MODIFIED STEEL COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS RELATED THERETO

CROSS-REFERENCE

[0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/968,253 filed January 31, 2020, U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/067,306 filed August 18, 2020, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/068,295, filed August 20, 2020, both of which are incorporated herein in their entireties by reference for all purposes.

BACKGROUND

[0002] Steel can be an alloy of iron and other elements, including carbon. When carbon is the primary alloying element, its content in the steel may be from about 0.002% to 2.1% by weight. Without limitation, the following elements can be present in steel: carbon, manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, oxygen, nitrogen, and aluminum. Alloying elements added to modify the characteristics of steel can include without limitation: manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium and niobium.

[0003] The particular composition of steel can be modified, depending upon the chosen application, to optimize chemical, mechanical, electrical, or other properties. Certain steel compositions can be used where the properties of steel are beneficial.

SUMMARY

[0004] Recognized herein is a need for metal compositions with improved electrical and mechanical properties. It is desirable to produce metal compositions, for example electrical steels, with reduced core losses from magnetic induction when compared to conventional metal compositions. Preferably, metal compositions will have minimal core losses from magnetic induction and be formable to allow the metal compositions to be mechanically reduced to thin gauges. Provided herein are methods for forming metal compositions that offer enhanced electrical and/or magnetic properties while retaining mechanical properties that permit mechanical reduction to small gauge sizes.

[0005] Provided in certain embodiments herein is a method for forming a magnetically-enhanced substrate, comprising annealing a substrate. The substrate may comprise an elemental species to generate an annealed substrate comprising the elemental species. In some embodiments, an annealed substrate comprises (e.g., adjacent to a surface thereof) a layer comprising the elemental species. The methods may further comprise mechanically reducing a dimension of the annealed substrate to form a magnetically- enhanced substrate. The dimension of the annealed substrate may be mechanically reduced relative to the substrate.

[0006] Provided in certain embodiments herein is a method for forming for forming a magnetically- enhanced substrate, comprising applying a slurry to a surface of a substrate to provide a slurry-coated substrate. The slurry may not comprise an elemental species. In some embodiments, the substrate comprises an elemental species. The methods may further comprise annealing the slurry-coated substrate to generate an annealed substrate. In some embodiments, the annealed substrate comprises a layer comprising the elemental species (e.g., adjacent to the surface of the substrate.) The annealed substrate may then be mechanically reduced at least in one dimension relative to the substrate to form the magnetically-enhanced substrate.

[0007] Provided in certain embodiments herein is a method for forming a magnetically-enhanced substrate, the method comprising: a. applying a slurry comprising an alloying agent to a surface of a substrate to provide a slurry-coated substrate comprising the alloying agent or a derivative thereof, where the alloying agent comprises an elemental species; b. annealing the slurry-coated substrate to generate an annealed substrate comprising a layer comprising the elemental species adjacent to the surface of the substrate; and c. mechanically reducing at least one dimension of the annealed substrate relative to the substrate to form the magnetically-enhanced substrate.

[0008] Provided in certain embodiments herein is a method for forming a magnetically-enhanced substrate, the method comprising: mechanically reducing at least one dimension of an annealed substrate relative to a substrate to form the magnetically-enhanced substrate, where the annealed substrate has been generated by annealing a slurry-coated substrate, which slurry-coated substrate has been generated by applying a slurry to a surface of the substrate, where: the slurry comprises an alloying agent comprising an elemental species; the slurry-coated substrate comprises the alloying agent or a derivative thereof; and the annealed substrate comprises a layer comprising the elemental species adjacent to the surface of the substrate.

[0009] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the substrate comprises a coating layer that comprises a metal or metal oxide selected from the group consisting of cobalt, nickel, silicon, aluminum, oxides thereof, and a combination thereof.

[0010] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the coating layer of the substrate comprises aluminum. In some embodiments, the coating layer of the substrate comprises silicon. In some embodiments, the coating layer of the substrate comprises silicon and aluminum. In some embodiments, the coating layer of the substrate comprises nickel. In some embodiments, the coating layer of the substrate comprises cobalt. In some embodiments, the coating layer of the substrate comprises cobalt and nickel. In some embodiments, the coating layer has been electroplated or hot-dipped on the substrate.

[0011] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the substrate comprises a metal, metal oxide, or metal alloy. In some embodiments, the substrate comprises copper, tin, chromium, nickel, molybdenum, aluminum, manganese, iron, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, silicon, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the substrate comprises iron, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, silicon, aluminum, chromium, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the substrate comprises carbon, nitrogen, or sulfur.

[0012] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the substrate comprises steel. In some embodiments, the steel comprises, by weight, at most about 0.01%, 0.009%, 0.008%, 0.007%, 0.006%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.003%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0009%, 0.0008%, 0.0007%, 0.0006%, or 0.0005% carbon. In some embodiments, the steel comprises, by weight, about 0.0005% to about 0.006% carbon. In some embodiments, the steel comprises, by weight, at most about 3.5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.5%, 1%, or 0.5% silicon. In some embodiments, the steel comprises, by weight, about 0.0001% to about 0.01% sulfur.

[0013] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the substrate has an average thickness of at most about 0.063, 0.057, 0.051, 0.047, 0.045, 0.040, 0.036, 0.032, 0.031, 0.028, 0.025, 0.023, 0.02, 0.01, or 0.004 inches.

[0014] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is selected from the group consisting of silicon, manganese, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, copper, zirconium, boron, aluminum, sulfur, chromium, and phosphorus. In some embodiments, the elemental species comprises silicon. In some embodiments, the elemental species comprises nickel. In some embodiments, the elemental species comprises cobalt. In some embodiments, the elemental species comprises aluminum.

[0015] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the alloying agent comprises a plurality of elemental species comprising the elemental species. In some embodiments, the plurality of elemental species comprises at least two elemental species selected from the group consisting of silicon, manganese, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, copper, zirconium, boron, aluminum, and phosphorus. In some embodiments, the plurality of elemental species comprises silicon and aluminum.

[0016] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the slurry comprises, by weight, at most about 80%, 70%, 60%, or 50% silicon. In some embodiments, the slurry comprises, by weight, at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, or 25% silicon. In some embodiments, the slurry comprises, by weight, about 10% to about 80%, about 20% to about 80%, about 25% to about 80%, about 30% to about 80%, about 10% to about 70%, about 20% to about 70%, or about 20% to about 60% silicon. In some embodiments, the slurry comprises, by weight, at most about 80%, 70%, 60%, or 50% aluminum. In some embodiments, the slurry comprises, by weight, at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, or 25% aluminum. In some embodiments, the slurry comprises, by weight, about 10% to about 80%, about 20% to about 80%, about 25% to about 80%, about 30% to about 80%, about 10% to about 70%, about 20% to about 70%, or about 20% to about 60% aluminum. In some embodiments, the slurry comprises a metal oxide species. [0017] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the metal oxide species comprises titanium oxide, aluminum oxide, silicon oxide, or magnesium oxide. In some embodiments, the metal oxide species comprises silicon oxide. In some embodiments, the metal oxide species comprises aluminum oxide. In some embodiments, the metal oxide species comprises titanium oxide.

[0018] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the slurry comprises a plurality of metal oxide species comprising the metal oxide species. In some embodiments, the plurality of metal oxide species comprises two metal oxide species. In some embodiments, the two metal oxide species are silicon oxide and aluminum oxide. In some embodiments, the two metal oxide species have a mass ratio of about 1:1, 1:5, or 1:10.

[0019] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the slurry comprises a metal oxide species that is (i) less thermodynamically stable than a slurry elemental species and (ii) capable of undergoing a metallothermic reduction reaction (e.g., in situ ) with the slurry elemental species to form a corresponding metal. In some embodiments, the slurry elemental species capable of undergoing the metallothermic reduction reaction comprises aluminum or an alloy thereof (e.g., ferroaluminum). In some embodiments, the slurry comprises a metal oxide species that is (i) less thermodynamically stable than a substrate elemental species and (ii) capable of undergoing a metallothermic reduction reaction (e.g., in situ ) with the substrate elemental species to form a reduction product. In some embodiments, the substrate elemental species capable of undergoing the metallothermic reduction reaction comprises sulfur, nitrogen, or carbon. In some embodiments, the reduction product comprises a corresponding metal sulfide, a corresponding metal nitride, or a corresponding metal carbide. [0020] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the metal oxide species comprises an inert species.

[0021] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the alloying agent comprises a ferroalloy. In some embodiments, the ferroalloy comprises ferrosilicon, ferroaluminum, ferronickel, ferrocobalt, ferromanganese, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the ferroalloy comprises at least about 15 wt% silicon, aluminum, nickel, cobalt, or manganese. In some embodiments, the ferroalloy comprises at most about 85% aluminum.

[0022] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the alloying agent has an average particle size of less than about 200, 100, 40, 10, or 1 micrometer(s) (μm). [0023] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, where the slurry comprises no metal halide activator.

[0024] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the alloying agent is configured to react with a hydrogen gas to form a hydride compound that is capable of transport into the substrate. In some embodiments, the alloying agent configured to react with the hydrogen gas is selected from the group consisting of aluminum, silicon, and manganese. [0025] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the slurry comprises a binder, optionally where the binder comprises magnesium acetate, citric acid, polypropylene carbonate, polyethylene oxide, or a combination thereof.

[0026] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the slurry comprises a solvent. In some embodiments, the solvent comprises water. In some embodiments, the solvent comprises a non-aqueous solvent. In some embodiments, the solvent comprises an alcohol. In some embodiments, the solvent is isopropanol.

[0027] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the slurry-coated substrate comprises a slurry coating, which slurry coating has an average thickness of no more than an average thickness of the substrate. In some embodiments, the slurry coating has an average thickness of no more than about 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 30, 10, or 20 micrometers (μm).

[0028] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the annealing of (b) occurs at a temperature of about 600 degrees Celsius (°C) to about 1200 °C, about 600 degrees Celsius (°C) to about 1100 °C, about 600 degrees Celsius (°C) to about 1000 °C, about 800 degrees Celsius (°C) to about 1000 °C, or about 800 degrees Celsius (°C) to about 900 °C. In some embodiments, the annealing of (b) occurs in an atmosphere comprising hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, the atmosphere comprises hydrogen gas mixed with an inert gas.

[0029] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the hydrogen gas reacts with the elemental species in the slurry to form a hydride compound that is capable of transport into the substrate.

[0030] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species, with which the hydrogen gas reacts, is selected from the group consisting of aluminum, silicon, and manganese.

[0031] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the hydride is selected from the group consisting of aluminum hydride, silicon hydride, and manganese hydride.

[0032] In various embodiments of the method of forming a magnetically-enhanced substrate, the method further comprising cooling the annealed substrate at a rate of at least about 30 degrees Celsius (°C) per second.

[0033] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the annealed substrate has an increased fracture toughness relative to the substrate. In some embodiments, the at least one dimension is mechanically reduced in a single process of mechanical reduction. In some embodiments, the at least one dimension is mechanically reduced in a plurality of processes of mechanical reduction. In some embodiments, the plurality of processes of mechanical reduction comprises a first process of mechanical reduction and a second process of mechanical reduction. In some embodiments, each process of mechanical reduction is independently a process selected from the group consisting of stretch forming, tension level, thermal flattening, draw forming, re-striking, crash forming, spin forming, roll forming, hydro-forming, CNC forming, flanging, crimping, hemming, hot stamping, extrusion, and a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the at least one dimension is an average thickness of the substrate.

[0034] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, a mechanically-reduced substrate formed subsequent to a process of mechanical reduction is annealed at a temperature of about 600 degrees Celsius (°C) to about 1200 °C, about 600 degrees Celsius (°C) to about 1100 °C, about 600 degrees Celsius (°C) to about 1000 °C, about 800 degrees Celsius (°C) to about 1000 °C, or about 800 degrees Celsius (°C) to about 900 °C.

[0035] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has been annealed for a duration when reaching a ferritic phase. In some embodiments, the duration is at least 10 sec, 20 sec, 30 sec, 40 sec, 50 sec, 1 min, 30 min, 1 hour, 2 hours, 3 hours, 4 hours, or 5 hours. In some embodiments, the ferritic phase comprises at least 99% or 100%, by volume, one or more ferritic microstructures.

[0036] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, where the magnetically-enhanced substrate comprises a metal diffusion layer, which metal diffusion layer comprises a diffusion frontier boundary proximate thereto formed within the substrate. In some embodiments, the metal diffusion layer extends less than 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, or 30% into an average thickness of the magnetically-enhanced substrate. In some embodiments, the metal diffusion layer extends 50% or more into an average thickness of the magnetically-enhanced substrate. In some embodiments, the metal diffusion layer extends about 50% into an average thickness of the magnetically- enhanced substrate.

[0037] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the diffusion frontier boundary is characterized by a composition substantially identical to a native substrate composition. In some embodiments, the diffusion frontier boundary has an average concentration of silicon that is between 90% and 110%, or between 95% and 115% of a native substrate silicon concentration. In some embodiments, the diffusion frontier boundary has an average concentration of aluminum that is between 90% and 110%, or between 95% and 115% of a native substrate aluminum concentration. In some embodiments, the diffusion frontier boundary is characterized by a composition different from a native substrate composition.

[0038] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of silicon of at most about 10 wt%,

9 wt%, 8 wt%, 7 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 5 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 4 wt%, or 3 wt%. [0039] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of aluminum of at most about 12 wt%, 11 wt %, 10 wt%, 9 wt%, 8 wt%, 7 wt%, 6 wt%, 5 wt %, 4 wt%, 3 wt%, 2 wt%, or 1 wt%. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has (i) an average surface concentration of silicon of at most about 10 wt% and (ii) an average surface concentration of aluminum of at most about 6 wt%. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of cobalt of at most about 50% wt%, 40 wt%, 30 wt%, 20 wt%, 10 wt%, 9 wt%, 8 wt%, 7 wt%, 6 wt%, 5 wt %, 4 wt%, 3 wt%, 2 wt%, or 1 wt%. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of nickel of at most about 50% wt%, 40 wt%, 30 wt%, 20 wt%, 10 wt%, 9 wt%, 8 wt%, 7 wt%, 6 wt%, 5 wt %, 4 wt%, 3 wt%, 2 wt%, or 1 wt%. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a concentration profile of silicon that decreases substantially linearly from a surface of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, through the metal diffusion layer, to the diffusion frontier boundary.

[0040] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the concentration profile of silicon decreases at a rate of about 0.001 wt% to about 1 wt% per micrometer (μm). . In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a concentration profile of silicon that is substantially uniform therethrough. In some embodiments, the concentration profile of silicon is of about 1 wt% to about 5 wt% or about 2 wt% to about 3 wt% that varies by less than 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.1 wt%, 0.05 wt%, or 0.01 wt% therethrough.

[0041] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a concentration profile of aluminum that decreases substantially linearly from a surface of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, through the metal diffusion layer, to the diffusion frontier boundary. In some embodiments, the concentration profile of aluminum decreases at a rate of about 0.001 wt% to about 1 wt% per micrometer (μm). In some embodiments, the magnetically- enhanced substrate has a concentration profile of aluminum that is substantially uniform therethrough. In some embodiments, the concentration profile of aluminum is of about 1 wt% to about 10 wt% or about 2 wt% to about 8 wt% that varies by less than 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.1 wt%, 0.05 wt%, or 0.01 wt% therethrough.

[0042] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the average surface concentration or the concentration profile is determined by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis, glow-discharge mass spectrometry analysis, glow-discharge optical emission spectrometry analysis, or a combination thereof.

[0043] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average thickness that is about 30% to about 90%, about 40% to about 90%, about 40% to about 85%, or about 50% to about 85% of a corresponding average thickness of the substrate prior to mechanical reduction. In some embodiments, the average thickness of the substrate is mechanically reduced to no more than about 0.02, 0.018, 0.016, 0.014, 0.013, 0.011, 0.01, 0.0089,

0.008, 0.0071, 0.0063, 0.0056, 0.005, 0.0045, or 0.004, 0.001, 0.0001, or 0.00001 inch(es).

[0044] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an altered grain size compared to a grain size of the substrate. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an increased grain orientation compared to a grain orientation of the substrate. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a decreased grain orientation compared to a grain orientation of the substrate. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a texture that is different from a texture of the substrate. In some embodiments, a surface of the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a core loss that is at least 5% less than a core loss of the surface of the substrate. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a core loss of no more than 3.0, 2.0, 1.0, or 0.5 watts per kilogram under W 10/60 magnetic field conditions. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a core loss of no more than 750 watts per kilogram under W 10/5000 magnetic field conditions.

[0045] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an increased fracture toughness relative to the substrate. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a fracture toughness of at least about 20, 40, 60, or 80 megaPascal-meter½.

[0046] Provided in certain embodiments herein is a magnetically-enhanced substrate, comprising a layer metallurgically bonded with a substrate through a metal diffusion layer, which metal diffusion layer comprises a diffusion frontier boundary proximate thereto formed within the substrate, where the magnetically-enhanced substrate has (i) a measured core loss of no more than about 2.0 watts per kilogram under W 10/60 magnetic field conditions, and (ii) a measured core loss of no more than 750 watts per kilogram under W 10/5000 magnetic field conditions.

[0047] Provided in certain embodiments herein is a magnetic or electric device comprising a magnetically-enhanced substrate.

[0048] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the metal diffusion layer extends less than 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, or 30% into an average thickness of the magnetically-enhanced substrate. In some embodiments, the metal diffusion layer extends 50% or more into an average thickness of the magnetically-enhanced substrate. In some embodiments, the metal diffusion layer extends about 50% into an average thickness of the magnetically-enhanced substrate.

[0049] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the diffusion frontier boundary is characterized by a composition substantially identical to a native substrate composition. In some embodiments, the diffusion frontier boundary has an average concentration of silicon that is between 90% and 110%, or between 95% and 115% of a native substrate silicon concentration. In some embodiments, the diffusion frontier boundary has an average concentration of aluminum that is between 90% and 110%, or between 95% and 115% of a native substrate aluminum concentration. In some embodiments, the diffusion frontier boundary is characterized by a composition different from a native substrate composition.

[0050] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the substrate comprises a metal, metal oxide, or metal alloy. In some embodiments, the substrate comprises iron, carbon, nitrogen, silicon, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the substrate comprises carbon or nitrogen, In some embodiments, the substrate comprises steel. [0051] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the steel comprises, by weight, at most about 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.08%, 0.06%, 0.04%, or 0.02% carbon. In some embodiments, the steel comprises, by weight, about 0.1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 5%, or about 2% to about 3% silicon.

[0052] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the substrate comprises at least about 90% or 95%, by volume, one or more ferritic microstructures at a temperature from about 100 degrees Celsius (°C) to about 1000 °C. In some embodiments, the substrate has an average thickness of no more than about 0.063, 0.02, 0.01, 0.001, or 0.0001 inches.

[0053] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the metal diffusion layer has an average thickness of no more than about 100, 20, 10, or 5 micrometers (μm). In some embodiments, the metal diffusion layer comprises an elemental species selected from the group consisting of silicon, manganese, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, copper, zirconium, boron, aluminum, and phosphorus.

[0054] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is selected from the group consisting of silicon, manganese, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, copper, zirconium, boron, aluminum, and phosphorus. In some embodiments, the elemental species is silicon. In some embodiments, the elemental species is nickel. In some embodiments, the elemental species is cobalt. In some embodiments, the elemental species is aluminum.

