Description

The instant invention relates to a modified mussel protein according to the preamble of claim 1 , to different uses of such a modified mussel protein according to the preambles of claims 8, 9, 1 1 and 12, to a nucleic acid encoding for such a modified mussel protein according to the preamble of claim 13, to an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase suited for manufacturing such a modified mussel protein according to the preamble of claim 14, to the use of such an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase according to the preamble of claim 15, and to a novel use of ortho- nitrobenzyl-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine according to the preamble of claim 16. In medicine, there is a long-standing demand for biocompatible glues, which can be applied for the treatment of bone fractures or accelerated wound healing in order to replace currently existing, limited therapeutic approaches, which make use of pins and nails. ¹ Biocompatible bio-glues must meet several demands, such as good binding strength to the tissue (adhesion), a high stability under physiological, wet conditions (cohesion), controllable biodegradability, no immunogenicity in the organism as well as no toxicity. ² However, a bio-glue that meets these demands is currently not available. While bio-glues like fibrin show weak binding strength and rapid biodegradation, synthetic glues like cyanoacrylates show strong binding properties, but are potentially toxic for organisms ³ and not absorbable, thus impairing endogenous bone repair. ¹

A biological glue that can meet the above stated requirements is found in marine mussels, which are able to affix themselves to solid surfaces underwater in intertidal zones by means of their protein-based glue. ^{4 5} In order to enable adhesion, mussels fabricate the so-called byssus, which consists of several proteinaceous threads, which end in an adhesive plaque. The adhesive plaque is in direct contact with the surface and is composed of different mussel adhesive proteins (MAPs), which allow for a strong, permanent adhesion on a variety of organic and inorganic surfaces. The tensile strength is up to 10 MPa ⁶ , which is in the range of cancellous bones (around 5 MPa). ⁷ They key player of underwater adhesion is the catecholic amino acid 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (Dopa), which is formed post-translationally from tyrosine. Dopa contributes to adhesion by various mechanisms such as hydrogen bonding, metal coordination or quinone-mediated crosslinking. ⁴ Reflecting the high importance of Dopa for mussel adhesion, MAPs feature high Dopa contents of up to 30 mol%. Due to low extraction yields from mussels, much effort has been made to synthesize mussel- inspired polymers ^{8 9} or to recombinantly produce MAPs ^{10 11} by making use of an enzymatic in vitro hydroxylation step, co-expression of tyrosinase or by making use of eukaryotic expression systems in order to hydroxylate tyrosine residues post-translationally. While these approaches suffer from low binding strengths, low hydroxylation efficiencies or low protein yields, respectively, residue-specific replacement of tyrosine with Dopa ¹¹ has been conducted in E. coli more recently by exploiting the substrate tolerance of E. coli Tyrosyl tRNA synthetase (TyrRS). This approach, however, suffers from the poor activation rate of Dopa by E. coli TyrRS, as well as impaired cell growth due to proteome-wide incorporation of Dopa.

It is an object of the instant invention to provide a novel system and suited tools for producing Dopa-containing proteins, in particular Dopa-containing mussel proteins, as well as providing accordingly modified mussel proteins themselves.

This object is achieved, amongst others, by a modified mussel protein having the features of claim 1 . Such a mussel protein comprises at least one 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative residue instead of a naturally occurring amino acid in the respective native analogue of the modified mussel protein (e.g., a natural occurring mussel protein). Thereby, the 3,4- dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative residue comprises a protecting group on at least one hydroxyl residue of its catechol moiety. It can also be denoted as protected 3,4- dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative residue.

The modified mussel protein is, in an embodiment, a modified mussel adhesive protein. In the following, the term "modified mussel proteins" always encompasses modified mussel adhesive proteins and could be limited to this embodiment.

The 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative residue is a photocaged 3,4- dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative residue. The protecting group can be cleaved from the 3,4- dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative residue by irradiation with UV light.

In an embodiment, the modified mussel adhesive protein is a modified fp-5 protein (MAP fp- 5). In an embodiment, the only modification of the photocaged 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative as compared to 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine is the protecting group on at least one hydroxyl residue of its catechol moiety. In another embodiment, the 3,4- dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative additionally lacks an amino group in C2 position.

