PRIORITY CLAIM

This application claims the benefit of the filing date of United States Provisional

Patent Application Serial No. 62/566,968, filed October 2, 2017, for "METHODS AND SYSTEMS FOR THE ELECTROCHEMICAL REDUCTION OF CARBON DIOXIDE USING SWITCHABLE POLARITY MATERIALS." STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY

SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under Contract Number

DE-AC07-05ID14517 awarded by the United States Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The disclosure, in various embodiments, relates to methods and systems for the electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) using switchable polarity materials. BACKGROUND

Increased combustion of fossil fuels (e.g., coal, crude oil, natural gas, etc.) and increased gasification of biomass feedstocks (e.g., wood, paper, food waste, municipal solid waste, etc.) driven by increased global energy demands has resulted in augmented CO2 emissions into the atmosphere, and CO2 emissions are projected to increase in the future. Concern over the possible negative effects (e.g., global warming effects) of escalating atmospheric CO2 concentrations have compelled new approaches toward reducing, sequestering, storing, and/or utilizing emitted CO2.

CO2 can be utilized to synthesize a variety of commodity chemicals. For example, CO2 can be reacted with hydrogen (H2) gas in the presence of at least one catalyst produce one or more of carbon monoxide (CO) (e.g., through conventional Bosch and/or Boudouard reaction mechanisms) and formic acid (CH2O2) (e.g., through conventional hydrogenation reaction mechanisms), which may, in turn, be used to produce desirable commodity chemicals (e.g., formaldehyde, methanol, other alcohols, formates, carboxylic acids, esters, methylated amines, formamides, aldehydes, other hydrocarbons, etc.) through conventional reaction mechanisms. Unfortunately, conventional processes (e.g., conventional adsorption processes, conventional membrane gas separation processes, etc.) of CO2 capture and storage (CCS) for sequent utilization can be inefficient and costly. In addition, producing commodity chemicals from captured CO2 can be energy intensive (e.g., generating more CO2 than that consumed to produce the commodity chemicals) and/or prohibitively expensive (e.g., employing costly catalyst materials to effectuate desirable reaction kinetics).

It would be desirable to have new methods, systems, and apparatuses for the electrochemical reduction of CO2. It would further be desirable if the new methods, systems, and apparatuses facilitated increased CO2 capture and conversion efficiency, and were relatively inexpensive and simple in operation.

DISCLOSURE

Embodiments described herein include methods and systems for the electrochemical reduction of CO2. In accordance with one embodiment described herein, a method of electrochemically reducing CO2 comprises introducing a first feed stream comprising H2O to a positive electrode of an electrolysis cell comprising the positive electrode, a negative electrode, and a proton-conducting membrane between the positive electrode and the negative electrode. A second feed stream comprising a solvent and a non-polar form of a switchable polarity material is directed into a CO2 capture apparatus. A third feed stream comprising CO2 is directed into the CO2 capture apparatus to interact with the second feed stream and form a first product stream comprising the solvent and a polar form of the switchable polarity material. The first product stream is introduced to the negative electrode of the electrolysis cell. A potential difference is applied between the positive electrode and the negative electrode of the electrolysis cell to generate hydrogen ions from the H2O that diffuse through the proton-conducting membrane to convert the polar form of the switchable polarity material into CO2 and the non-polar form of the switchable polarity material and to form one or more products from the produced CO2 and the solvent.

In additional embodiments, a method of electrochemically reducing CO2 comprises reacting gaseous CO2 with a mixture of at least one tertiary amine and H2O to form an aqueous tertiary aminium bicarbonate solution. The aqueous tertiary aminium bicarbonate solution is introduced to a negative electrode of an electrolysis cell while introducing additional H2O to a positive electrode of the electrolysis cell, the electrolysis cell comprising the negative electrode, the positive electrode, and a proton-conductive membrane between the negative electrode and the positive electrode. The electrolysis cell is activated to convert a portion of the aqueous tertiary aminium bicarbonate solution into a synthesis gas comprising CO and H ₂ .

In further embodiments, a CO2 treatment system comprises an H2O source, a CO2 source, a source of a non-polar form of a switchable polarity material, a CO2 capture apparatus downstream of the CO2 source and the source of the non-polar form of the switchable polarity material, and an electrochemical apparatus downstream of the CO2 capture apparatus and the H2O source. The CO2 capture apparatus is configured to effectuate the formation of a polar form of the switchable polarity material from reactions between CO2 and the non-polar form of the switchable polarity material. The electrochemical apparatus comprises a housing structure and an electrolysis cell. The housing structure is configured and positioned to receive an H2O stream from the H2O source into a first region of an intemal chamber thereof, and to receive another stream comprising the polar form of the switchable polarity material from the CO2 capture apparatus into a second region of the intemal chamber thereof. The electrolysis cell is located within the intemal chamber of the housing structure and comprises a positive electrode adjacent the first region of the intemal chamber, a negative electrode adjacent the second region of the intemal chamber, and a proton-conducting membrane between the positive electrode and the negative electrode. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a simplified schematic view of a CO2 treatment system, in accordance with an embodiment of the disclosure.

FIG. 2 is a graphical representation of the results described in Example 3.

FIGS. 3 and 4 are graphical representations of the results described in Example 4. FIGS. 5 and 6 are graphical representations of the results described in Example 5.

FIG. 7 is a graphical representation of the results described in Example 6.

MODE(S) FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION Methods and systems for electrochemically reducing CO2 are disclosed. In some embodiments, a method of electrochemically reducing CO2 includes reacting CO2 with a mixture of a solvent (e.g., H2O) and a non-polar form of at least one switchable polarity material (e.g., a tertiary amine compound, an amidine compound, a guanidine compound) to effectively capture the CO2 as a bicarbonate ion (HCO3 ^" ) of a polar form of the at least one switchable polarity material (e.g., a tertiary aminium bicarbonate compound, an amidinium bicarbonate compound, a guanidinium bicarbonate compound). A switchable polarity material solution including the polar form of the switchable polarity material and the solvent is directed into an electrochemical apparatus including at least one electrolysis cell therein. The electrolysis cell comprises positive electrode (anode), a negative electrode (cathode), and a proton-conducting membrane between the positive electrode and the negative electrode. The switchable polarity material solution is provided to the negative electrode side of the electrolysis cell while H2O is provided to the positive electrode side of the electrolysis cell. Electrical current is applied to the H2O across the positive electrode and the negative electrode of the electrolysis cell to generate O2 gas, hydrogen ions (H ⁺ ) (i.e., protons), and electrons (e ^" ). The generated H ⁺ permeate across the proton-conducting membrane of the electrolysis cell, and portion of generated H ⁺ react with polar form of the switchable polarity material at or near the negative electrode to produce CO2 and the non-polar form of the switchable polarity material. The produced CO2 and solvent (e.g., H2O) at or near the negative electrode then undergo electrochemical reduction through reactions with received e ^" and an additional portion of the generated H ⁺ to form one or more desirable products (e.g., a synthesis gas (syngas) including carbon monoxide (CO) gas and hydrogen (H2) gas). A multi-phase mixture including a gaseous phase including one or more gases (e.g., CO, H2, CO2), and at least one liquid phase including one or more liquids (e.g., the non-polar form of the switchable polarity material, remaining polar form of the switchable polarity material, remaining liquid solvent) may exit the electrochemical apparatus, and may be directed into a separation device to separate the gaseous phase from the liquid phase. The separated liquid phase may be introduced to additional CO2 to form an additional amount of the non-polar form of the switchable polarity material, which may be used to repeat the process. The methods, systems, and apparatuses of the disclosure may be more efficient (e.g., increasing material conversion efficiency; reducing equipment, material, and/or energy requirements; etc.), and/or less complicated as compared to conventional methods, conventional systems, and conventional apparatuses for capturing CO2 and synthesizing desirable materials therefrom.

The following description provides specific details, such as material compositions and processing conditions (e.g., temperatures, pressures, flow rates, etc.) in order to provide a thorough description of embodiments of the disclosure. However, a person of ordinary skill in the art will understand that the embodiments of the disclosure may be practiced without necessarily employing these specific details. Indeed, the embodiments of the disclosure may be practiced in conjunction with conventional systems and methods employed in the industry. In addition, only those process components and acts necessary to understand the embodiments of the present disclosure are described in detail below. A person of ordinary skill in the art will understand that some process components (e.g., pipelines, line filters, valves, temperature detectors, flow detectors, pressure detectors, and the like) are inherently disclosed herein and that adding various conventional process components and acts would be in accord with the disclosure. In addition, the drawings accompanying the application are for illustrative purposes only, and are not meant to be actual views of any particular material, device, or system.

As used herein, spatially relative terms, such as "beneath," "below," "lower," "bottom," "above," "upper," "top," "front," "rear," "left," "right," and the like, may be used for ease of description to describe one element's or feature's relationship to another element(s) or feature(s) as illustrated in the figures. Unless otherwise specified, the spatially relative terms are intended to encompass different orientations of the materials in addition to the orientation depicted in the figures. For example, if materials in the figures are inverted, elements described as "below" or "beneath" or "under" or "on bottom of other elements or features would then be oriented "above" or "on top of the other elements or features. Thus, the term "below" can encompass both an orientation of above and below, depending on the context in which the term is used, which will be evident to one of ordinary skill in the art. The materials may be otherwise oriented (e.g., rotated 90 degrees, inverted, flipped) and the spatially relative descriptors used herein interpreted accordingly.

As used herein, the singular forms "a," "an," and "the" are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise.