[0055] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the metal diffusion layer comprises a plurality of elemental species comprising the elemental species. In some embodiments, the plurality of elemental species comprises at least two elemental species selected from the group consisting of silicon, manganese, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, copper, zirconium, boron, aluminum, and phosphorus. In some embodiments, the plurality of elemental species comprises silicon and aluminum. [0056] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, where the magnetically- enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of silicon of at most about 10 wt%, 6.5 wt%, or 4.5 wt%. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of aluminum of at most about 12 wt%, 10 wt%, 8 wt%, 6 wt%, 4 wt%, or 2 wt%. In some embodiments, where the magnetically-enhanced substrate has (i) an average surface concentration of silicon of at most about 10 wt% and (ii) an average surface concentration of aluminum of at most about 6 wt%. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of cobalt of at most about 50 wt%. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of nickel of at most about 50 wt%.

[0057] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a concentration profile of silicon that decreases substantially linearly from a surface of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, through the metal diffusion layer, to the diffusion frontier boundary. [0058] In some embodiment of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the concentration profile of silicon decreases at a rate of about 0.001 wt% to about 1 wt% per micrometer (μm). In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a concentration profile of silicon that is substantially uniform therethrough. In some embodiments, the concentration profile of silicon is of about 1 wt% to about 5 wt% or about 2 wt% to about 3 wt% that varies by less than 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.1 wt%, 0.05 wt%, or 0.01 wt% therethrough. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a concentration profile of aluminum that decreases substantially linearly from a surface of the magnetically- enhanced substrate, through the metal diffusion layer, to the diffusion frontier boundary. In some embodiments, the concentration profile of aluminum decreases at a rate of about 0.001 wt% to about 1 wt% per micrometer (μm). In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a concentration profile of aluminum that is substantially uniform therethrough. In some embodiments, the concentration profile of aluminum is of about 1 wt% to about 10 wt% or about 2 wt% to about 8 wt% that varies by less than 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.1 wt%, 0.05 wt%, or 0.01 wt% therethrough. In some embodiments, the average surface concentration or the concentration profile is determined by energy- dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis.

[0059] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the magnetically-enhanced substrate further comprising an insulator adjacent to the surface layer or the metal diffusion layer. In some embodiments, the insulator comprises a metal oxide species. In some embodiments, the metal oxide species comprises titanium oxide, aluminum oxide, magnesium oxide, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the insulator comprises a plurality of metal oxide species comprising the metal oxide.

[0060] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a core loss of no more than 1.0, or 0.5 watts per kilogram under W 10/60 magnetic field conditions. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a fracture toughness of at least about 20, 40, 60, or 80 megaPascal -meter½. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate comprises at least about 90% or 95%, by volume, one or more ferritic microstructures at a temperature from about 100 degrees Celsius (°C) to about 1000 °C. [0061] Additional aspects and advantages of the present disclosure will become readily apparent to those skilled in this art from the following detailed description, wherein only illustrative embodiments of the present disclosure are shown and described. As will be realized, the present disclosure is capable of other and different embodiments, and its several details are capable of modifications in various obvious respects, all without departing from the disclosure. Accordingly, the drawings and description are to be regarded as illustrative in nature, and not as restrictive.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

[0062] All publications and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0063] The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings (also “figure” and ‘FIG.” herein), of which: [0064] FIG. 1 depicts a conceptual schematic of a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) formation process.

[0065] FIG. 2 depicts a conceptual schematic of a second metal layer (or metal difiusion layer) formation process.

[0066] FIG. 3 shows an example of an internal grain structure of a surface optimized difiusion alloy (SODA).

[0067] FIG. 4 illustrates a schematic of an exemplary computer system.

[0068] FIG. 5 displays a comparison of core losses between an example of a SODA steel composition and a commercial Si steel.

[0069] FIG. 6 displays an example of a micrograph of a cross-section of a silicon-containing SODA. [0070] FIG. 7A - 7F illustrate an example of various elemental species concentration profiles that could be developed by a metal layer (or metal difiusion layer) deposition process.

[0071] FIG. 8A shows an example of a micrograph of a cross-section of a silicon-containing SODA.

[0072] FIG. 8B displays an example of stress-strain data for the silicon-containing SODA of FIG.

8A.

[0073] FIG. 8C displays of silicon concentration as a function of depth for the SODA of FIG. 8 A, according to some embodiments.

[0074] FIG. 9 shows an example of a cross-section of a silicon-containing SODA that has been rolled to a thin gauge, according to some embodiments.

[0075] FIG. 10 displays of data for stacking factor versus lamination thickness for electrical steels, according to some embodiments.

[0076] FIG. 11A shows of a micrograph of a SODA formed with a slurry loading of 0.033 g/in, according to some embodiments.

[0077] FIG. 1 IB shows of a micrograph of a SODA formed with a slurry loading of 0.019 g/in, according to some embodiments.

[0078] FIG. 11C shows of a micrograph of a SODA formed with a slurry loading of 0.033 g/in, according to some embodiments.

[0079] FIG. 12 displays a micrograph of a SODA that has experienced substrate attack during alloying, according to some embodiments.

[0080] FIG. 13A shows a micrograph of a SODA that has been annealed at a temperature of 925 °C, according to some embodiments.

[0081] FIG. 13B shows a micrograph of a SODA that has been annealed at a temperature of 900 °C, according to some embodiments.

[0082] FIG. 13C shows a micrograph of a SODA that has been annealed at a temperature of 875 °C, according to some embodiments. [0083] FIG. 13D shows a micrograph of a SODA that has been annealed at a temperature of 850 °C, according to some embodiments.

[0084] FIG. 14A shows a micrograph of a SODA that has been annealed for 5 hours, according to some embodiments.

[0085] FIG. 14B shows a micrograph of a SODA that has been annealed for 10 hours, according to some embodiments.

[0086] FIG. 14C shows a micrograph of a SODA that has been annealed for 20 hours, according to some embodiments.

[0087] FIG. 15A shows a micrograph of a SODA that has been annealed in a 35% H ₂ atmosphere, according to some embodiments.

[0088] FIG. 15B shows a micrograph of a SODA that has been annealed in a 100% H ₂ atmosphere, according to some embodiments.

[0089] FIG. 16A shows a micrograph of a SODA that has been formed with FeSi as an alloying agent, according to some embodiments.

[0090] FIG. 16B shows a micrograph of a SODA that has been formed with Si as an alloying agent, according to some embodiments.

[0091] FIG. 17 depicts curve fits of core loss data of SODAs as a function of various processing conditions, according to some embodiments.

[0092] FIG. 18A - 18D display micrographs and mechanical properties of various SODA, according to some embodiments.

[0093] FIG. 18E plots yield strength data for the SODA compositions shown in FIGs. 18A-18D, according to some embodiments.

[0094] FIG. 19 displays a comparison of electrical property data for commercially-available electrical steels and SODAs, according to some embodiments.

[0095] FIG. 20A depicts a schematic view of the Si concentration profile of a 4.5% Si SODA.

[0096] FIG. 20B displays an example of EDS data for Si concentration for a 4.5% Si SODA.

[0097] FIG. 21A displays an example of an SEM micrograph of an Al-deposited SODA.

[0098] FIG. 21B displays an example of an EDS linescan of A1 concentration as a function of depth for an Al-deposited SODA.

[0099] FIG. 22 shows a plot of predicted R factor for various diffusion times, according to some embodiments.

[00100] FIG. 23 illustrates core loss values of two exemplary electrical steels, according to some embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[00101] While various embodiments of the invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only.

Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions may occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed.

[00102] The term “slurry,” as used herein, generally refers to a solution comprising a liquid phase and a solid phase. The sohd phase may be in the liquid phase. A slurry may have one or more liquid phases and one or more sohd phases.

[00103] The term “adjacent” or “adjacent to,” as used herein, generally refers to ‘next to’, ‘adjoining’, ‘in contact with,’ and ‘in proximity to.’ In some instances, adjacent to may be ‘above’ or ‘below.’ A first layer adjacent to a second layer may be in direct contact with the second layer, or there may be one or more intervening layers between the first layer and the second layer.

[00104] Whenever the term “at least,” “greater than,” or “greater than or equal to” precedes the first numerical value in a series of two or more numerical values, the term “at least,” “greater than” or “greater than or equal to” applies to each of the numerical values in that series of numerical values. For example, greater than or equal to 1, 2, or 3 is equivalent to greater than or equal to 1, greater than or equal to 2, or greater than or equal to 3.

[00105] Whenever the term “no more than,” “less than,” or “less than or equal to” precedes the first numerical value in a series of two or more numerical values, the term “no more than,” “less than,” or “less than or equal to” applies to each of the numerical values in that series of numerical values. For example, less than or equal to 3, 2, or 1 is equivalent to less than or equal to 3, less than or equal to 2, or less than or equal to 1.

[00106] As used herein, the term “magnetic” or “magnetically,” when used in connection with a material or composition, is intended to broadly refer to hard magnetic or soft magnetic (or both) materials or compositions, properties thereof, or applications thereof.

[00107] The present disclosure provides parts, articles, or objects (e.g., sheets, tubes or wires) coated with one or metal layers (or metal diffusion layers). A part may be at least a portion of an object or may be an entirety of the object. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may include one or more metals. In some cases, a substrate may be coated with a metal layer (or metal diffusion layers). The coating may comprise an alloying agent having at least one elemental metal. A slurry-coated substrate may be formed when a substrate is coated with a slurry comprising an alloying agent having at least one elemental metal. The substrate that has been coated with an alloying agent may be subjected to annealing conditions to yield a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to the substrate. The metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be coupled to a substrate with the aid of a diffusion layer between the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) and the substrate.

[00108] Substrates may generate an alloy layer of >50 micrometers (μm) (i.e., 1 micrometer = 10 ^-6 meter) pmwhile still retaining fine grains (>7 ASTM grain size) in the substrate. The grades developed and presented above are grades that may not be standard grades. The grades may be useful for high temperature annealing or high temperature applications not pertaining to metallizing processes. [00109] Provided herein are compositions of steel substrates with enhanced electrical and/or magnetic and/or mechanical properties. The enhanced steel substrates may have enhanced electrical properties, such as reduced core loss, when compared to other commercial electrical steels. The enhanced steel substrates may also have enhanced mechanical properties, such as reduced brittleness, when compared to other commercial electrical steels. In some cases, the enhanced mechanical properties may permit the forming of the steel substrates at small gauges where electrical properties are optimized. The steel substrates with enhanced electrical and/or magnetic and/or mechanical properties may be used for any conceivable application including, for example, metal windings for motor cores.

[00110] The steel substrates with enhanced properties may be created by the formation of metal layers (or metal difiusion layers) on one or more substrate surfaces. The metal layers (or metal difiusion layers) may be formed by the difiusion of one or more elemental species into the substrate. In some cases, the elemental species diffused into the steel substrate may be silicon or aluminum. In some cases, two or more elemental species may be co -diffused into a steel substrate. The concentration and/or concentration gradient of one or more elemental species in the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) on the one or more surfaces of the steel substrate may be optimized for enhanced electrical properties.

[00111] Also provided herein are methods for producing steel substrates with enhanced electrical and/or magnetic and/or mechanical properties. In some cases, metal layers (or metal diffusion layers) comprising one or more elemental species may be deposited by a slurry coating method. Metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) properties, such as thickness, elemental species concentration, and elemental species concentration gradient, may be controlled by various processing parameters including annealing temperature and annealing time. In some cases, silicon deposition may be controlled by the use of silicon species such as silane or FeSi. Silicon deposition may also be controlled by the use of various processing atmospheres such as hydrogen (H ₂ )gas or HVinert gas mixtures.

[00112] Also, provided herein are methods for forming steel substrates with enhanced electrical and/or magnetic and/or mechanical properties. In some cases, a steel substrate may undergo a forming process (e.g., cold rolling) prior to the final formation of a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) on one or more surfaces of the steel substrate. In some cases, the gauge or thickness of the steel substrate may be reduced before the final formation of the metal layer. In some cases, annealing of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may occur before and after a forming process to create a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) on the one or more substrate surfaces with optimized properties. The electrical steel compositions of the present disclosure may have better formability than electrical steels produced by other methods.

Substrates

[00113] The present disclosure provides substrates and methods that employ depositing metal layers (or metal diffusion layers) adjacent to substrates. Such substrates can include, for example, one or more of the following elements: carbon, manganese, silicon, vanadium, titanium, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, and niobium. Substrates may include any material capable of forming a diffusion layer by reaction with a diffusing elemental species. Substrates may include metals, metal oxides, ceramics, composites, and alloyed metals. In some cases, a substrate may comprise a steel. In some cases, a substrate may comprise one or more impurities, such as carbon, nitrogen, or sulfur. Examples of substrates include but are not limited to cast iron, carbon steel, stainless steel, silicon steel, electrical steel and noise vibration harshness damping steel. [00114] The substrate may be provided as a coil, coiled mesh, wire, pipe, tube, slab, mesh, dipped formed part, foil, plate, a wire rope, a rod, or a threaded rod where a screw pattern has been applied to any length or thickness of rod, a sheet, or a planar surface. The substrate may include various surfaces or features including, without limitation, flat surfaces, concave surfaces, convex surfaces, curves, bends, holes, depressions, channels, slots, wells, grooves, ridges, spines, spikes, pillars, posts, and threads. A substrate may be characterized by any particular length, width, depth, diameter, thickness, or gauge. The measured size of a substrate may be an actual size or a nominal size (e.g., NPT pipe size). A substrate may have an average or actual length, width, depth, diameter, thickness, or gauge of at least about 0.001 inches (in), 0.002 in, 0.004 in, 0.005 in, 0.01 in, 0.05 in, 0.1 in, 0.25 in, 0.375 in, 0.5 in, 0.625 in, 0.75 in, 0.875 in, 1 in, 1.25 in, 1.5 in, 1.75 in, 2 in, 3 in, 4 in, 5 in, 6 in or more, where 1 inch equals to 2.54 centimeters. For example, a sheet may have a thickness or gauge anywhere from 0.001 inches to 6 in inches. A substrate may have an average thickness or gauge of about 0.004 in to about 0.063 in. A substrate may have an average thickness or gauge of about 0.004 in to about 0.01 in, about 0.004 in to about 0.02 in, about 0.004 in to about 0.025 in, about 0.004 in to about 0.03 in, about 0.004 in to about 0.035 in, about 0.004 in to about 0.04 in, about 0.004 in to about 0.045 in, about 0.004 in to about 0.05 in, about 0.004 in to about 0.055 in, about 0.004 in to about 0.06 in, about 0.004 in to about 0.063 in, about 0.01 in to about 0.02 in, about 0.01 in to about 0.025 in, about 0.01 in to about 0.03 in, about 0.01 in to about 0.035 in, about 0.01 in to about 0.04 in, about 0.01 in to about 0.045 in, about 0.01 in to about 0.05 in, about 0.01 in to about 0.055 in, about 0.01 in to about 0.06 in, about 0.01 in to about 0.063 in, about 0.02 in to about 0.025 in, about 0.02 in to about 0.03 in, about 0.02 in to about 0.035 in, about 0.02 in to about 0.04 in, about 0.02 in to about 0.045 in, about 0.02 in to about 0.05 in, about 0.02 in to about 0.055 in, about 0.02 in to about 0.06 in, about 0.02 in to about 0.063 in, about 0.025 in to about 0.03 in, about 0.025 in to about 0.035 in, about 0.025 in to about 0.04 in, about 0.025 in to about 0.045 in, about 0.025 in to about 0.05 in, about 0.025 in to about 0.055 in, about 0.025 in to about 0.06 in, about 0.025 in to about 0.063 in, about 0.03 in to about 0.035 in, about 0.03 in to about 0.04 in, about 0.03 in to about 0.045 in, about 0.03 in to about 0.05 in, about 0.03 in to about 0.055 in, about 0.03 in to about 0.06 in, about 0.03 in to about 0.063 in, about 0.035 in to about 0.04 in, about 0.035 in to about 0.045 in, about 0.035 in to about 0.05 in, about 0.035 in to about 0.055 in, about 0.035 in to about 0.06 in, about 0.035 in to about 0.063 in, about 0.04 in to about 0.045 in, about 0.04 in to about 0.05 in, about 0.04 in to about 0.055 in, about 0.04 in to about 0.06 in, about 0.04 in to about 0.063 in, about 0.045 in to about 0.05 in, about 0.045 in to about 0.055 in, about 0.045 in to about 0.06 in, about 0.045 in to about 0.063 in, about 0.05 in to about 0.055 in, about 0.05 in to about 0.06 in, about 0.05 in to about 0.063 in, about 0.055 in to about 0.06 in, about 0.055 in to about 0.063 in, or about 0.06 in to about 0.063 in. A substrate may have an average thickness or gauge of about 0.004 in, about 0.01 in, about 0.02 in, about 0.025 in, about 0.03 in, about 0.035 in, about 0.04 in, about 0.045 in, about 0.05 in, about 0.055 in, about 0.06 in, or about 0.063 in. A substrate may have an average thickness or gauge of at least about 0.004 in, about 0.01 in, about 0.02 in, about 0.025 in, about 0.03 in, about 0.035 in, about 0.04 in, about 0.045 in, about 0.05 in, about 0.055 in, or about 0.06 in. A substrate may have an average thickness or gauge of at most about 0.01 in, about 0.02 in, about 0.025 in, about 0.03 in, about 0.035 in, about 0.04 in, about 0.045 in, about 0.05 in, about 0.055 in, about 0.06 in, or about 0.063 in.

[00115] The substrate may be put through one or more mechanical forming processes before a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) is formed on or adjacent to the substrate. The substrate may undergo any processing methods before, during and/or after the deposition of a metal layer. Illustrative processes may comprise, without limitation, forming, soft or hard tooling, fastening, and seam or cut edge protection. Illustrative forming, soft or hard tooling processes may comprise stretch or draw forming, re-striking, crash forming, spin forming, roll forming, hydro-forming, CNC forming, flanging, crimping, hemming, hot stamping, extrusion, and forging. Illustrative fastening processes may comprise toggle locking, toxlocking, spot welding, soldering, stick-welding, electric arc welding, MIG welding, TIG welding, acetylene gas welding, electric resistance welding, ultra-sonic welding, friction welding, laser welding, plasma welding, lock seaming, riveting, hot forging, and chemical adhesion (e.g., glue or epoxy joining). Illustrative seam or cut-edge protection processes may comprise hot dip galvanizing, electro-galvanizing, aluminum or aluminizing, alumino-siliconizing, cold spraying (e.g., Al, stainless steel of all grades, zinc, galvanize, nickel), hot spraying or plasma spray coating (e.g., Al, stainless steel of all grades, zinc, galvanize, nickel, copper, bronze), cladding, and liquid applied coatings (e.g., paints, UV cured, polymer paints). The substrate comprises a coating layer that comprises a metal or metal oxide selected from the group consisting of cobalt, nickel, silicon, aluminum, oxides thereof, and /or a combination thereof. In some cases, the coating layer may comprise aluminum, silicon, or a combination thereof. In some cases, the coating layer may comprise nickel. The coating layer may comprise cobalt. In some cases, the coating layer may comprise nickel and cobalt. The coating layer may be electroplated or hot-dipped on the substrate.