In an embodiment, the protecting group is chemically bound to both hydroxyl residues of the catechol moiety. AlkyI chains having 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10 carbon atoms are particularly suited for this purpose.

A suited example of a protecting group is 6-nitro-1 ,3-benzodioxol. This protecting group has been described to undergo a fast decaging process when irradiated with light having a wavelength of 365 nm. Furthermore, undesired intracellular reduction of the nitro group to an amine was not observed for the 1 -nitro-3,4-methylenedioxybenzene group, thus improving the overall efficiency of decaging. Consequently, this protecting group is very well suited in order to produce photocaged Dopa to be incorporated into a modified mussel protein. The chemical structure of this protecting group is indicated in the following, wherein R is, in the instant embodiment, a Dopa derivative residue or a Dopa residue:

In an embodiment, the protecting group is chemically bound to one hydroxyl residue of the catechol moiety.

In an embodiment, ortho-nitrobenzyl is used as UV-cleavable protecting group so that the photocaged 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative is ortho-nitrobenzyl-3,4- dihydroxyphenylalanine (ONB-Dopa).

The ortho-nitrobenzyl group (ONB group) ¹² is a protecting group that can be readily cleaved off by irradiation with UV light at 365 nm, thus releasing the catecholic functionality of Dopa.

The ONB group has been frequently used to produce caged proteins which can be activated by simple irradiation with UV light. While similar compounds such as ONB-tyrosine ^12-14 and ONB-fluorotyrosine ¹⁵ have been described, ONB-Dopa was, to the knowledge of the inventors, not used in any study before. The advantages of photoprotected Dopa analogues are that it allows the production of photoactivatable bio-glues, and avoids Dopa autoxidation to Dopaquinone, which has been described to impair adhesive properties. ¹⁶ In order to synthesise the modified mussel protein, the inventors established a system of novel aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (aaRS) and a cognate tRNA. In recent years, orthogonal pairs (o-pairs) consisting of an aaRS and the cognate tRNA have been engineered in order to allow activation and incorporation of non-canonical amino acids (ncAA) into proteins in response to the amber stop codon. ¹⁷ The same approach has been taken here. The used tRNA recognizes the amber stop codon (TGA) that, consequently, no longer acts as stop codon but as codon coding for an amino acid loaded to the specific tRNA. This amino acid is determined by the newly developed aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases and is in the instant case ONB-Dopa. Modifications of the o-pair would allow for incorporation of other photocaged 3,4- dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative residues.

The novel aaRS allow the incorporation of ONB-Dopa into proteins at multiple sites leading to the production of caged mussel proteins, whose adhesive properties can be activated spatiotemporally upon irradiation at 365 nm. These light-activatable (photoactivatable) mussel proteins hold great potential for biomedical purposes, e.g., for the treatment of bone fractures.

As the cooperative effect of multiple Dopa residues strongly improves mussel adhesion, several photocaged 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative residues, in particular ONB-Dopa residues, are incorporated simultaneously into the modified mussel protein in an embodiment in order to mimic the adhesive abilities of mussels. Thus, in an embodiment, the modified mussel protein comprises 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1 , 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, or 19 of such photocaged 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative residues, in particular ONB-Dopa residues. In an embodiment, it comprises 2 to 19 according residues, in particular 3 to 18, in particular 4 to 17, in particular 5 to 16, in particular 6 to 15, in particular 7 to 14, in particular 8 to 13, in particular 9 to 12, in particular 10 to 1 1 according residues.