As used herein, "and/or" includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items.

As used herein, the term "configured" refers to a size, shape, material composition, material distribution, and arrangement of one or more of at least one structure and at least one apparatus facilitating operation of one or more of the structure and the apparatus in a pre-determined way.

As used herein, the term "substantially" in reference to a given parameter, property, or condition means and includes to a degree that one of ordinary skill in the art would understand that the given parameter, property, or condition is met with a degree of variance, such as within acceptable manufacturing tolerances. By way of example, depending on the particular parameter, property, or condition that is substantially met, the parameter, property, or condition may be at least 90.0% met, at least 95.0% met, at least 99.0% met, at least 99.9% met, or even 100.0% met.

As used herein, the term "about" in reference to a given parameter is inclusive of the stated value and has the meaning dictated by the context (e.g., it includes the degree of error associated with measurement of the given parameter).

As used herein, the term "negative electrode" means and includes an electrode having a relatively lower electrode potential in an electrochemical cell (i.e., lower than the electrode potential in a positive electrode therein). Conversely, as used herein, the term "positive electrode" means and includes an electrode having a relatively higher electrode potential in an electrochemical cell (i.e., higher than the electrode potential in a negative electrode therein).

As used herein the term "electrolyte" means and includes an ionic conductor, which can be in a solid state, a liquid state, or a gas state (e.g., plasma).

As used herein, the term "compatible" means that a material does not undesirably react, decompose, or absorb another material, and also that the material does not undesirably impair the chemical and/or mechanical properties of the another material.

An embodiment of the disclosure will now be described with reference to FIG. 1, which schematically illustrates a CCh treatment system 100. The CCh treatment system 100 may be used to convert H2O and CO2 into O2 and one or more desirable products. As shown in FIG. 1, the CO2 treatment system 100 may include at least one H2O source 102, at least one CO2 source 104, at least one switchable polarity material (SPM) source 105, at least one CO2 capture apparatus 106 downstream of the CO2 source 104 and the SPM source 105, at least one electrochemical apparatus 108 in fluid communication with (e.g., downstream of) each of the H2O source 102 and the CO2 capture apparatus 106, and at least one separation apparatus 110 downstream of the electrochemical apparatus 108 and upstream of the CO2 capture apparatus 106. The electrochemical apparatus 108 includes a housing structure 112, and at least one electrolysis cell 114 contained within the housing structure 112. The electrolysis cell 114 is electrically connected (e.g., coupled) to a power source 122, and includes a positive electrode 116 (e.g. anode), a negative electrode 118 (e.g., cathode), a proton-conducting membrane 120 between the positive electrode 116 and the negative electrode 118, and, optionally, a buffer structure 119 between the negative electrode 118 and the proton-conducting membrane 120. With continued reference to FIG. 1, the H2O source 102 comprises at least one apparatus configured and operated to store and/or produce a one or more phases of an aqueous material (e.g., an aqueous liquid, such substantially pure liquid H2O, or an aqueous liquid solution including liquid H2O and one or more other materials; an aqueous gas, such as substantially pure H2O steam, or an aqueous gas including H2O steam and one or more other materials). As a non-limiting example, the H2O source 102 may comprise a storage vessel (e.g., a tank) configured and operated to contain one or more of an aqueous liquid material and aqueous gas material. As another non-limiting example, the H2O source 102 may comprise a gas generation apparatus (e.g., a steam generation apparatus, such as a boiler apparatus) configured and operated produce an aqueous gas material (e.g., substantially pure H2O stream, an aqueous gas including gaseous H2O and one or more other materials). In some embodiments, the H2O source 102 comprises a liquid storage vessel configured and operated to contain an aqueous sulfuric acid (H2SO4) solution, such as an aqueous 1M H2SO4 solution. In additional embodiments, the H2O source 102 comprises a steam generation apparatus configured and operated to convert an aqueous liquid into an aqueous gaseous having a temperature within a range of an operating temperature of the electrolysis cell 114 of the electrochemical apparatus 108.

As shown in FIG. 1, at least one H2O stream 124 exits the H2O source 102, and may be directed into the electrochemical apparatus 108. The H2O stream 124 may only include H2O, or may include H2O and one or more additional materials (e.g., one or more electrolyte materials, such one or more acids). In some embodiments, the H2O stream 124 is a substantially liquid stream comprising an aqueous 1M H2SO4 solution. The H2O stream 124 may exhibit any pressure and any flow rate facilitating the electrochemical reduction of one or more of CO2, CO2 electrochemical reduction products, and/or derivatives of CO2 electrochemical reduction products (e.g., reaction products of CO2 electrochemical reduction products and other molecules) within the electrochemical apparatus 108 to synthesize one or more desired products (e.g., one or more commodity chemicals), as described in further detail below. One or more apparatuses (e.g., pumps, compressors, expanders, mass flow control devices, etc.) may be employed within the CO2 treatment system 100 to adjust the pressure(s) and/or flow rate(s) of the H2O stream 124 exiting the H2O source 102.

A single (e.g., only one) H2O stream 124 my exit the H2O source 102, or multiple (e.g., more than one) H2O streams 124 may exit the H2O source 102. If multiple H2O streams 124 exit the H2O source 102, each of the multiple H2O streams 124 may exhibit substantially the same properties (e.g., substantially the same material composition, substantially the same temperature, substantially the same pressure, substantially the same flow rate, etc.), or at least one of the multiple H2O streams 124 may exhibit one or more different properties (e.g., a different material composition, a different temperature; a different pressure; a different flow rate; etc.) than at least one other of the multiple H2O streams 124.

With continued reference to FIG. 1 , the CO2 source 104 comprises at least one apparatus configured and operated to store and/or produce a one or more phases of CO2 (e.g., gaseous CO2, liquid CO2). As a non-limiting example, the CO2 source 104 may comprise a storage vessel (e.g., a tank, a storage well) configured and operated to contain one or more of liquid CO2 and gaseous CO2. As another non-limiting example, the CO2 source 104 may comprise at least one apparatus configured and operated to produce gaseous CO2 through the treatment (e.g., combustion, gasification) of one or more organic materials. In some embodiments, the CO2 source 104 is at least one combustion apparatus configured and operated to combust one or more hydrocarbon materials (e.g., coal, oil, natural gas, etc.) to generate energy and produce one or more effluent streams (e.g., gaseous effluent streams) including CO2. In additional embodiments, the CO2 source 104 is at least one gasification apparatus configured and operated to convert a biomass feedstock into a synthesis gas (e.g., a gas including hydrogen gas (H2), CO2, carbon monoxide, and one or more of nitrogen gas (N ₂ ), H2O, and lower hydrocarbons. The gasification apparatus may use at least one of logistical fuel and biomass/waste (e.g., wood, paper, food waste, municipal solid waste) as the biomass feedstock. In further

embodiments, the CO2 source 104 is the atmosphere of the planet Earth.

At least one CO2 stream 128 including CO2 (e.g., gaseous CO2, liquid CO2) exits the CO2 source 104, and may be directed into the CO2 capture apparatus 106. In some embodiments, the CO2 stream 128 is formed of and includes gaseous CO2. The CO2 stream 128 may only include CO2 (e.g., only gaseous CO2), or may include CO2 and one or more other materials (e.g., one or more of N2; H2; CO; lower hydrocarbon(s), such as methane, ethane, and/or propane; inert material(s), such as a noble gas; materials to be reacted with CO2 electrochemical reduction products within the electrochemical apparatus 108 to form desired products; etc.). In some embodiments, the CO2 stream 128 is substantially free of materials other than CO2 gas. One or more apparatuses (e.g., heat exchangers, pumps, compressors, expanders, mass flow control devices, etc.) may be employed within the CO2 treatment system 100 to adjust the one or more of the temperature, pressure, and flow rate of the CO2 stream 128 delivered into the CO2 capture apparatus 106.

A single (e.g., only one) CO2 stream 128 may be directed into the CO2 capture apparatus 106, or multiple (e.g., more than one) CO2 streams 128 may be directed into the CO2 capture apparatus 106. If multiple CO2 streams 128 are directed into the CO2 capture apparatus 106, each of the multiple CO2 streams 128 may exhibit substantially the same properties (e.g., substantially the same material composition, substantially the same temperature, substantially the same pressure, substantially the same flow rate, etc.), or at least one of the multiple CO2 streams 128 may exhibit one or more different properties (e.g., a different material composition, a different temperature, a different pressure, a different flow rate, etc.) than at least one other of the multiple CO2 streams 128.

Still referring to FIG. 1, the SPM source 105 may comprise at least one apparatus configured and operated to store and/or produce a non-polar form of at least one SPM (also conventionally referred to as a "switchable polarity solvent" (SPS), a "switchable hydrophilicity material" (SHM), and a "switchable hydrophilicity solvent" (SHS)). As used herein, the term "switchable polarity material" means and includes a material that is configured to undergo a polarity shift when subjected to a change in reaction conditions (e.g., the addition or removal of CO2 gas). For example, a SPM may switch (e.g., convert) from a non-polar form (e.g., a hydrophobic from) to a polar form (e.g., a hydrophilic form) when subjected to the change in reaction conditions, or may switch form a polar form to a non-polar form when subjected to the change in reaction conditions. The non-polar form and polar form of the SPM may each have a different solubility in a solvent, such as H2O and/or an alcohol. By way of non-limiting example, the SPM source 105 may comprise one or more of a storage vessel (e.g., a tank) configured and operated to contain at least the non-polar form of the SPM, and an apparatus (e.g. a degassing apparatus) configured and operated at least to convert the polar form of the SPM into the non-polar form of the SPM. In some embodiments, the SPM source 105 comprises a storage tank.