[00116] The substrate may be mechanically formed into one or more parts, pieces, or components. A part, piece, or component comprising the substrate may be mechanically formed before, during, or after the deposition of a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) on the substrate. A part, piece or component comprising the substrate may be used in any suitable application including, without limitation, automotive, aviation, transportation, maritime, appliance, construction, industrial, electrical, biomedical, military, consumer, aesthetic, electronic, and structural applications. Automotive applications may comprise automotive fuel tanks, exposed body panels (e.g., doors, hoods, and fenders), exhaust components (e.g., mufflers, catalytic converter housings, exhaust tubing, heat shielding), and unexposed body panels (e.g., dash panels, door inners, wheel house inners). Appliance applications may comprise exposed panels (e.g., door outers, vent hoods, splash guards) and unexposed panels (e.g., dishwasher inner panels, water heater tanks). Construction and structural applications may comprise architectural paneling, flow tubing, piping, beams, hinges, plates, and fasteners. Electrical applications may comprise electrical motor laminations, electric generator laminations, and electrical transformer core laminations. [00117] A substrate may comprise a species that is a transition metal, a nonmetal element, a metal oxide, a metal carbide, a metal sulfide, a metal nitride, a reducing metal element, a metal halide, an activator, a metalloid, or a combination thereof (e.g., a plurality of elemental metals). A substrate may comprise a transition metal. A substrate may comprise a nonmetal element. A substrate may comprise a metalloid. A substrate may comprise a semiconductor. A substrate may comprise an elemental species selected from, for example, chromium, nickel, aluminum, silicon, vanadium, titanium, boron, tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt, manganese, zirconium, niobium, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, phosphorus, copper, tin, calcium, arsenic, lead, antimony, tantalum, zinc, silicon, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, an elemental species may comprise silicon. In some embodiments, an elemental species may comprise nickel. In some embodiments, an elemental species may comprise cobalt. In some embodiments, an elemental species may comprise aluminum. A substrate may comprise an elemental species that is configured to be a reducing metal agent. A reducing metal agent may comprise aluminum, titanium, zirconium, silicon, or magnesium. A substrate may comprise a carrier solvent, such as water, isopropanol, or methyl ethyl ketone. A substrate may comprise iron, carbon, nitrogen, silicon, or a combination thereof. A substrate may comprise carbon or nitrogen.

[00118] A substrate may comprise a metal such as iron, copper, aluminum, or any combination thereof. The substrate may comprise an alloy of metals and/or non-metals. The alloy may include impurities. The substrate may comprise steel. The substrate may be a steel substrate. The substrate may comprise ceramic. The substrate may be devoid of free carbon. The substrate can be made from melt phase. The substrate may be in a cold reduced state, in a full hard state (e.g., not subjected to an annealing step after cold reduction), or in a hot rolled pickled state.

[00119] A substrate may comprise a metal oxide. A metal oxide may comprise, but is not limited to, Cr ₂ O ₃ , TiO ₂ , Fe Cr ₂ O ₄ , SiO ₂ , Ta ₂ O ₅ , or Mg Cr ₂ O ₄ , or a combination thereof. A metal oxide may be incorporated directly in to the substrate. A metal oxide may be formed in the substrate by a metallothermic reduction reaction between an elemental metal and a thermodynamically less-stable metal oxide. A metallothermic reduction reaction may occur spontaneously. A metallothermic reduction reaction may occur in the presence of an activator, such as a metal halide. A metal oxide may comprise a powder.

[00120] In some embodiments, the slurry comprises a metal oxide species that may be less thermodynamically stable than a slurry elemental species and may also be capable of undergoing a metallothermic reduction reaction (e.g., in situ ) with the slurry elemental species to form a corresponding metal. For example, the metallothermic reduction reaction may comprise employing SiO ₂ or AI2O3 as a chemical source and a more stable metallic species in the slurry, which may be different from the substrate, to exchange oxygen with the Si or Al, allowing deposition. In some embodiments, the elemental species capable of undergoing the metallotheimic reduction reaction may comprise aluminum or an alloy thereof (e.g., ferroaluminum). In some embodiments, the substrate elemental species capable of undergoing the metallothermic reduction reaction may comprise sulfur, nitrogen, or carbon. In some embodiments, the reduction product may comprise a corresponding metal sulfide, a corresponding metal nitride, or a corresponding metal carbide. For example, Al or FeAl may reduce TiO2 to Ti, which may then form titanium nitride or titanium carbide. In some embodiments, the metal oxide species may comprise an inert species. For example, an inert species may be a stable metal oxide, such as silica (SiO ₂ ), alumina (AI ₂ O ₃ ), titanium dioxide (TiO ₂ ), magnesium oxide (MgO), or calcium oxide (CaO) or combination thereof.

[00121] A particular elemental species may be present in the substrate at a chosen concentration. The concentration of one or more particular elemental species in the substrate may be chosen to optimize the chemical, mechanical, electrical, or other properties of the substrate. The concentration of one or more particular elemental species in the substrate may be chosen to optimize the characteristics of a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) formed on the substrate. A substrate may comprise iron, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, silicon, aluminum, chromium, or a combination thereof.

[00122] A substrate may comprise at least about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, or more elemental species. A substrate may comprise at least two of the following elements: chromium, nickel, aluminum, silicon, vanadium, titanium, boron, tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt, manganese, zirconium, niobium, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, phosphorus, copper, tin, calcium, arsenic, lead, antimony, tantalum, or zinc. A substrate may comprise at least three of the following elements: chromium, nickel, aluminum, silicon, vanadium, titanium, boron, tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt, manganese, zirconium, niobium, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, phosphorus, copper, tin, calcium, arsenic, lead, antimony, tantalum, or zinc. A substrate may comprise at least four of the following elements: chromium, nickel, aluminum, silicon, vanadium, titanium, boron, tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt, manganese, zirconium, niobium, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, phosphorus, copper, tin, calcium, arsenic, lead, antimony, tantalum, or zinc.

[00123] A substrate may comprise multiple elements. A substrate may comprise chromium at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise chromium at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise chromium at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise chromium at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.01% to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1%to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00124] A substrate may comprise nickel at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%,

1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise nickel at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise nickel at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise nickel at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01%to about 0.1%, about 0.01%to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00125] A substrate may comprise aluminum at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%,

1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise aluminum at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise aluminum at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise aluminum at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.01% to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00126] A substrate may comprise silicon at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%,

1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise silicon at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise silicon at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%,

10%, 7%, 5%, 3.5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise silicon at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.01% to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00127] A substrate may comprise vanadium at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%,

1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise vanadium at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise vanadium at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise vanadium at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.01% to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00128] A substrate may comprise titanium at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise titanium at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise titanium at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing valuesor a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise titanium at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.01% to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00129] A substrate may comprise boron at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise boron at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise boron at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise boron at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01%to about 0.1%, about 0.01%to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00130] A substrate may comprise tungsten at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise tungsten at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise tungsten at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise tungsten at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.01% to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00131] A substrate may comprise molybdenum at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise molybdenum at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%,

1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise molybdenum at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values.

A substrate may comprise molybdenum at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.01% to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00132] A substrate may comprise cobalt at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise cobalt at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise cobalt at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise cobalt at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01%to about 0.1%, about 0.01%to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00133] A substrate may comprise manganese at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%,

1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise manganese at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise manganese at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise manganese at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.01% to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about

40%.

[00134] A substrate may comprise zirconium at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%,

1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise zirconium at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise zirconium at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise zirconium at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.01% to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00135] A substrate may comprise niobium at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%,

1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise niobium at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise niobium at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise niobium at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.01% to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00136] A substrate may comprise carbon at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%,

1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.009%, 0.008%, 0.007%, 0.006%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.003%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0009%, 0.0008%, 0.0007%, 0.0006%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise carbon at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.0006%, 0.0007%, 0.0008%, 0.0009%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.003%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.006%, 0.007%, 0.008%, 0.009%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%,

1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise carbon at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise carbon at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.01% to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1%to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%. A substrate may comprise carbon at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0005% to about 0.006%. [00137] A substrate may comprise nitrogen at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%,

1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise nitrogen at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise nitrogen at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise nitrogen at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.01% to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00138] A substrate may comprise sulfur at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%,

1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise sulfur at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise sulfur at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise sulfur at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01%to about 0.1%, about 0.01%to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00139] A substrate may comprise oxygen at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise oxygen at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise oxygen at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise oxygen at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01%to about 0.1%, about 0.01%to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00140] A substrate may comprise phosphorus at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise phosphorus at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise phosphorus at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise phosphorus at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.01% to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about

40%.

[00141] A substrate may comprise copper at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%,

1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise copper at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise copper at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise copper at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01%to about 0.1%, about 0.01%to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00142] A substrate may comprise tin at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about

40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%,

1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise tin at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise tin at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise tin at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.01% to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00143] A substrate may comprise calcium at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise calcium at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise calcium at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise calcium at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01%to about 0.1%, about 0.01%to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00144] A substrate may comprise arsenic at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%,

1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise arsenic at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise arsenic at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise arsenic at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01%to about 0.1%, about 0.01%to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.A substrate may comprise lead at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise lead at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise lead at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise lead at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.01% to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00145] A substrate may comprise antimony at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%,

1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise antimony at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise antimony at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise antimony at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.01% to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01%to about 40%, about 0.1%to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00146] A substrate may comprise tantalum at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise tantalum at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise tantalum at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise tantalum at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.01% to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01%to about 40%, about 0.1%to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00147] A substrate may comprise zinc at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%,

1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A substrate may comprise zinc at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. A substrate may comprise zinc at a weight percent or atomic percent of about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001%, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A substrate may comprise zinc at a weight percent or atomic percent from about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.0001% to about 0.01%, about 0.0001% to about 0.1%, about 0.0001% to about 1%, about 0.0001% to about 10%, about 0.0001% to about 40%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, about 0.01% to about 1%, about 0.01% to about 10%, about 0.01% to about 40%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 40%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 40%, or about 10% to about 40%.

[00148] Free interstitials, such as nitrogen, carbon, and sulfur, may exist during formation of a substrate. Niobium in a substrate may bind to these free interstitials (e.g. nitrogen, carbon, and sulfur) in the substrate. Addition of niobium may prevent grain boundary precipitates, e.g. chromium grain boundary precipitates. A decrease in grain boundary precipitates may lead to an increase in corrosion performance, which may be a desired property of a substrate. FIG. 3 illustrates a steel substrate after coating with a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer), wherein no grain boundary chromium precipitates are observed.

[00149] The weight percentage of one or more elements on the surface of a substrate may be measured. The elemental surface weight % may be of a coated substrate or of an uncoated substrate. In some embodiments, the average weight % of one or more elements on the surface of a substrate may be greater than about 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 2020%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% or more. The average weight % of one or more elements on the surface of a substrate may be no more than about 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, or 1% or less. The average weight % one or more elements on the surface of a substrate after the deposition of a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be greater than, about, or less than the weight % of the one or more elements on the surface of a substrate before the deposition of a metal layer.

[00150] Substrates may be purchased from a vendor. Substrates may be coated with a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) the same day the substrate was prepared. Substrates may be prepared greater than about 2 days, 3 days, 1 week, 1 month, or 1 year or more before coating with a metal layer. Substrates may be prepared no more than about 1 year, 1 month, 1 week, 3 days, 2 days, 1 day or less before coating with a metal layer. They may have a measurable grain size. The substrate may have a measurable grain size. The grain size of the substrate may be measured before, during or after the deposition of a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) on the substrate. The grain size of the substrate may be measured before, during, or after one or more forming processes are performed on the substrate. Grain size may be measured and recorded in accordance to the American Society of the International Association for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard. The substrate may have an average grain size greater than about ASTM 000, 00, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 39, or 30 or more. The substrate may have an average grain size less than about ASTM 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 00, 000 or less. In some embodiments, a substrate may have an average grain size from about ASTM 000 to about ASTM 30, from about ASTM 5 to about ASTM 16, from about ASTM 6 to about ASTM 14, or from about ASTM 8 to about ASTM 12. A substrate may have an average grain size from about ASTM 7 to ASTM 9. A substrate may have a grain size of about ASTM 7.

[00151] A substrate, metal layer (or metal difiusion layer) or substrate with a deposited metal layer (or metal difiusion layer) may have a measured yield strength before, during or after the deposition of a metal layer. The yield strength of a substrate, metal layer (or metal difiusion layer), or substrate with a deposited metal layer (or metal difiusion layer) before, during, or after the deposition of a metal layer (or metal difiusion layer) may be greater than about 100 psi, 1 ksi (kilopound per square inch) (where 1 ksi = 6.8947572932 megapascal (MPa), 2 ksi, 5 ksi, 10 ksi, 15 ksi, 20 ksi, 21 ksi, 22 ksi, 23 ksi, 24 ksi, 25 ksi, 26 ksi, 27 ksi, 28 ksi, 29 ksi, 30 ksi, or 35 ksi or more. The yield strength of a substrate may be about 20 ksi, 21 ksi, 22 ksi, 23 ksi, 24 ksi, 25 ksi, 26 ksi, 27 ksi, 28 ksi, 29 ksi, 30 ksi, or about 50 ksi. The yield strength of a substrate before, during, or after the deposition of a metal layer (or metal difiusion layer) may be no more than about 50 ksi, 30 ksi, 29 ksi, 28 ksi, 27 ksi, 26 ksi, 25 ksi, 24 ksi, 23 ksi, 22 ksi, 21 ksi, 20 ksi, 15 ksi, 10 ksi, 5 ksi, 2 ksi, 1 ksi, or 100 psi or less.

[00152] A substrate, metal layer (or metal difiusion layer), or substrate with a deposited metal layer

(or metal difiusion layer) may have a measured ultimate strength before, during or after the deposition of a metal layer (metal difiusion layer). The ultimate strength of a substrate, metal layer (or metal difiusion layer), or substrate with a deposited metal layer (or metal difiusion layer) before, during, or after the deposition of a metal layer (or metal difiusion layer) may be greater than about 30 ksi (kilopound per square inch) (where 1 ksi = 6.8947572932 megapascal (MPa), 35 ksi, 40 ksi, 45 ksi, 46 ksi, 47 ksi, 48 ksi, 49 ksi, 50 ksi, 51 ksi, 52 ksi, 53 ksi, 54 ksi, 55 ksi, 56 ksi, 57 ksi, 58 ksi, 59 ksi, 60 ksi, 70 ksi, 80 ksi, 90 ksi, 100 ksi, or more. The ultimate strength of a substrate before, during, or after the deposition of a metal layer (or metal difiusion layer) may be no more than about 100 ksi, 90 ksi, 80 ksi, 70 ksi, 60 ksi, 59 ksi, 58 ksi, 57 ksi, 56 ksi, 55 ksi, 54 ksi, 53 ksi, 52 ksi, 51 ksi, 50 ksi, 49 ksi, 48 ksi, 47 ksi, 46 ksi, 45 ksi, 40 ksi, 35 ksi, or 30 ksi or less.

[00153] A substrate, metal layer (or metal difiusion layer), or substrate with a deposited metal layer

(or metal difiusion layer) may exhibit a percent elongation, a maximum elongation of the gage divided by the original gage length, or the difference in distance prior to fracture before and after coating with a metal layer. The percent elongation may be about 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%,

90%, or 100%. The percent elongation may be at least about 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or 100% or more. The percent elongation may be no more than about 100%, 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, 10%, or 5% or less. In some embodiments, the percent elongation may be about 30%, 31%, 32%, 33%, 34%, 35%, 36%, 37%, 38%, 39%, or 40%.

[00154] The substrate may be pretreated before a slurry is applied to the substrate. The substrate may be pretreated by using chemicals to modify the surface of the substrate in order to improve adhesion of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) to the surface of the substrate. Examples of such chemicals include chromates and phosphates.

[00155] The surface of the substrate may be free of processing oxides. This may be achieved by conventional pickling. The surface of the substrate can be reasonably free of organic materials. The surface of the substrate may be reasonably free of organic materials after processing with commercially available cleaners.

[00156] Grain pinning particles may be added, removed, or withheld from the substrate during preparation of the substrate in order to control the grain size of the substrate. For example, grain pinners may be added to the substrate in order to keep the grain size small and to form pinning points. As another example, grain pinners may be withheld from the substrate to allow the grains to grow large and to allow for motor laminations. Grain pinners may be insoluble at the annealing temperatures.

[00157] Examples of grain pinning particles include an intermetallic, a nitride, a carbide, a carbonitride of titanium, aluminum, niobium, vanadium, and any combination thereof. Non-limiting examples of grain pinning particles include titanium nitride (TIN), titanium carbide (TiC), and aluminum nitride (AIN).

[00158] A substrate may be characterized by a tensile strength. In some cases, a substrate may have a tensile strength of at least about 10 ksi (kilopound per square inch) (where 1 ksi = 6.8947572932 megapascal (MPa), 15 ksi, 20 ksi, 25 ksi, 30 ksi, 35 ksi, 40 ksi, 45 ksi, 50 ksi, 55 ksi, 60 ksi, 65 ksi, 70 ksi, 75 ksi, 80 ksi, 85 ksi, 90 ksi, 95 ksi, 100 ksi or more. In some cases, a substrate may have a tensile strength of no more than about 100 ksi, 95 ksi, 90 ksi, 85 ksi, 80 ksi, 75 ksi, 70 ksi, 65 ksi, 60 ksi, 55 ksi, 50 ksi, 45 ksi, 40 ksi, 35 ksi, 30 ksi, 25 ksi, 20 ksi, 15 ksi, 10 ksi or less.

[00159] A substrate may be characterized by a yield strength. In some cases, a substrate may have a yield strength of at least about 10 ksi, 15 ksi, 20 ksi, 25 ksi, 30 ksi, 35 ksi, 40 ksi, 45 ksi, 50 ksi, 55 ksi, 60 ksi, 65 ksi, 70 ksi, 75 ksi, 80 ksi, 85 ksi, 90 ksi, 95 ksi, 100 ksi or more. In some cases, a substrate may have a yield strength of no more than about 100 ksi, 95 ksi, 90 ksi, 85 ksi, 80 ksi, 75 ksi, 70 ksi, 65 ksi, 60 ksi,

55 ksi, 50 ksi, 45 ksi, 40 ksi, 35 ksi, 30 ksi, 25 ksi, 20 ksi, 15 ksi, 10 ksi or less.

[00160] A substrate may have an elongation or strain under deformation before failure. In some cases, a substrate may have an elongation or strain of about 1%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 75% or 100%. In some cases, a substrate may have an elongation or strain of at least about 1%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 75% or 100% or more. In some cases, a substrate may have an elongation or strain of no more than about 100%, 75%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1% or less.

Slurries

[00161] The present disclosure provides methods for firming a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to a substrate. The metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) can be firmed by application of a slurry adjacent to a substrate. Deposition of a slurry adjacent to a substrate may form a metal-containing layer adjacent to the substrate. A slurry may comprise various components including alloying agents or elemental metals, halide or metal halide activators, metal oxides, inert components, binders, and rheology-enhancing agents. In some cases, the slurry may comprise an alloying agent, an activator, an inert, and a solvent. The alloying agent may comprise the metal to be deposited in the metal layer.