In an embodiment, the photocaged 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative residue, in particular the ONB-Dopa residue, replaces a tyrosine residue. To produce an accordingly modified mussel protein, at least one codon coding for tyrosine is genetically replaced by the amber stop codon, which is then used by the newly developed orthogonal pair of an aaRS and a cognate tRNA for introducing ONB-Dopa or another photocaged 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative residue during protein synthesis into the modified mussel protein. In an embodiment, the modified mussel protein comprises an amino acid sequence being at least 95%, in particular at least 96%, in particular at least 97%, in particular at least 98%, in particular at least 99%, in particular at least 99.5% and very particular 100% identical to SEQ ID NO: 1 , SEQ ID NO: 2, SEQ ID NO: 3, SEQ ID NO: 1 1 , SEQ ID NO: 12, SEQ ID NO: 13, SEQ ID NO: 14, SEQ ID NO: 15, SEQ ID NO: 16, SEQ ID NO: 17, SEQ ID NO: 18, or SEQ ID NO: 19. SEQ ID NO: 1 describes a modified mussel protein bearing 5 ONB-Dopa residues. SEQ ID NO: 2 describes a modified mussel protein bearing 10 ONB-Dopa residues. SEQ ID NO: 3 describes a modified mussel protein bearing 19 ONB-Dopa residues, i.e. all 19 tyrosine residues of the wild type mussel protein (fp-5) are exchanged by ONB-Dopa. SEQ ID NO: 1 1 , SEQ ID NO: 12 and SEQ ID NO: 13 are identical to the first 77 amino acids of SEQ ID NO: 1 , SEQ ID NO: 2, or SEQ ID NO: 3, respectively, but do not contain a C-terminal His6 tag. In an embodiment, the modified mussel protein does not only comprise such an amino acid sequence, but consists of this amino acid sequence.

SEQ ID NO: 14 describes a modified mussel protein bearing 5 photocaged Dopa residues (ONB-Dopa and 6-nitro-1 ,3-benzodioxol-Dopa are examples of a photocaged Dopa residue). SEQ ID NO: 15 describes a modified mussel protein bearing 10 photocaged Dopa residues. SEQ ID NO: 16 describes a modified mussel protein bearing 19 photocaged Dopa residues, i.e. all 19 tyrosine residues of the wild type mussel protein (fp-5) are exchanged by photocaged Dopa residues. SEQ ID NO: 17, SEQ ID NO: 18 and SEQ ID NO: 19 are identical to the first 77 amino acids of SEQ ID NO: 14, SEQ ID NO: 15, or SEQ ID NO: 16, respectively, but do not contain a C-terminal His6 tag. In an embodiment, the modified mussel protein does not only comprise such an amino acid sequence, but consists of this amino acid sequence.

In an embodiment, the modified mussel protein comprises an amino acid sequence being at least 95 %, in particular at least 96%, in particular at least 97%, in particular at least 98%, in particular at least 99%, in particular at least 99.5% and very particular 100% identical to SEQ ID NO: 4 that is fused to the N-terminus of the amino acid sequence as defined in the preceding three paragraphs. The protein having SEQ ID NO: 4 is a maltose-binding protein (MBP) having a Tobacco Etch Virus (TEV) protease cleavage site and can also be denoted as MBP-TEV. It can be easily cleaved from the protein to which it is fused by treating it with TEV protease. After such treatment, a protein having an amino acid sequence being at least 95% identical to SEQ ID NO: 1 , SEQ ID NO: 2, SEQ ID NO: 3, SEQ ID NO: 1 1 , SEQ ID NO: 12, SEQ ID NO: 13, SEQ ID NO: 14, SEQ ID NO: 15, SEQ ID NO: 16, SEQ ID NO: 17, SEQ ID NO: 18, or SEQ ID NO: 19 results. In an aspect, the instant invention relates to the use of the modified mussel protein according to the preceding explanations as a biodegradable glue, in particular to an according in vitro use. In an aspect, the instant invention relates to a method for combining two elements by gluing them together with a biodegradable glue comprising a modified mussel protein according to the preceding explanations.

In an aspect, the instant invention relates to the use of the modified mussel protein according to the preceding explanations for coating a surface with a functional entity that is covalently bound to the modified mussel protein. Thereby, the invention particularly relates to an according in vitro use. By such a use of the modified mussel protein, the surface properties of many different substrates can be adjusted in any desired way by choosing an appropriate functional entity. The functional entity can be, e.g., a peptide or a protein.

In an embodiment, the functional entity exhibits antimicrobial properties. In this embodiment, it is possible to establish an antimicrobial surface coating of an article. To give an example, an implant like a prosthesis or another medical article can be coated by an according functionalized modified mussel protein. Thereby, an antimicrobial peptide is very well suited to be fused with the modified mussel protein.