The non-polar form of the SPM may comprise one or more of an amine compound (e.g., a tertiary amine compound), an amidine compound, and a guanidine compound. The general structure of each of an amine compound, an amidine compound, and a guanidine compound is, respectively, shown below:

(Amine) (Ami dine) (Guanidine) where R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ are independently hydrogen; a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group (i.e., linear, branched, or cyclic) containing from 1 carbon atom to 10 carbon atoms; a substituted or unsubstituted CnSim group where n and m are independently an integer from 0 to 10 and n+m is an integer from 1 to 10; and a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group or heteroaryl group that may contain at least one {-Si(R ⁶ )2-0-} where R ⁶ is a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or alkoxy group. If a group is substituted, the substituent may be an alkyl, alkenyl, alkynl, alky halide, aryl, aryl halide, heteroaryl, non-aromatic ring, Si(alkyl)3, Si(alkoxy)3, alkoxy, amino, ester, amide, thioether, alkylcarbonate, or thioester group. Optionally, two or more of the R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and R ⁵ groups may form a ring structure (e.g., an alicylic group, or an aryl group) with each other.

The non-polar form of the SPM may have a nitrogen atom to carbon atom ratio with a range of from about 1 :2 to about 1 : 15. If the non-polar form of the SPM comprises at least one amine compound, the amine compound may comprise a tertiary amine compound fully saturated at the nitrogen position. R ¹ , R ² , and R ³ in a tertiary amine compound are each independently a moiety (e.g., a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl group; a substituted or unsubstituted aryl group) other than hydrogen. The amine compound may be linear, cyclic, or branched and may include a single nitrogen atom or multiple nitrogen atoms. The amine compound may be a monoamine compound (i.e., a compound including one amino group) or may a polyamine compound (i.e., a compound including two or more amino groups). In some embodiments, the amine compound has as one nitrogen atom and less than or equal to eleven (11) carbon atoms. Non-limiting examples of suitable amine compounds include

1-cyclohexylpiperidine, cyclohexyldimethylamine, 1-butylpyrrolidine, 1-ethylpiperidine, N,N-diethylcyclohexylamine, triethylamine, N,N-dibutylmethylamine, 2-ethyl-hexyl-N,N- dimethylamine, N-benzyldimethylamine, N,N-dimethyl-2-phenylethanamine, N,N-dimethyl- 3-phenylpropanamine, N-methyldipropylamine, N-butyldiethylamine, N-butyldimethylamine, N,N-dimethylpentylamine, N-heptyldimethylamine, N,N-dimethyloctylamine,

N,N-dimethylnonanamine, N-decyldimethylamine, and N-hexyldimethylamine. Non- limiting examples of suitable amidine compounds include Ν,Ν,Ν'-tripropylbutanamidine, Ν,Ν,Ν-tributylpentanamidine, and l,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU). Non- limiting examples of suitable guanidine compounds include l,l,3,3-tetramethyl-2- phenylguanidine, 2-(2-fluorophenyl)- 1 , 1 ,3,3-tetramethylguanidine, 1 , 1 ,3,3-tetraethyl-2- hexylguanidine, 2-butyl-l,l,3,3-tetraethylguanidine, and 2-hexyl-l, 1,3,3- tetramethylguanidine. Suitable amine compounds, amidine compounds, and guanidine compounds are commercially available from numerous sources, such as from Sigma- Aldrich Company (St. Louis, MO). In some embodiments, the non-polar form of the SPM comprises 1-cyclohexylpiperidine, structure:

At least one SPM feed stream 130 including a non-polar form of at least one SPM (e.g., one or more of an amine compound, such as a tertiary amine compound; an amidine compound; and a guanidine compound) exits the SPM source 105, and may be directed into the CO2 capture apparatus 106. The SPM feed stream 130 may be formed of and include the non-polar form of the SPM, at least one solvent, and, optionally, at least one additive. The solvent and the additive (if any) may be included with the non-polar form of the SPM in the SPM source 105, or may be subsequently combined (e.g., mixed) with the non-polar form of the SPM exiting the SPM source 105. In some embodiments, at least the non-polar form of the SPM and the solvent of the SPM feed stream 130 are obtained together from the SPM source 105.

The solvent of the SPM feed stream 130 may comprise at least one fiowable material (e.g., fluid) that is compatible with the other components (e.g., the non-polar form of the SPM) of the SPM feed stream 130, and that facilitates the conversion of CO2 of the CO2 stream 128 and the non-polar form of the SPM of the SPM feed stream 130 into one or more desired products (e.g., aminium salts, such as tertiary aminium salts; amidinium salts;

guanidinium salts) in the CO2 capture apparatus 106, as described in further detail below. As used herein, the term "compatible" means that a material does not undesirably react, decompose, or absorb another material, and also that the material does not undesirably impair the chemical and/or mechanical properties of the another material. The solvent may comprise a liquid material, a gaseous material, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the solvent comprises a liquid material. The solvent may, for example, comprise an aqueous liquid material (e.g., substantially pure liquid H2O, an aqueous liquid solution including liquid H2O and one or more other materials). In some embodiments, the solvent comprises substantially pure, liquid H2O.

The additive (if any) of the SPM feed stream 130 may comprise one or more materials formulated to assist with the production of one or more desirable products from an SPM product stream 132 subsequently formed in the CO2 capture apparatus 106 and directed into the electrochemical apparatus 108. By way of non-limiting example, if included in the SPM feed stream 130, the additive may comprise at least one electrolyte that increases the ionic conductivity of the SPM product stream 132. In some embodiments, the additive comprises potassium sulfate (K2SO4). In additional embodiments, SPM feed stream 130 is free of materials other than the at least one solvent and the non-polar form of at least one SPM.

A concentration of the non-polar form of the SPM in the SPM feed stream 130 may be tailored to a desired concentration of a polar form (e.g., hydrophilic form) of the SPM in a SPM product stream 132 to be formed in the CO2 capture apparatus 106. The SPM feed stream 130 may, for example, include a sufficient concentration of the non-polar form of the SPM to form the SPM product stream 132 having a concentration of the polar form of the SPM within range of from a lowest effective concentration of the polar form of the SPM for downstream use of the SPM product stream 132 in the electrochemical apparatus 108 to a solubility limit of the polar form of the SPM in the SPM product stream 132. A concentration of the non-polar form of the SPM in the SPM feed stream 130 able to facilitate a sufficient concentration of the polar form of the SPM in the SPM product stream 132 for desired downstream use of the SPM product stream 132 in the electrochemical apparatus 108 may at least partially depend on the properties (e.g., material compositions, viscosities, pressures, temperatures, flow rates, etc.) of the SPM feed stream 130 and the CO2 stream 128, and the properties (e.g., structural configurations, including individual component configurations; material compositions; etc.) of the CO2 capture apparatus 106 and the electrochemical apparatus 108. As a non-limiting example, a concentration of the non-polar form of the SPM in the SPM feed stream 130 may be within a range of from about 0.1 mol/kg to about 20.0 mol/kg, such as from about 0.5 mol/kg to about 15.0 mol/kg, from about 1.0 mol/kg to about 10.0 mol/kg, or from about 1.0 mol/kg to about 5.0 mol/kg. The concentration of the non- polar form of the SPM entering the CO2 capture apparatus 106 may be controlled as desired by adjusting one or more of an amount of the non-polar form of the SPM in the SPM feed stream 130, an amount of the solvent in the SPM feed stream 130, and an amount of the additive (if any) in the SPM feed stream 130.

The SPM feed stream 130 may be substantially homogeneous (e.g., each of the components of the SPM feed stream 130 may be uniformly dispersed throughout the SPM feed stream 130), or may be heterogeneous (e.g., at least one of the components of the SPM feed stream 130 may be non-uniformly dispersed throughout the SPM feed stream 130). In some embodiments, the SPM feed stream 130 is substantially homogeneous.

A single (e.g., only one) SPM feed stream 130 may be directed into the CCh capture apparatus 106, or multiple (e.g., more than one) SPM feed streams 130 may be directed into the CCh capture apparatus 106. If a single SPM feed stream 130 is directed into the CCh capture apparatus 106, the SPM feed stream 130 may comprise a mixture of materials (e.g., a mixture comprising the non-polar form of the SPM, the solvent, and the additive (if any)). If multiple SPM feed streams 130 are directed into the CCh capture apparatus 106, each of the SPM feed streams 130 may exhibit substantially the same properties (e.g., the same material composition, including the same type and amount of each of the non-polar form of the SPM and the solvent; the same temperature; the same pressure; the same flow rate; etc.), or at least one of the SPM feed streams 130 may exhibit one or more different properties (e.g., one or more of a different material composition, such a different type and/or a different amount of one or more of the non-polar form of the SPM and the solvent; a different temperature; a different pressure; a different flow rate; etc.) than at least one other of the SPM feed streams 130. Each of the multiple SPM feed streams 130 may individually comprise a single material (e.g., the non-polar form of the SPM, the solvent, the additive (if any)), each of the multiple SPM feed streams 130 may independently comprise a mixture of materials (e.g., a mixture of the non-polar form of the SPM, the solvent, and the additive (if any)), or at least one of the multiple SPM feed streams 130 may comprise a single material and at least one other of the multiple SPM feed streams 130 may comprise a mixture of materials. At least some of the multiple SPM feed streams 130 may be combined with one another prior to being directed into the CCh capture apparatus 106, and/or at least some of the multiple SPM feed streams 130 may be directed into the CCh capture apparatus 106 separately (e.g., discretely, individually, etc.) and combined with one another within CCh capture apparatus 106. If at least some of the multiple SPM feed streams 130 are separately directed into the CCh capture apparatus 106, the multiple SPM feed streams 130 may be directed into the CCh capture apparatus 106 simultaneously, non-simultaneously, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, a single SPM feed stream 130 comprising a mixture of materials (e.g., the non- polar form of the SPM and the solvent) is directed into the CO2 capture apparatus 106.

