavage of the pre- or pro-sequence, the modulating agent is activated.

Alternatively, the modulating agent may include a pre- or pro-small molecule, e.g., an antibiotic.

The modulating agent may be an inactive small molecule described herein that can be activated in a target environment inside the host. For example, the small molecule may be activated upon reaching a certain pH in the host gut. For example, the targeting domain may be Galanthus nivalis lectin or agglutinin (GNA) bound to a modulating agent described herein, e.g., an AMP, e.g., a scorpion peptide, e.g., Uy1 92.

(c) Linkers

In instances where the modulating agent is connected to an additional moiety, the modulating agent may further include a linker. For example, the linker may be a chemical bond, e.g., one or more covalent bonds or non-covalent bonds. In some instances, the linker may be a peptide linker (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, or more amino acids longer). The linker maybe include any flexible, rigid, or cleavable linkers described herein.

A flexible peptide linker may include any of those commonly used in the art, including linkers having sequences having primarily Gly and Ser residues ("GS" linker). Flexible linkers may be useful for joining domains that require a certain degree of movement or interaction and may include small, non- polar (e.g. Gly) or polar (e.g. Ser or Thr) amino acids.

Alternatively, a peptide linker may be a rigid linker. Rigid linkers are useful to keep a fixed distance between moieties and to maintain their independent functions. Rigid linkers may also be useful when a spatial separation of the domains is critical to preserve the stability or bioactivity of one or more components in the fusion. Rigid linkers may, for example, have an alpha helix-structure or Pro-rich sequence, (XP)n, with X designating any amino acid, preferably Ala, Lys, or Glu.

In yet other instances, a peptide linker may be a cleavable linker. In some instances, linkers may be cleaved under specific conditions, such as the presence of reducing reagents or proteases. In vivo cleavable linkers may utilize the reversible nature of a disulfide bond. One example includes a thrombin- sensitive sequence (e.g., PRS) between two Cys residues. In vitro thrombin treatment of CPRSC results in the cleavage of the thrombin-sensitive sequence, while the reversible disulfide linkage remains intact. Such linkers are known and described, e.g., in Chen et al., Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 65(10):1357-1369, 2013. Cleavage of linkers in fusions may also be carried out by proteases that are expressed in vivo under conditions in specific cells or tissues of the host or microorganisms resident in the host. In some instances, cleavage of the linker may release a free functional, modulating agent upon reaching a target site or cell.

Fusions described herein may alternatively be linked by a linking molecule, including a hydrophobic linker, such as a negatively charged sulfonate group; lipids, such as a poly (-CH2-) hydrocarbon chains, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) group, unsaturated variants thereof, hydroxylated variants thereof, amidated or otherwise N-containing variants thereof, non-carbon linkers; carbohydrate linkers; phosphodiester linkers, or other molecule capable of covalently linking two or more molecules, e.g., two modulating agents. Non-covalent linkers may be used, such as hydrophobic lipid globules to which the modulating agent is linked, for example, through a hydrophobic region of the modulating agent or a hydrophobic extension of the modulating agent, such as a series of residues rich in leucine, isoleucine, valine, or perhaps also alanine, phenylalanine, or even tyrosine, methionine, glycine, or other hydrophobic residue. The modulating agent may be linked using charge-based chemistry, such that a positively charged moiety of the modulating agent is linked to a negative charge of another modulating agent or an additional moiety.

IV. Formulations and Compositions

The compositions described herein may be formulated either in pure form (e.g., the composition contains only the modulating agent) or together with one or more additional agents (such as excipient, delivery vehicle, carrier, diluent, stabilizer, etc.) to facilitate application or delivery of the compositions. Examples of suitable excipients and diluents include, but are not limited to, lactose, dextrose, sucrose, sorbitol, mannitol, starches, gum acacia, calcium phosphate, alginates, tragacanth, gelatin, calcium silicate, microcrystalline cellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone, cellulose, water, saline solution, syrup, methylcellulose, methyl- and propylhydroxybenzoates, talc, magnesium stearate, and mineral oil.

In some instances, the composition includes a delivery vehicle or carrier. In some instances, the delivery vehicle includes an excipient. Exemplary excipients include, but are not limited to, solid or liquid carrier materials, solvents, stabilizers, slow-release excipients, colorings, and surface-active substances (surfactants). In some instances, the delivery vehicle is a stabilizing vehicle. In some instances, the stabilizing vehicle includes a stabilizing excipient. Exemplary stabilizing excipients include, but are not limited to, epoxidized vegetable oils, antifoaming agents, e.g. silicone oil, preservatives, viscosity regulators, binding agents and tackifiers. In some instances, the stabilizing vehicle is a buffer suitable for the modulating agent. In some instances, the composition is microencapsulated in a polymer bead delivery vehicle. In some instances, the stabilizing vehicle protects the modulating agent against UV and/or acidic conditions. In some instances, the delivery vehicle contains a pH buffer. In some instances, the composition is formulated to have a pH in the range of about 4.5 to about 9.0, including for example pH ranges of about any one of 5.0 to about 8.0, about 6.5 to about 7.5, or about 6.5 to about 7.0.

Depending on the intended objectives and prevailing circumstances, the composition may be formulated into emulsifiable concentrates, suspension concentrates, directly sprayable or dilutable solutions, coatable pastes, diluted emulsions, spray powders, soluble powders, dispersible powders, wettable powders, dusts, granules, encapsulations in polymeric substances, microcapsules, foams, aerosols, carbon dioxide gas preparations, tablets, resin preparations, paper preparations, nonwoven fabric preparations, or knitted or woven fabric preparations. In some instances, the composition is a liquid. In some instances, the composition is a solid. In some instances, the composition is an aerosol, such as in a pressurized aerosol can. In some instances, the composition is present in the waste (such as feces) of the pest. In some instances, the composition is present in or on a live pest.

In some instances, the delivery vehicle is the food or water of the host. In other instances, the delivery vehicle is a food source for the host. In some instances, the delivery vehicle is a food bait for the host. In some instances, the composition is a comestible agent consumed by the host. In some instances, the composition is delivered by the host to a second host, and consumed by the second host. In some instances, the composition is consumed by the host or a second host, and the composition is released to the surrounding of the host or the second host via the waste (such as feces) of the host or the second host. In some instances, the modulating agent is included in food bait intended to be consumed by a host or carried back to its colony.

In some instances, the modulating agent may make up about 0.1 % to about 100% of the composition, such as any one of about 0.01 % to about 100%, about 1 % to about 99.9%, about 0.1 % to about 10%, about 1 % to about 25%, about 1 0% to about 50%, about 50% to about 99%, or about 0.1 % to about 90% of active ingredients (such as phage, lysin or bacteriocin). In some instances, the composition includes at least any of 0.1 %, 0.5%, 1 %, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or more active ingredients (such as phage, lysin or bacteriocin). In some instances, the concentrated agents are preferred as commercial products, the final user normally uses diluted agents, which have a substantially lower concentration of active ingredient.

Any of the formulations described herein may be used in the form of a bait, a coil, an electric mat, a smoking preparation, a fumigant, or a sheet. / ^' . Liquid Formulations

The compositions provided herein may be in a liquid formulation. Liquid formulations are generally mixed with water, but in some instances may be used with crop oil, diesel fuel, kerosene or other light oil as a carrier. The amount of active ingredient often ranges from about 0.5 to about 80 percent by weight.

An emulsifiable concentrate formulation may contain a liquid active ingredient, one or more petroleum-based solvents, and an agent that allows the formulation to be mixed with water to form an emulsion. Such concentrates may be used in agricultural, ornamental and turf, forestry, structural, food processing, livestock, and public health pest formulations. These may be adaptable to application equipment from small portable sprayers to hydraulic sprayers, low-volume ground sprayers, mist blowers, and low-volume aircraft sprayers. Some active ingredients are readily dissolve in a liquid carrier. When mixed with a carrier, they form a solution that does not settle out or separate, e.g., a homogenous solution. Formulations of these types may include an active ingredient, a carrier, and one or more other ingredients. Solutions may be used in any type of sprayer, indoors and outdoors.

In some instances, the composition may be formulated as an invert emulsion. An invert emulsion is a water-soluble active ingredient dispersed in an oil carrier. Invert emulsions require an emulsifier that allows the active ingredient to be mixed with a large volume of petroleum-based carrier, usually fuel oil. Invert emulsions aid in reducing drift. With other formulations, some spray drift results when water droplets begin to evaporate before reaching target surfaces; as a result the droplets become very small and lightweight. Because oil evaporates more slowly than water, invert emulsion droplets shrink less and more active ingredient reaches the target. Oil further helps to reduce runoff and improve rain resistance. It further serves as a sticker-spreader by improving surface coverage and absorption. Because droplets are relatively large and heavy, it is difficult to get thorough coverage on the undersides of foliage. Invert emulsions are most commonly used along rights-of-way where drift to susceptible non-target areas can be a problem.

A flowable or liquid formulation combines many of the characteristics of emulsifiable concentrates and wettable powders. Manufacturers use these formulations when the active ingredient is a solid that does not dissolve in either water or oil. The active ingredient, impregnated on a substance such as clay, is ground to a very fine powder. The powder is then suspended in a small amount of liquid. The resulting liquid product is quite thick. Flowables and liquids share many of the features of emulsifiable

concentrates, and they have similar disadvantages. They require moderate agitation to keep them in suspension and leave visible residues, similar to those of wettable powders.