[00162] In some cases, the slurry may comprise one or more components in powder form. Powder components may include alloying agents, inerts, activators, metal oxides, and other components, or combinations thereof. Powder components may be added to a slurry individually, or may be blended before forming a slurry.

[00163] A powder (e.g., comprising a metal, metal oxide, metal halide, or other slurry component) may include individual particles with a particle size (e.g., average particle size) from about 0.1 micrometer (μm) to 500 μm. The individual particles may have an average particle size from about 0.01 μm to 0.1 μm, 0.01 μm to 1 μm, 0.01 μm to 20 μm, 0.01 μm to 30 μm, 0.01 μm to 50 μm, 0.01 μm to 100 μm, 0.01 μm to 250 μm, 0.01 μm to 500 μm, 0.01 μm to 1mm, 0.1 μm to 1 μm, 0.1 μm to 20 μm, 0.1 μm to 30 μm, 0.1 μm to 50 μm, 0.1 μm to 100 μm, 0.1 μm to 250 μm, 0.1 μm to 500 μm, 0.1 μm to lmm, 1 μm to 20 μm, 1 μm to 30 μm, 1 μm to 50 μm, 1 μm to 100 μm, 1 μm to 250 μm, 1 μm to 500 μm, 1 μm to lmm, 10 μm to 100 μm, 10 μm to 250 μm, 10 μm to 500 μm, 10 μm to lmm, 100 μm to 250 μm, 100 μm to 500 μm, 100 μm to lmm, 250 μm to 500 μm, 250 μm to lmm or 500 μm to lmm. The powder may have individual particles with an average particle size of at least about 0.01 μm, 0.1 μm, 1 μm, 5 μm, 10 μm, 20 μm, 30 μm, 40 μm, 50 μm, 60 μm, 70 μm, 80 μm, 90 μm, 100 μm, 150 μm, 200 μm, 250 μm, 300 μm, 400 μm, 500 μm, lmm or more. The powder may have individual particles with a particle size of at most about 1 millimeter (mm), 500 μm, 400 μm, 300 μm, 250 μm, 200 μm, 150 μm, 100 μm, 90 μm, 80 μm, 70 μm, 60 μm, 50 μm, 40 μm, 30 μm, 20 μm, 10 μm, 5 μm,l μm, 0.1 μm, or 0.01 μm or less. A powder may comprise particles that pass through a sieve with a mesh size of at least 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60 ,70, 80, 100, 120, 140, 170, 200, 230, 270, 325 400, 450, 500, 635 or smaller. A powder may comprise particles that pass through a sieve with a mesh size of no more than 635, 500, 450, 400, 325, 270, 200, 170, 140, 120, 100, 80, 70, 60, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 18, 16, 14, 12, 10, 8, 7, 6, 5, or 4 or larger. The presence of larger particles (e.g., about 40 μm to 200 μm,) in a slurry may create less surface roughness in a finished product after the formation of a metal layer. In some cases, larger particle sizes may decrease the availability of the alloying agent for deposition, thereby reducing surface roughness caused by substrate attack. The presence of smaller particles, (e.g., less than about 10 μm or less than about 1 μm) may improve the uniformity of deposition of an alloying agent during the formation of a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) by improving the uniformity of the slurry dry film coating. [00164] A powder containing one or more slurry components may comprise particles of a particular size dispersity. In some cases, a powder containing one or more slurry components may have a monomodal, bimodal, trimodal, or multimodal particle size distribution. The size dispersity of a powder may be characterized by the percentage of particles within a particular size range. For example, a powder may be characterized as having 50% of particles within a size range from 100 μm to 500 μm. In some cases, a powder may be characterized as having at least 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99% or more of particles within a particular size range. In some cases, a powder may be characterized as having no more than 99%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, or 1% or less of particles within a particular size range.

[00165] A slurry may comprise an alloying agent. The alloying may comprise an elemental metal or elemental species. In some cases, the elemental metal may comprise one or more of iron, chromium, nickel, silicon, vanadium, titanium, boron, tungsten, aluminum, molybdenum, cobalt, manganese, zirconium, niobium, phosphorus, sulfur and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, an elemental species may comprise silicon. In some embodiments, an elemental species may comprise nickel. In some embodiments, an elemental species may comprise cobalt. In some embodiments, an elemental species may comprise aluminum. In some embodiments, the alloying agent may comprise a plurality of elemental species. In some embodiments, a plurality of elemental species may comprise at least two elemental species selected from the group consisting of silicon, manganese, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, copper, zirconium, boron, aluminum, and phosphorus. In some embodiments, a plurality of elemental species may comprise silicon and aluminum.

[00166] In some cases, the slurry does not contain an alloying agent. In some cases, the slurry does not contain an elemental species selected from the group consisting of silicon, manganese, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, copper, zirconium, boron, aluminum, and phosphorus.

[00167] A slurry may comprise by weight percent from about 5% to about 80% silicon. A slurry may comprise by weight percent from about 10% to about 20%, about 10% to about 30%, about 10% to about 40%, about 10% to about 50%, about 10% to about 60%, about 10% to about 70%, about 10% to about 80%, about 20% to about 30%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 50%, about 20% to about 60%, about 20% to about 70%, about 20% to about 80%, about 30% to about 40%, about 30% to about 50%, about 30% to about 60%, about 30% to about 70%, about 30% to about 80%, about 40% to about 50%, about 40% to about 60%, about 40% to about 70%, about 40% to about 80%, about 50% to about 60%, about 50% to about 70%, about 50% to about 80%, about 60% to about 70%, about 60% to about 80%, or about 70% to about 80%. A slurry may comprise by weight percent at most about 80%, 60%, 50%,40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, or less of silicon. A slurry may comprise by weight percent at most about 80%, 70%, 60%, or 50% silicon. A slurry may comprise by weight percent at least about 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, or more of silicon. A slurry may comprise by weight percent at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, or 25% silicon. In some embodiments, a slurry may comprise, by weight percent, from about 10% to about 80%, about 20% to about 80%, about 25% to about 80%, about 30% to about 80%, about 10% to about 70%, about 20% to about 70%, or about 20% to about 60% silicon. [00168] A slurry may comprise by weight percent from about 5% to about 80% aluminum. A slurry may comprise by weight percent from about 10% to about 20%, about 10% to about 30%, about 10% to about 40%, about 10% to about 50%, about 10% to about 60%, about 10% to about 70%, about 10% to about 80%, about 20% to about 30%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 50%, about 20% to about 60%, about 20% to about 70%, about 20% to about 80%, about 30% to about 40%, about 30% to about 50%, about 30% to about 60%, about 30% to about 70%, about 30% to about 80%, about 40% to about 50%, about 40% to about 60%, about 40% to about 70%, about 40% to about 80%, about 50% to about 60%, about 50% to about 70%, about 50% to about 80%, about 60% to about 70%, about 60% to about 80%, or about 70% to about 80%. A slurry may comprise by weight percent at most about 80%, 60%, 50%,40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, or less of aluminum. A slurry may comprise by weight percent at most about 80%, 70%, 60%, or 50% aluminum. A slurry may comprise by weight percent at least about 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, or more of aluminum. A slurry may comprise by weight percent at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, or 25% aluminum. In some embodiments, a slurry may comprise, by weight percent, from about 10% to about 80%, about 20% to about 80%, about 25% to about 80%, about 30% to about 80%, about 10% to about 70%, about 20% to about 70%, or about 20% to about 60% aluminum.

[00169] The alloying agent may have an average particle size of about 1 μm to about 200 μm. the alloying agent may have an average particle size of about 1 μm to about 10 μm, about 1 μm to about 40 μm, about 1 μm to about 100 μm, about 1 μm to about 200 μm, about 10 μm to about 40 μm, about 10 μm to about 100 μm, about 10 μm to about 200 μm, about 40 μm to about 100 μm, about 40 μm to about 200 μm, or about 100 μm to about 200 μm. the alloying agent may have an average particle size of about 1 μm, about 10 μm, about 40 μm, about 100 μm, or about 200 μm. The alloying agent may have an average particle size of at least about 1 μm, about 10 μm, about 40 μm, or about 100 μm. The alloying agent may have an average particle size of at most about 10 μm, about 40 μm, about 100 μm, or about 200 μm.

[00170] In some embodiments, the alloying agent may be a polyatomic species such as ferrosilicon

(FeSi), ferrochrome (FeCr), ferroaluminum (FeAl), ferronickel (FeNi), ferrocobalt (FeCo), ferromanganese (FeMn), other ferroalloys, chrome and/or combinations thereof. A slurry mixture may comprise an alloying agent amounting to at least about 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95% or more of the total weight of the slurry. An alloying agent may comprise no more than about 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 9%, 8%,

7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, or 1% or less of the total weight of the slurry. An alloying agent may comprise about 1 to about 95 wt%, about 1 to about 85 wt%, about 1 to about 75 wt%, about 1 to about 60 wt%, about 1 to about 50 wt%, about 1 to about 40 wt%, about 1 to about 30 wt%, about 1 to about 20 wt%, about 1 to about 10 wt%, about 5 to about 95 wt%, about 5 to about 85 wt%, about 5 to about 75 wt%, about 5 to about 60 wt%, about 5 to about 50 wt%, about 5 to about 40 wt%, about 5 to about 30 wt%, about 5 to about 20 wt%, about 5 to about 10 wt%, about 10 to 95 wt%, about 10 to about 85 wt%, about 10 to about 75 wt%, about 10 to about 60 wt%, about 10 to about 50 wt%, about 10 to about 40 wt%, about 10 to about 30 wt%, about 10 to about 20 wt%, about 20 to about 95 wt%, about 20 to about 85 wt%, about 20 to about 75 wt%, about 20 to about 60 wt%, about 20 to about 50 wt%, about 20 to about 40 wt%, about 20 to about 30 wt%, about 30 to about 85 wt%, about 30 to about 75 wt%, about 30 to about 60 wt%, about 30 to about 50 wt%, about 30 to about 40 wt%, about 1 to about 95 wt%, about 40 to about 85 wt%, about 40 to about 75 wt%, about 40 to about 60 wt%, about 40 to about 50 wt%, about 50 to about 95 wt%, about 50 to about 85 wt%, about 50 to about 75 wt%, or about 50 to about 60 wt% of the total weight of the slurry . The alloying agent may have a particular purity. The alloying agent may have a purity of at least about 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9% or more on a weight or molar basis. An alloying agent may have a purity of no more than about 99.9%, 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 94%, 93%, 92%, 91%, 90%, 85%,

80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, or 50% or less on a weight or molar basis. An alloying agent may be added to the slurry in the form of a powder.

[00171] A slurry may comprise more than one alloying agent. In some cases, alloying agents may be provided as separate elemental species. In some cases, alloying agents may be provided as alloyed species (e.g., bronze). In some cases, the availability of an elemental species in an alloying agent may be limited. In some cases, the availability of an elemental species may be limited by providing the elemental species as a ferroalloy. A slurry may comprise about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more than 10 alloying agents.

A slurry may comprise at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more than 10 alloying agents. A slurry may comprise no more than about 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 or less than about 2 alloying agents. A particular elemental species may comprise a particular percentage of the total available alloying agent, on a weight or molar basis. In some cases, an elemental species may comprise about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 99%, or more than 99% of the total available alloying agent, on a weight or molar basis. In some cases, an elemental species may comprise at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 99%, or more than 99% of the total available alloying agent, on a weight or molar basis. In some cases, an elemental species may comprise no more than about 99%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, or no more than 5% of the total available alloying agent, on a weight or molar basis. In some embodiments, the ferroalloy may comprise, in weight percent, no more than 85% aluminum.

[00172] A slurry may comprise an activator species. The activator species may facilitate the diffusion of one or more alloying agents into a metal layer. In some cases, a slurry may comprise a halide activator. The halide activator may comprise a metal halide. The halide activator may comprise a non-metal halide activator. In some cases, the slurry may comprise no halide activator. In some cases, the metal halide activator includes a monovalent metal, a divalent metal or a trivalent metal. In some cases, the halide activator is selected from the group consisting of magnesium chloride (MgCI ₂ ), iron (II) chloride (FeCI ₂ ), calcium chloride (CaCl ₂ ), zirconium (TV) chloride (ZrCI ₄ ), titanium (TV) chloride (TiCI ₄ ), niobium (V) chloride (NbCI ₅ ), titanium (IIΙ) chloride (TiCI ₃ ), silicon tetrachloride (SiCI ₄ ), vanadium (ΙII) chloride (VCI ₃ ), chromium (ΙII) chloride (CrCI ₃ ), trichlorosilane (SiHC13), manganese (II) chloride (MnCI ₂ ), chromium (II) chloride (CrCI ₂ ), cobalt (II) chloride (CoCI ₂ ), copper (II) chloride (CuCl ₂ ), nickel (II) chloride (N1CI ₂ ), vanadium (II) chloride (VCI ₂ ), ammonium chloride (NH4CI), sodium chloride (NaCl), or potassium chloride (KC1) and combinations thereof. In some cases, the activator may comprise a sulfide species such as molybdenum sulfide (MoS), manganese sulfide (MnS), iron disulfide (FeS ₂ ), chromium sulfide (CrS), iron sulfide (FeS), copper sulfide (CuS), nickel sulfide (NiS) and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the halide activator is hydrated. In some embodiments, the halide activator is selected from the group consisting of iron chloride tetrahydrate (FeCl ₂ · 4H ₂ O), iron chloride hexahydrate (FeCl ₂ · 6H ₂ O) and magnesium chloride hexahydrate (MgCI ₂ · 6H ₂ O). In some embodiments, the halide activator is hydrated. In some embodiments, the halide activator is selected from the group consisting of iron chloride tetrahydrate (FeCl ₂ · 4H ₂ O), iron chloride hexahydrate (FeCl ₂ · 6H ₂ O) and magnesium chloride hexahydrate (MgCl ₂ · 6H ₂ O). In some cases, the slurry may comprise no halide or sulfide activator species. In some cases, the metal halide activator may be configured to act as a binder in the absence of a solvent.

[00173] A slurry mixture may comprise an activator amounting to at least about 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%,

5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95% or more of the total weight of the slurry. An activator may comprise no more than about 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, or 1% or less of the total weight of the slurry. An activator may comprise about 1 to about 95 wt%, about 1 to about 85 wt%, about 1 to about 75 wt%, about 1 to about 60 wt%, about 1 to about 50 wt%, about 1 to about 40 wt%, about 1 to about 30 wt%, about 1 to about 20 wt%, about 1 to about 10 wt%, about 5 to about 95 wt%, about 5 to about 85 wt%, about 5 to about 75 wt%, about 5 to about 60 wt%, about 5 to about 50 wt%, about 5 to about 40 wt%, about 5 to about 30 wt%, about 5 to about 20 wt%, about 5 to about 10 wt%, about 10 to 95 wt%, about 10 to about 85 wt%, about 10 to about 75 wt%, about 10 to about 60 wt%, about 10 to about 50 wt%, about 10 to about 40 wt%, about 10 to about 30 wt%, about 10 to about 20 wt%, about 20 to about 95 wt%, about 20 to about 85 wt%, about 20 to about 75 wt%, about 20 to about 60 wt%, about 20 to about 50 wt%, about 20 to about 40 wt%, about 20 to about 30 wt%, about 30 to about 85 wt%, about 30 to about 75 wt%, about 30 to about 60 wt%, about 30 to about 50 wt%, about 30 to about 40 wt%, about 1 to about 95 wt%, about 40 to about 85 wt%, about 40 to about 75 wt%, about 40 to about 60 wt%, about 40 to about 50 wt%, about 50 to about 95 wt%, about 50 to about 85 wt%, about 50 to about 75 wt%, or about 50 to about 60 wt% of the total weight of the slurry. The activator may have a particular purity. The activator may have a purity of at least about 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9% or more on a weight or molar basis. An activator may have a purity of no more than about 99.9%, 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 94%, 93%, 92%, 91%,

90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, or 50% or less on a weight or molar basis. An activator may be added to the slurry in the form of a powder. An activator may be formed by the reaction of a reactive elemental metal species with a less stable metal oxide species, thereby forming a more stable elemental species and more stable metal oxide species. The activator may be added to the slurry in the form of a powder.

[00174] A slurry may comprise an inert or metal oxide species. The inert species may be selected to optimize the rheological properties of the slurry. The inert species may be chosen to optimize the separation of particles of alloying agents and activators during the diffusion process that forms the metal layer. In some cases, the inert species may be a stable metal oxide, such as silica (SiO ₂ ), alumina (AI2O3), titanium dioxide (TiO ₂ ), magnesium oxide (MgO), or calcium oxide (CaO) or combination thereof. In some cases, the metal oxide may be a reactive species that reacts with trace element in the substrate, e.g., sulfur or nitrogen. In some cases, the inert species may be a mineral or ceramic compound. In some embodiments, the inert species may be a clay such as Bentonite clay, Monterey clay. Kaolin clay, a philosilicaie clay or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the inert species forms a hydrogen bond with itself and/or the metal halide activator in the slum'. In some embodiments, the particle size of the inert species is less than or equal to about 140 mesh. The inert species may be added to the slurry in the form of a powder. In some cases, a slurry may comprise more than one inert or metal oxide species. [00175] A slurry mixture may comprise an inert species or metal oxide species amounting to at least about 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95% or more of the total weight of the slurry. An inert species may comprise no more than about 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, or 1% or less of the total weight of the slurry. An inert species may comprise about 1 to about 95 wt%, about 1 to about 85 wt%, about 1 to about 75 wt%, about 1 to about 60 wt%, about 1 to about 50 wt%, about 1 to about 40 wt%, about 1 to about 30 wt%, about 1 to about 20 wt%, about 1 to about 10 wt%, about 5 to about 95 wt%, about 5 to about 85 wt%, about 5 to about 75 wt%, about 5 to about 60 wt%, about 5 to about 50 wt%, about 5 to about 40 wt%, about 5 to about 30 wt%, about 5 to about 20 wt%, about 5 to about 10 wt%, about 10 to 95 wt%, about 10 to about 85 wt%, about 10 to about 75 wt%, about 10 to about 60 wt%, about 10 to about 50 wt%, about 10 to about 40 wt%, about 10 to about 30 wt%, about 10 to about 20 wt%, about 20 to about 95 wt%, about 20 to about 85 wt%, about 20 to about 75 wt%, about 20 to about 60 wt%, about 20 to about 50 wt%, about 20 to about 40 wt%, about 20 to about 30 wt%, about 30 to about 85 wt%, about 30 to about 75 wt%, about 30 to about 60 wt%, about 30 to about 50 wt%, about 30 to about 40 wt%, about 1 to about 95 wt%, about 40 to about 85 wt%, about 40 to about 75 wt%, about 40 to about 60 wt%, about 40 to about 50 wt%, about 50 to about 95 wt%, about 50 to about 85 wt%, about 50 to about 75 wt%, or about 50 to about 60 wt% of the total weight of the slurry. The inert species may have a particular purity. The inert species may have a purity of at least about 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9% or more on a weight or molar basis. An inert species may have a purity of no more than about 99.9%, 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%,

95%, 94%, 93%, 92%, 91%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, or 50% or less on a weight or molar basis.