In an aspect, the instant invention relates to a method for coating the surface of an article with a functionalized modified mussel protein comprising the modified mussel protein according to the preceding explanations and a functional entity being covalently bound to the modified mussel protein.

In an aspect, the instant invention relates to the use of a modified mussel protein according to the preceding explanations in medicine, In particular in surgery or therapy (first medical use). In another aspect, the instant invention relates to the use of the modified mussel protein according to the preceding explanations in surgery or therapy as biodegradable glue.

In an aspect, the instant invention relates to a therapeutic method for tightly connecting two parts of the body of a human or an animal in need thereof by applying a biodegradable glue comprising a modified mussel protein according to the preceding explanations to at least one of the parts to be connected, in particular to both parts to be connected. In an aspect, the instant invention relates to the use of the modified mussel protein according to the preceding explanations in the treatment of a bone fracture or for enhancing wound healing (second or further medical use). Wound healing can be enhanced, e.g., by coupling the modified mussel protein with an antimicrobial entity such as an antimicrobial peptide and by applying this functionalized modified mussel protein onto or into a wound to prevent or ameliorate wound infection. For this purpose, the functionalized modified mussel protein can be applied onto a dressing that is intended to be used for wound treatment.

In an aspect, the instant invention relates to a method of treating a bone fracture or a method for enhancing wound healing by applying a modified mussel protein according to the preceding explanations to a human or animal in need thereof, in particular by applying such a modified mussel protein onto a fractured bone or onto a wound that is to be healed.

All described uses and all corresponding methods can be particularly well applied after the corresponding modified mussel protein is activated by UV light, in particular with UV light having a wavelength of 360 to 370 nm, in particular 365 nm, so as to cleave the ONB protecting group and to expose the Dopa residues.

In an aspect, the instant invention relates to a nucleic acid encoding for a modified mussel protein according to the preceding explanations, having a sequence being at least 99 %, in particular at least 99.5%, in particular 100% identical to SEQ ID NO: 5, SEQ ID NO: 6 or SEQ ID NO: 7. The nucleic with SEQ ID NO: 5 comprises 5 TAG triplets that are recognized by a specific tRNA that is loaded by a specific aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase with ONB-Dopa. Thus, these TAG triplets serve for incorporating ONB-Dopa during protein synthesis into the modified mussel protein to be synthesized. Thus, this nucleic acid encodes for the modified mussel protein according to SEQ ID NO: 1. The nucleic with SEQ ID NO: 6 comprises 10 TAG triplets; it encodes for the modified mussel protein according to SEQ ID NO: 2. The nucleic with SEQ ID NO: 7 comprises 19 TAG triplets; it encodes for the modified mussel protein according to SEQ ID NO: 3. In each case, the TAG triplets replace a triplet encoding for tyrosine in the underlying unmodified mussel protein.

In an aspect, the instant invention relates to an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase, comprising an amino acid sequence being at least 98 %, in particular at least 99%, in particular at least 99.5%, in particular 100% identical to SEQ ID NO: 8, SEQ ID NO: 9 or SEQ ID NO: 10. In an embodiment, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase consists of an according amino acid sequence. The protein according to SEQ ID NO: 8 can also be referred to as ONB-DopaRS-1 , the protein according to SEQ ID NO: 9 can also be referred to as ONB-DopaRS-2, and the protein according to SEQ ID NO: 10 can also be referred to as ONB-DopaRS-3. Such an aminoacyl- tRNA synthetase is able to load a corresponding tRNA with ONB-Dopa. Thus, it is very well suited to be used for incorporating ONB-Dopa into a peptide to be synthesized. Since the substrate binding site of an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase comprises ca. 30 amino acids, 20 ³⁰ ~ 10 ³⁹ possible sequences result. It was a very surprising finding for the inventors to identify three different (but closely related) aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases that are very well suited to load a cognate tRNA with ONB-Dopa.

The instant invention relates in an aspect to the use of an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase according to the preceding paragraph for incorporating ortho-nitrobenzyl-3,4- dihydroxyphenylalanine into a peptide to be synthetized. Thereby, the term "peptide" relates within the instant disclosure to any of dipeptides, oligopeptides, polypeptides and proteins. In an embodiment, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase is used for incorporating ONB-Dopa into a protein to be synthesized. The synthesis can take place in bacteria, in yeast cells, in plant cells, in whole plants or in a cell-free protein synthesis system.