Flowables/liquids are easy to handle and apply. Because they are liquids, they are subject to spilling and splashing. They contain solid particles, so they contribute to abrasive wear of nozzles and pumps. Flowable and liquid suspensions settle out in their containers. Because flowable and liquid formulations tend to settle, packaging in containers of five gallons or less makes remixing easier.

Aerosol formulations contain one or more active ingredients and a solvent. Most aerosols contain a low percentage of active ingredients. There are two types of aerosol formulations— the ready-to-use type commonly available in pressurized sealed containers and those products used in electrical or gasoline-powered aerosol generators that release the formulation as a smoke or fog. Ready to use aerosol formulations are usually small, self-contained units that release the formulation when the nozzle valve is triggered. The formulation is driven through a fine opening by an inert gas under pressure, creating fine droplets. These products are used in greenhouses, in small areas inside buildings, or in localized outdoor areas. Commercial models, which hold five to 5 pounds of active ingredient, are usually refillable.

Smoke or fog aerosol formulations are not under pressure. They are used in machines that break the liquid formulation into a fine mist or fog (aerosol) using a rapidly whirling disk or heated surface.

/ ^' / ^' . Dry or Solid Formulations

Dry formulations can be divided into two types: ready-to-use and concentrates that must be mixed with water to be applied as a spray. Most dust formulations are ready to use and contain a low percentage of active ingredients (less than about 1 0 percent by weight), plus a very fine, dry inert carrier made from talc, chalk, clay, nut hulls, or volcanic ash. The size of individual dust particles varies. A few dust formulations are concentrates and contain a high percentage of active ingredients. Mix these with dry inert carriers before applying. Dusts are always used dry and can easily drift to non-target sites.

// ^' / ^' . Granule or Pellet Formulations

In some instances, the composition is formulated as granules. Granular formulations are similar to dust formulations, except granular particles are larger and heavier. The coarse particles may be made from materials such as clay, corncobs, or walnut shells. The active ingredient either coats the outside of the granules or is absorbed into them. The amount of active ingredient may be relatively low, usually ranging from about 0.5 to about 15 percent by weight. Granular formulations are most often used to apply to the soil, insects living in the soil, or absorption into plants through the roots. Granular formulations are sometimes applied by airplane or helicopter to minimize drift or to penetrate dense vegetation. Once applied, granules may release the active ingredient slowly. Some granules require soil moisture to release the active ingredient. Granular formulations also are used to control larval mosquitoes and other aquatic pests. Granules are used in agricultural, structural, ornamental, turf, aquatic, right-of-way, and public health (biting insect) pest-control operations.

In some instances, the composition is formulated as pellets. Most pellet formulations are very similar to granular formulations; the terms are used interchangeably. In a pellet formulation, however, all the particles are the same weight and shape. The uniformity of the particles allows use with precision application equipment. iv. Powders

In some instances, the composition is formulated as a powder. In some instances, the composition is formulated as a wettable powder. Wettable powders are dry, finely ground formulations that look like dusts. They usually must be mixed with water for application as a spray. A few products, however, may be applied either as a dust or as a wettable powder— the choice is left to the applicator. Wettable powders have about 1 to about 95 percent active ingredient by weight; in some cases more than about 50 percent. The particles do not dissolve in water. They settle out quickly unless constantly agitated to keep them suspended. They can be used for most pest problems and in most types of spray equipment where agitation is possible. Wettable powders have excellent residual activity. Because of their physical properties, most of the formulation remains on the surface of treated porous materials such as concrete, plaster, and untreated wood. In such cases, only the water penetrates the material.

In some instances, the composition is formulated as a soluble powder. Soluble powder formulations look like wettable powders. However, when mixed with water, soluble powders dissolve readily and form a true solution. After they are mixed thoroughly, no additional agitation is necessary. The amount of active ingredient in soluble powders ranges from about 15 to about 95 percent by weight; in some cases more than about 50 percent. Soluble powders have all the advantages of wettable powders and none of the disadvantages, except the inhalation hazard during mixing.

In some instances, the composition is formulated as a water-dispersible granule. Water- dispersible granules, also known as dry flowables, are like wettable powders, except instead of being dust-like, they are formulated as small, easily measured granules. Water-dispersible granules must be mixed with water to be applied. Once in water, the granules break apart into fineparticles similar to wettable powders. The formulation requires constant agitation to keep it suspended in water. The percentage of active ingredient is high, often as much as 90 percent by weight. Water-dispersible granules share many of the same advantages and disadvantages of wettable powders, except they are more easily measured and mixed. Because of low dust, they cause less inhalation hazard to the applicator during handling v. Bait

In some instances, the composition includes a bait. The bait can be in any suitable form, such as a solid, paste, pellet or powdered form.The bait can also be carried away by the host back to a population of said host (e.g., a colony or hive). The bait can then act as a food source for other members of the colony, thus providing an effective modulating agent for a large number of hosts and potentially an entire host colony.

The baits can be provided in a suitable "housing" or "trap." Such housings and traps are commercially available and existing traps can be adapted to include the compositions described herein. The housing or trap can be box-shaped for example, and can be provided in pre-formed condition or can be formed of foldable cardboard for example. Suitable materials for a housing or trap include plastics and cardboard, particularly corrugated cardboard. The inside surfaces of the traps can be lined with a sticky substance in order to restrict movement of the host once inside the trap. The housing or trap can contain a suitable trough inside which can hold the bait in place. A trap is distinguished from a housing because the host cannot readily leave a trap following entry, whereas a housing acts as a "feeding station" which provides the host with a preferred environment in which they can feed and feel safe from predators. vi. Attractants

In some instances, the composition includes an attractant (e.g., a chemoattractant). The attractant may attract an adult host or immature host (e.g., larva) to the vicinity of the composition.

Attractants include pheromones, a chemical that is secreted by an animal, especially an insect, which influences the behavior or development of others of the same species. Other attractants include sugar and protein hydrolysate syrups, yeasts, and rotting meat. Attractants also can be combined with an active ingredient and sprayed onto foliage or other items in the treatment area.

Various attractants are known which influence host behavior as a host's search for food, oviposition or mating sites, or mates. Attractants useful in the methods and compositions described herein include, for example, eugenol, phenethyl propionate, ethyl dimethylisobutyl-cyclopropane carboxylate, propyl benszodioxancarboxylate, cis-7,8-epoxy-2-methyloctadecane, trans-8,trans-0- dodecadienol, cis-9-tetradecenal (with cis-1 1 -hexadecenal), trans-1 1 -tetradecenal, cis-1 1 -hexadecenal, (Z)-1 1 ,12-hexadecadienal, cis-7-dodecenyl acetate, cis-8-dodecenyul acetate, cis-9-dodecenyl acetate, cis-9-tetradecenyl acetate, cis-1 1 -tetradecenyl acetate, trans-1 1 -tetradecenyl acetate (with cis-1 1 ), cis- 9, trans-1 1 -tetradecadienyl acetate (with cis-9, trans-12), cis-9,trans-1 2-tetradecadienyl acetate, cis-7,cis- 1 1 - hexadecadienyl acetate (with cis-7, trans-1 1 ), cis-3, cis-13-octadecadienyl acetate, trans-3,cis-13- octadecadienyl acetate, anethole and isoamyl salicylate.

Means other than chemoattractants may also be used to attract insects, including lights in various wavelengths or colors. vii. Nanocapsules/Microencapsulation/Liposomes

In some instances, the composition is provided in a microencapsulated formulation.

Microencapsulated formulations are mixed with water and sprayed in the same manner as other sprayable formulations. After spraying, the plastic coating breaks down and slowly releases the active ingredient. viii. Carriers

Any of the compositions described herein may be formulated to include the modulating agent described herein and an inert carrier. Such carrier can be a solid carrier, a liquid carrier, gel carrier, and/or a gaseous carrier. In certain instances, the carrier can be a seed coating. The seed coating is any non-naturally occurring formulation that adheres, in whole or part, to the surface of the seed. The formulation may further include an adjuvant or surfactant. The formulation can also include one or more modulating agents to enlarge the action spectrum.

A solid carrier used for formulation includes finely-divided powder or granules of clay (e.g. kaolin clay, diatomaceous earth, bentonite, Fubasami clay, acid clay, etc.), synthetic hydrated silicon oxide, talc, ceramics, other inorganic minerals (e.g., sericite, quartz, sulfur, activated carbon, calcium carbonate, hydrated silica, etc.), a substance which can be sublimated and is in the solid form at room temperature (e.g., 2,4, 6-triisopropyl-1 ,3,5-trioxane, naphthalene, p-dichlorobenzene, camphor, adamantan, etc.); wool; silk; cotton; hemp; pulp; synthetic resins (e.g., polyethylene resins such as low-density polyethylene, straight low-density polyethylene and high-density polyethylene; ethylene-vinyl ester copolymers such as ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymers; ethylene-methacrylic acid ester copolymers such as ethylene-methyl methacrylate copolymers and ethylene-ethyl methacrylate copolymers; ethylene-acrylic acid ester copolymers such as ethylene-methyl acrylate copolymers and ethylene-ethyl acrylate copolymers;

ethylene-vinylcarboxylic acid copolymers such as ethylene-acrylic acid copolymers; ethylene- tetracyclododecene copolymers; polypropylene resins such as propylene homopolymers and propylene- ethylene copolymers; poly-4-methylpentene-1 , polybutene-1 , polybutadiene, polystyrene; acrylonitrile- styrene resins; styrene elastomers such as acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene resins, styrene-conjugated diene block copolymers, and styrene-conjugated diene block copolymer hydrides; fluororesins; acrylic resins such as poly(methyl methacrylate); polyamide resins such as nylon 6 and nylon 66; polyester resins such as polyethylene terephthalate, polyethylene naphthalate, polybutylene terephthalate, and polycyclohexylenedimethylene terephthalate; polycarbonates, polyacetals, polyacrylsulfones, polyarylates, hydroxybenzoic acid polyesters, polyetherimides, polyester carbonates, polyphenylene ether resins, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene chloride, polyurethane, and porous resins such as foamed polyurethane, foamed polypropylene, or foamed ethylene, etc.), glasses, metals, ceramics, fibers, cloths, knitted fabrics, sheets, papers, yarn, foam, porous substances, and multifilaments.