[00176] In some cases, the slurry comprises a solvent. The solvent may be an aqueous or non-aqueous solvent. In some cases, the solvent is an organic solvent. In some cases, the organic solvent is selected from the group consisting of an alcohol (e.g., isopropanol), a hydrocarbon, a ketone, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the alcohol is a Cl to C8 alcohol. In some cases, the solvent comprises water. The boiling point (or boiling temperature) of the solvent may be less than or equal to about 200 °C, 190 °C, 180 °C, 170 °C, 160 °C, 150 °C, 140 °C, 130 °C, 120 °C, 110 °C, 100 °C, 80 °C, 60 °C or less. The boiling point of the solvent may be at least about 60 °C, 80 °C, 100 °C, 110 °C, 120 °C, 130 °C, 140 °C,

150 °C, 160 °C, 170 °C, 180 °C, 190 °C, 200 °C or more.

[00177] The drying time of the slurry can be sufficiently long such that the slurry remains wet during a roll coating process and does not dry until after a coating of the slurry is applied to the substrate. The slurry may not dry at room temperature. The slurry may become dry to the touch after subjecting the drying zone of a roll coating line to heat for around ten seconds. The temperature of heat applied may be around 120 °C.

[00178] A slurry mixture may comprise a solvent amounting to at least about 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%,

6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95% or more of the total weight of the slurry. A solvent may comprise no more than about 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, or 1% or less of the total weight of the slurry. An solvent may comprise about 1 to about 95 wt%, about 1 to about 85 wt%, about 1 to about 75 wt%, about 1 to about 60 wt%, about 1 to about 50 wt%, about 1 to about 40 wt%, about 1 to about 30 wt%, about 1 to about 20 wt%, about 1 to about 10 wt%, about 5 to about 95 wt%, about 5 to about 85 wt%, about 5 to about 75 wt%, about 5 to about 60 wt%, about 5 to about 50 wt%, about 5 to about 40 wt%, about 5 to about 30 wt%, about 5 to about 20 wt%, about 5 to about 10 wt%, about 10 to 95 wt%, about 10 to about 85 wt%, about 10 to about 75 wt%, about 10 to about 60 wt%, about 10 to about 50 wt%, about 10 to about 40 wt%, about 10 to about 30 wt%, about 10 to about 20 wt%, about 20 to about 95 wt%, about 20 to about 85 wt%, about 20 to about 75 wt%, about 20 to about 60 wt%, about 20 to about 50 wt%, about 20 to about 40 wt%, about 20 to about 30 wt%, about 30 to about 85 wt%, about 30 to about 75 wt%, about 30 to about 60 wt%, about 30 to about 50 wt%, about 30 to about 40 wt%, about 1 to about 95 wt%, about 40 to about 85 wt%, about 40 to about 75 wt%, about 40 to about 60 wt%, about 40 to about 50 wt%, about 50 to about 95 wt%, about 50 to about 85 wt%, about 50 to about 75 wt%, or about 50 to about 60 wt% of the total weight of the slurry. The solvent may have a particular purity. The solvent may have a purity of at least about 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%,

97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9% or more on a weight or molar basis. A solvent may have a purity of no more than about 99.9%, 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 94%, 93%, 92%, 91%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%,

60%, 55%, or 50% or less on a weight or molar basis.

[00179] In some cases, the slurry comprises a binder. A slurry may comprise an organic or inorganic binder. In some cases, the inorganic binder is sodium silicate. In some cases, the slurry' comprises an organic binder. In some embodiments, the organic binder is sodium alginate, methyl cellulose, citric acid, polypropylene carbonate, or polyethylene oxide (PEO). In some cases, the slurry comprises no organic binder. In some cases, the halide activator acts as a binder when the slurry is dried. A slurry may comprise a binder at about 0.5 wt%, 1 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 5 \vt%, 6 wt%, 7 wt%, 8 wt%, 9 wt% or 10 wt%. A slurry' may comprise a binder at at least about 0.5 wt%, 1 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 6 wt%, 7 wt%, 8 wt%, 9 wt% or 10 wt% or more. A slurry may comprise a binder at no more than about 10 wt%, 9 wt%, 8 wt%, 7 wt%, 6 wt%, 5 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 1 wt%, 0.5 wt% or less.

[00180] A slurry may be configured to provide advantageous rheological properties for application to a substrate. A slurry may be optimized based upon the process used to apply it to a substrate (e.g., roll coating or spray coating). A slurry may be optimized based upon its behavior after application to the substrate (e.g., stability at a particular thickness).

[00181] A slurry may be characterized by a viscosity. A viscosity may be measured by any known method in the art, including rotational viscometers, vibrational viscometers, and bubble viscometers. A slurry may have a viscosity of at least about 1 centipoise (cP), 10 cP, 50 cP, 100 CP, 200 cP, 300 cP, 400 cP, 500 cP, 1000 cP, 2000 cP, 3000 cP, 4000 cP, 5000 cP, 10000 cP, 50000 cP, 100000 cP, 250000 cP, 500000 cP or 1000000 cP or more. A slurry may have a viscosity of no more than about 1000000 cP, 500000 cP, 250000 cP, 100000 cP, 50000 cP, 10000 cP, 5000 cP, 4000 cP, 3000 cP, 2000 cP, 1000 cP, 500 cP, 400 cP, 300 cP, 200 cP, 100 cP, 50 cP, 10 cP, 1 cP or less.

[00182] The rheological behavior of a slurry may be dependent upon the shear rate of the slurry. A slurry may be Newtonian or non-Newtonian. A slurry may be shear-thickening or shear-thinning. A slurry may display thixotropic behavior. The viscosity of a slurry may be characterized at a shear rate of at least about 1 s ^'1 , 10 s ^'1 , 100 s ^'1 , 1000 s ^'1 , 10000 s ^'1 , or 100000 s ^'1 or more. The viscosity of a slurry may be characterized at a shear rate of no more than about 100000 s ^'1 , 10000 s ^'1 , 1000 s ^'1 , 100 s ^'1 , 10 s ^'1 , 1 s ^'1 or less. A slurry may have a shear thinning index of about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10. A slurry may have a shear thinning index of at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 or more. A slurry may have a shear thinning index of no more than about 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 or less.

[00183] A slurry may be configured to have a particular specific gravity. A slurry may have a specific gravity of at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20 or more. A slurry may have a specific gravity of no more than about 20, 15, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 or less. A slurry may be acidic, neutral, or basic. A slurry may have a pH of about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, or 14, or a range between (inclusive) any two of the foregoing values. A slurry may have a pH of at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, or 14. A sluny may have a pH of no more than about 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 or less.

[00184] A blade may be used to mix sluny components during or after slurry formation. The blade used to mix the metal-containing layer components may be in the shape of a whisk, a fork, or a paddle. More than one blade may be used to mix the slurry components. Each blade may have different shapes or the same shape. Dry ingredients may be added to the solvent in controlled amounts to prevent clumping.

A high shear rate may be used to help control viscosity. In a slurry, chromium particles may be larger in size than other particles, and may be suspended without high polymer additions.

[00185] The properties of the slurry can be a function of one or more parameters used to form the slurry, maintain the slurry or deposit the slurry. Such properties can include viscosity, shear thinning index, and yield stress. Such properties can include Reynolds number, viscosity, pH, and slurry component concentration. Parameters that can influence properties of the slurry can include water content, elemental species identity and content, temperature, shear rate and time of mixing.

[00186] The shear rate of a slurry may be measured on various instruments. The shear rate may be measured on a TA Instruments DHR-2 rheometer, for example. The shear rate of a slurry may differ depending on the instrument used to perform the measurement. The fluidity of a slurry can be measured by a tilt test. A tilt test can be an indication of yield stress and viscosity. As an alternative, a rheometer may be used to measure the fluidity of the slurry.

[00187] In order to achieve the target or predetermined viscosity, mixing may occur for a period of time of about 1 minute, 5 minutes, 10 minutes, 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 1 hours, 1.5 hours, 2 hours, 3 hours, or 6 hours. Mixing of a slurry may occur for a period of time of at least about 1 minute, 5 minutes, 10 minutes, 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 1 hours, 1.5 hours, 2 hours, 3 hours, or 6 hours or more. Mixing of a slurry may occur for a period of time of no more than about 6 hours, 3 hours, 2 hours, 1.5 hours, 1 hour, 30 minutes, 15 minutes, 10 minutes, 5 minutes, or 1 minute or less. The viscosity of the slurry may decrease the longer the slurry is mixed. The time of mixing may correspond to the length of time used in homogenizing the slurry.

[00188] A properly mixed state may be a state where the slurry does not have water on the surface. A properly mixed state may be a state where there are no solids on the bottom of the vessel. The slurry may appear to be uniform in color and texture.

[00189] The settling rate of the slurry may be stable to separation or sedimentation for greater than about one minute, greater than about 15 minutes, greater than about 1 hour, greater than about 1 day, greater than about 1 month, or greater than about 1 year. The settling rate of the slurry may refer to the amount of time the slurry is able to withstand, without mixing, before settling occurs, or before the viscosity increases to values that are not suitable for roll coating. Similarly, the shelf-life of the slurry may refer to the time that slurry can withstand, without mixing, before the slurry thickens to an extent unsuitable for roll coating. Even if the slurry settles and thickens, however, the slurry may be remixed to its initial viscosity. The thixotropic index of the slurry can be stable such that the slurry does not thicken to unsuitable levels at dead spots in the pan of a roll coating assembly.

[00190] The viscosity of the slurry can be controlled by controlling the extent of hydrogen bonding by adding acid to the slurry during mixing. In addition, acid or base may be added to the slurry during mixing in order to control the pH level of the slurry. The pH level of the slurry can be from about 3 to about 12. The pH level of the slurry can be about 5 to about 8. The pH level offthe slurry can be about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 11, or about 12. The pH level of the slurry may change as the slurry settles. Remixing the slurry after the slurry settles may return the pH level of the slurry to initial pH levels. Varying levels of binder, for example, metal acetate, may be added to a slurry to increase green strength in a slurry.

[00191] In some cases, the slurry comprises an inert species. A slurry may be formed by mixing various components in a mixing chamber (or vessel). Various components may be mixed at the same time or sequentially. For example, a solvent is provided in the chamber and an elemental species is subsequently added to the chamber. To prevent clumping, dry ingredients may be added to the solvent in controlled amounts. Some elemental metals may be in dry powder form.

[00192] The drying time of the slurry can be sufficiently long such that the slurry remains wet during the roll coating process and does not dry until after a coating of the slurry is applied to the substrate. The slurry may not dry at room temperature. The slurry may become dry to the touch after subjecting the drying zone of a roll coating line to heat for around ten seconds. The temperature of heat applied may be around 120 °C.

[00193] The green strength of the slurry can be such that the slurry is able to withstand roll coating such that the slurry coated substrate is not damaged. For example, a dry film of slurry, dried after roll- coating in the drying oven adjacent to the paint booth, may have a green strength that allows the film to survive a force that flexes the film, twenty times, in alternating negative and positive directions, to an arc with a diameter of about 20 inches. The green strength of the dry film of slurry may further allow the film to pass a tape test with a small amount of powdering. The tape test may involve contacting a piece of tape with the surface of the coated material. The tape, once removed from the surface of the coated material, may be clear enough to allow one to see through any powder that had adhered to the tape. [00194] A slurry may be applied to a substrate before forming a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) on the substrate. The slurry may be applied in a uniform thickness over the substrate. A slurry may be applied in a varying thickness over the substrate. The average thickness of an applied slurry coating may be about 0.0001 inches (in), 0.0005 in, 0.001 in, 0.002 in, 0.003 in, 0.004 in, 0.005 in, 0.006 in, 0.007 in, 0.008 in, 0.009 in, 0.01 in, 0.02 in, 0.03 in, 0.04 in, 0.05 in, 0.06 in, 0.07 in, 0.08 in, 0.09 in, 0.1 in, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5 in, where 1 inch equals to 2.54 centimeters. The average thickness of an applied slurry coating may be at least about 0.0001 in, 0.0005 in, 0.001 in, 0.002 in, 0.003 in, 0.004 in, 0.005 in, 0.006 in, 0.007 in, 0.008 in, 0.009 in, 0.01 in, 0.02 in, 0.03 in, 0.04 in, 0.05 in, 0.06 in, 0.07 in, 0.08 in, 0.09 in, 0.1 in, 0.125 in, 0.25 in, 0.5 in or more. The average thickness of an applied slurry coating may be no more than about 0.5 in, 0.25 in, 0.125 in, 0.1 in, 0.09 in, 0.08 in, 0.07 in, 0.06 in, 0.05 in, 0.04 in, 0.03 in, 0.02 in, 0.01 in, 0.009 in, 0.008 in, 0.007 in, 0.006 in, 0.005 in, 0.004 in, 0.003 in, 0.002 in, 0.001 in, 0.0005 in, 0.0001 in or less.

[00195] A slurry may be applied adjacent to one or more surfaces of a substrate with a particular thickness. The thickness of the applied slurry coating may be relatively uniform over a surface or may vary. The thickness of the applied slurry coating may vary from one surface of the substrate to another. The thickness of the applied slurry coating adjacent to the substrate may be measured at any time, including immediately after application, during drying, or after all solvent has been removed. An applied coating of a slurry may be considered substantially uniform if at least 90%, 95%, 99% or more of the substrate surface has a slurry coating that does not deviate by more than about 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 11%, 12%, 13%, 14%, 15%, 16%, 17%, 18%, 19%, or about 20% from the average thickness of the applied slurry coating.

[00196] A slurry coating applied adjacent to one or more surfaces of a substrate may have an average applied thickness before or after drying of about 5 μm, 10 μm, 15 μm, 20 μm, 25 μm, 30 μm, 40 μm, 50 μm, 60 μm, 70 μm, 80 μm, 90 μm, 100 μm, 150 μm, 200 μm, 250 μm, 300 μm, 400 μm, 500 μm, 600 μm, 700 μm, 800 μm, 900 μm, 1 mm, 2 mm, 5 mm, or about 1 cm. A slurry coating applied adjacent to one or more surfaces of a substrate may have an average applied thickness before or after drying of at least about 5 μm, 10 μm, 15 μm, 20 μm, 25 μm, 30 μm, 40 μm, 50 μm, 60 μm, 70 μm, 80 μm, 90 μm, 100 μm, 150 μm, 200 μm, 250 μm, 300 μm, 400 μm, 500 μm, 600 μm, 700 μm, 800 μm, 900 μm, 1 mm, 2 mm, 5 mm, or about 1 cm. A slurry coating applied adjacent to one or more surfaces of a substrate may have an applied thickness before or after drying of no more than about 1 cm, 5 mm, 2 mm, 1 mm, 900 μm, 800 μm, 700 μm, 600 μm, 500 μm, 400 μm, 300 μm, 250 μm, 200 μm, 150 μm, 100 μm, 90 μm, 80 μm, 70 μm, 60 μm, 50 μm, 40 μm, 30 μm, 25 μm, 20 μm, 15 μm, 10 μm, or 5 μm or less. A slurry coating applied adjacent to one or more surfaces of a substrate may have an applied thickness before or after drying of about 20 μm to about 500 μm, about 20 μm to about 50 μm, about 20 μm to about 100 μm, about 20 μm to about 200 μm, about 20 μm to about 500 μm, about 50 μm to about 100 μm, about 50 μm to about 200 μm, about 50 μm to about 500 μm, about 100 μm to about 200 μm, about 100 μm to about 500 μm, or about 200 μm to about 500 μm.

Annealed Substrate

[00197] The present disclosure provides substrates coated with slurry to generate annealed substrate comprising a metal layer. The annealed substrate may have different mechanical or electrical properties compared to the substrate. The mechanical properties of the annealed substrate may comprise improved mechanical and electrical properties compared to the substrate. In some embodiments, the annealed substrate may have an increased fracture toughness relative to the substrate. In some embodiments, the annealed substrate may have magnetically-enhanced properties compared to the substrate. The annealed substrate may be magnetically-enhanced compared to the substrate in at least one dimension. Metal Layers (or Metal diffusion layers)

[00198] The present disclosure provides substrates coated with one or more metal layers (or metal diffusion layers). In some cases, a substrate may be coated with at least one metal layer (or metal diffusion layer). A substrate may be coated with about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 metal layers (or metal diffusion layers). A substrate may be coated with at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or more metal layers (or metal diffusion layers). A substrate may be coated with no more than about 10, 9. 8, 7, 6, 5, 4,

3, 2, or 1 metal layer. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be formed by the diffusion of a species within an alloying agent having at least one elemental metal. The metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be coupled to a substrate with the aid of a diffusion layer between the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) and the substrate.

[00199] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have an average thickness of greater than about

1 nanometer, 10 nanometers, 100 nanometers, 500 nanometers, 1 micrometer(s) (μm) (i.e., 1 micrometer = 10 ^-6 meter), 5 μm, 10 μm, 25 μm, 50 μm, 60 μm, 70 μm, 80 μm, 90 μm, or 100 μm or more. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have an average thickness of no more than about 100 μm, 90 μm, 80 μm, 70 μm, 60 μm, 50 μm, 40 μm, 30 μm, 20 μm, 10 μm, 5 μm, 1 μm, 500 nanometers, 100 nanometers, 10 nanometers, 1 nanometer or less. The thickness of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be greater than a monoatomic layer. The thickness may be a single metal layer. The thickness may be a multilayer. The thickness may vary over one or more regions of the substrate.

[00200] An elemental species contained within an alloying agent in the slurry can diffuse to or into the substrate according to a concentration gradient. For example, the concentration of the elemental species in the metal-containing layer can be highest on the surface of the substrate and can decrease according to a gradient along the depth of the substrate. The concentration of an elemental species may decrease from the surface to the diffusion frontier boundary or the point of deepest penetration of the diffusing species. The decrease in concentration can be linear, non-linear parabolic, Gaussian, or any combination thereof. The concentration of the elemental species in the metal-containing layer can be selected based on the desired thickness of the alloy layer to be formed adjacent to the substrate.

[00201] An elemental species in the slurry may impact the adhesion of the metal-containing layer to the substrate. In addition, an elemental species may impact the viscosity of the metal-containing- containing layer composition. Further, an elemental species may influence the green strength of the metal-containing layer coated substrate. Green strength generally refers to the ability of a metal- containing layer coated substrate to withstand handling or machining before the metal-containing layer is completely cured. Accordingly, an elemental species may be selected based on the desired degree of adhesion of the metal-containing layer to the substrate, the desired viscosity of the metal-containing layer, and the ability of an elemental species to increase the green strength of the metal-containing layer coated substrate. In addition, some metal-containing halides can be corrosive to components of a roll coating assembly which applies the metal-containing layer to the substrate. Such corrosion may be undesirable. An elemental species may prevent the formation of Kiikendall voids at the boundary interface of the metal-containing layer and the substrate. Upon heating, an elemental species may decompose to an oxide. In addition, after annealing, an elemental species may become inert. The concentration of various elemental species can be variable.

[00202] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise at least about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, or more elemental species. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise at least two of the following elements: chromium, nickel, aluminum, silicon, vanadium, titanium, boron, tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt, manganese, zirconium, niobium, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, phosphorus, copper, tin, calcium, arsenic, lead, antimony, tantalum, or zinc. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise at least three of the following elements: chromium, nickel, aluminum, silicon, vanadium, titanium, boron, tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt, manganese, zirconium, niobium, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, phosphorus, copper, tin, calcium, arsenic, lead, antimony, tantalum, or zinc. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise at least four of the following elements: chromium, nickel, aluminum, silicon, vanadium, titanium, boron, tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt, manganese, zirconium, niobium, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, phosphorus, copper, tin, calcium, arsenic, lead, antimony, tantalum, or zinc.