The SPM feed stream 130 and the CO2 stream 128 may each individually exhibit a temperature, a pressure, and a flow rate facilitating the formation of a predetermined concentration of the polar form of the SPM in the SPM product stream 132 in a predetermined amount of time by way of interactions between components (e.g., the non-polar form of the SPM, the solvent, etc.) of the SPM feed stream 130 and the CO2 of the CO2 stream 128 within the CO2 capture apparatus 106. The temperature(s), pressure(s), and flow rate(s) of the SPM feed stream 130 and the CO2 stream 128 may facilitate the substantially complete conversion of CO2 from the CO2 stream 128, and may be selected relative to one another and at least partially based on the configuration of the CO2 capture apparatus 106 (e.g., including the sizes, shapes, material compositions, and arrangements of the components thereof). In some embodiments, the temperature(s), pressure(s), and flow rate(s) of the SPM feed stream 130 and the CO2 stream 128 are controlled (e.g., selected and/or adjusted) to facilitate the formation of an SPM product stream 132 including greater than or equal to about 2.0 mol/kg (e.g., greater than or equal to about 2.5 mol/kg, greater than or equal to about 3.0 mol/kg, greater than or equal to about 3.5 mol/kg, or greater than or equal to about 4.0 mol/kg) of the polar form of the SPM in less than or equal to about 4 hours (e.g., less than or equal to about 3 hours, less than or equal to about 2 hours, less than or equal to about 1 hour, etc.) residence time in the CO2 capture apparatus 106.

The temperature(s) of the SPM feed stream 130 and the CO2 stream 128 may be individually be selected relative to one another, the material compositions of the SPM feed stream 130 and the CO2 stream 128, and the configuration of the CO2 capture apparatus 106 (e.g., including component sizes, component shapes, component material compositions, and component arrangements thereof) to control one or more of the viscosity of the SPM feed stream 130, chemical reaction rates during the formation of the polar form of the SPM within the CO2 capture apparatus 106, the solubility of the CO2 of the CO2 stream 128 in the SPM feed stream 130, and the stability of the polar form of the SPM produced within CO2 capture apparatus 106. The temperature(s) of the SPM feed stream 130 and the CO2 stream 128 may, for example, be independently selected such that the production of the polar form of the SPM is limited by chemical reaction rate. By way of non-limiting example, temperature(s) of the SPM feed stream 130 and the CO2 stream 128 may individually be within a range of from about 10°C to about 40°C, such as from about 10°C to about 30°C, or from about 20 °C to about 30°C. In some embodiments, each of the SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 individually exhibit a temperature within a range of from about 20°C to about 30°C. The SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 may each individually exhibit a substantially constant (e.g., substantially invariable, substantially unchanging, etc.) temperature over the period of time the SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 are directed into the CCh capture apparatus 106, or one or more of the SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 may exhibit variable (e.g., non-constant, changing, etc.) temperatures over the period of time the SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 are directed into the CCh capture apparatus 106.

The SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 may each individually exhibit any pressure(s) permitting the CCh of the CCh stream 128 to interact with the components (e.g., the non-polar form to the SPM, the solvent) of SPM feed stream 130 to form the polar form of the SPM. The SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 may each independently exhibit a substantially constant (e.g., substantially invariable, substantially unchanging, etc.) pressure over the period of time the SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 are directed into the CCh capture apparatus 106, or one or more of the SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 may exhibit variable (e.g., non-constant, changing, etc.) pressures over the period of time the SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 are directed into the CCh capture apparatus 106. In some embodiments, the pressure of one or more of the SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 is changed (e.g., increased) over the period of time the SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 are directed into the CCh capture

apparatus 106 to account for viscosity changes (e.g., increases in the viscosity of the SPM feed stream 130) within the CCh capture apparatus 106 during the production of the polar form of the SPM.

The flow rate(s) of the SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 may be individually be selected relative to one another, the material compositions of the SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128, and the configuration of the CCh capture apparatus 106 to control residence time within the CCh capture apparatus 106 as well as the concentration of the polar form of the SPM produced within the CCh capture apparatus 106. By way of non-limiting example, the SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 may each individually exhibit a flow rate greater than or equal to about 100 milliliters per minute (ml/min), such as a flow rate within a range of from about 100 ml/min to about 10000 ml/min, from about 200 ml/min to about 5000 ml/min, from about 300 ml/min to about 1000 ml/min, or from about 500 ml/min to about 1000 ml/min. The SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 may each individually exhibit a substantially constant (e.g., substantially invariable, substantially unchanging, etc.) flow rate over the period of time the SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 are directed into the CCh capture apparatus 106, or one or more of the SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 may exhibit variable (e.g., non-constant, changing, etc.) flow rates over the period of time the SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 are directed into the CCh capture apparatus 106. In some embodiments, the flow rate of at least the SPM feed stream 130 is substantially constant of the period of time the SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128 are directed into the CCh capture apparatus 106.

With continued reference to FIG. 1, the CCh capture apparatus 106 may comprise at least one device or apparatus configured and operated to form at least one SPM product stream 132 including the polar form of at least one SPM from components of the SPM feed stream 130 and the CCh stream 128. CCh of the CCh stream 128 may be introduced to and react with at least the non-polar form of the SPM and the solvent of the SPM feed stream 130 to form the SPM product stream 132, as described in further detail below. By way of non-limiting example, the CCh capture apparatus 106 may comprise one or more of a gas diffusion membrane apparatus, and a bubbler apparatus. In some embodiments, the CCh capture apparatus 106 is a gas diffusion membrane apparatus.

In embodiments wherein the SPM feed stream 130 directed into the CCh capture apparatus 106 includes at least one amine compound (e.g., at least one tertiary amine compound), CCh from the CCh stream 128 facilitates the formation of at least one aminium salt. As used herein, the term "aminium salt" means and includes an aminium cation and an anionic counterion and has a neutral charge. By way of non-limiting example, if the CCh stream 128 includes CCh and the SPM feed stream 130 includes at least one amine compound and H2O, CO2 of the CO2 stream 128 reacts with the amine compound and the H2O of the SPM feed stream 130 to form an aminium bicarbonate (e.g., a tertiary aminium bicarbonate) according to the following reversible reaction:

(1) where R ¹ , R ² , and R ³ are as defined above; and where X is a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, silyl, or siloxyl, and is linear, branched, or cyclic.

Accordingly, the CChfrom the CO2 stream 128 becomes effectively captured as the bicarbonate ion (HCCb ^" ) of the produced aminium bicarbonate.

In embodiments wherein the SPM feed stream 130 includes at least one ami dine compound, CC from the CO2 stream 128 facilitates the formation of at least one amidinium salt. As used herein, the term "amidinium salt" means and includes an amidinium cation and an anionic counterion and has a neutral charge. As a non-limiting example, if the CO2 stream 128 includes CO2 and the SPM feed stream 130 includes at least one amidine compound and H2O, CO2 of the CO2 stream 128 reacts with the amidine compound and the H2O of the SPM feed stream 130 to form an amidinium bicarbonate according to the following reversible reaction:

where R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , and X are as defined above. Accordingly, the CC from the CCh stream 128 becomes effectively captured as the HCO3 ^" of the produced amidinium bicarbonate.

In embodiments wherein the SPM feed stream 130 includes at least one guanidine compound, CChfrom the CO2 stream 128 facilitates the formation of at least one guanidinium salt. As used herein, the term "guanidinium salt" means and includes a guanidinium cation and an anionic counterion and has a neutral charge. As a non-limiting example, if the CCh stream 128 includes CO2 and the SPM feed stream 130 includes at least one guanidine compound and H2O, CCh of the CCh stream 128 reacts with the guanidine compound and the H2O of the SPM feed stream 130 to form a guanidinium bicarbonate according to the following reversible reaction: where R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and X are as defined above. Accordingly, the CC from the CO2 stream 128 becomes effectively captured as the HCO3 ^" of the produced guanidinium bicarbonate.

In some embodiments, the CO2 stream 128 includes CO2 and the SPM feed stream 130 includes 1-cyclohexylpiperidine and H2O, and the CO2 of the CO2 stream 128 reacts with the 1-cyclohexylpiperidine and the H2O of the SPM feed stream 130 to form 1-cyclohexylpiperidinium bicarbonate according to the following reversible reaction:

Accordingly, the CC from the CO2 stream 128 becomes effectively captured as the HCO3 ^" of the produced 1-cyclohexylpiperidinium bicarbonate.

With continued reference to FIG. 1, the SPM product stream 132 including the polar form of at least one SPM exits the CO2 capture apparatus 106, and may be directed into the electrochemical apparatus 108. The SPM product stream 132 may only include the polar form of the SPM and unreacted solvent (e.g., unreacted H2O); or may the polar form of the SPM, unreacted solvent, and one or more other materials (e.g., unreacted

components of the CO2 stream 128, such as unreacted CO2; other unreacted components of the SPM feed stream 130, such as unreacted non-polar form of the SPM and/or unreacted additives (if any)). One or more apparatuses (e.g., heat exchangers, pumps, compressors, expanders, mass flow control devices, etc.) may be employed within the CO2 treatment system 100 to adjust the one or more of the temperature, pressure, and flow rate of the SPM product stream 132 delivered into the electrochemical apparatus 108. In some embodiments, the SPM product stream 132 is delivered into the electrochemical apparatus 108 at a temperature within a range of from about 20°C to about 30°C (e.g., about 25°C), and a pressure within a range of from about 20 pounds per square inch (psi) (137.9 kPa) to about 40 psi (275.8 kPa).