A liquid carrier may include, for example, aromatic or aliphatic hydrocarbons (e.g., xylene, toluene, alkylnaphthalene, phenylxylylethane, kerosine, gas oil, hexane, cyclohexane, etc.), halogenated hydrocarbons (e.g., chlorobenzene, dichloromethane, dichloroethane, trichloroethane, etc.), alcohols (e.g., methanol, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, butanol, hexanol, benzyl alcohol, ethylene glycol, etc.), ethers (e.g., diethyl ether, ethylene glycol dimethyl ether, diethylene glycol monomethyl ether, diethylene glycol monoethyl ether, propylene glycol monomethyl ether, tetrahydrofuran, dioxane, etc.), esters (e.g., ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, etc.), ketones (e.g., acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, methyl isobutyl ketone, cyclohexanone, etc.), nitriles (e.g., acetonitrile, isobutyronitrile, etc.), sulfoxides (e.g., dimethyl sulfoxide, etc.), amides (e.g., N,N-dimethylformamide, Ν,Ν-dimethylacetamide, cyclic imides (e.g. N- methylpyrrolidone) alkylidene carbonates (e.g., propylene carbonate, etc.), vegetable oil (e.g., soybean oil, cottonseed oil, etc.), vegetable essential oils (e.g., orange oil, hyssop oil, lemon oil, etc.), or water.

A gaseous carrier may include, for example, butane gas, flon gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), dimethyl ether, and carbon dioxide gas. ix. Adjuvants

In some instances, the composition provided herein may include an adjuvant. Adjuvants are chemicals that do not possess activity. Adjuvants are either pre-mixed in the formulation or added to the spray tank to improve mixing or application or to enhance performance. They are used extensively in products designed for foliar applications. Adjuvants can be used to customize the formulation to specific needs and compensate for local conditions. Adjuvants may be designed to perform specific functions, including wetting, spreading, sticking, reducing evaporation, reducing volatilization, buffering, emulsifying, dispersing, reducing spray drift, and reducing foaming. No single adjuvant can perform all these functions, but compatible adjuvants often can be combined to perform multiple functions simultaneously.

Among nonlimiting examples of adjuvants included in the formulation are binders, dispersants and stabilizers, specifically, for example, casein, gelatin, polysaccharides (e.g., starch, gum arabic, cellulose derivatives, alginic acid, etc.), lignin derivatives, bentonite, sugars, synthetic water-soluble polymers (e.g., polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyacrylic acid, etc.), PAP (acidic isopropyl phosphate), BHT (2,6-di-t-butyl-4-methylphenol), BHA (a mixture of 2-t-butyl-4-methoxyphenol and 3-t- butyl-4-methoxyphenol), vegetable oils, mineral oils, fatty acids and fatty acid esters. x. Surfactants

In some instances, the composition provided herein includes a surfactant. Surfactants, also called wetting agents and spreaders, physically alter the surface tension of a spray droplet. For a formulation to perform its function properly, a spray droplet must be able to wet the foliage and spread out evenly over a leaf. Surfactants enlarge the area of formulation coverage, thereby increasing the pest's exposure to the chemical. Surfactants are particularly important when applying a formulation to waxy or hairy leaves. Without proper wetting and spreading, spray droplets often run off or fail to cover leaf surfaces adequately. Too much surfactant, however, can cause excessive runoff and reduce efficacy.

Surfactants are classified by the way they ionize or split apart into electrically charged atoms or molecules called ions. A surfactant with a negative charge is anionic. One with a positive charge is cationic, and one with no electrical charge is nonionic. Formulation activity in the presence of a nonionic surfactant can be quite different from activity in the presence of a cationic or anionic surfactant. Selecting the wrong surfactant can reduce the efficacy of a pesticide product and injure the target plant. Anionic surfactants are most effective when used with contact pesticides (pesticides that control the pest by direct contact rather than being absorbed systemically). Cationic surfactants should never be used as standalone surfactants because they usually are phytotoxic.

Nonionic surfactants, often used with systemic pesticides, help pesticide sprays penetrate plant cuticles. Nonionic surfactants are compatible with most pesticides, and most EPA-registered pesticides that require a surfactant recommend a nonionic type. Adjuvants include, but are not limited to, stickers, extenders, plant penetrants, compatibility agents, buffers or pH modifiers, drift control additives, defoaming agents, and thickeners.

Among nonlimiting examples of surfactants included in the compositions described herein are alkyl sulfate ester salts, alkyl sulfonates, alkyl aryl sulfonates, alkyl aryl ethers and polyoxyethylenated products thereof, polyethylene glycol ethers, polyvalent alcohol esters and sugar alcohol derivatives. xi. Combinations

In formulations and in the use forms prepared from these formulations, the modulating agent may be in a mixture with other active compounds, such as pesticidal agents (e.g., insecticides, sterilants, acaricides, nematicides, molluscicides, or fungicides; see, e.g., pesticides listed in Table 12), attractants, growth-regulating substances, or herbicides. As used herein, the term "pesticidal agent" refers to any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest. A pesticide can be a chemical substance or biological agent used against pests including insects, pathogens, weeds, and microbes that compete with humans for food, destroy property, spread disease, or are a nuisance. The term "pesticidal agent" may further encompass other bioactive molecules such as antibiotics, antivirals pesticides, antifungals, antihelminthics, nutrients, pollen, sucrose, and/or agents that stun or slow insect movement.

In instances where the modulating agent is applied to plants, a mixture with other known compounds, such as herbicides, fertilizers, growth regulators, safeners, semiochemicals, or else with agents for improving plant properties is also possible. V. Delivery

A host described herein can be exposed to any of the compositions described herein in any suitable manner that permits delivering or administering the composition to the insect. The modulating agent may be delivered either alone or in combination with other active or inactive substances and may be applied by, for example, spraying, microinjection, through plants, pouring, dipping, in the form of concentrated liquids, gels, solutions, suspensions, sprays, powders, pellets, briquettes, bricks and the like, formulated to deliver an effective concentration of the modulating agent. Amounts and locations for application of the compositions described herein are generally determined by the habits of the host, the lifecycle stage at which the microorganisms of the host can be targeted by the modulating agent, the site where the application is to be made, and the physical and functional characteristics of the modulating agent. The modulating agents described herein may be administered to the insect by oral ingestion, but may also be administered by means which permit penetration through the cuticle or penetration of the insect respiratory system.

In some instances, the insect can be simply "soaked" or "sprayed" with a solution including the modulating agent. Alternatively, the modulating agent can be linked to a food component (e.g., comestible) of the insect for ease of delivery and/or in order to increase uptake of the modulating agent by the insect. Methods for oral introduction include, for example, directly mixing a modulating agent with the insect's food, spraying the modulating agent in the insect's habitat or field, as well as engineered approaches in which a species that is used as food is engineered to express a modulating agent, then fed to the insect to be affected. In some instances, for example, the modulating agent composition can be incorporated into, or overlaid on the top of, the insect's diet. For example, the modulating agent composition can be sprayed onto a field of crops which an insect inhabits.

In some instances, the composition is sprayed directly onto a plant e.g., crops, by e.g., backpack spraying, aerial spraying, crop spraying/dusting etc. In instances where the modulating agent is delivered to a plant, the plant receiving the modulating agent may be at any stage of plant growth. For example, formulated modulating agents can be applied as a seed-coating or root treatment in early stages of plant growth or as a total plant treatment at later stages of the crop cycle. In some instances, the modulating agent may be applied as a topical agent to a plant, such that the host insect ingests or otherwise comes in contact with the plant upon interacting with the plant.

Further, the modulating agent may be applied (e.g., in the soil in which a plant grows, or in the water that is used to water the plant) as a systemic agent that is absorbed and distributed through the tissues (e.g., stems or leafs) of a plant or animal host, such that an insect feeding thereon will obtain an effective dose of the modulating agent. In some instances, plants or food organisms may be genetically transformed to express the modulating agent such that a host feeding upon the plant or food organism will ingest the modulating agent.

Delayed or continuous release can also be accomplished by coating the modulating agent or a composition containing the modulating agent(s) with a dissolvable or bioerodable coating layer, such as gelatin, which coating dissolves or erodes in the environment of use, to then make the modulating agent available, or by dispersing the agent in a dissolvable or erodable matrix. Such continuous release and/or dispensing means devices may be advantageously employed to consistently maintain an effective concentration of one or more of the modulating agents described herein in a specific host habitat.

The modulating agent can also be incorporated into the medium in which the insect grows, lives, reproduces, feeds, or infests. For example, a modulating agent can be incorporated into a food container, feeding station, protective wrapping, or a hive. For some applications the modulating agent may be bound to a solid support for application in powder form or in a "trap" or "feeding station." As an example, for applications where the composition is to be used in a trap or as bait for a particular host insect, the compositions may also be bound to a solid support or encapsulated in a time-release material. For example, the compositions described herein can be administered by delivering the composition to at least one habitat where the insect grows, lives, reproduces, or feeds.