[00203] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise multiple elements. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise chromium at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise chromium at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00204] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise nickel at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise nickel at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00205] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise aluminum at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise aluminum at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00206] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise silicon at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise silicon at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00207] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise vanadium at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%,

1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise vanadium at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00208] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise titanium at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise titanium at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00209] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise boron at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%,

1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise boron at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more. [00210] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise tungsten at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%,

0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise tungsten at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00211] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise molybdenum at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%,

0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise molybdenum at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00212] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise cobalt at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise cobalt at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00213] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise manganese at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%,

0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise manganese at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00214] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise zirconium at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise zirconium at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00215] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise niobium at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise niobium at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00216] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise carbon at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%,

0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise carbon at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00217] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise nitrogen at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%,

0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise nitrogen at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00218] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise sulfur at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%,

0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise sulfur at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00219] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise oxygen at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise oxygen at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00220] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise phosphorus at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%,

0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise phosphorus at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00221] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise copper at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise copper at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00222] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise tin at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%,

0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise tin at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00223] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise calcium at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%,

0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise calcium at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00224] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise arsenic at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%,

0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise arsenic at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00225] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise lead at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%,

0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise lead at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00226] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise antimony at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%,

0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise antimony at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00227] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise tantalum at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%,

0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise tantalum at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00228] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise zinc at a weight percent or atomic percent less than or equal to about 40%, 30%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.004%, 0.002%, 0.001%, 0.0005%, or 0.0001% or less. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise zinc at a weight percent or atomic percent greater than or equal to about 0.0001%, 0.0005%, 0.001%, 0.002%, 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, or 40% or more.

[00229] The concentration of an atomic species in a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may vary with depth in the metal layer. The concentration of an atomic species in a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may vary over the surface of the substrate. The concentration of an atomic species in a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be uniform or nearly uniform. A nearly uniform atomic species may be one whose concentration varies by no more than about 30%, 29%, 28%, 27%, 26%, 25%, 24%, 23%, 22%, 21%, 20%, 19%, 18%, 17%, 16%, 15%, 14%, 13%, 12%, 11%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, or about 1% over the thickness of the metal layer. The concentration of two or more atomic species in a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have differing relative concentration gradients in a metal layer. For example, in a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) comprising silicon and magnesium, the silicon concentration may decrease by 10% over the thickness of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) while the magnesium concentration decreases by 30% over the same thickness.

[00230] The amount of an elemental metal in a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) on a substrate may change with depth. The amount of an elemental metal in a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have a change with depth at a certain rate, such as at least about ±0.0001% per micrometer (μm), at least about ±-0.001% per micrometer, at least about ±-0.01% per micrometer, at least about ±-0.05% per micrometer, at least about ±-0.1% per micrometer, at least about ±-0.5% per micrometer, at least about ±- 1.0% per micrometer, at least about ±-3.0% per micrometer, at least about ±-5.0% per micrometer, at least about ±-7.0 % per micrometer, or at least about ±-9.0% per micrometer or more. The amount of an elemental metal in a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have a change with depth at a certain rate, such as no more than about ±-9.0% per micrometer, ±-7.0% per micrometer, ±-5.0% per micrometer, ±- 3.0% per micrometer, ±-1.0% per micrometer, ±-0.5% per micrometer, ±-0.1% per micrometer, ±-0.05% per micrometer, ±-0.01% per micrometer, ±-0.001% per micrometer, or ±-0.0001% per micrometer or less. The amount of an elemental metal in a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have a change with depth from about -0.01% per micrometer to -5.0% per micrometer, or from about -0.01% per micrometer to -3.0% per micrometer.

[00231] The amount of an elemental metal in a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have a change with depth at a certain rate, such as at most about -0.01% per micrometer, at most about -0.01% per micrometer, at most about -0.01% per micrometer, at most about -0.05% per micrometer, at most about -0.1% per micrometer, at most about -0.5% per micrometer, at most about -1.0% per micrometer, at most about -3.0% per micrometer, at most about -5.0% per micrometer, at most about -7.0% per micrometer, or at most about -9.0% per micrometer. [00232] An elemental metal may have a concentration of at least about 5 wt % at a depth of less than or equal to 100 micrometers, about 5 wt % at a depth of less than or equal to 50 micrometers, about 10 wt % at a depth of less than or equal to 50 micrometers, about 10 wt % at a depth of less than or equal to 40 micrometers, about 10 wt % at a depth of less than or equal to 30 micrometers, about 15 wt % at a depth of less than or equal to 50 micrometers, about 15 wt % at a depth of less than or equal to 40 micrometers, about 15 wt % at a depth of less than or equal to 30 micrometers, or about 15 wt % at a depth of less than or equal to 10 micrometers from the surface of the substrate. An elemental metal may have a concentration of no more than about 5 wt % at a depth of less than or equal to 100 micrometers, about 5 wt % at a depth of less than or equal to 50 micrometers, about 10 wt % at a depth of less than or equal to 50 micrometers, about 10 wt % at a depth of less than or equal to 40 micrometers, about 10 wt % at a depth of less than or equal to 30 micrometers, about 15 wt % at a depth of less than or equal to 50 micrometers, about 15 wt % at a depth of less than or equal to 40 micrometers, about 15 wt % at a depth of less than or equal to 30 micrometers, or about 15 wt % at a depth of less than or equal to 10 micrometers from the surface of the substrate.

[00233] Any suitable analytical techniques may be used to measure the composition of a substrate, slurry, slurry component, or metal layer. Measurements may include amounts, concentrations, or weight percentage, changes with depth, and grain size. Exemplary analytical techniques may include, without limitation, glow discharge mass spectrometry, microprobe analysis, potentiostat measurements, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, energy- dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, and electron energy loss spectroscopy may be used to measure such change in amount, concentration, or wt% with depth.

[00234] The substrate may comprise a bonding layer adjacent to the metal layer. The concentration of an elemental species may decrease by less than about 1.0 wt % in the bonding layer. A metal or alloy layer may be uniform in appearance. The metal or alloy layer may be level, unvarying, smooth, even, and homogenous in appearance, weight, and thickness over the surface of the at least a portion of the layer. A metal or alloy layer may have grain boundary precipitates that may be visible. Alternatively, a metal or alloy layer formed with a composition or via a method described herein may have little or few grain boundary precipitates that are visible at about 10x, 50x, 100x, 250x, 500x, 1000x, or more magnification. [00235] A residue may remain on the substrate after the annealing process. Certain components in the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be consumed or removed (e.g., deposited on the walls of the retort), or its concentration reduced due to its diffusion to or into the substrate. However, after annealing, other residue in the form of, e.g., a powder, may remain on the substrate. The residue may comprise the inert material from the metal-containing layer. This residue may be removed prior to further processing (e.g., temper rolling). The reaction can be purged with HC1 gas to halt the reaction. The purging with HC1 gas can allow for the formation of a flat profile.

[00236] After a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) is formed adjacent to a substrate, the substrate may have a measurable grain size. Grain size may be measured and recorded in accordance to the American Society of the International Association for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard. The metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have an average grain size greater than about ASTM 000, 00, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 39, or 30 or more. The metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have an average grain size less than about ASTM 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0,

00, 000 or less. In some embodiments, a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have a grain size from about ASTM 000 to about ASTM 30, from about ASTM 5 to about ASTM 16, from about ASTM 6 to about ASTM 14, or from about ASTM 8 to about ASTM 12. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have a grain size from about ASTM 7 to ASTM 9. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have a grain size of about ASTM 7.A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have a grain size of about ASTM 7.

[00237] An elemental species in the slurry may lower the transition temperature of austenite to ferrite. An elemental species in the substrate may lower the transition temperature of austenite to ferrite. An elemental species may not substantially change the transition temperature of austenite to ferrite. In some embodiments, an elemental species may raise the transition temperature of austenite to ferrite. An elemental species that may lower the transition temperature of austenite to ferrite can be manganese, nitrogen, copper or gold.

[00238] The grain size of austenite and the grain size of ferrite may be measured. A ratio of austenite grain size to ferrite grain size may be greater than about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, or 10 or more. A ratio of austenite grain size to ferrite grain size may be about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, or 10. A ratio of austenite grain size to ferrite grain size may be about 1. The ratio of grain size of austenite to grain size of ferrite may be calculated according to the following equation: wherein D _γ is the grain size of austenite in μm, D _α is the grain size of ferrite in μm, a is the cooling rate in 30 degrees Celsius (°C) per second (°C/s). In some embodiments, the cooling rate may be at least about 30 °C/s. [*Misagh: Cooling rate, only one rate is mentioned?]

[00239] The amount of titanium equivalents stabilization may be calculated according to the following equation:

Ti equivalents stabilization = wt%Ti - 3.42*wt%N - 1.49 wt%S - 4wt%C + 0.516wt%Nb. [00240] Without wishing to be bound by theory, a certain amount of titanium (Ti) equivalents stabilization in a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) that may give rise to a layer that is more resistant to grain boundary precipitation. A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may comprise at least about 0.001 Ti equivalents, 0.005 Ti equivalents, 0.01 Ti equivalents, 0.015 Ti equivalents, 0.017 Ti equivalents, 0.02 Ti equivalents, 0.03 Ή equivalents, 0.04 Ti equivalents, 0.05 Ή equivalents, 0.06 Ή equivalents, 0.07 Ti equivalents, 0.08 Ή equivalents, 0.09 Ti equivalents, or more. [00241] A substrate comprising a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be characterized by a tensile strength. In some cases, a substrate comprising a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have a tensile strength of at least about 10 ksi (kilopound per square inch) (where 1 ksi = 6.8947572932 megapascal (MPa), 15 ksi, 20 ksi, 25 ksi, 30 ksi, 35 ksi, 40 ksi, 45 ksi, 50 ksi, 55 ksi, 60 ksi, 65 ksi, 70 ksi, 75 ksi, 80 ksi, 85 ksi, 90 ksi, 95 ksi, 100 ksi or more. In some cases, a substrate comprising a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have a tensile strength of no more than about 100 ksi, 95 ksi, 90 ksi, 85 ksi, 80 ksi,

75 ksi, 70 ksi, 65 ksi, 60 ksi, 55 ksi, 50 ksi, 45 ksi, 40 ksi, 35 ksi, 30 ksi, 25 ksi, 20 ksi, 15 ksi, 10 ksi or less.

[00242] A substrate comprising a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be characterized by a yield strength. In some cases, a substrate comprising a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have a yield strength of at least about 10 ksi (kilopound per square inch) (where 1 ksi = 6.8947572932 megapascal (MPa), 15 ksi, 20 ksi, 25 ksi, 30 ksi, 35 ksi, 40 ksi, 45 ksi, 50 ksi, 55 ksi, 60 ksi, 65 ksi, 70 ksi, 75 ksi, 80 ksi, 85 ksi, 90 ksi, 95 ksi, 100 ksi or more. In some cases, a substrate comprising a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have a yield strength of no more than about 100 ksi, 95 ksi, 90 ksi, 85 ksi, 80 ksi, 75 ksi, 70 ksi, 65 ksi, 60 ksi, 55 ksi, 50 ksi, 45 ksi, 40 ksi, 35 ksi, 30 ksi, 25 ksi, 20 ksi, 15 ksi, 10 ksi or less. [00243] A substrate comprising a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have an elongation or strain under deformation before failure. In some cases, a substrate comprising a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have an elongation or strain of about 1%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 75% or 100%. In some cases, a substrate comprising a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have an elongation or strain of at least about 1%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 4%, 5%,

10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 75% or 100% or more. In some cases, a substrate comprising a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may have an elongation or strain of no more than about 100%, 75%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1% or less.

[00244] A composition comprising a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be put through one or more mechanical forming processes before or after a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) is formed on or adjacent to the substrate. The substrate may undergo any processing methods before, during and/or after the deposition of a metal layer. Illustrative processes may comprise, without limitation, forming, soft or hard tooling, fastening, and seam or cut edge protection. Illustrative forming, soft or hard tooling processes may comprise stretch or draw forming, re-striking, crash forming, spin forming, roll forming, hydro-forming, CNC forming, flanging, crimping, hemming, hot stamping, extrusion, and forging. Illustrative fastening processes may comprise toggle locking, toxlocking, spot welding, soldering, stick- welding, electric arc welding, MIG welding, TIG welding, acetylene gas welding, electric resistance welding, ultra-sonic welding, friction welding, laser welding, plasma welding, lock seaming, riveting, hot forging, and chemical adhesion (e.g., glue or epoxy joining). Illustrative seam or cut-edge protection processes may comprise hot dip galvanizing, electro-galvanizing, aluminum or aluminizing, alumino- siliconizing, cold spraying (e.g., Al, stainless steel of all grades, zinc, galvanize, nickel), hot spraying or plasma spray coating (e.g., Al, stainless steel of all grades, zinc, galvanize, nickel, copper, bronze), cladding, and liquid applied coatings (e.g., paints, UV cured, polymer paints).

[00245] A composition comprising a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be mechanically formed into one or more parts, pieces, or components. A part, piece, or component comprising the metal layer-containing composition may be mechanically formed before, during, or after the deposition of a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) on the substrate. A part, piece or component comprising the metal layer-containing composition may be used in any suitable application including, without limitation, automotive, aviation, transportation, maritime, appliance, construction, industrial, electrical, biomedical, military, consumer, aesthetic, electronic, and structural applications. Automotive applications may comprise automotive fuel tanks, exposed body panels (e.g., doors, hoods, and fenders), exhaust components (e.g., mufflers, catalytic converter housings, exhaust tubing, heat shielding), and unexposed body panels (e.g., dash panels, door inners, wheel house inners). Appliance applications may comprise exposed panels (e.g., door outers, vent hoods, splash guards) and unexposed panels (e.g., dishwasher inner panels, water heater tanks). Construction and structural applications may comprise architectural paneling, flow tubing, piping, beams, hinges, plates, and fasteners. Electrical applications may comprise electrical motor laminations, electric generator laminations, and electrical transformer core laminations.

Formation of Metal layers (or Metal diffusion layers) Adjacent to Substrates [00246] A slurry can be applied or deposited adjacent to the substrate and form a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to the surface. The metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) can be annealed to form a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to the substrate. The slurry can be applied by roll coating, split coating, spin coating, slot coating, curtain coating, slide coating, extrusion coating, painting, spray painting, electrostatic mechanisms, printing (e.g., 2-D printing, 3-D printing, screen printing, pattern printing), vapor deposition (e.g., chemical vapor deposition), electrochemical deposition, slurry deposition, dipping, spraying, any combination thereof, or through any other suitable method.

[00247] In some embodiments, formation of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to the surface comprises applying or depositing a slurry adjacent to the substrate. In some embodiments, formation of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to the surface comprises annealing the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer). In some embodiments, application of the slurry comprises roll coating, split coating, spin coating, slot coating, curtain coating, slide coating, extrusion coating, painting, spray painting, electrostatic mechanisms, printing (e.g., 2-D printing, 3-D printing, screen printing, pattern printing), vapor deposition (e.g., chemical vapor deposition), electrochemical deposition, slurry deposition, dipping, spraying, any combination thereof, or through any other suitable method.

[00248] A slurry can be applied via roll coating. The roll coating process may begin by providing a substrate, such as a steel substrate. In some cases, the substrate may comprise a pre-formed substrate, e.g., a coiled wire substrate. In some cases, the substrate may be altered for the deposition of a metal layer. For example, a coiled substrate may be unwound. The substrate may be provided to a roll coating system that may be capable of depositing a metal-containing slurry on one or more surfaces of the substrate. Next, the roll coating system may be activated such that the one or more surfaces of the substrate are coated with a metal-containing slurry adjacent to the substrate. The substrate may be fed through the roll coating system through multiple cycles such that the metal-containing slurry is applied adjacent to the substrate multiple times. Depending on the properties of the metal-containing slurry, it may be desirable to apply multiple coatings to the substrate. Multiple coatings of the metal-containing slurry can be applied adjacent to the substrate in order to achieve the desired thickness of the slurry. In some cases, the roll coating system may be configured to provide a slurry coating of varying thickness across one or more surfaces of the substrate. Different formulations or a metal-containing slurry may be used in each of the multiple coatings. The metal-containing slurry may be applied in a manner such as to form a pattern on the substrate. The pattern may in the form of, for example, a grid, stripes, dots, welding marks, or any combination thereof. Multiple coatings on the same substrate may form a split coat on a substrate.

[00249] In some embodiments, application of the slurry comprises roll coating. The roll coating process may begin by providing a substrate, such as a steel substrate. In some cases, the substrate may comprise a pre-formed substrate, e.g., a coiled wire substrate.

[00250] In some cases, formation of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to the surface comprises altering the substrate for the deposition of a metal layer. For example, formation of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to the surface comprises unwinding a coiled substrate. In some embodiments, formation of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to the surface comprises providing the substrate to formation of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to the surface comprises. In some embodiments, formation of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to the surface comprises activating the roll coating system such that the one or more surfaces of the substrate are coated with a metal-containing slurry adjacent to the substrate. In some embodiments, formation of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to the surface comprises feeding the substrate through the roll coating system through multiple cycles such that the metal-containing slurry is applied adjacent to the substrate multiple times. Depending on the properties of the metal-containing slurry, it may be desirable to apply multiple coatings to the substrate. In some embodiments, formation of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to the surface comprises applying multiple coatings of the metal-containing slurry to the substrate in order to achieve the desired thickness of the slurry. In some embodiments, formation of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to the surface comprises configuring the roll coating system to provide a slurry coating of varying thickness across one or more surfaces of the substrate. Different formulations or a metal-containing slurry may be used in each of the multiple coatings. In some embodiments, formation of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to the surface comprises applying the metal-containing slurry in a manner such as to form a pattern on the substrate. The pattern may in the form of, for example, a grid, stripes, dots, welding marks, or any combination thereof. Multiple coatings on the same substrate may form a split coat on a substrate. [00251] FIG. 1 illustrates a method of forming a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to a substrate. In operation 110, a substrate and a slurry containing an elemental species are provided. Next, in operation 120, the slurry can be applied from the mixing vessel to the substrate and dried by heat or vacuum drying to form a metal-containing layer. In operation 130, a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be annealed adjacent to the substrate to diffuse the elemental species into the substrate. In operation 140, any residual material may be removed from the substrate surface.

[00252] FIG. 2 illustrates an alternative method of firming a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to a substrate. In operation 210, a substrate and a slurry containing an elemental species are provided. Next, in operation 220, the slurry can be applied from the mixing vessel to the substrate and dried by heat or vacuum drying to firm a metal-containing layer. In operation 230, a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be annealed adjacent to the substrate to diffuse the elemental species into the substrate. In operation 240, the substrate may undergo a mechanical forming process such as rolling to alter the morphology or gauge of the substrate. In operation 250, the substrate may undergo a subsequent annealing step to further refine the distribution of the elemental species and any residual surface materials may be removed.