A single (e.g., only one) SPM product stream 132 may be directed into the electrochemical apparatus 108, or multiple (e.g., more than one) SPM product streams 132 may be directed into the electrochemical apparatus 108. If multiple SPM product streams 132 are directed into the electrochemical apparatus 108., each of the multiple SPM product streams 132 may exhibit substantially the same properties (e.g., substantially the same material composition, substantially the same temperature, substantially the same pressure, substantially the same flow rate, etc.), or at least one of the multiple SPM product streams 132 may exhibit one or more different properties (e.g., a different material composition, a different temperature, a different pressure, a different flow rate, etc.) than at least one other of the SPM product streams 132.

With continued reference to FIG. 1, the electrochemical apparatus 108, including the housing structure 112 and the electrolysis cell 114 thereof, is configured and operated to form a reaction product stream 134 including one or more CC electrochemical reduction products (and/or derivatives thereof) from the H2O stream 124 and the SPM product stream 132. The housing structure 112 may exhibit any shape (e.g., a tubular shape, a quadrilateral shape, a spherical shape, a semi-spherical shape, a cylindrical shape, a semi- cylindrical shape, truncated versions thereof, or an irregular shape) and size able to contain (e.g., hold) the electrolysis cell 114 therein, to receive and direct the H2O stream 124 to the positive electrode 116 of the electrolysis cell 114, to direct the SPM product stream 132 to the negative electrode 118 of the electrolysis cell 114, to direct gaseous O2 formed at the positive electrode 116 of the electrolysis cell 114 away from the electrochemical apparatus 108 as an O2 stream 126, and to direct the CO2 electrochemical reduction products (and/or derivatives thereof) formed at the negative electrode 118 of the electrolysis cell 114 away from the electrochemical apparatus 108 as the reaction product stream 134. In addition, the housing structure 112 may be formed of and include any material (e.g., glass, metal, alloy, polymer, ceramic, composite, combination thereof, etc.) compatible with the operating conditions (e.g., temperatures, pressures, etc.) of the electrochemical apparatus 108.

The housing structure 112 may at least partially define at least one internal chamber 136 at least partially (e.g., substantially) surrounding the electrolysis cell 114. The electrolysis cell 114 may serve as a boundary between a first region 138 (e.g., an anodic region) of the internal chamber 136 configured and positioned to receive the H2O stream 124 and to direct the O2 stream 126 from the electrochemical apparatus 108, and a second region 140 (e.g., a cathodic region) of the internal chamber 136 configured and positioned receive the SPM product stream 132 and to direct the reaction product stream 134 from the electrochemical apparatus 108.

As shown in FIG. 1, the positive electrode 116 and the negative electrode 118 of the electrolysis cell 114 are electrically coupled to a power source 122, and the a proton- conducting membrane 120 is disposed on and between the positive electrode 116 and the negative electrode 118. The proton-conducting membrane 120 is configured and formulated to conduct H ⁺ from the positive electrode 116 to the negative electrode 118, while electrically insulating the negative electrode 118 from the positive electrode 116 and preventing the migration of gaseous materials (e.g., gaseous O2) therethrough. Electrons (e ^" ) generated at the positive electrode 116 may, for example, flow from the positive electrode 116 into a negative current collector, through the power source 122 and a positive electrode current collector, and into negative electrode 118 to facilitate the synthesis of CO2 electrochemical reduction products (and/or derivatives thereof) at the negative electrode 118, as described in further detail below.

The proton-conducting membrane 120 may be formed of and include at least one electrolyte material exhibiting desired ionic conductivity (e.g., H ⁺ conductivity) at the operating temperature of the electrolysis cell 114, such an ionic conductivity greater than or equal to about 10 ^"3 S/cm (e.g., greater than or equal to about 10 ^"2 S/cm) at a temperature greater than or equal to about 25°C (e.g., within a range of from about 25°C to about 650°C). In addition, the electrolyte material may be formulated to remain substantially adhered to the positive electrode 116 and the negative electrode 118 at relatively high current densities, such as at current densities greater than or equal to about 0.1 amperes per square centimeter (A/cm ² ) (e.g., greater than or equal to about 0.5 A/cm ² , greater than or equal to about 1.0 A/cm ² , greater than or equal to about 2.0 A/cm ² , etc.). For example, the proton-conducting membrane 120 may comprise a suflonated tetrafluoroethylene-based flouropolymer-coplymer material. Suitable suflonated tetrafluoroethylene-based flouropolymer-coplymer membranes are commercially available from numerous sources, such as from DuPont (Wilmington, DE) under the NAFION® trade name. In some embodiments, the proton-conducting membrane 120 comprises a NAFION® 117 peril ourinated membrane. The proton-conducting membrane 120 may be substantially homogeneous or may be substantially heterogeneous. As used herein, the term "homogeneous" means amounts of a material do not vary throughout different portions (e.g., different lateral portions, different longitudinal portions) of a structure. Conversely, as used herein, the term "heterogeneous" means amounts of a material vary throughout different portions of a structure. Amounts of the material may vary stepwise (e.g., change abruptly), or may vary continuously (e.g., change progressively, such as linearly, parabolically) throughout different portions of the structure. In some embodiments, the proton-conducting membrane 120 is substantially homogeneous. In additional embodiments, the proton-conducting membrane 120 is heterogeneous. The proton-conducting membrane 120 may, for example, be formed of and include a stack of at least two (e.g., at least three, at least four, etc.) different materials. As a non-limiting example, the proton-conducting membrane 120 may comprise a stack of at least two (e.g., at least three, at least four, etc.) different suflonated tetrafiuoroethylene-based flouropolymer- coplymer materials.

The proton-conducting membrane 120 may exhibit any desired dimensions (e.g., length, width, thickness) and any desired shape (e.g., a cubic shape, cuboidal shape, a tubular shape, a tubular spiral shape, a spherical shape, a semi-spherical shape, a cylindrical shape, a semi-cylindrical shape, a conical shape, a triangular prismatic shape, a truncated version of one or more of the foregoing, and irregular shape). The dimensions and the shape of the proton-conducting membrane 120 may be selected such that the proton-conducting membrane 120 substantially intervenes between opposing surfaces of the positive electrode 116 and the negative electrode 118, and exhibits an H ⁺ conductivity greater than or equal to about 10 ^"3 S/cm at a temperature greater than or equal to about 25°C. A thickness of the proton-conducting membrane 120 may be within a range of from about 5 micrometers (μηι) to about 1000 μιτι, and may at least partially depend on the material composition of the proton-conducting membrane 120.

The positive electrode 1 16 and the negative electrode 1 18 may individually be formed of and include at least one material compatible with the material composition of the proton-conducting membrane 120 and the operating conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure, current density, etc.) of the electrolysis cell 1 14, and facilitating the formation of the reaction product stream 134 and the C stream 126 from the H2O stream 124 and the SPM product stream 132. Accordingly, the material compositions of the positive electrode 116 and the negative electrode 1 18 may be selected relative to one another, the material composition of the proton-conducting membrane 120, and the operating conditions of the electrolysis cell 114.

As a non-limiting example, if the proton-conducting membrane 120 comprises a suflonated tetrafluoroethylene-based flouropolymer-coplymer material, the positive electrode 116 may comprise one or more of metal and an alloy compatible with the suflonated tetrafluoroethylene-based flouropolymer-coplymer material; and the negative electrode 118 of the proton-conducting membrane 120 may comprise one or more of metal, an alloy, a metal coated material, an alloy coated material compatible with the suflonated tetrafluoroethylene-based flouropolymer-coplymer material. In some embodiments, the proton-conducting membrane 120 comprises a suflonated tetrafluoroethylene-based flouropolymer-coplymer material; the positive electrode 1 16 comprises one or more of platinum (Pt), titanium (Ti), an alloy thereof, or a combination thereof; and the negative electrode 118 comprises a metal-coated carbon material, such as carbon material (e.g., reticulated vitreous carbon) coated with one or more of silver (Ag), copper (Cu), gold (Au), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn). The metal coating the carbon material may comprise a plurality of metallic (e.g., pure metal, alloy) particles (e.g., discrete metallic particles). The metallic particles may be nano-sized (e.g., exhibiting an average particle size less than 1 micrometer (μιη), such as less than or equal to 750 nanometers, less than or equal to 500 nanometers, or less than or equal to 250 nm), micro-sized (e.g., exhibiting an average particle size greater than or equal 1 μιη, such as within a range of from about 1 μιη to about 50 μιτι, within a range of about 1 μιη to about 25 μιτι, within a range of about 1 μιη to about 10 μιτι, or within a range of about 1 μιη to about 5 μηι). In some embodiments, the metal-coated carbon material comprises reticulated vitreous carbon coated with Ag particles having an average particle size within a range of from about 1 micrometer (μηι) to about 5 μηι).