VI. Screening

Included herein are screening assays for identifying a modulating agent, wherein the modulating agent is effective to alter the microbiota of a host and thereby increase host fitness (e.g., insect fitness). For example, the screening assay may be used to identify one or more modulating agents that target specific microorganisms and/or specific hosts. Further, the screening assays may be used to identify one or more microorganisms with enhanced functionalities. For example, the screening assay may be effective to isolate one or more microorganisms with an enhanced ability to metabolize (e.g., degrade) a pesticide (e.g., insecticide, e.g., neonicotinoid) or plant allelochemical (e.g., caffeine, soyacystatin N, monoterpenes, diterpene acids, or phenolic compounds). Delivery and colonization of an isolated microorganism in the host may increase the host's resistance to the pesticide or plant allelochemical, thereby increasing host fitness. The methods may also be useful for the isolation of microorganisms with an enhanced ability to colonize any of the hosts described herein.

For example, to screen for microorganisms that increase a host's resistance to a pesticide, a starting culture may be used that includes microorganisms (e.g., bacteria) and high concentrations of a pesticide (e.g., a pesticide listed in Table 12 or a pesticide known in the art, e.g., a neonicotinoid). In some instances, the pesticide may be provided in the form of an environmental sample enriched with the pesticide (e.g., a soil sample). Alternatively, the pesticide (e.g., a pesticide listed in Table 12) may be provided in pure form or in combination with other carriers. Further, the one or more microorganism isolates may be inoculated directly into the media (e.g., from a laboratory strain) or may be an environmental sample including one or more microorganism species. The growth media may be either liquid or solid. In some instances, the pesticide of interest is the sole carbon or nitrogen source for the microorganisms in the media. The culture may be sub-cultured (e.g., inoculated into fresh media with high levels of the pesticide) any number of times to enrich for and/or isolate microbial strains (e.g., bacterial strains) capable of metabolizing the pesticide. The original culture or the subcultures may be assessed using any methods known in the art to test for alterations (e.g., decrease) in the levels of the pesticide in the sample (e.g., using HPLC). Isolates that reduce the concentration of the pesticide (e.g., a pesticide listed in Table 12 or a pesticide known in the art, e.g., neonicotinoid) may be isolated for use as a modulating agent in any of the methods or compositions described herein. The methods may be used to further select for microorganisms described herein, including those isolated from a screening assay, with an enhanced ability to colonize and survive in a host (e.g., insect). For example, a host may be inoculated with a bacterial isolate (e.g., one with the ability to degrade a pesticide). The host may then be tested at regular intervals for the presence of the bacterial isolate (e.g., via culturing or 1 6s RNA from guts isolated from the host). Bacterial isolates that survive in the host (e.g., the midgut of an insect) may be isolated for use as a modulating agent in any of the methods or compositions described herein.

Table 12. Pesticides

Aclonifen Fenchlorazole-ethyl Pendimethalin

Acetamiprid Fenothiocarb Penflufen

Alanycarb Fenitrothion Penflufen

Amidosulfuron Fenpropidin Pentachlorbenzene

Aminocyclopyrachlor Fluazolate Penthiopyrad

Amisulbrom Flufenoxuron Penthiopyrad

Anthraquinone Flumetralin Pirimiphos-methyl

Asulam, sodium salt Fluxapyroxad Prallethrin

Benfuracarb Fuberidazole Profenofos

Bensulide Glufosinate-ammonium Proquinazid

beta-HCH; beta-BCH Glyphosate Prothiofos

Bioresmethrin Group: Borax, borate salts (see Pyraclofos

Blasticidin-S Group: Paraffin oils, Mineral Pyrazachlor

Borax; disodium tetraborate Halfenprox Pyrazophos

Boric acid Imiprothrin Pyridaben

Bromoxynil heptanoate Imidacloprid Pyridalyl

Bromoxynil octanoate Ipconazole Pyridiphenthion

Carbosulfan Isopyrazam Pyrifenox

Chlorantraniliprole Isopyrazam Quinmerac

Chlordimeform Lenacil Rotenone

Chlorfluazuron Magnesium phosphide Sedaxane

Chlorphropham Metaflumizone Sedaxane

Climbazole Metazachlor Silafluofen

Clopyralid Metazachlor Sintofen

Copper (II) hydroxide Metobromuron Spinetoram

Cyflufenamid Metoxuron Sulfoxaflor

Cyhalothrin Metsulfuron-methyl Temephos

Cyhalothrin, gamma Milbemectin Thiocloprid

Decahydrate Naled Thiamethoxam

Diafenthiuron Napropamide Tolfenpyrad

Dimefuron Nicosulfuron Tralomethrin

Dimoxystrobin Nitenpyram Tributyltin compounds

Dinotefuran Nitrobenzene Tridiphane Diquat dichloride o-phenylphenol Triflumizole

Dithianon Oils Validamycin

E-Phosphamidon Oxadiargyl Zinc phosphide

EPTC Oxycarboxin

Ethaboxam Paraffin oil

Ethirimol Penconazole

EXAMPLES

The following is an example of the methods of the invention. It is understood that various other embodiments may be practiced, given the general description provided above.

Example 1 : Generation of a library of natural microbes

This Example demonstrates the isolation of bacteria from soil that naturally produce the amino acid, methionine.

The medium used for isolation of microorganisms is Starch-Casein-Nitrate agar (Starch, 10.0 g; Casein, 0.003 g; KN0 ₃ , 0.02 g; NaCI, 0.02 g; MgSC , 0.5 mg; CaCOs, 0.2 mg; FeSC , 0.1 mg; Agar, 12.0 g; H2O, 1 L; pH 7.0) (Kuster and Williams, 1964). Each environmental soil sample (1 .0 g) is suspended in 9 ml of sterile water, and 1 ml of the suspension is serially diluted ten-fold in sterile distilled water. One milliliter of the 10 ⁵ dilution is inoculated onto the agar medium and incubated for 7 days at 30°C. At the end of this period, the plates are observed for growth. White discrete and leathery colonies are picked and grown on new Starch-Casein-Nitrate agar plates to create a library of isolates. After 7 days of growth at 30 °C, the plates are kept at 4°C.

Example 2: Screen for isolates that produce methionine

This Example demonstrates the screening assay of isolates from Example 1 that naturally produce the amino acid, methionine.

Screening for methionine production:

A modified basal medium (K2HPO4, 0.3 g; KH2PO4, 0.7 g; Na ₂ C0 ₃ , 1 .0 g; CaCI ₂ , 5.0 mg; MgS0 ₄ , 0.3 g ; FeS04, 1 .0 mg; H2O, 1 L) containing sucrose (20.0 g) and NhUCI (10.0 g) is used for fermentation (Chay, B.P., Galvez, F.C.F., and Padolina, W.G.P.U.L.B.P. (1992). Methionine production by batch fermentation from various carbohydrates. ASEAN Food Journal (Malaysia)). The pH of the medium is 7.2.

Culture conditions: Two loops of the 7 day isolate culture of Example 1 are inoculated into a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask containing 30 ml of the fermentation medium. Methionine production is assayed after incubation of the flask for 5 days on a rotary shaker (160 rpm) at 30 °C. Duplicate flasks are prepared and non-inoculated flasks served as control in all experiments.

The presence of methionine in the culture broths of the isolates is examined by paper chromatography following a modified method of Khanna and Nag (Khanna et al., "Production of amino acids in vitro tissue culture," Indian Journal of Experimental Biology (1973)). The broth culture is centrifuged at 5000 x g for 20 min and 2 μΙ_ of the supernatant is applied 1 .5 cm above one edge of Whatman No.1 filter paper, with dimensions of 18 cm x 22 cm. 1 μΙ_ of volume of a standard methionine solution (0.1 mg/mL) is applied alongside with the supernatant, and the chromatogram is developed in a solvent mixture of n-butanol, acetic acid and water (4: 1 : 1 ) for 18 h. The chromatogram is air-dried at room temperature, sprayed with 0.1 5% ninhydrin solution in butanol and dried again before heating at 60°C for 5 min in an oven. The value of the ninhydrin-positive spot (bluish-violet) of the supernatant that corresponds with the value of the standard methionine solution indicates presence of methionine in the broth culture. The concentration of methionine produced in the broth culture of the isolate is estimated as follows. The ninhydrin-positive spot of the supernatant of the isolate on the chromatogram is eluted in 10% ethanol and the spectrophotometric reading of the eluate at 520 nm recorded. The methionine concentration in the supernatant is determined from a standard curve. A plot of the values of optical densities against varying concentrations (0.1 to 0.9 mg/ml) of a methionine solution serve as the standard methionine curve.

Isolates that produce methionine are kept on fresh agar plates and a stock solution is created by suspending two loopfuls of microorganism in an aliquot of 50% glycerol solution.

Example 3: Administration of methionine producing isolates to increase of crickets' amino acid content

This example demonstrates the ability to treat crickets with methionine producing bacteria to improve their nutritional content.

The world's appetite for meat is growing, and the production of animal feed is an increasing strain on land and water. Insects could provide much of the protein animals need at a much lower

environmental cost; many insect species can feed on manure, like Grant's maggots, or other types of organic waste, such as leftover food, offal, and grains discarded by breweries. Insects produce body mass at an astonishing rate, in part because as cold-blooded animals they don't expend energy on regulating their body temperature. Crickets, e.g., Acheta domesticus, need only 1 .7 kilograms of feed to gain a kilogram of body weight; a typical U.S. chicken consumes 2.5 kilograms, pigs 5 kilograms, and cattle 10 kilograms. Another advantage: most insects can be eaten whole. Only about half of a chicken or a pig is edible; for a cow the fraction is even less. As a result, raising a kilogram of insect protein produces less CO2 than rearing pigs or cattle, and takes up only one-tenth the land.