According to the knowledge of the inventors, photocaged 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative residues such as ONB-Dopa have not been used for synthesizing peptides. The instant invention relates, therefore, in an aspect to the use of photocaged 3,4- dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative residue, in particular of ONB-Dopa, in the synthesis of peptides. Regarding the meaning of the term "peptide" and suited synthesis systems, reference is made to the preceding paragraph.

ONB-Dopa can be present into stereoisomeric forms, namely the D form and the L form. In an embodiment, the ONB-Dopa is ONB-L-Dopa. This embodiment is explicitly applicable to the protein sequences disclosed in the instant application in which ONB-Dopa is present.

The ONB group can be bound to Dopa in meta (m) or para (p) position. In an embodiment, the ONB-Dopa is m-ONB-Dopa, in particular m-ONB-L-Dopa. This embodiment is also explicitly applicable to the protein sequences disclosed in the instant application in which ONB-Dopa is present.

The chemical structure of m-ONB-L-Dopa corresponds to formula (I) and the chemical structure of ONB-L-Dopa derivable from m-ONB-L-Dopa by UV irradiation corresponds to formula (II):

In a further aspect, the instant invention relates to a method for producing a modified mussel protein according to the preceding explanations. This manufacturing method is characterized by the steps explained in the following.

First, a genetically modified nucleic acid sequence encoding for the modified mussel protein to be synthesized is provided. Thereby, this modified nucleic acid sequence contains one or more amber stop codons (TAG triplets) instead of naturally occurring triplets at the same site of the nucleic acid. In an embodiment, a triplet coding for tyrosine (a TAT or TAC triplet) has been replaced by a TAG triplet.

In an embodiment, a nucleic acid sequence being at least 99%, in particular at least 99.5%, in particular 100% identical to SEQ ID NO: 5, SEQ ID NO: 6 or SEQ ID NO: 7 can be provided. Afterwards, protein synthesis is carried out by using the provided nucleic acid as template. This protein synthesis can, e.g., be carried out in bacteria, in yeast cells, in plant cells, in whole plants or in a cell-free protein synthesis system. Thereby, the system used for protein synthesis comprises an orthogonal pair of a specific aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase as well as a corresponding tRNA. Thereby, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase is capable of transferring a photocaged 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative residue, in particular ONB-Dopa, onto the corresponding tRNA. This purpose - in particular if ONB-Dopa is chosen as photocaged 3,4- dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative residue - can best be achieved if the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase comprises or consists of an amino acid sequence being at least 98%, in particular at least 99%, in particular at least 99.5%, in particular 100% identical to SEQ ID NO: 8, SEQ ID NO: 9 or SEQ ID NO: 10. A suited tRNA to be used for incorporating ONB-Dopa into the modified mussel protein to be synthesized is a tRNA previously described in literature. ²³ The protein synthesis system further comprises "usual" amino acid tRNA-synthetases and corresponding tRNAs for performing proper protein synthesis.

The synthesized modified mussel protein can then be purified by a technique generally known to a person skilled in the art such as using an agarose resin, magnetic beads or suited columns. Thereby, a His6 tag can well be used for purification purposes (see, e.g., SEQ ID NO: 1 , SEQ ID NO: 2, SEQ ID NO: 3, SEQ ID NO: 14, SEQ ID NO: 15, or SEQ ID NO: 16).

All embodiments described with respect to the different substances, uses and methods can be combined in any desired way and can be transferred to any other substance, use or method in any desired combination. Thereby, embodiments of substances can be transferred to uses and methods, embodiments of uses can be transferred to substances and methods, and embodiment of methods can be transferred to substances and uses.