Optionally, one or more of the positive electrode 116 and the negative electrode 118 may include at least one additional catalyst material thereon, thereover, and/or therein. As used herein, the terms "catalyst material" and "catalyst" each mean and include a material formulated to promote one or more reactions, resulting in the formation of a product. For example, an additional catalyst material may be included on, over, and/or within the material of the positive electrode 116 to accelerate reaction rates within the positive electrode 116 to produce gaseous C , H ⁺ , and e ^" from H2O of the H2O stream 124. In some embodiments, a Pr-Ni-Fe oxide is provided on, over, and/or within the positive electrode 116 to accelerate oxygen evolution reaction (OER) rates therein. As another example, a catalyst material may be included on, over, and/or within the material of the negative electrode 118 to accelerate reaction rates within the negative electrode 118 to produce a desired product from H ⁺ , e ^" , and one or more of CCh, CCh electrochemical reduction product(s), and reaction product(s) of CO2 and/or CO2 electrochemical reduction product(s) and one or more other materials. In some embodiments, Cu is provided on, over, and/or within the negative electrode 118 to accelerate reaction rates at the negative electrode 118. In additional embodiments, nano-sized (e.g., having a cross-sectional width or diameter less than about one (1) μιη, such as less than or equal to about 100 nanometers (nm), less than or equal to about 20 nm, or less than or equal to about 10 nm) particles (e.g., Cu particles) are provided on, over, and/or within the negative electrode 118 to promote reaction rates therein.

The positive electrode 116 and the negative electrode 118 may individually exhibit any desired dimensions (e.g., length, width, thickness) and any desired shape (e.g., a cubic shape, cuboidal shape, a tubular shape, a tubular spiral shape, a spherical shape, a semi- spherical shape, a cylindrical shape, a semi-cylindrical shape, a conical shape, a triangular prismatic shape, a truncated version of one or more of the foregoing, and irregular shape). The dimensions and the shapes of the positive electrode 116 and the negative electrode 118 may be selected relative to the dimensions and the shape of the proton-conducting membrane 120 such that the proton-conducting membrane 120 substantially intervenes between opposing surfaces of the positive electrode 116 and the negative electrode 118. Thicknesses of the positive electrode 116 and the negative electrode 118 may individually be within a range of from about 10 μηι to about 1000 μηι.

As shown in FIG. 1, the buffer structure 119, if present, may be disposed between the proton-conducting membrane 120 and the negative electrode 118. The buffer structure 119 may comprise a porous structure that is compatible with the proton-conducting membrane 120 and the negative electrode 118 under the operating conditions (e.g., temperatures, pressures, flow rates) of the electrochemical apparatus 108, and that facilitates interactions between H ⁺ diffused through the proton-conducting membrane 120 and one or more components (e.g., the polar form of the SPM) of the SPM product stream 132 received into the second region 140 of the internal chamber 136 of the housing structure 112 of the electrochemical

apparatus 108. The buffer structure 119 may, for example, comprise a porous polymeric structure, such as a porous polyester structure. In some embodiments, the buffer structure 119 comprises a polyester fabric having a thickness less than or equal to about 200 μηι. In additional embodiments, the electrolysis cell 114 is substantially free of the buffer structure 119 between the proton-conducting membrane 120 and the negative electrode 118. In such embodiments, the negative electrode 118 is directly attached to the proton-conducting membrane 120.

The electrolysis cell 114, including the positive electrode 116, the proton-conducting membrane 120, and the negative electrode 118 thereof, may be formed through

conventional processes (e.g., rolling process, milling processes, shaping processes, pressing processes, consolidation processes, etc.), which are not described in detail herein. The electrolysis cell 114 may be mono-faced or bi-faced and may have a prismatic, folded, wound, cylindrical, or jelly rolled configuration. The electrolysis cell 114 may be placed within the housing structure 112 to form the electrochemical apparatus 108, and may be electrically connected to the power source 122.

During use and operation of the electrochemical apparatus 108, the H2O stream 124 received in the first region 138 of the internal chamber 136 of the housing structure 112 interacts with the positive electrode 116 of the electrolysis cell 114, while the SPM product stream 132 received in the second region 140 of the internal chamber 136 of the housing structure 112 interacts with the negative electrode 118 of the electrolysis cell 114. A potential difference (e.g., voltage) is applied between the positive electrode 116 and the negative electrode 118 of the electrolysis cell 114 by the power source 122 so that as the H2O of the H2O stream 124 interacts with the positive electrode 116, H atoms of the gaseous H2O release their electrons (e ^" ) to generate O2 gas (02(g)), H ⁺ , and e ^" according to the following equation:

2H ₂ 0 - 0 ₂₍ g) + 4H ⁺ + 4er (4)

The generated H ⁺ permeate (e.g., diffuse) across the proton-conducting membrane 120 to the negative electrode 118, the generated e ^" are directed to the power source 122 through external circuitry, and the generated 02(g) exits the electrochemical apparatus 108 as the O2 stream 126. At the negative electrode 118, the generated H ⁺ interacts with the bicarbonate ion (HCO3 ^" ) of the polar form of the SPM (e.g., the HCO3 ^" of the aminium salt, the bicarbonate ion of the amidinium salt, the bicarbonate ion of the guanidinium salt) to produce CO2 and H2O according to the following equation:

HCO3 + H ⁺ CO2 + H2O (5) At the negative electrode 118, produced CC may react with H2O and e ^" received from the power source 122 to produce CO and hydroxyl ions (OH ^" ), and H2O may react with e ^" received from the power source 122 to produce H2 gas and OH ^" , according to the following equations, respectively:

CO2 + H ₂ 0+2e ^~ - CO(g) + 20H- (6)

2H ₂ 0+2e ^~ - H ₂₍ g) + 20R (7)

Thus, a synthesis gas (syngas) including CO( ) and H ₂ (g) may be produced within the second region 140 of the internal chamber 136 of the housing structure 112. Furthermore, produced OH ^" may interact with remaining cation (e.g., aminium cation, amidinium cation, guanidinium cation) of the polar form of the SPM (e.g., the aminium salt, the amidinium salt, guanidinium salt) to re-produce the non-polar form of the SPM (e.g., the amine compound, the amidine compound, the guanidine compound) and H2O, according to one or more of the following equations:

where R ¹ , R ² , R ³ , R ⁴ , R ⁵ , and X are as defined above.

Optionally, depending at least on the diffusivity (e.g., diffusion rate) of the generated H ⁺ through the proton-conducting membrane 120, CO2 produced at the negative electrode 118 of the electrolysis cell 114 may be reacted with generated H ⁺ exiting the proton-conducting membrane 120 and e ^" received from the power source 122 to form one or more products other than CO. By way of non-limiting example, produced CO2 may be reacted with generated H ⁺ and received e ^" to produce one or more of formic acid (CH2O2), methane (CH4), and ethylene (C2H4) according to the following equations, respectively: CO2 + 2H ⁺ + 2er -> CH ₂ 0 ₂ (11)

C0 ₂ + 8H ⁺ + 8e- -> CH4 + 2H ₂ 0 (12)

CO 2 + 12H ⁺ + 72e ^" C2H4 + 4H20 (13)

In addition, optionally, products formed from reactions between produced CO2, generated H ⁺ , and received e ^" at the negative electrode 118 may be reacted with additional generated H ⁺ and additional received e ^" to form one or more additional products. As a non-limiting example, CH2O2 produced at the negative electrode 118 according to the reaction of Equation (11) above may be reacted with additional generated H ⁺ and additional received e ^" to produce formaldehyde (CH2O) according to the following equation:

::, ^· (14)

As another non-limiting example, CH2O produced at the negative electrode 118 according to the reaction of Equation (14) above may be reacted with yet additional generated H ⁺ and yet additional received e ^" to produce methanol (CH3OH) according to the following equation:

CH2O + 2H ⁺ + 2e ^~ -> CH ₃ OH . (15)

Although the electrochemical apparatus 108 is depicted as including a single (i.e., only one) electrolysis cell 114 in FIG. 1, the electrochemical apparatus 108 may include any number of electrolysis cells 114. Put another way, the electrochemical apparatus 108 may include a single (e.g., only one) electrolysis cell 114, or may include multiple (e.g., more than one) electrolysis cells 114. If the electrochemical apparatus 108 includes multiple electrolysis cells 114, each of the electrolysis cells 114 may be substantially the same (e.g., exhibit substantially the same components, component sizes, component shapes, component material compositions, component material distributions, component positions, component orientations, etc.) and may be operated under substantially the same conditions (e.g., substantially the same temperatures, pressures, flow rates, etc.), or at least one of the electrolysis cells 114 may be different (e.g., exhibit one or more of different components, different component sizes, different component shapes, different component material compositions, different component material distributions, different component positions, different component orientations, etc.) than at least one other of the electrolysis cells 114 and/or may be operated under different conditions (e.g., different temperatures, different pressures, different flow rates, etc.) than at least one other of the electrolysis cells 114. By way of non-limiting example, one of the electrolysis cells 114 may be configured for and operated under a different temperature (e.g., different operating temperature resulting from a different material composition of one of more components thereof, such as a different material composition of the proton-conducting membrane 120 thereof) than at least one other of the electrolysis cells 114. In some embodiments, two of more electrolysis cells 114 are provided in parallel with one another within the housing structure 112 of the electrochemical apparatus 108, and may individually form a portion of the products directed out of the electrochemical apparatus 108 in the reaction product stream 134.