Insect meal could replace between 25% and 1 00% of soymeal or fishmeal in the animals' diets with no adverse effects, but most insect meals are deficient in the amino acids methionine and lysine. Synthetic production of methionine requires hazardous chemicals and its use is banned in organic farming. By introducing methionine-producing bacteria into the crickets' microbiome, crickets are expected to naturally increase their nutritional content.

Therapeutic design: Isolated bacteria identified as methionine producing from the Example 2, are formulated with a solution of 10 ⁷ cells/mL mixed with the feeding substrate, e.g., poultry starter feed and rice bran (Poultry Feed-PF), for crickets. Experimental design:

The experimental units in which the crickets are bred are modified gaylord shipping boxes, which have the footprint of standard international shipping pallets (1 .2m (L) x 1 .0m (W) x 0.61 m (H)). The interior of each enclosure is lined with a 4mm clear plastic liner and covered with 122cm x 137cm of nylon mosquito netting to serve as a physical barrier to entrance or exit. To prevent cannibalism and stress- related mortality, 96 egg cartons, 30 cm x 30 cm in size, are placed on-edge around the periphery of each box. This provides approximately 172800 cm ² of crawl-able surface area. Access to water is provided by 2 quart-sized poultry water dispensers with cotton and gravel inserted in the dispensing basin to prevent the drowning of newly hatched nymphs. Sides of the water dispensers are sanded to provide purchase for the crickets to crawl vertically. Misting tips with check valves to prevent dripping are affixed at the top interior of each enclosure. To maintain acceptable humidity and provide a dispersed, alternative water source for the large population of crickets, these tips provided pulses of water aimed at the center of the enclosure at automated intervals. Temperature (T) and relative humidity (RH) within the greenhouse are maintained at 29.0 ± 2.1 standard deviation (SD) °C and 67.2 ± 14.7 SD %, respectively, over the course of the experiment. Light is provided 24 hr/day.

An egg substrate from Timberline Fisheries (http://timberlinefresh.com) consisting of approximately 50,000 Acheta domesticus eggs with a hatch rate of 70% is placed into each of the enclosures. The egg substrate is maintained between 80-90% humidity until they hatch. Once hatching is observed, the substrate is misted twice daily until the nymphs fully emerge. Population growth is monitored every 3 to 4 days by counting and weighing a random sample of 70 individuals from each experimental unit.

From 14 days after hatching until they are either harvested or experienced complete mortality, Acheta domesticus populations are administered the following: 2 feed treatments ad libitum: 1 ) a 5:1 ratio of non-medicated poultry starter feed and rice bran (Poultry Feed-PF), as control; 2) a 5:1 ratio of non- medicated poultry starter feed and rice bran (Poultry Feed-PF) sprayed with 100 mL of a solution of 10 ⁹ cells/ml of the isolated bacteria described in Example 2 diluted in growth medium described herein.

Once a week for five weeks of culture, the insects are harvested. The insects are stored for half an hour in the freezer at -50°C. Next, the frozen insects are submerged in liquid nitrogen and subsequently grinded using a blender for 15 minutes (Braun Multiquick 5, 600 W, Kronberg, Germany). Amino acid composition of freeze-dried insect powder is analyzed using ion exchange chromatography, following the International standard ISO 13903:2005 following the technique of Yi, L. et al. (2013).

Crickets fed with the methionine producing microbes identified in Example 2 are expected to contain more methionine content than crickets fed the control feed. Example 4: Administration of methionine producing strains of bacteria to Drosophila

melanogaster raised on methionine deficient food to increase their body mass, development rate, and survival

This example demonstrates the ability to treat Drosophila melanogaster raised on methionine poor diet with methionine producing bacteria to increase the body mass, development rate, and survival. This experimental design is also applicable to increase the nutritional content of other insects such as crickets which can be used to produce animal feed rich in methionine.

Experimental design:

Bacterial strains isolated in Example 2 that produce methionine, as well as the strains that do not produce methionine are grown in nutrient broth at 30 °C.

Chemically defined (CD) fly food is prepared as described in Nature, Vol. 1 1 , No. 1 , 100-105, 2014. CD food is prepared that lacks methionine, and is referred to as CD-M. The fly food formulations are used for all experiments described in this Example.

Development rate and body mass assays

On day one, 10 ⁹ of the methionine producing bacteria as described in Example 1 , or bacteria that do not produce methionine (control), are resuspended in 100 μΙ of phosphate-buffered saline and added to CD-M fly food. These two cohorts are left to dry for 24 hrs at 25 °C.

On day two, fertilized embryos collected from flies are treated with 2% hypochlorite solution for 5 min and then washed with sterile water to remove any extracellular microbes from the embryos. 10μΙ of the embryo suspension in water (1 :3 embryo :water suspension) is added to both the bacterial-seeded and control samples. The fly food cohorts with the embryos is maintained at 25 °C with 12h light and 12 dark cycle for the rest of the experiment.

The time to puparium formation and the number of pupa formed is measured in each cohort. The time to adult emergence and the rate of emergence is measured in each sample. From the time the first adult emerges from the pupa, the number of emerging adult flies is counted every 12 hours and rate of emergence is computed.

For the body mass assay, ten larvae are collected from both cohorts and their weights, areas, and the total protein content are measured.

Embryos in the CD-M fly food seeded with methionine producing bacteria identified in Example 2 are expected to develop faster and have higher protein content than the embryos on CD-M fly food with non-methionine producing bacteria. Survival assay

12 days before day one, sterile embryos are generated as described previously and raised on sterile CD fly food. Sterile adults start to emerge from their pupae 1 1 days from the time the embryos are collected when raised at 25 °C with 12 h light and 12 h dark cycle.

On day one, 10 ⁹ of the methionine producing bacteria, or bacteria that do not produce methionine (control), are resuspended in 100 μΙ phosphate-buffered saline and added to CD-M fly food. These two cohorts are left to dry for 24 hrs at 25 °C.

10 newly emerged sterile adult males and females are introduced to CD-M fly food with methionine producing bacteria or control on day two of the experiment. The fly food with the flies is maintained at 25 °C with 12h light and 12 dark cycle for the rest of the experiment. The number of surviving male and female flies are counted every day until all the flies are dead. Survival analysis are performed to assess the fitness benefit of the methionine producing bacteria on fly survival.

Flies raised on CD-M fly food seeded with methionine producing microbes identified in Example 2 are expected to survive longer than the control.

Example 5: Isolation of microorganisms that degrade fenitrothion, an organophosphorus insecticide

This Example demonstrates the acquisition of a library of microorganisms able to degrade fenitrothion, an organophosphorus insecticide.

Experimental design

Soil samples are obtained from various regions where fenitrothion was previously utilized for insect control. Fenitrothion degrading bacteria will be isolated from the soil samples as described in (Microbes Environ. Vol. 21 , No. 1 , 58-64, 2006). Briefly, 1 g of the soil sample is mixed thoroughly with 9 ml of sterile distilled water. The soil particles are then centrifuged at 1000 rcf for 5 min, and 100μΙ of the supernatant is then plated onto fenitrothion with mineral salts medium (0.4 g/l of yeast extract, 0.4 g/l fenitrothion, 15 g/l bacteriological agar). The plates are cloudy when prepared as the fenitrothion is an emulsion.

Colonies that develop clear zones around them and are likely to be degrading or metabolizing fenitrothion, and these colonies are isolated and regrown on LB agar, nutrient agar, yeast glucose agar, TSA agar, BHI agar, or MRS agar. Once unique bacterial colonies are identified, their genomes are extracted using a genomic DNA extraction kit, (Qiagen, DNeasy Blood and Tissue Kit) as per the manufacturer's protocol.

The 16S rRNA gene is amplified using universal bacterial primers 27F

(5'-AGAGTTTGATCMTGGCTCAG-3'; SEQ ID NO: 227) and 1492R (5'-TACCTTGTTACGACTT-3'; SEQ ID NO: 228), and using PCR conditions of 94 °C for 2 min, 30 cycles of 94 ^< € for 1 min, 56°C for 1 min, and 72°C for 2 min, and a final extension of 72°C for 5min. Gel electrophoresis is used to confirm that the amplicons are of the correct size (~1 500 bp), and the products are excised from the gel and purified using a gel extraction kit (Qiagen, QIAquick) as per the manufacturer's protocol. The correct size amplicons are Sanger sequenced and BLAST is used to match the sequence against various repositories of 16s rRNA gene sequences to identify the bacteria.

To determine whether the isolated bacteria is degrading fenitrothion, ~1 0 ⁷ bacterial cells are incubated in 1 ml of 20mM sodium-potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7) with 1 mM fenitrothion, as described in PNAS, Vol. 109, No. 22, 8618-8622, 2012. After 30 min of incubation at SO , the reaction is stopped by adding an equal volume of methanol. Then fenitrothion and its metabolite, 3-methyl-4- nitrophenol, are analyzed by HPLC. The retention times and peak areas of the HPLC profiles are compared to known standards.

Unique bacterial isolates that have fenitrothion degrading capabilities are then stored as frozen glycerol at -80 °C. Example 6: Increasing Drosophila melanogaster's resistance to fenitrothion through the administration of fenitrothion-degrading bacteria

This Example demonstrates the ability to produce an insect model, Drosophila melanogaster, that is resistant to one or more negative effects of insecticides in their diet, more specifically fenitrothion, to produce a more robust insect. The following approach is a surrogate for other insects, such as crickets or other insects disclosed herein, e.g., insect sources useful to produce animal feed rich in protein. Many insecticides including fenitrothion have been shown to be toxic to crickets.