[00253] A slurry can be applied, deposited, or annealed adjacent to the substrate. A slurry can be deposited at a temperature of at least about 0 °C, 25 °C, 50 °C, 75 °C, 100 °C, 200 °C, 300 °C, 400 °C, 500 °C, 600 °C, 700 °C, 800 °C, 900 °C, or 1000 °C or more. A slurry can be deposited at a temperature of no more than about 1000 °C, 900 °C, 800 °C, 700 °C, 600 °C, 500 °C, 400 °C, 300 °C, 200 °C, 100 °C, 75 °C, 50 °C, 25 °C, or 0 °C or less. A slurry can be deposited at a temperature from about 100 °C to 500°C. A slurry can be deposited at a temperature from about 500 °C to 1000 °C.

[00254] Deposition of a slurry adjacent to or on a substrate may occur in an atmosphere with levels of moisture below or about 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, or 10% or less relative humidity. Deposition of a slurry adjacent to or on a substrate may occur in an atmosphere with levels of moisture above or about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% or more relative humidity. Deposition of a slurry adjacent to or on a substrate may occur in an atmosphere with levels of moisture below or about 100 torr, 50 torr, 20 torr, 10 torr, 5 torr, 2 torr, 1 torr, or 0.5 torr or less, where 1 torr equals to 133.322 Pascal. Deposition of a slurry adjacent to or on a substrate may occur in an atmosphere with levels of moisture above or about 0.5 torr, 1 torr, 2 torr, 5 torr, 10 torr, 20 torr, 50 torr, 100 torr or more.

In some embodiments, the relative humidity is about 50% during deposition of a metal-containing slurry.

[00255] Annealing of a slurry adjacent to a substrate may occur in an atmosphere with levels of moisture below or about 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, or 10% or less relative humidity.

Annealing of a slurry adjacent to a substrate may occur in an atmosphere with levels of moisture above or about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% or more relative humidity. Annealing of a slurry adjacent to a substrate may occur in an atmosphere with levels of moisture below or about 100 torr (1 torr = 133.322 Pascal), 50 torr, 20 torr, 10 torr, 5 torr, 2 torr, 1 torr, or 0.5 torr or less. Annealing of a slurry adjacent to a substrate may occur in an atmosphere with levels of moisture above or about 0.5 torr, 1 torr,

2 torr, 5 torr, 10 torr, 20 torr, 50 torr, 100 torr or more. [00256] A metal-containing slurry may be deposited adjacent to or on a substrate in an oxygen- diminished or oxygen-depleted environment. Deposition of a slurry adjacent to or on a substrate may occur in an atmosphere with levels of oxygen below or about 20 torr, 10 torr, 5 torr, 2 torr, 1 torr, 0.5 torr, 0.1 torr, 0.05 torr, 0.01 torr, 0.005 torr, or 0.001 torr or less. Deposition of a slurry adjacent to or on a substrate may occur in an atmosphere with levels of oxygen above or about 0.001 torr, 0.005 torr, 0.01 torr, 0.05 torr, 0.1 torr, 0.5 torr, 1 torr, 2 torr, 5 torr, 10 torr, 20 torr or more. Drying a slurry on a substrate may occur in oxygen-depleted, oxygen-diminished or ambient air conditions.

[00257] A substrate coated with a metal-containing slurry may be annealed in an oxygen-diminished or oxygen-depleted environment. A substrate coated with a metal-containing slurry may be annealed in an atmosphere with levels of oxygen below or about 20 torr (1 torr = 133.322 Pascal), 10 torr, 5 torr, 2 torr, 1 torr, 0.5 torr, 0.1 torr, 0.05 torr, 0.01 torr, 0.005 torr, or 0.001 torr or less. A substrate coated with a metal- containing slurry may be annealed in an atmosphere with levels of oxygen above or about 0.001 torr, 0.005 torr, 0.01 torr, 0.05 torr, 0.1 torr, 0.5 torr, 1 torr, 2 torr, 5 torr, 10 torr, 20 torr or more.

[00258] The present disclosure provides methods for forming a magnetically-enhanced substrate, comprising applying a slurry to a surface of a substrate to generate a slurry-coated substrate. The slurry may comprise an alloying agent. The slurry-coated substrate may comprise the alloying agent or a derivative thereof, where the alloying agent may comprise an elemental species. The methods may further comprise annealing the slurry-coated substrate to generate an annealed substrate. The annealed substrate may comprise a layer, where the layer may comprise the elemental species adjacent to the surface of the substrate. The annealed substrate may then be mechanically reduced at least in one dimension relative to the substrate to form the magnetically-enhanced substrate.

[00259] The present disclosure also provides methods for forming a magnetically-enhanced substrate, comprising generating a slurry-coated substrate by applying a slurry to a surface of the substrate. Then generating an annealed substrate by annealing the slurry-coated substrate. The methods may further comprise mechanically reducing a dimension of the annealed substrate to form a magnetically-enhanced substrate. The dimension of the annealed substrate may be mechanically reduced relative to the substrate. The slurry that may be used to coat the substrate to generate the slurry-coated substrate may comprise a first alloying agent. The alloying agent may comprise an elemental species. The slurry-coated substrate may comprise a second alloying agent. The second alloying agent may be similar to the first alloying agent. The second alloying agent may be a derivative of the first alloying agent. The annealed substrate may comprise a layer comprising the elemental species adjacent to the surface of the substrate.

[00260] The present disclosure also provides methods for forming a magnetically-enhanced substrate, comprising annealing a substrate. The substrate may comprise an elemental species to generate an annealed substrate comprising the elemental species. In some embodiments, an annealed substrate comprises (e.g., adjacent to a surface thereof) a layer comprising the elemental species. The methods may further comprise mechanically reducing a dimension of the annealed substrate to form a magnetically- enhanced substrate. The dimension of the annealed substrate may be mechanically reduced relative to the substrate.

[00261] The present disclosure also provides methods for forming a magnetically-enhanced substrate, comprising applying a slurry to a surface of a substrate to provide a slurry-coated substrate. The slurry may not comprise an elemental species. In some embodiments, the substrate comprises an elemental species. The methods may further comprise annealing the slurry-coated substrate to generate an annealed substrate. In some embodiments, the annealed substrate comprises a layer comprising the elemental species (e.g., adjacent to the surface of the substrate.) The annealed substrate may then be mechanically reduced at least in one dimension relative to the substrate to form the magnetically-enhanced substrate. [00262] In various embodiments of the methods described herein, at least one dimension of the substrate can be reduced in a process of mechanical reduction. The process of mechanical reduction may comprise one or more processes of mechanical reduction. In some embodiments, a process of mechanical reduction of the substrate may comprise rolling (e.g., cold rolling). In some embodiments, the plurality of processes of mechanical reduction may comprise a first process of mechanical reduction and a second process of mechanical reduction. The first and the second processes of mechanical reduction may be independently selected from the group consisting of stretch forming, tension level, thermal flattening, draw forming, re-striking, crash forming, spin forming, roll forming, hydro-forming, CNC forming, flanging, crimping, hemming, hot stamping, extrusion, and/or a combination thereof.

[00263] In various embodiments of the method for forming the magnetically enhanced substrate, a mechanically reduced dimension of a substrate may be smaller than an average thickness of the substrate prior to mechanical reduction. In some embodiments, the substrate after mechanical reduction (e.g., a magnetically-enhanced substrate) may have an average thickness that is about 30% to about 90%, about 30% to about 35%, about 30% to about 40%, about 30% to about 45%, about 30% to about 50%, about 30% to about 55%, about 30% to about 60%, about 30% to about 65%, about 30% to about 70%, about 30% to about 75%, about 30% to about 80%, about 30% to about 85%, about 30% to about 90%, about 35% to about 40%, about 35% to about 45%, about 35% to about 50%, about 35% to about 55%, about 35% to about 60%, about 35% to about 65%, about 35% to about 70%, about 35% to about 75%, about 35% to about 80%, about 35% to about 85%, about 35% to about 90%, about 40% to about 45%, about 40% to about 50%, about 40% to about 55%, about 40% to about 60%, about 40% to about 65%, about 40% to about 70%, about 40% to about 75%, about 40% to about 80%, about 40% to about 85%, about 40% to about 90%, about 45% to about 50%, about 45% to about 55%, about 45% to about 60%, about 45% to about 65%, about 45% to about 70%, about 45% to about 75%, about 45% to about 80%, about 45% to about 85%, about 45% to about 90%, about 50% to about 55%, about 50% to about 60%, about 50% to about 65%, about 50% to about 70%, about 50% to about 75%, about 50% to about 80%, about 50% to about 85%, about 50% to about 90%, about 55% to about 60%, about 55% to about 65%, about 55% to about 70%, about 55% to about 75%, about 55% to about 80%, about 55% to about 85%, about 55% to about 90%, about 60% to about 65%, about 60% to about 70%, about 60% to about 75%, about 60% to about 80%, about 60% to about 85%, about 60% to about 90%, about 65% to about 70%, about 65% to about 75%, about 65% to about 80%, about 65% to about 85%, about 65% to about 90%, about 70% to about 75%, about 70% to about 80%, about 70% to about 85%, about 70% to about 90%, about 75% to about 80%, about 75% to about 85%, about 75% to about 90%, about 80% to about 85%, about 80% to about 90%, or about 85% to about 90% of the corresponding average thickness of the substrate prior to mechanical reduction. The substrate (e.g., a magnetically-enhanced substrate) may have an average thickness that may be at least about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90% or more of the corresponding average thickness of the substrate prior to mechanical reduction. The average thickness of the substrate (e.g., a magnetically-enhanced substrate) may be at most about 90%, about 85%, about 80%, about 75%, about 70%, about 65%, about 60%, about 55%, about 50%, about 45%, about 40%, about 35%, about 30% or less of the corresponding average thickness of the substrate prior to mechanical reduction.

[00264] In various embodiments, a mechanically reduced dimension of a substrate may be about

0.0000 linches (in) to about 0.02 in, where 1 inch equals to 2.54 centimeter. The mechanically reduced dimension of a substrate may be about 0.00001 in to about 0.0001 in, about 0.00001 in to about 0.001 in, about 0.00001 in to about 0.003 in, about 0.00001 in to about 0.005 in, about 0.00001 in to about 0.007 in, about 0.00001 in to about 0.009 in, about 0.00001 in to about 0.011 in, about 0.00001 in to about 0.013 in, about 0.00001 in to about 0.015 in, about 0.00001 in to about 0.017 in, about 0.00001 in to about 0.02 in, about 0.0001 in to about 0.001 in, about 0.0001 in to about 0.003 in, about 0.0001 in to about 0.005 in, about 0.0001 in to about 0.007 in, about 0.0001 in to about 0.009 in, about 0.0001 in to about 0.011 in, about 0.0001 in to about 0.013 in, about 0.0001 in to about 0.015 in, about 0.0001 in to about 0.017 in, about 0.0001 in to about 0.02 in, about 0.001 in to about 0.003 in, about 0.001 in to about 0.005 in, about 0.001 in to about 0.007 in, about 0.001 in to about 0.009 in, about 0.001 in to about 0.011 in, about 0.001 in to about 0.013 in, about 0.001 in to about 0.015 in, about 0.001 in to about 0.017 in, about 0.001 in to about 0.02 in, about 0.003 in to about 0.005 in, about 0.003 in to about 0.007 in, about 0.003 in to about 0.009 in, about 0.003 in to about 0.011 in, about 0.003 in to about 0.013 in, about 0.003 in to about 0.015 in, about 0.003 in to about 0.017 in, about 0.003 in to about 0.02 in, about 0.005 in to about 0.007 in, about 0.005 in to about 0.009 in, about 0.005 in to about 0.011 in, about 0.005 in to about 0.013 in, about 0.005 in to about 0.015 in, about 0.005 in to about 0.017 in, about 0.005 in to about 0.02 in, about 0.007 in to about 0.009 in, about 0.007 in to about 0.011 in, about 0.007 in to about 0.013 in, about 0.007 in to about 0.015 in, about 0.007 in to about 0.017 in, about 0.007 in to about 0.02 in, about 0.009 in to about 0.011 in, about 0.009 in to about 0.013 in, about 0.009 in to about 0.015 in, about 0.009 in to about 0.017 in, about 0.009 in to about 0.02 in, about 0.011 in to about 0.013 in, about 0.011 in to about 0.015 in, about 0.011 in to about 0.017 in, about 0.011 in to about 0.02 in, about 0.013 in to about 0.015 in, about 0.013 in to about 0.017 in, about 0.013 in to about 0.02 in, about 0.015 in to about 0.017 in, about 0.015 in to about 0.02 in, or about 0.017 in to about 0.02 in. The mechanically reduced dimension of a substrate may be about 0.00001 in, about 0.0001 in, about 0.001 in, about 0.003 in, about 0.005 in, about 0.007 in, about 0.009 in, about 0.011 in, about 0.013 in, about 0.015 in, about 0.017 in, or about 0.02 in. The mechanically reduced dimension of a substrate may be at least about 0.00001 in, about 0.0001 in, about 0.001 in, about 0.003 in, about 0.005 in, about 0.007 in, about 0.009 in, about 0.011 in, about 0.013 in, about 0.015 in, 0.017 in, 0.02 in or more. The mechanically reduced dimension of a substrate may be at most about 0.02 in, about 0.017 in, about 0.015 in, about 0.013 in, about 0.011 in, about 0.009 in, about 0.007 in, about 0.005 in, about 0.003 in, about 0.001 in, about 0.0001 in, about 0.00001 in, or less.

[00265] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be deposited adjacent to the surface of a substrate using an alloying agent that has been generated in situ from one or more metal oxides by utilizing a metallothermic reduction (or reducing) reaction. Without wishing to be bound by theory, the metallothermic reduction reaction may occur when a thermodynamically less stable metal oxide is brought in the presence of a reducing metal agent that forms a thermodynamically more stable metal oxide. In various embodiments, a metallothermic reduction reaction may be initiated or enhanced by an activator compound. A reducing metal compound may be selected such that its Gibbs free energy of formation for its corresponding metal oxide is relatively large, e.g. aluminum to aluminum oxide. Such reducing metals may serve as effective oxygen and water scavengers, thereby eliminating oxidizing species that would hinder the forward reaction of the metal oxide with an activator compound. An example of an overall metallothermic reduction reaction may comprise the reaction of chromium oxide with aluminum metal, such as:

[00266] wherein the above-described reaction may be a source for the deposition of chromium in a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) on the surface of a substrate. The utilization of metal oxides as a source material for deposition may eliminate the use of additional inert powders in the reaction that act as scaffolds for the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) and as separators for alloying metal powders during sintering processes. The defect rate of the resultant metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be reduced, for example, by including a secondary elemental powder, or alloying the reducing element with a species that increases the melting point of the reducing element to a temperature higher than that used for deposition. The resultant metal oxide from reaction of the reducing metal agent may be more easily removed by a post-thermal treatment cleaning process. A metal-containing layer adjacent to the surface of a substrate may comprise a slurry applied to the surface of the substrate. The slurry may comprise a metal oxide powder, a reducing metal agent, a metal halide precursor, or a solvent. A slurry comprising a metal oxide powder may be optimized for its chemical and rheological properties. Increased rheological control may provide more uniform coating, including the reduction of unwanted rheological effects such as ribbing, cascading, or other defects, and increased surface coverage on the surface of a substrate, and may lead to increased utilization of the metal. A slurry composition containing a metal oxide may be adjusted based at least upon the relative concentrations of components, the particle size of components, the pH, the ionic strength, reduced sedimentation, the slurry yield strength, the slurry viscosity and any other properties that may affect the performance of the slurry as a source for depositing a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) on a substrate surface.

[00267] Drying of a metal-containing slurry adjacent to or on a substrate may occur in an atmosphere with levels of hydrogen below or about 0.1 torr (1 torr = 133.322 Pascal), 0.05 torr, 0.01 torr, 0.005 torr, or 0.001 torr or less. Drying of a metal-containing slurry adjacent to or on a substrate may occur in an atmosphere with levels of hydrogen above or about 0.001 torr, 0.005 torr, 0.01 torr, 0.05 torr, 0.1 torr or more. Annealing of a metal-containing layer adjacent to or on a substrate may occur in an atmosphere of pure hydrogen, pure argon, pure nitrogen, pure helium, or a mixture of hydrogen and an inert gas such as argon. In some cases, a hydrogen gas mixture may comprise about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 99%, or more than 99% hydrogen, on a weight or molar basis. In some cases, a hydrogen gas mixture may comprise at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 99%, or more than 99% of hydrogen, on a weight or molar basis. In some cases, a hydrogen gas mixture may comprise no more than about 99%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, or no more than 5% of hydrogen, on a weight or molar basis. [00268] After the slurry is applied adjacent to the substrate, the solvent in the metal-containing slurry may be removed by heating, vaporization, vacuuming, or any combination thereof. After the solvent is driven off, the substrate may be formed or reformed, e.g. recoiling of an uncoiled wire substrate. The slurry-coated substrate may be incubated or stored under vacuum or atmospheric conditions after deposition and prior to annealing. This occurs prior to annealing and may be useful in removing residual contaminants from the coating, for example, solvent or binder leftover from the coating process. The incubation period may last from about 10 seconds to about 5 minutes or may be more than about 5 minutes. The incubation period may be the time between coating and annealing and may be the length of time used to transport the coated article to the heat treatment facility or equiμment. For example, the incubation period may last for about 10 seconds, about 30 seconds, about 1 minute, about 2 minutes, about 3 minutes, about 4 minutes, or about 5 minutes. The incubation period may last for at least about 10 seconds, about 30 seconds, about 1 minute, about 2 minutes, about 3 minutes, about 4 minutes, or about 5 minutes or more. The incubation period may last for no more than about 5 minutes, 4 minutes, 3 minutes, 2 minutes, 1 minute, 30 seconds, or 10 seconds or less. The incubation temperature may range from about 50 °C to about 300 °C. For example, the incubation temperature may be greater than about 50 °C, about 75 °C, about 100 °C, about 125 °C, about 150 °C, about 175 °C, about 200 °C, about 225 °C, about 250 °C, about 275 °C, or about 300 °C or more. The incubation may be less than about 300 °C, 275 °C, 250 °C, 200 °C, 175 °C, 150 °C, 125 °C, 100 °C, 75 °C, or about 50 °C or less. After incubating, and prior to annealing, the dry film of slurry on the substrate can be maintained under vacuum conditions. The coating may be dry to the touch immediately following the drying step after the roll- coating process. Absorbed water or other contaminants may be present with the coating anytime between roll coating and annealing.

[00269] The slurry coated substrate may be placed in a retort and subjected to a controlled atmosphere during heat treatment. Water may be removed. The vacuum may be pulled to force hydrogen between wraps. The annealing process may be via tight coil or loose coil annealing. Annealing the slurry layer coated substrate can allow the elemental species in the slurry to diffuse into or through the substrate.

More than about 5 wt%, 10 wt%, 20 wt%, 30 wt%, 40 wt%, 50 wt%, 60 wt%, 70 wt%, 80 wt%, 90 wt%, or about 99% or more of the elemental species may diffuse to or into the substrate upon annealing. Less than about 100 wt%, 90 wt%, 80 wt%, 70 wt%, 60 wt%, 50 wt%, 40 wt%, 30 wt%, 20 wt%, 10 wt%, or 5 wt% or less of the elemental species may diffuse to or into the substrate upon annealing. Certain process conditions may afford about 1-5% of the elemental species diffusing from the coating into the substrate. Diffusion of the elemental species to the substrate may be aided by a component in the slurry layer. The annealing process may be a continuous annealing process. The annealing process may be a non- continuous annealing process.