In addition, although the CCh treatment system 100 is depicted as including a single

(i.e., only one) electrochemical apparatus 108 in FIG. 1, the CCh treatment system 100 may include any number of electrochemical apparatuses 108. Put another way, the CCh treatment system 100 may include a single (e.g., only one) electrochemical apparatus 108, or may include multiple (e.g., more than one) electrochemical apparatuses 108. If the CCh treatment system 100 includes multiple electrochemical apparatuses 108, each of the electrochemical apparatuses 108 may be substantially the same (e.g., exhibit substantially the same components, component sizes, component shapes, component material compositions, component material distributions, component positions, component orientations, etc.) and may be operated under substantially the same conditions (e.g., substantially the same temperatures, pressures, flow rates, etc.), or at least one of the electrochemical apparatus 108 may be different (e.g., exhibit one or more of different components, different component sizes, different component shapes, different component material compositions, different component material distributions, different component positions, different component orientations, etc.) than at least one other of the electrochemical apparatuses 108 and/or may be operated under different conditions (e.g., different temperatures, different pressures, different flow rates, etc.) than at least one other of the electrochemical apparatuses 108. By way of non-limiting example, one of the electrochemical apparatuses 108 may be configured for and operated under a different temperature (e.g., a different operating temperature resulting from a different material composition of one of more components of an electrolysis cell 114 thereof, such as a different material composition of the proton-conducting membrane 120 thereof) than at least one other of the electrochemical apparatuses 108. In some embodiments, two of more electrochemical apparatuses 108 are provided in parallel with one another. Each of the two of more electrochemical apparatuses 108 may individually receive a thO stream 124 and a SPM product stream 132 and may individually form a reaction product stream 134. In additional embodiments, two of more electrochemical apparatuses 108 are provided in series with one another. One of the two of more electrochemical apparatuses 108 may receive a H2O stream 124 and a SPM product stream 132 and may form an initial reaction product stream 134 therefrom, and another of the two of more electrochemical apparatuses 108 may receive another H2O stream 124 and the initial reaction product stream 134 (e.g., as a substitute for another SPM product stream 132) and may form another reaction product stream 134 therefrom.

With continued reference to FIG. 1, the reaction product stream 134 exits the second region 140 of the internal chamber 136 of the housing structure 112 of the electrochemical apparatus 108 and may be directed into the separation apparatus 110. The reaction product stream 134 may comprise a multi-phase stream (e.g., a stream including a gaseous phase and at least one liquid phase), and may include the non-polar form of at least one SPM (e.g., one or more of a tertiary amine, an ami dine, and a guanidine), liquid H2O, and one or more of at least one reaction product (e.g., CO, CH2O2, CH4, C2H4) formed through the electrochemical reduction of CO2, at least one reaction product (e.g., CH2O, CH3OH) formed through the electrochemical reduction of at least one CO2 derivative, and at least one reaction product (e.g., H2) formed through the electrochemical reduction of H2O. The reaction product stream 134 may also include CO2 and/or one or more unreacted materials (e.g., unreacted non-polar form of at least one SPM) of the SPM product stream 132. One or more apparatuses (e.g., heat exchangers, pumps, compressors, expanders, mass flow control devices, etc.) may be employed within the CO2 treatment system 100 to adjust the one or more of the temperature, pressure, and flow rate of the reaction product stream 134 delivered into the separation apparatus 1 10.

A single (e.g., only one) reaction product stream 134 may be directed into the separation apparatus 1 10, or multiple (e.g., more than one) reaction product streams 134 may be directed into the separation apparatus 110. If multiple reaction product streams 134 are directed into the separation apparatus 1 10, each of the multiple reaction product streams 134 may exhibit substantially the same properties (e.g., substantially the same material composition, substantially the same temperature, substantially the same pressure, substantially the same flow rate, etc.), or at least one of the multiple reaction product streams 134 may exhibit one or more different properties (e.g., a different material composition, a different temperature, a different pressure, a different flow rate, etc.) than at least one other of the reaction product streams 134.

The separation apparatus 110 may comprise at least one device or apparatus configured and operated to separate (e.g., remove) a liquid phase of the reaction product stream 134 from a gaseous phase of the reaction product stream 134. In some embodiments, the separation apparatus 110 comprises at least one distillation column. As shown in FIG. 1, the separation apparatus 110 may be configured and operated to produce a gaseous product stream 142 and a liquid product stream 144.

The gaseous product stream 142 exiting the separation apparatus 110 may include one or more gaseous products formed through the electrochemical reduction of one or more of CO2, CO2 electrochemical reduction products, and H2O in the electrochemical

apparatus 108. By way of non-limiting example, the gaseous product stream 142 may include one or more of CO gas, H2 gas, CH4 gas, C2H4 gas, and CH2O gas. The gaseous product stream 142 may also include one or more other gaseous materials, such as one or more of gaseous H2O, gaseous CO2, and at least one inert gas (e.g., N2 gas, a noble gas). In some embodiments, the gaseous product stream 142 comprises a syngas including a mixture of CO gas and H2 gas. The syngas may also include one or more of CO2 and CH4. By way of non-limiting example, the gaseous product stream 142 may comprise a syngas including from about 10 wt% CO to about 30 wt% CO, from about 60 wt% H2 to about 80 wt% Hi, from about 0 wt% CO2 to about 15 wt% CO2, and from about 0 wt% CH ₄ to about 5 wt% CH4. The gaseous product stream 142 may be utilized, further processed, and/or disposed of as desired.

The liquid product stream 144 exiting the separation apparatus 110 may include the non-polar form of at least one SPM (e.g., one or more of a tertiary amine, an ami dine, and a guanidine), liquid H2O, and, optionally, one or more liquid products (e.g., CH2O2, CH3OH) formed through the electrochemical reduction of one or more of CO2 and CO2 reduction products in the electrochemical apparatus 108. In some embodiments, the gaseous product stream 142 comprises a mixture of liquid H2O and one or more of a tertiary amine compound, an ami dine compound, and a guanidine compound. As shown in FIG. 1 , the liquid product stream 144 may be directed (e.g., recycled) into one or more of the CO2 capture apparatus 106, the SPM feed stream 130, and the SPM source 105 for use in repeating the process described above. The non-polar form of at least one SPM and the liquid H2O from the liquid product stream 144 may, for example, be introduced to additional CO2 from the CO2 stream 128 to form an additional amount of the polar form of at least one SPM, which may then be directed to and acted upon in the electrochemical apparatus 108 to produce additional reaction products (e.g., additional CO2 and H2O electrochemical reduction products, such as additional syngas) in the manner previously described above. In embodiments where the liquid product stream 144 includes materials other than the non-polar form of at least one SPM and liquid H2O (e.g., liquid products formed through the electrochemical reduction of one or more of CO2 and CO2 reduction products), the liquid product stream 144 may be subjected to one or more additional separation processes (e.g., fractional distillation, steam distillation, vacuum distillation, flash evaporation, catalytic cracking, etc.) to remove one or more of the materials from the liquid product stream 144 prior to directing the liquid product stream 144 into the CO2 capture apparatus 106, the SPM feed stream 130, and/or the SPM source 105. Materials separated from the liquid product stream 144 may be utilized or disposed of as desired.

The methods, systems (e.g., the CO2 treatment system 100), and apparatuses (e.g., the CO2 capture apparatus 106; the electrochemical apparatus 108, including the electrolysis cell 114 thereof) of the disclosure facilitate simple and efficient capture, transport, and conversion of CO2 into one or more desirable products. The methods, systems, and apparatuses of the disclosure reduce one or more of the time, costs, and energy (e.g., thermal energy, electrical energy, etc.) required to capture and transport CO2 (e.g., CO2 gas) and to synthesize one or more desirable products from CO2 relative to conventional methods, systems, and apparatuses. Accordingly, the methods, systems, and apparatuses of the disclosure may be more efficient, durable, and reliable that conventional methods, conventional systems, and conventional apparatuses of capturing and transporting CO2 and of synthesizing one or more desirable products from CO2.

The following examples serve to explain embodiments of the disclosure in more detail. These examples are not to be construed as being exhaustive or exclusive as to the scope of the disclosure.

EXAMPLES

Example 1 - Sample System Configuration and Operation 1-Cyclohexylpiperidine (CHP) was tested for the capture and electrochemical reduction of CO2 gas. Deionized H2O and CHP were used for the capture of CO2 in a g; diffusion membrane apparatus permitting the continuous production of 1-cyclohexylpiperidinium bicarbonate (CHP-H2CO3) solutions. A CO2 gas stream and a SPM feed stream including water and CHP were introduced to one another in the gas diffusion membrane apparatus with gas and liquids fed in opposite sides of a gas diffusion membrane. The gas diffusion membrane provided a mass transfer area permitting the diffusion of CO2 molecules through the gas diffusion membrane and into a SPM feed stream. The produced CHP-H2CO3 solution was recirculated in the gas diffusion membrane apparatus until a homogenous SPM product stream comprising an aqueous 3.0 M CHP-H2CO3 solution was achieved. CO2 gas capture was performed at room temperature. Concentrations of the produced CHP-H2CO3 were measured using an Agilent 7890 GC equipped with a 7693 auto- sampler and a flame ionization detector (FID).