Experimental design:

Therapeutic design: The bacterial isolates selected in Example 5 are formulated at 10 ⁹ organisms in 100 μΙ of fly food medium with and without fenitrothion.

The media used to rear flies is cornmeal, molasses and yeast medium (1 1 g/l yeast, 54 g/l yellow cornmeal, 5 g/l agar, 66 ml/l molasses, and 4.8 ml/l propionic acid). For experimental procedures, fenitrothion at 0, 1 0, and 100 p. p.m. or phosphate-buffered saline as negative controls are infused into sterile fly food medium.

Development rate assay

On day one, 10 ⁹ fenitrothion-degrading bacteria described in Example 5 are suspended in 1 00 μΙ phosphate-buffered saline or equal volumes of saline (negative controls) are added to sterile fly food medium with or without fenitrothion. All are left to dry for a day at 25°C as described in Appl. Environ. Microbiol. Vol. 82, No. 20, 6204-6213, 2016.

On day two, fertilized embryos collected from flies are treated with 2% hypochlorite solution for 5 min and then washed with sterile water to remove any extracellular microbes from the embryos. 10μΙ of the embryo suspension in water (1 :3 embryo :water suspension) is added to the bacteria-seeded or negative control fly food with or without the fenitrothion. The fly food cohorts with the embryos are maintained at 25 °C with 12h light and 12 dark cycle for the rest of the experiment.

The time to puparium formation and the number of pupa formed is measured in each cohort. The time to adult emergence and the rate of emergence is measured in each sample. From the time the first adult emerges from the pupa, the number of emerging adult flies are counted every 12 hours and rate of emergence is computed.

Embryos in the fenitrothion infused fly food seeded with Fenitrothion-degrading bacteria are expected to develop faster than the the embryos on fenitrothion infused food without the fenitrothion- degrading bacteria. Survival assay

About 12 days before day one, sterile embryos are generated as described previously and raised on sterile fly food. Adults start to emerge from their pupae 1 1 days from embryo collection when raised in sterile fly food without fenitrothion at 25°C with 12 h light and 12 h dark cycle.

On day one, 10 ⁹ of the fenitrothion-degrading bacteria in phosphate-buffered saline are added to sterile fly food medium as described in a previous Example. On day two, 10 newly emerged sterile adult males and females are introduced to bacteria-seeded or negative control fly food with or without fenitrothion. The fly food with the flies is maintained at 25 °C with 12h light and 12 dark cycle for the rest of the experiment. The number of surviving male and female flies are counted every day until all the flies are dead. Survival analysis is performed to assess the fitness benefit of fenitrothion-degrading bacteria on the fly survival.

Flies raised on fenitrothion infused fly food seeded with fenitrothion-degrading bacteria are expected to survive longer than flies raised on fenitrothion infused food without the fenitrothion-degrading bacteria. Example 7: Elimination of entomopathogenic bacteria from Drosophila melanogaster using naturally occurring phages

This Example demonstrates the ability to eliminate insect bacterial pathogens (such as Serratia marcescens, Erwinia carotovora, and Pseudomonas entomophila) from Drosophila melanogaster using naturally occurring phages. This procedure can be useful as a surrogate assay for eliminating bacteria in other insect species, such as in bees.

Experimental design:

Therapeutic design: Phage library collections are used having the following phage families: Myoviridae, Siphoviridae, Podoviridae, Lipothrixviridae, Rudiviridae, Ampullaviridae, Bicaudaviridae, Clavaviridae, Corticoviridae, Cystoviridae, Fuselloviridae, Gluboloviridae, Guttaviridae, Inoviridae, Leviviridae, Microviridae, Plasmaviridae, Tectiviridae.

Multiple environmental samples (soil, pond sediments, and sewage water) are collected in sterile 1 L flasks over a period of 2 weeks and are immediately processed after collection and stored thereafter at 4 °C. Solid samples are homogenized in sterile double-strength difco luria broth (LB) or tryptic soy broth (TSB) supplemented with 2mM CaCI2 to a final volume of 10OmL. The pH and phosphate levels are measured using phosphate test strips. For purification, all samples are centrifuged at 3000-6000 g for 10-1 5 min at 4 °C, and filtered through 0.2-μιτι low protein filters to remove all remaining bacterial cells. The supernatant that contains the phage library is then stored at 4 °C in the presence of chloroform in a glass bottle.

20-30 ml of the phage library is diluted to a volume of 30-40 ml with LB-broth. The target bacterial strain (e.g., Serratia marcescens, Erwinia carotovora, and Pseudomonas entomophila) is added (50-200 μΙ overnight culture grown in LB-broth) to enrich phages that target this specific bacterial strain in the culture. This culture is incubated overnight at 37 °C, shaken at 230 rpm. Bacteria from this enrichment culture are removed by centrifugation (3000-6000 g 15-20 min, 4 °C) and filtered (0.2 or 0.45 μιη filter). 2.5 ml of the bacteria free culture is added to 2.5 ml of LB-broth and 50-100 μΙ of the target bacteria are added back to the culture to further enrich the phages. The enrichment culture is grown overnight as above. A sample from this enrichment culture is centrifuged at 13,000 g for 15 min at room temperature and 10 μΙ of the supernatant is plated on an LB-agar petri dish along with 100-300 μΙ of the target bacteria and 3 ml of melted 0.7% soft-agar. The plates are incubated overnight at 37 °C. Each of the plaques observed on the bacterial lawn are picked and transferred into 500 μΙ of LB- broth. A sample from this plaque-stock is further plated on the target bacteria. Plaque-purification is performed three times for all discovered phages in order to isolate a single homogenous phage from the heterogeneous phage mix.

Lysates from plates with high-titer phages (>1 x 10 ^Λ 10 PFU/ml) are prepared by harvesting overlay plates of a host bacterium strain exhibiting confluent lysis. After being flooded with 5 ml of buffer, the soft agar overlay is macerated, clarified by centrifugation, and filter sterilized. The resulting lysates are stored at 4"C. High-titer phage lysates are further purified by isopycnic CsCI centrifugation, as described in Summer et al., J. Bacteriol. 192:179-190, 2010.

DNA is isolated from CsCI-purified phage suspensions as described in Summer, Methods Mol.

Biol. 502:27-46, 2009. An individual isolated phage is sequenced as part of two pools of phage genomes by using a 454 pyrosequencing method. Briefly, phage genomic DNA is mixed in equimolar amounts to a final concentration of about 100 ng/L. The pooled DNA is sheared, ligated with a multiplex identifier (MID) tag specific for each of the pools, and sequenced by pyrosequencing using a full-plate reaction on a sequencer (Roche) according to the manufacturer's protocols. The pooled phage DNA is present in two sequencing reactions. The output corresponding to each of the pools is assembled individually by using software (454 Life Sciences), by adjusting the settings to include only reads with a single MID per assembly. The identity of individual contigs is determined by PCR using primers generated against contig sequences and individual phage genomic DNA preparations as the template. Sequence software (Gene Codes Corporation) is used for sequence assembly and editing.

Phage chromosomal end structures are determined experimentally. Cohesive (cos) ends for phages are determined by sequencing off the ends of the phage genome and sequencing the PCR products derived by amplification through the ligated junction of circularized genomic DNA, as described in Summer, Methods Mol. Biol. 502:27-46, 2009. Protein-coding regions are initially predicted using gene prediction software (Lukashin et al. Nucleic Acids Res. 26:1 107-1 1 15, 1998), refined through manual analysis in Artemis (Rutherford et al., Bioinformatics 16:944-945, 2000), and analyzed through the use of BLAST (E value cutoff of 0.005) (Camacho et al., BMC Bioinformatics 10:421 , 2009). Proteins of particular interest are additionally analyzed by sequence searching software (Hunter et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 40:D306-D312, 2012).

Electron microscopy of CsCI-purified phage (>1 χ10 ^Λ 1 1 PFU/ml) that lysed the Drosophila's pathogenic bacterial species is performed by diluting phage stock with the tryptic soy broth buffer.

Phages are applied onto thin 400-mesh carbon-coated grids, stained with 2% (wt/vol) uranyl acetate, and air dried. Specimens are observed on a transmission electron microscope operating at an acceleration voltage of 100 kV. Five virions of each phage are measured to calculate mean values and standard deviations for dimensions of capsid and tail, where appropriate. Incorporating phages into a meal

The media used to rear flies is cornmeal, molasses and yeast medium (1 1 g/l yeast, 54 g/l yellow cornmeal, 5 g/l agar, 66 ml/l molasses, and 4.8 ml/l propionic acid). Phage solutions are infused into the fly food to obtain final concentrations of phages between 0 and 10 ⁸ pfu/ml.

S. Marcescens, Erwinia carotovora, and Pseudomonas entomphila bacteria are grown at 30 °C in nutrient broth or LB broth.

Sterile fly embryos are generated by treating fertilized embryos collected from flies with 2% hypochlorite solution for 5 min and then washed with sterile water to remove any extracellular microbes. Fly larvae with the target bacteria are generated by seeding 1 0 ⁹ CFUs of bacteria in sterile fly food and adding sterile fly embryos to this food. After 2 days, ten S. marcescens infected first instar fly larvae are added to the fly food with a range (0-10 ⁸ pfu/ml) of the phage concentrations. The larvae are left to grow in the food with the phages for 3 days until they become third instars. The larvae are then collected and individually homogenized in nutrient broth or LB broth, and plated on nutrient agar or LB agar plates, and incubated at 30°C. The number of CFUs of S. marcescens obtained from larvae in fly food with varying phage concentrations are recorded. This shows the number of live bacteria that were present in the flies.