Aspect of the instant invention will be explained in more detail in the following making reference to exemplary embodiments and to accompanying Figures. In the Figures:

Figure 1A shows an SDS-PAGE and Western Blot analysis of MBP-fp-5 variants expressed in Β95.ΔΑ23;

Figure 1 B shows an NBT staining of fp-5 variants expressed in presence of m-ONB- Dopa;

Figure 1 C shows a surface-coating analysis under dry conditions;

Figure 2 shows a deconvoluted ESI-MS spectrum of MBP-fp-5(5TAG) after incorporation of m-ONB-Dopa;

Figure 3A shows a MALDI-TOF spectrum of MBP-fp-5(5TAG);

Figure 3A shows a MALDI-TOF spectrum of MBP-fp-5(10TAG); Figure 4A shows F-D curves of fp-5(5TAG) interacting with a mica surface, obtained by an AFM analysis; and Figure 4B shows force values of two functionalized tips with fp-5 WT and with fp- 5(5TAG), obtained by AFM analysis.

First exemplary embodiment

Many generally known protecting groups can be used to produce a protected 3,4- dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative and thus to allow spatiotemporal activation of Dopa's adhesive properties.

An elegant strategy involves engineering the metabolism of bacterial cells in order to produce protected L-Dopa analogues from easily available, cheap precursor molecules. To convert these precursors into amino acids, recombinant strains can be created which express a novel engineered phenylalanine-ammonia lyase (PAL) or tyrosine-ammonia lyase (TAL).

O-pairs, e.g. based on M/TyrRS, are designed for in vivo tRNA aminoacylation with these protected L-Dopa derivatives. Deprotection can be achieved via different ways such as light- exposure or, as shown in the following reaction scheme 1 , via acidic hydrolysis, finally leading to an underwater adhesive protein.

Reaction scheme 1 : Protection of catechol functionality as isopropylidene with 2,2- dimethoxypropane (DMP) introduced in tosylic acid (TsOH) to obtain a protected 3,4- dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative. After translation, the obtained peptide is posttranslationally deprotected by acidic hydrolysis to unmask the adhesive peptide.

Second exemplary embodiment

ONB-Dopa was used as protected (photocaged) 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine derivative residue throughout this example.

To test whether multi-site incorporation of ONB-Dopa (to be more specifically, the ONB group was attached at the meta hydroxyl group of the catechol moiety; m-ONB-Dopa) into proteins naturally displaying high Dopa contents is feasible, a MAP type 5 (fp-5) was chosen as fp-5 is key component of the wet adhesion abilities of mussels. Fp-5 displays the highest Dopa contents of ~ 30 mol% which makes it especially attractive for multi-site incorporation of Dopa analogs. For expression tests, a fusion construct was used consisting of an N-terminal maltose binding protein (MBP) sequence with an additional TEV cleavage site and a C-terminal fp-5 sequence from M. galloprovincialis equipped with a His6 tag.

Tyrosine codons were replaced at five or ten positions with amber codons to allow site-specific incorporation of m-ONB-Dopa by means of a novel ONB-Dopa-specific aaRS (ONB-DopaRS- 1 , SEQ ID NO: 8). For protein expression, the E. coli BL21 (DE3) strain derivative Β-95.ΔΑ23 was chosen, in which RF1 is eliminated. SDS-PAGE and Western blotting indicate the incorporation of m-ONB-Dopa into fp-5(5 amber codons; 5TAG) and fp-5(10 amber codons; 10TAG). The results are shown in Figure 1A. WT MBP-fp-5 (lane 1 ), MBP-fp-5(5TAG) (lane 3), and MBP-fp-5(10TAG) (lane 5) were digested with TEV protease and insoluble fractions of fp-5 (lane 2), fp-5(5TAG) (lane 4), and fp-5(1 OTAG) (lane 6) were analyzed. Depending on the ONB-Dopa content, the expected molecular weight of MBP-fp-5 variants is ~ 51-54 kDa and - 10-12 kDa for fp-5 variants after TEV digest.

The occurrence of multiple bands of purified ONB-Dopa containing fp-5(5TAG) and fp- 5(1 OTAG) variants in SDS PAGE analysis might be caused by partial reduction of the nitro group of ONB to an amine as previously reported. ²¹ Approximately ~ 6 mg I ^"1 and ~ 1 mg I ^"1 of purified fp-5(5TAG) or fp-5(10TAG) were obtained in presence of m-ONB-Dopa, respectively, compared to ~ 18 mg I ^"1 of wild-type (WT) fp-5 (containing 19 Tyr residues).