Electrochemical reduction of captured CO2 in the SPM feed stream (in the form of CHP-H2CO3) was performed in a 10 cm ² electrolysis cell station (electrochemical apparatus) manufactured by Fuel Cell technology, Inc. (Albuquerque, NM) customized with titanium (Ti) plate current collectors (end plates) and connected to a BK Precision 1739 DC power supply. The electrolysis cell station included an electrolysis cell comprising a

NAFION® 117 proton exchange membrane (PEM); a positive electrode (anode) formed of platinum (Pt)-plated, sintered Ti on a first side of the NAFION® 117 PEM; an ultra-thin (178 μιη) polyester fabric on a second, opposing side of the NAFION® 117 PEM; and a negative electrode (cathode) formed of a catalyst coated, reticulated vitreous carbon (RVC) foam (80 nominal number of pores per inch (2.54 cm) of foam, 10 cm ² , 1.5 mm thick) on the ultra-thin polyester fabric. To prepare the catalyst coating of the negative electrode, silver (Ag) powder (1 μιη to 3 μηι average particle size, Alfa Aesar) was mixed in a solution including 2- propanol, NAFION® perfluorinated resin solution (5%, Aldrich), and polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) preparation (60%, Aldrich), to reach a final catalyst composition of 80wt% Ag, 10wt% Nafion, and 10wt% PTFE. The negative electrode had a total Ag loading of 25 mg cm ^"2 .

A Master Flex C/L peristaltic pump was used to recirculate anolyte (aqueous 1M H2SO4 solution) in a first (anode) chamber of the electrolysis cell station through a serpentine flow partem engraved in a Ti current collector. In a second (cathode) chamber of the electrolysis cell station, a cathode current collector was modified by removing the flow channels and replacing them with a hollow compartment that could fit the negative electrode. 15 mL of catholyte comprising the produced CHP-H2CO3 solution of the homogenous SPM product stream was recirculated to flood the second chamber, and was directed into a recirculation reservoir that served as a phase separator, using a bench-top Cole Parmer gear pump system. All of the CO2 added to the electrolysis cell station came from CHP-H2CO3 solution of the homogenous SPM product stream, and no additional CO2 gas was added directly to the electrolysis cell station and/or to the CHP-H2CO3 solution during operation. Once a desired current was applied, the negative electrode (cathode) side of the electrolysis cell station was allowed to self-pressurize by the gases produced at in the second chamber. The pressure on the negative electrode side was manually controlled using a needle valve and the gases were collected in a Restek Multilayer bag, for gas chromatography (GC) analysis. Electrochemical reduction experiments were performed at different current densities from 25 to 100 mA cm ^"2 , back pressures of 0, 137.9, and 275.9 KPa (0, 20, and 40 psig), and constant temperature of 25°C. Gases produced during the electrochemical reduction of CO2 were analyzed in a Hewlett Packard 5890 GC equipped with two TCD detectors and two columns. A molecular sieve 5A and argon as gas carrier were used for the detection and quantification of CO, while a capillary column 2C D-poraPLOTU and helium gas carrier were used for the detection and quantification of CO2. Finally, the volume of collected gas was measured using a Hamilton, Co. model s-1000 syringe. From the product analysis, syngas compositions, faradaic efficiencies (FE), and CO2 conversions were determined.

Example 2 - CO2 Conversion at Different Back Pressures and Constant Current Density CO2 conversion tests based on the sample system configuration described in

Example 1 were performed at constant current density of 100 mA cm ^"2 over 30 min at 0 KPa (0 psig) and 137.9 KPa (20 psig) negative electrode (cathode) side back pressure. Analysis of the produced gases demonstrated the presence of CO and an H2 as products of CHP-H2CO3 solution electrolysis, as well as the presence of CO2 released from the CHP-H2CO3 solution. A reaction product stream exiting the electrolysis cell station exhibited a liquid portion and a gaseous portion. In the liquid portion, two liquid phases were observed. A top liquid phase comprised CHP, and a bottom liquid phase comprised an aqueous solution including unreacted CHP-H2CO3. In the gaseous portion, H2 gas was the primary component, and low CO Faradaic efficiencies (FE) of 1.1 % and 2.9 % were observed at 0 KPa (0 psig) and 137.9 KPa (20 psig), respectively. Higher amounts of CO2 were released when no back pressure was applied. The results suggest a beneficial effect on the back pressure possibly re- dissolving unreacted CO2, hence increasing the efficiency for CO production. During the operation the cell potential varied from ca 5.5 V to 4.5 V. The high cell potential (electrode polarization induced by the low ionic conductivity) was then attributed to be one of the main causes.

Example 3 - CO2 Conversion at Different Current Densities and Constant Back Pressure CO2 conversion tests based on the system configuration described in Example 1 were performed using 137.9 KPa (20 psig) back pressure and current densities from 26 to 104 mA cm ^"2 . FIG. 2 shows the composition of syngas produced during the electrolysis of the CHP-H2CO3 solution. Similar charges were aimed for all the experiments at different current densities. Hence, the test at 52 mA cm ^"2 was run twice longer than the test at 104 mA cm ^"2 . Higher CO concentration was obtained at 78 mA cm ^"2 , which corresponded to a H2:CO ratio of 2.6. The amount of CO2 released from the CHP-H2CO3 solution increased as the current increased. Slow release of CO2 at low current densities may affect the CO2 availability for reaction and, therefore, the reaction yields at low current densities. At 104 mA cm ^"2 , higher electrode polarization may be attributed to the decrease in the CO yield. The syngas concentration profile also shows that, except for the process at 26 mA cm ^"2 , the CO2 concentration in the produced gas is lower than the amount of CO2. The results show that syngas can be directly produced from a CHP-H2CO3 solution, eliminating the requirement of downstream separations. Example 4 - Syngas Faraday Efficiencies and CO2 Conversion at Different Current

Densities and Different Back Pressures

Faraday Efficiencies (FE) of syngas produced using the system configuration described in Example 1 were determined at current densities and different back pressures.

The results are shown in FIG. 3. The results show that at 104 mA cm ^"2 the CO FE increased over 20% with an increase in the back pressure from 137.9 KPa (20 psig) to 275.9 KPa (40 psig). Over 100 % increase can be observed when the FE of CO at 0 KPa (0 psig) and 275.9

KPa (40 psig) are compared. An 8.5% increase in the FE was also observed for the 75 mA cm ^"2 when the back pressure was increased from 137.9 KPa (20 psig) to 275.9 KPa (40 psig).

These results show the beneficial effect of the back pressure in the efficiency of the electrochemical reduction of CO2. It is also observed in FIG. 3 that the sum of CO and H2

FEs are close to 100 % for all the experimental conditions. Hence, no significant quantities of other CO2 reduction products (e.g., formate) are expected. In addition, employing an assumption that the only products formed during the electrolysis of the CHP-H2CO3 solution were CO and H2, CO2 conversions were calculated based on the amount of CO2 released from the CHP-H2CO3 solution during the test (unreacted CO2 + CO2 converted to CO). The results are shown on FIG. 4. The results show that CO2 conversions and yields were as high as 71.7 % during the electrochemical production of syngas from CO2 captured in the CHP-H2CO3 solution at 104 mA cm ^"2 , 275.9 KPa (40 psig), and 25°C. For these conditions, the measured FfciCO ratio was 2.4.

Example 5 - Syngas Composition and CO2 Conversion over Time A transient performance analysis was performed to evaluate the performance of the system configuration described in Example 1 and the characteristics of syngas produced thereby over an extended period of time (105 min). For this purpose, the system was run at 100 mA cm ^"2 , 275.9 KPa (40 psig), and 25°C, collecting samples every 15 minutes for GC analysis. The CHP-H2CO3 solution was kept on recyrculation and without external additions of fresh solution. The results are shown in FIGS. 5 and 6. FIG. 5 is a graph showing syngas composition and FhiCO ratio as a function of applied charge. FIG. 6 shows is a graph showing CO2 convention as a function of applied charge.

The results depicted in FIG. 5 indicate that at the beginning, while the process reaches the desired operating pressure and builds an adequate concentration of free CO2, CO production efficiencies are low. Close to 13% of the volume of gas collected during the first sample corresponded to air displaced from the system as electrochemically generated gas started evolving. The highest CO2 reduction efficiency was measured for the second gas sample after stabilization of the pressure in the system. Then the CO yield starts decreasing, H2 increases, following the decrease of CO2 available for reaction. Decrease in performance with time can be explained by a decrease of CHP-H2CO3 concentration in the recirculated solution. Dilution of the CHP-H2CO3 concentration is enhanced by the water transferred from the positive electrode (anode) due to electro-osmotic drag.

In addition, as shown in FIG. 6, CO2 conversion remained fairly stable, with a slight 4.3% decrease over a 90 min period (plot points two and four in FIG. 7). The fact that the CO2 conversion remains stable during the operation supports the conclusion that decrease in CO yield during time is likely caused by the depletion of captured CO2 rather than catalyst deactivation. A continuous process operation, continuously feeding fresh CHP-H2CO3 solution and continuously removing spent solution may allow the continuous production of syngas with stable compositions.

Example 6 - Effect of Supporting Electrolyte Additive on the Ionic Conductivity of a

CHP-H2CO3 Solution

The effect of the addition of a supporting electrolyte on the ionic conductivity of a CHP-H2CO3 solution was investigated. K2SO4 was tested. Diluted CHP-H2CO3 solutions with 0.2 M K2SO4 were prepared, and ionic conductivity was measured. The results are shown in FIG. 7. As shown in FIG. 7, a 47 percent increase in ionic conductivity was observed for a 1.25 M CHP-H2CO3 solution with 0.2 M K2SO4. However, close to a 10 fold increase in CO production and FE were obtained during electrochemical reduction experiments.

While the disclosure is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments have been shown by way of example in the drawings and have been described in detail herein. However, the disclosure is not limited to the particular forms disclosed. Rather, the disclosure is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and altematives falling within the scope of the following appended claims and their legal equivalent. For example, elements and features disclosed in relation to one embodiment may be combined with elements and features disclosed in relation to other embodiments of the disclosure.