The number of live bacteria are expected to be reduced in the larvae grown on fly food with the phages against the bacteria.

Example 8: Administration of amino acid producing strain of bacteria to Drosophiia meianogaster through diet to increase their development rate

This Example demonstrates the ability to treat the insect Drosophiia meianogaster with amino acid producing bacteria to improve their nutritional content. This experimental design can be extended to reduce the growth time and produce more biomass of other insects, such as crickets, which can be used to produce animal feed rich in protein.

The world's appetite for meat is growing, and the production of animal feed is an increasing strain on land and water. Insects could provide much of the protein humans and animals need at a much lower environmental cost; many insect species can feed on manure, like Grant's maggots, or other types of organic waste, such as leftover food, offal, and grains discarded by breweries. Insects produce body mass at an astonishing rate, in part because as cold-blooded animals they don't expend energy on regulating their body temperature. Crickets, e.g., Acheta domesticus, need only 1 .7 kilograms of feed to gain a kilogram of body weight; a typical U.S. chicken consumes 2.5 kilograms, pigs 5 kilograms, and cattle 10 kilograms. Another advantage: most insects can be eaten whole. Only about half of a chicken or a pig is edible; for a cow the fraction is even less. As a result, raising a kilogram of insect protein produces less CO2 than rearing pigs or cattle, and takes up only one-tenth the land. Insect meal could replace between 25% and 1 00% of soymeal or fishmeal in animals' diets with no adverse effects. However, most insect meals are deficient in the amino acids methionine and lysine. Synthetic production of methionine requires hazardous chemicals and its use is banned in organic farming. In this Example, the introduction of methionine-producing bacteria into an insect's microbiome naturally increased their nutritional content.

Therapeutic design:

Isolated bacteria Corynebacterium glutamicum that are glutamate or methionine producing, are formulated with a solution of 109 colony forming units (CFUs) mixed to the feeding substrate for

Drosophila flies.

Experimental design:

Corynebacterium glutamicum strains that produce glutamate or methionine were grown in nutrient broth at SO .

The media used to rear flies is cornmeal, molasses and yeast medium (1 1 g/l yeast, 54 g/l yellow cornmeal, 5 g/l agar, 66 ml/l molasses, and 4.8 ml/l propionic acid). All the components of the diet except propionic acid are heated together to 80 °C in deionized water with constant mixing for 30 minutes and let to cool to 60°C. Propionic acid is then mixed in and 50ml of the diet is aliquoted into individual bottles and allowed to cool down and solidify. The flies are raised at 26°C, 16:8 hour light:dark cycle, at around 60% humidity.

For the experimental setup to measure the larval growth rate, defined diet was used (Piper et al., 2014, Nature Methods). Defined diet eliminates the effects of batch to batch variation in the ingredients used for the cornmeal based diet. In addition, the defined diet allows for the exclusion of individual components to test their effects on fly development.

Development rate assay

On day one, 100 ul of a Corynebacterium glutamicum suspension in nutrient broth consisting of 10 ⁹ colony forming units (CFUs) were added to five replicates of fly food. As controls, nutrient broth without the bacteria was added to five more bottles of fly food. Fertilized embryos collected from fruit flies were treated with 2% hypochlorite solution for five minutes and then washed with sterile water to remove any extracellular microbes from the embryos. 10ul of the embryo suspension in water (one:three embryo:water suspension) was added to all the bacteria seeded and control fly food bottles. The fly food with the embryos was maintained at 26 °C, 16:8 hour light:dark cycle, at around 60% humidity for the rest of the experiment. The time to adult emergence and the rate of emergence was measured in every replicate. From the time the first adult emerges from the pupa, the number of adult flies emerging was counted every 12 hours and rate of emergence was be computed.

Larval mass assay

To test whether the presence of bacteria producing amino acids can increase the body mass of developing larvae when raised on defined diet, we produced larvae that are axenic, and mono-associated with a single strain of bacterium. For these assays, three different bacteria were used, Corynebacterium glutamicum - a strain that produces glutamate, Corynebacterium glutamicum - a strain that produces methionine, and E. coli.

First, axenic embryos were generated. Fertilized embryos were collected from fruit flies over a 6 hour period on grape juice agar plates with yeast. To eliminate any bacterial contamination, the embryos were treated with 2% hypochlorite solution for five minutes and then washed thrice with sterile water. One volume of embryos was then suspended in 3 volumes of water.

The defined diet was aliquoted into vials and nine replicates were used for every condition being tested. The conditions were:

1 . No bacteria added to the food

2. Food containing C. glutamicum, strain that produces glutamate (C.glu-Glu)

3. Food containing C. glutamicum, a strain that produces methionine (C.glu-Met)

4. Food containing E. coli

To each vial of the food that were in conditions 2, 3, and 4, 10Oul of overnight stationary phase cultures was added.

To each of the nine replicates in every condition, 10ul of the sterile embryo+water suspension was added. The vials were then incubated at 26°C, 60% humidity, 1 6:8 light:dark cycle.

After 13 days, 10-15 randomly chosen larvae from each replicate were sampled, and their areas were measured, as a proxy to their biomass and weight. The larvae were scooped out from the food with a sterile spatula, rinsed in water to clean the food from their bodies, and an image of every larvae sampled was acquired individually for every replicate in each condition. An Image J script was used to identify, outline and measure the area of the larva in every image.

Amino acid producing bacteria treatment increases insect development rate.

Embryos that developed on diet that was seeded with the amino acid producing strain of bacterium reached adulthood significantly faster than those that were raised on the sterile diet (Fig. 1 ). Further, this effect was slightly stronger in female flies than in male files (Figs. 2A and 2B).

Amino acid producing bacteria treatment increases larval body mass.

Larvae from the diet supplemented with C. glu-Met had the largest body size on average, followed by those in diet with C.glu-Glu, E.coli, and no bacteria (Fig. 3). This shows that augmenting the diet of insects with bacteria that produce amino acids produced insect biomass faster than un- supplemented diet.

Together this data demonstrates that augmenting the diet of insects with bacteria that were capable of producing amino acids produced insect biomass faster than un-supplemented diet. Extending this to other insects such as crickets, supplementing their diet with bacteria that are capable of producing methionine can increase their biomass and protein content. Example 9: Insects treated with a solution of purified phage

This Example demonstrates the isolation and purification of phages from environmental samples that targeted specific insect bacteria. This Example also demonstrates the efficacy of isolated phages against the target bacteria in vitro by plaque assays, by measuring their oxygen consumption rate, and the extracellular acidification rate. Finally, this Example demonstrates the efficacy of the phages in vivo, by measuring the ability of the phage to the target bacteria from flies by treating them with a phage isolated against the bacteria. This Eample demonstrates that a pathogenic bacterium that decreased the fitness of an insect can be cleared using a phage to target the bacteria. Specifically, Serratia marcescens which is a pathogenic bacterium in flies can be cleared with the use of a phage that was isolated from garden compost.

There are several beneficial and commercially useful insects that are affected by naturally occurring bacterial pathogens.

Experimental design

Isolation of specific bacteriophages from natural samples:

Bacteriophages against target bacteria were isolated from environmental source material. Briefly, a saturated culture of Serratia marcescens was diluted into fresh double-strength tryptic soy broth (TSB) and grown for -120 minutes to early log-phase at 24-26 °C, or into double-strength Luria-Bertani (LB) broth and grown for -90 min at 37°C. Garden compost was prepared by homogenization in PBS and sterilized by 0.2 μηη filtration. Raw sewage was sterilized by 0.2 μιτι filtration. One volume of filtered source material was added to log-phase bacterial cultures and incubation was continued for 24 h.

Enriched source material was prepared by pelleting cultures and filtering supernatant fluid through 0.45 μιτι membranes.

Phages were isolated by plating samples onto double-agar bacterial lawns. Stationary bacterial cultures were combined with molten 0.6% agar LB or TSB and poured onto 1 .5% agar LB or TSB plates. After solidification, 2.5 μί of phage sample dilutions were spotted onto the double-agar plates and allowed to absorb. Plates were then wrapped and incubated overnight at 25 °C (TSA) or 37°C (LB), then assessed for the formation of visible plaques. Newly isolated plaques were purified by serial passaging of individual plaques on the target strain by picking plaques into SM Buffer (50 mM Tris-HCI [pH 7.4], 10 mM MgS04, 1 00 mM NaCI) and incubating for 15 min at 55°C, then repeating the double-agar spotting method from above using the plaque suspension.

Bacteriophages were successfully isolated from both sewage and compost, as detailed above. Plaque formation was clearly evident after spotting samples onto lawns of the S. marcescens bacteria used for the enrichments.

Passaging, quantification, and propagation of bacteriophages:

Propagation and generation of phage lysates for use in subsequent experiments was performed using bacteriophages isolated and purified as above. Briefly, saturated bacterial cultures were diluted 100-fold into fresh medium and grown for 60-120 minutes to achieve an early-logarithmic growth state for effective phage infection. Phage suspensions or lysates were added to early log phase cultures and incubation was continued until broth clearing, indicative of phage propagation and bacterial lysis, was observed, or until up to 24 h post-infection. Lysates were harvested by pelleting cells at 7,197 x g for 20 min, then filtering the supernatant fluid through 0.45 or 0.2 μιτι membranes. Filtered lysates were stored at 4°C.