Production and decaging of fp-5(5TAG) and fp-5(10TAG) variants bearing ONB-Dopa was verified after TEV digest by employing the redox-cycling nitro blue tetrazolium (NBT), which selectively stains Dopa or Dopaquinone containing proteins. ²² While pronounced staining occurred in irradiated (+) Fp-5(5TAG) and Fp-5(10TAG) samples, with the latter showing stronger staining, almost no color development was observed without irradiation (-) (Figure 1 B). This indicates successful decaging of ONB-Dopa by UV irradiation. As a proof-of-principle test for Dopa-mediated adhesion, the surface adhesion ability of fp-5 variants was tested using a direct surface coating assay under dry conditions ¹¹ (Figure 1 C). The upper panel of Figure 1 C shows an image of Coomassie-stained dots. Equal amounts of bovine serum albumin (BSA) and fp-5 variants were spotted at least six times with (+) or without (-) irradiation at 365 nm onto a polystyrene surface. The quantification of dot intensities shown in the lower panel of Figure 1 C indicates elevated adhesive potential after irradiation. The data represent mean ± s.d. The obtained data indicate elevated adhesion on polystyrene surfaces with increasing Dopa content after UV irradiation, demonstrating the adhesive potential of recombinantly produced photocaged mussel proteins. Taken together, these results show that ONB-DopaRS-1 facilitates efficient multi-site incorporation of ONB-Dopa into mussel protein fp-5, thus allowing recombinant production of photocaged MAPs with adhesive potential.

The properties of the produced proteins were further analyzed by mass spectrometry (Figures 2 and 3). Figure 2 shows a deconvoluted ESI-MS spectrum of MBP-fp-5(5TAG) after incorporation of m-ONB-Dopa using ONBYRS-1. The found and expected masses are as follows: MBP-fp-5 (5 ONB-Dopa), observed: 521 14.7 Da, expected: 521 15.8 Da.

Figure 3A shows a MALDI-TOF spectrum of MBP-fp-5(5TAG) and Figure 3B shows a MALDI- TOF spectrum of MBP-fp-5(10TAG) after incorporation of m-ONB-Dopa, TEV digest and irradiation with UV light. The found and expected masses are as follows: fp-5(5 Dopa), observed: 9807.9 Da (M+H ⁺ ), expected: 9807.7 Da (M+H ⁺ ). fp-5(10 Dopa), observed: 9887.5 Da (M+H ⁺ ), expected: 9887.7 Da (M+H ⁺ ).

In order to demonstrate the underwater adhesive potential of photocaged MAPs, atomic force microscopy (AFM) based force spectroscopy was employed which has been used to study Dopa-mediated wet adhesion. For this purpose, a bifunctional acetal-polyethylenglycol (PEG)- N-hydroxy-succinimide (NHS) linker molecule ^{24 25} allowed covalent attachment of MAPs via lysine residues.

Force-distance (F-D) curves of functionalized AFM tips were measured in sodium acetate buffer (10 mM, pH 4.6) on mica surfaces before and after irradiation with UV light (see Figures 4A and 4B). Figure 4A depicts both approach and retraction signals. Figure 4B shows force values of two tips (a, b) functionalized with different fp-5 variants (namely, fp-5 WT, fp-5(5TAG), and fp-5(10TAG)) before (white bars) and after irradiation (black bars). Data represent mean ± s.d. of 100 F-D curves; significance is designated by symbols ^* p<10 ^-3 , ^** p<10 ^-6 , ^*** p<10 ^-6 . While adhesion forces of fp-5 WT did not change significantly through UV irradiation in any measurement, fp-5(5TAG) and fp-5(10TAG) showed a significant increase of the adhesion force (up to 12-fold or up to 6.5-fold, respectively) upon UV light exposure.

To verify that Dopa accounts for the increased adhesion, unmodified and amino-functionalized tips were investigated. Both showed adhesion in the low pN range, in each case unaffected from UV light exposure. The data of fp-5 equipped with five or ten instances of m-ONB-Dopa provide clear evidence for the feasibility of spatiotemporal control of Dopa-mediated adhesion and the high potential of recombinantly produced photocaged MAPs.

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