Enumeration of infective phage particles was performed using the double-agar spotting method.

Briefly, a 1 :1 0 dilution series of samples was performed in PBS and dilutions were spotted onto solidified double-agar plates prepared with the host bacteria as above. Plaque-forming units (PFU) were counted after overnight incubation to determine the approximate titer of samples. In vitro analysis of isolated phages measuring bacterial respiration:

A Seahorse XFe96 Analyzer (Agilent) was used to measure the effects of phages on bacteria by monitoring oxygen consumption rate (OCR) and extracellular acidification rate (ECAR) during infection. XFe96 plates were coated the day prior to experiments by 15 μΙ_ of a 1 mg/mL poly-L-lysine stock per well and dried overnight at 28 °C and XFe96 probes were equilibrated by placing into wells containing 200 μΙ_ of XF Calibrant and incubating in the dark at room temperature. The following day, poly-L-lysine coated plates were washed twice with ddH20. Saturated overnight cultures of E. coli BL21 (LB, 37°C) or S. marcescens (TSB, 25 °C) were subcultured at 1 :100 into the same media and grown with aeration for -2.5 h at 30°C. Cultures were then diluted to O.D.600nm - 0.02 using the same media. Treatments were prepared by diluting stocks into SM Buffer at 10x final concentration and loading 20 μΙ_ of the 10x solutions into the appropriate injection ports of the probe plate. While the probes were equilibrating in the XFe96 Flux Analyzer, bacterial plates were prepared by adding 90 μΙ_ of bacterial suspensions or media controls and spun at 3,000 rpm for 10 min. Following centrifugation, an additional 90 μΙ_ of the appropriate media were added gently to the wells so as not to disturb bacterial adherence, bringing the total volume to 180 μΙ_ per well.

The XFe96 Flux Analyzer was run at ~30°C, following a Mix, Wait, Read cycling of 1 :00, 0:30,

3:00. Four cycles were completed to permit equilibration/normalization of bacteria, then the 20 μΙ_ treatments were injected and cycling continued as above, for a total time of approximately 6 h. Data were analyzed using the Seahorse XFe96 Wave software package.

The effects of isolated bacteriophages were assayed by measuring oxygen consumption rate (OCR) and extracellular acidification rate (ECAR) of bacteria with a Seahorse XFe96 Analyzer. When E. coli was infected with phage T7 and S. marcescens infected with the newly isolated 0SmVL-C1 , dramatic decreases in OCR were observed following brief bursts in this rate (Fig. 4). For both phages with both host organisms, the Seahorse assay permitted the detection of successful phage infection without the need for plaque assays. Thus, this method is applicable for detecting phage infection of a host organism not amenable to traditional phage detection methods.

SYBR Gold transduction assay for infection identification:

Bacteriophage preparations were prepared for staining by pretreating with nucleases to remove extraviral nucleic acids that could interfere with fluorescent signal interpretation. Briefly, MgCI2 was added to 10 mL of phage lysate at 10 mM final concentration, and RNase A (Qiagen) and DNase I (Sigma) were both added to final concentrations of 10 μg/mL. Samples were incubated for 1 h at room temperature. After nuclease treatment, 5 mL of lysates were combined with 1 μΙ_ of SYBR Gold (Thermo, 10,000x) and incubated at room temperature for ~1 .5 h. Excess dye was subsequently removed from samples using Amicon ultrafiltration columns. Briefly, Amicon columns (15 mL, 10k MWCO) were washed by adding 1 0 mL of SM Buffer and spinning at 5,000 x g, 4°C for 5 min. Labeled phage samples were then spun through the columns at 5,000 x g, 4°C until the volume had decreased by approximately 10-fold (15-30 min). To wash samples, 5 mL SM Buffer was added to each reservoir and the spin repeated, followed by two additional washes. After the third wash, the retained samples were pipetted out from the Amicon reservoirs and brought up to approximately 1 mL using SM Buffer. To remove larger contaminants, washed and labeled phage samples were spun at 10,000 x g for 2 min, and the supernatants were subsequently filtered through 0.2 μιτι membranes into black microtubes and stored at 4°C.

Saturated bacterial cultures (E. co// ^' MG1655 grown in LB at 37°C, S. marcescens and

S. symbiotica grown in TSB at 26°C) were prepared by spinning down 1 mL aliquots and washing once with 1 mL PBS before a final resuspension using 1 mL PBS. Positive control labeled bacteria were stained by combining 500 μί of washed bacteria with 1 μί of SYBR Gold and incubating for 1 h in the dark at room temperature. Bacteria were pelleted by spinning at 8,000 x g for 5 min and washed twice with an equal volume of PBS, followed by resuspension in a final volume of 500 μί PBS. A volume of 25 [it of stained bacteria was combined with 25 μί of SM Buffer in a black microtube, to which 50 μί of 10% formalin (5% final volume, -2% formaldehyde) was added and mixed by flicking. Samples were fixed at room temperature for ~3 h and then washed using Amicon ultrafiltration columns. Briefly, 500 μί of picopure water was added to Amicon columns (0.5 mL, 100k MWCO) and spun at 14,000 x g for 5 min to wash membranes. Fixed samples were diluted by adding 400 μί of PBS and then transferred to pre- washed spin columns and spun at 14,000 x g for 10 min. Columns were transferred to fresh collection tubes, and 500 μί of PBS was added to dilute out fixative remaining in the retentate. Subsequently, two additional PBS dilutions were performed, for a total of three washes. The final retentates were diluted to roughly 100 μί, then columns were inverted into fresh collection tubes and spun at 1 ,000 x g for 2 min to collect samples. Washed samples were transferred to black microtubes and stored at 4°C.

For transduction experiments and controls, 25 μί of bacteria (or PBS) and 25 μί of SYBR Gold labeled phage (or SM Buffer) were combined in black microtubes and incubated static for 15-20 min at room temperature to permit phage adsorption and injection into recipient bacteria. Immediately after incubation, 50 μί of 10% formalin was added to samples and fixation was performed at room temperature for ~4 h. Samples were washed with PBS using Amicon columns, as above.

Injection of bacteriophage nucleic acid was required for a phage to successfully infect a host bacterial cell. Coliphage P1 kc labeled with SYBR Gold and co-incubated with S. marcescens revealed the presence of fluorescent bacteria by microscopy, validating the use of this assay in a phage isolation pipeline. As with the Seahorse assay, this approach provided an alternative to traditional phage methods to permit expansion to organisms not amenable to plaque assay. Additionally, the SYBR Gold transduction assay did not require bacterial growth, so is applicable to analysis of phages targeting difficult or even non-culturable organisms, including endosymbionts such as Buchnera. Testing in vivo efficacy of the phages against S. marcescens in Drosophila melanogaster flies S. marcescens cultures were grown in Tryptic Soy Broth (TSB) at 30°C with constant shaking at

200rpm.

The media used to rear fly stocks was cornmeal, molasses and yeast medium (1 1 g/l yeast, 54 g/l yellow cornmeal, 5 g/l agar, 66 ml/l molasses, and 4.8 ml/l propionic acid). All the components of the diet except propionic acid were heated together to 80 °C in deionized water with constant mixing for 30 minutes and let to cool to 60 °C. Propionic acid was then mixed in and 50ml of the diet was aliquoted into individual bottles and allowed to cool down and solidify. The flies were raised at 26°C, 16:8 hour light:dark cycle, at around 60% humidity.

To infect the flies with S. marcescens, a fine needle (About 10um wide tip) was dipped in a dense overnight stationary phase culture and the thorax of the flies was punctured. For this experiment, four replicates of 10 males and 10 females each were infected with S. marcescens using the needle puncturing method as the positive control for fly mortality. For the treatment group, four replicates of 10 males and 10 females each were pricked with S. marcescens and a phage solution containing about 108 phage particles/ml. Finally, two replicates of 10 males and 10 females each that were not pricked or treated in anyway were used as a negative control for mortality.

Flies in all conditions were placed in food bottles and incubated at 26 °C, 16:8 light:dark cycle, at 60% humidity. The number of alive and dead flies were counted every day for four days after the pricking. All The flies pricked with S. marcescens alone were all dead within 24 hours of the treatment. In comparison, more than 60% of the flies in the phage treatment group, and all the flies in the untreated control group were alive at that time point (Fig. 5). Further, most of the flies in the phage treatment group and the negative control group went on to survive for four more days when the experiment was terminated.

To ascertain the reason of death of the flies, dead flies from both the S. marcescens and

S. marcescens + phage pricked flies were homogenized and plated out. Four dead flies from each of the four replicates of both the S. marcescens and the S. marcescens + phage treatment were homogenized in 10Oul of TSB. A 1 :100 dilution was also produced by diluting the homogenate in TSB. 1 0ul of the concentrated homogenate as well as the 1 :100 dilution was plated out onto TSA plates, and incubated overnight at 30 °C. Upon inspection of the plates for bacteria growth, all the plates from the dead

S. marcescens pricked flies had a lawn of bacteria growing on them, whereas the plates from the dead S. marcescens + phage pricked flies had no bacteria on them. This shows that in the absence of the phage, S. marcescens likely induced septic shock in the flies leading to their fatality. However, in the presence of the phage, the mortality may have been due to injury caused by the pricking with the needle.

OTHER EMBODIMENTS

Although the foregoing invention has been described in some detail by way of illustration and example for purposes of clarity of understanding, the descriptions and examples should not be construed as limiting the scope of the invention. The disclosures of all patent and scientific literature cited herein are expressly incorporated in their entirety by reference.