[00270] The slurry-coated substrate may be heated at a rate of greater than about 0.01 °C per second, 0.1 °C per second, 1 °C per second, 5 °C per second, 10 °C per second, 15 °C per second, 20 °C per second, 25 °C per second, or 30 °C per second or more. The slurry-coated substrate may be heated at a rate of no more than about 30 °C per second, 25 °C per second, 20 °C per second, 15 °C per second, 10 °C per second, 5 °C per second, 1 °C per second, 0.1 °C per second, 0.01 °C per second or less.

[00271] The substrate that has been coated with a slurry can be annealed at a temperature of at least about 0 °C, 25 °C, 50 °C, 75 °C, 100 °C, 200 °C, 300 °C, 400 °C, 500 °C, 600 °C, 700 °C, 800 °C, 900 °C, 1000 °C, 1100 °C, 1200 °C, or 1300 °C or more. The substrate that has been coated with a slurry can be annealed at a temperature of no more than about 1300 °C, 1200 °C, 1100 °C, 1000 °C, 900 °C, 800 °C, 700 °C, 600 °C, 500 °C, 400 °C, 300 °C, 200 °C, 100 °C, 75 °C, 50 °C, 25 °C, or 0 °C or less. The annealing temperature may be about 800 °C, 900 °C, 1000 °C, 1100 °C, 1200 °C, or 1300 °C. The heating temperature during annealing can be from about 800 °C to about 1300 °C, such as from about 900 °C to about 1000 °C. The annealing temperature can be about 900 °C, 925 °C, 950 °C or 1000°C. Annealing may occur at more than one temperature, e.g., at 900 °C for a set time, then 1000 °C for a second set time. [00272] During heating, iron in a substrate or metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may transition from ferrite to austenite. The temperature at which the transition occurs may be referred to as the ferrite- austenite transition temperature. The ferrite-austenite transition temperature of a substrate, metal- containing slurry, or metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be greater than about 500 °C, 600 °C, 700 °C, 800 °C, 900 °C, 1000 °C, 1100 °C, 1200 °C, 1300 °C, 1400 °C, 1500 °C, or 1600 °C or more. The ferrite-austenite transition temperature of a substrate, metal-containing slurry, or metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be less than about 1600 °C, 1500 °C, 1400 °C, 1300 °C, 1200 °C, 1100 °C, 1000 °C, 900 °C, 800 °C, 700 °C, 600 °C, or 500 °C or less. The ferrite-austenite transition temperature of a substrate, metal-containing sluny, or metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be about 900 °C, 1000 °C, 1100 °C, 1200 °C, or 1300 °C. The ferrite-austenite transition temperature of a substrate, metal- containing slurry, or metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) can be from about 900 °C to about 1300 °C, about 1000 °C to about 1200 °C, or about 1100 °C to about 1200 °C.

[00273] The total annealing time, including heating, can range from about 5 hours to about 200 hours. For example, the total annealing time can be more than about 5 hours, about 20 hours, about 40 hours, about 60 hours, about 80 hours, about 100 hours, about 120 hours, about 140 hours, about 160 hours, about 180 hours, or about 200 hours or more. The total annealing time can be less than about 200 hours, 180 hours, 160 hours, 140 hours, 120 hours, 100 hours, 80 hours, 60 ours, 40 hours, 20 hours, or about 5 hours or less. The maximum temperature during the annealing process may be reached in about 1 hour to 100 hours. For example, the maximum temperature during the annealing process may be reached in about 1 hour, 10 hours, 20 hours, 30 hours, 40 hours, 50 hours, 60 hours, 70 hours, 80 hours, 90 hours, or 100 hours.

[00274] In various embodiments, a substrate may be annealed at about 950 °C for at least about 5 hours. In some embodiments, a substrate may be annealed at about 950 °C for at least about 20 hours. In some embodiments, a substrate may be annealed at about 950 °C for at least about 40 hours. In some embodiments, a substrate may be annealed at about 900 °C for at least about 20 hours. In some embodiments, a substrate may be annealed at about 900 °C for at least about 40 hours. In some embodiments, a substrate may be annealed at about 900 °C for at least about 60 hours. In some embodiments, a substrate may be annealed at about 900 °C for at least about 80 hours.

[00275] An annealing process may comprise more than one annealing step or cycle. Each step or cycle in an annealing process may occur at the same temperature or a different temperature. Each step or cycle in an annealing process may include a direct transition to a new annealing temperature or may include a cooling cycle to a reduced temperature between steps or cycles. The annealing time for each step or cycle can be more than about 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 5 hours, about 20 hours, about 40 hours, about 60 hours, about 80 hours, about 100 hours, about 120 hours, about 140 hours, about 160 hours, about 180 hours, or about 200 hours or more. The annealing time for each step or cycle can be less than about 200 hours, 180 hours, 160 hours, 140 hours, 120 hours, 100 hours, 80 hours, 60 ours, 40 hours, 20 hours, or about 5 hours, 2 hours, 1 hour, 30 minutes or less.

[00276] An annealing process may include one or more cooling or quenching steps. The slurry-coated substrate may be cooled or quenched at a rate of greater than about 0.01 °C per second, 0.1 °C per second, 1 °C per second, 5 °C per second, 10 °C per second, 15 °C per second, 20 °C per second, 25 °C per second, or 30 °C per second, 40 °C per second, 50 °C per second, 75 °C per second, 100 °C per second or more. The slurry-coated substrate may be heated at a rate of no more than about 100 °C per second, 75 °C per second, 50 °C per second, 40 °C per second , 30 °C per second, 25 °C per second, 20 °C per second,

15 °C per second, 10 °C per second, 5 °C per second, 1 °C per second, 0.1 °C per second, 0.01 °C per second or less. [00277] The annealing atmosphere may comprise an inert gas, for example nitrogen, helium or argon. The annealing atmosphere may comprise a reducing gas such as hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, or carbon monoxide. The annealing atmosphere may comprise hydrogen gas mixed with an inert gas. In various embodiments, the hydrogen gas may react with an elemental species (e.g., aluminum, silicon, manganese) in the slurry to form a hydride compound that may be capable of transport into the substrate. In some embodiments, the elemental species in the slurry, with which the hydrogen gas may react, can be selected from the group consisting of aluminum, silicon, and manganese. In some embodiments, the hydride formed by the mentioned reaction may be one of aluminum hydride, silicon hydride, and manganese hydride. The annealing atmosphere can be a vacuum. To prevent loss of an elemental species during annealing, a species such as hydrochloric acid may be added to the annealing gas. Minimizing the partial pressure of a component in the metal-containing slurry in the reactor at high temperatures may maintain a low deposition rate that is essential for minimizing or stopping the formation of Kirkendall pores. Adding too much of an acidic component in the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may also cause corrosion of the coating equiμment or the substrate.

[00278] After annealing, the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) coated substrate may be dried. The drying of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) coated substrate may occur in a vacuum or near- vacuum atmosphere. The drying of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) coated substrate may occur in an atmosphere of an inert gas. Examples of inert gas include hydrogen, helium, argon, nitrogen, or any combination thereof.

[00279] The substrate may be cooled for a period of time after annealing. The substrate may be actively cooled by reducing the temperature of the annealing oven. The substrate may be passively cooled by transfer to an ambient environment. The substrate may be cooled in an environment with a controlled humidity or oxygen level. The cooling time can range from about 1 hour to about 100 hours. For example, the cooling time can be more than about 1 hour, 2 hours, 3 hours, 4 hours, 5 hours, 6 hours, 7 hours, 8 hours, 9 hours, 10 hours, 15 hours, 20 hours, 25 hours, 30 hours, 35 hours, 40 hours, 50 hours, 60 hours, 70 hours, 80 hours, 90 hours, or about 100 hours or more. The cooling time can be less than about 100 hours, 90 hours, 80 hours, 70 hours, 60 hours, 50 hours, 40 hours, 35 hours, 30 hours, 25 hours, 20 hours, 15 hours, 10 hours, 9 hours, 8 hours, 7 hours, 6 hours, 5 hours, 4 hours, 3 hours, 2 hours, or 1 hour or less. For example, the cooling time can be from about 1 hour to about 100 hours, from about 5 hours to about 50 hours, or from about 10 hours to about 20 hours.

[00280] Large articles may have hot spots or cold spots during thermal treatment, where an article may be coated evenly but heated unevenly. Hot spots or cold spots may be indicated to control the diffusion of alloying element into the article as uniformly as possible.

[00281] Properties of a substrate after coating with a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be measured. Properties of a substrate include, for example, chemical composition, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and percent elongation. [00282] The substrate can be substantially free of Kiikendall voids after annealing. The layer can impart characteristics on the substrate which the substrate did not previously contain. For example, the layer may make the substrate harder, more wear resistant, more aesthetically pleasing, more electrically resistive, less electrically resistive, more thermally conductive, less thermally conductive, or any combination thereof. In addition, the layer may cause the speed of sound in the substrate to be faster or slower.

[00283] Other properties of substrates coated with metal layers (or metal diffusion layers) may be as described in, for example, U.S. Patent Publication No. 2013/0171471; U.S. Patent Publication No. 2013/0309410; U.S. Patent Publication No. 2013/0252022; U.S. Patent Publication No. 2015/0167131; U.S. Patent Publication No. 2015/0345041, U.S. Patent Publication No. 2015/0345041, U.S. Patent Publication No. 2016/0230284, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[00284] In various embodiments, the method comprises altering steel chemistry. Steel chemistry may be altered to enhance the forming properties and performance of the material when drawn, stretched, or both. The formability of a steel may be measured by the plastic strain ratio, often called the Lankford coefficient, r-bar, r _m , or, herein referred to as the r-value. The r-value may be defined as the ratio of plastic strain in the plane of a sheet to the plastic strain of the gauge or thickness of the sheet. The r-value may be calculated as: wherein R ₀ , R ₄₅ and R ₉₀ are the plastic strain ratio relative to the direction of the sheet.

[00285] The r-value of a steel may be altered by the manipulation of steel chemistry and composition to create a highly formable steel composition. A common, interstitial-free steel may have an r-value between about 1.4 and 1.8. An altered steel may have an r-value exceeding about 2. In some embodiments, a steel may have an r-value exceeding about 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, 3.0, 3.2, 3.4, 3.6, 3.8, or exceeding about 4.0 or more.

[00286] Several chemistries may be employed to enhance the r-values of a highly formable steel composition. The steel chemistry may be selected to increase the overall incorporation of grain-pinning particles before the steel is annealed. In various embodiments, the presence of grain-pinning particles inhibits the formation of increased grain sizes during the annealing process. A stoichiometric excess of titanium (Ή) may be used. Such excess of Ti may permit the formation of TiC at elevated temperatures. TiC may serve to grain pin at elevated temperatures. Interstitial-free steels may also utilize more manganese with smaller amounts of ΉΝ, AIN, NbC, NbN, or other components, which may act both as grain pins and interstitial element binders at elevated temperatures.

[00287] A method for creating a highly formable steel composition may comprise several intermediate processes. A steel may be composed according to an above-described chemistry. An interstitial-free steel may undergo fine-grain practices to generate small prior grains. A cold reduction may be utilized to obtain a smooth finish and control grain sizes. After a cold reduction, a subsequent processing step may comprise a high-temperature annealing method. In some embodiments, the method for creating a highly formable steel comprises composing a steel according to an above-described chemistry. In some embodiments, the method for creating a highly formable steel comprises subjecting the interstitial-free steel to undergo fine-grain practices to generate small prior grains. In some embodiments, the method for creating a highly formable steel comprises utilizing a cold reduction to obtain a smooth finish and control grain sizes. In some embodiments, subsequent to the cold reduction, the method for creating a highly formable steel comprises a processing step which may comprise a high- temperature annealing method. The high-temperature annealing may comprise annealing at a temperature above about 900°C. The annealing temperature may exceed about 950°C, 1000°C, 1050°C, 1100°C, 1150°C, 1200°C, 1250°C, 1300°C, 1350°C, 1400°C, 1500°C, or greater. The annealing temperature may permit a transition of the steel from a ferritic phase to an austenitic phase. The selected composition of the interstitial-free steel may prevent grain growth. The stabilized grades may prevent strain aging and may improve the formability of the steel for further processing.

Electrical Steel Compositions and Related Methods

[00288] Provided herein are surface optimized diffusion alloyed (SODA) electrical steel compositions wherein silicon, aluminum, manganese, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, copper, zirconium, boron, and/or phosphorus may be deposited and alloyed by diffusion into a substrate containing mostly iron but likely alloyed with one or more of the aforementioned elements as well as carbon, nitrogen, and other common elements found in steel. The surface alloyed elements may have a higher or equivalent concentration at the surface of the steel article than at the diffusion frontier boundary (also called the shoulder). Beyond the deepest point of diffusion penetration is the core region of the article, nominally comprised of the same alloying elements found in the material prior to diffusion alloying. The article’s chemical and metallurgical composition is a major driver for electromagnetic (EM) and physical properties of the material, and by spatially optimizing the compositions of the article, unique functionalities may be achieved to improve the processing, form factors, and EM performance of the article.

[00289] Commercially-available electrical steels, containing mostly iron and silicon but often also aluminum and manganese to some degree, are known for their reasonably high magnetic induction (also called magnetic flux density) and relatively low core loss. For this reason, they are commonly used in applications such as electric motors and transformers. In some cases, sheet electrical steel is produced and wound or stamped into a transformer, choke, or electric motor core. However, as more silicon (and/or aluminum) is added to the as-cast steel, issues with gauge reduction and oxidation may arise. For this reason, the silicon content of electrical steels made by conventional methods often does not exceed 3.5 wt%. For example, a very sharp drop in tensile and yield strength is observed in steels with more than 4.5 wt% silicon.

[00290] Commercially-available electrical steels, especially those used in systems with higher frequencies, see a substantial reduction of core loss (thus improved electrical efficiency) via reduced lamination (sheet) gauge. As application frequency is increased, core loss via eddy currents (amongst other mechanisms) losses increase. Without wishing to be bound by theory, eddy current loss may occur as the magnetic field alternates through the electrical steel. These eddy currents may be localized according to Lenz’s law. If a magnetic material is divided into insulated layers (akin to replacing a single insulated lamination at 0.50-mm with five insulated laminations at 0.10-mm), the induced voltage and eddy currents may be spread out over five times the area, thereby lowering total core loss. For this reason, thin laminations are desirable in many applications.

[00291] Additionally, for commercially-available electrical steels at a silicon content of 6.5 wt%, optimal EM properties begin to appear, with the trade-off of poor mechanical properties that render the material unusable for many mass-manufactured applications. Despite the poor mechanical performance, high- cost, continuous chemical vapor deposition and diffusion processes have been developed using toxic silicon tetrachloride.

[00292] Aside from poor mechanical properties, there are several processing downsides to 6.5 wt% Silicon steels made using CVD processes. They may only be made at light gauge since the material may be made in a continuous process that relies on diffusion. These materials may be produced on 0.10-mm and 0.20-mm gauge substrates, and may not be rolled thinner at scale. Because these 6.5 wt% silicon steels must be made at very light gauge, global capacity for this material is very low, and since demand is high, the cost is also very high. Since cost is high, most applications do not design with this material in mind, thereby limiting market size. The present disclosure describes methods for producing electrical steel compositions with superior properties at a substantially reduced cost relative to current commercial alternatives.

[00293] Provided herein are methods of depositing one or more alloying agents or elemental species adjacent to a substrate to form compositions with improved electrical and/or magnetic and/or mechanical properties. In some cases, two or more alloying agents or elemental species may be co-deposited adjacent to a substrate to form compositions with improved electrical and/or magnetic and/or mechanical properties. In some cases, an alloying agent or elemental species may be deposited by a diffusion coating process. In some cases, the diffusion process may deposit an alloying agent or elemental species in the substrate without a halide activator present. In one particular case, hydrogen gas may behave as an activator for the deposition of an alloying agent or elemental species adjacent to a substrate. In some cases, two or more alloying agents or elemental species may be co-deposited adjacent to a substrate without a halide activator present. In one particular case, hydrogen gas may behave as an activator for the deposition of two or more alloying agents or elemental species adjacent to a substrate.

[00294] Provided herein are methods of depositing an alloying agent comprising silicon adjacent to a substrate to form compositions with improved electrical and/or magnetic and/or mechanical properties. In some cases, an alloying agent comprising silicon and one or more additional alloying agents or elemental species (such as aluminum, manganese, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, copper, zirconium, boron, and/or phosphorus) may be co-deposited adjacent to a substrate to form compositions with improved electrical and/or magnetic and/or mechanical properties. In some cases, an alloying agent comprising silicon may be deposited by a diffusion coating process. In some cases, the diffusion process may deposit an alloying agent comprising silicon adjacent to the substrate without a halide activator present. In one particular case, hydrogen gas may behave as an activator for the deposition of an alloying agent comprising silicon adjacent to a substrate. In some cases, an alloying agent comprising silicon and one or more additional alloying agents or elemental species (such as aluminum, manganese, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, copper, zirconium, boron, and/or phosphorus) may be co-deposited adjacent to a substrate without a halide activator present. In one particular case, hydrogen gas may behave as an activator for the deposition of an alloying agent comprising silicon and one or more additional alloying agents or elemental species adjacent to a substrate.

[00295] Provided herein are methods of depositing an alloying agent comprising silicon and aluminum adjacent to a substrate to form compositions with improved electrical and/or magnetic and/or mechanical properties. In some cases, an alloying agent comprising silicon and aluminum may be co-deposited adjacent to a substrate without a halide activator present. In one particular case, hydrogen gas may behave as an activator for the co-deposition of silicon and aluminum adjacent to a substrate.

[00296] Described herein are methods of depositing silicon at up to or exceeding 6.5 wt% adjacent to substrates of varying substrate chemistries (including substrates with less than 0.1 wt% silicon and those already containing greater than 1.5 wt% silicon) at a number of gauges using SODA technology that incorporates a novel slurry coating containing alloying elements, traditional steel roll-coating techniques to coat the surface of a metal article with the slurry, followed by a thermal treatment and diffusion of the alloying elements into the article, and the option for gauge reduction or other post-alloying processes.

FIG. 6 displays a micrograph of the cross-section of an exemplary Si-containing SODA showing the Si- containing metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) at the surfaces and the 99% iron core. The SODA has a nearly linear drop in Si concentration from the high concentration surface to the diffusion frontier.

[00297] Described herein are methods of co-depositing silicon and one or more additional elemental species adjacent to a substrate. In some cases, silicon may be deposited adjacent to or within the substrate in an amount up to or exceeding 6.5 wt% without increased embrittlement of the substrate or surface spalling of the deposited silicon-containing metal layer. In some cases, silicon may be deposited adjacent to or within the substrate in an amount exceeding 6.5 wt% without increased embrittlement of the substrate or surface spalling of the deposited silicon-containing metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) when one or more additional elemental species are co-deposited adjacent to or within the substrate. [00298] Described herein are methods of co-depositing silicon and aluminum adjacent to a substrate. In some cases, silicon may be deposited adjacent to or within the substrate in an amount up to or exceeding 6.5 wt% without increased embrittlement of the substrate or surface spalling of the deposited silicon- containing metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) when aluminum is co-deposited adjacent to or within the substrate. In some cases, silicon may be deposited adjacent to or within the substrate in an amount up to or exceeding 10 wt% without increased embrittlement of the substrate or surface spalling of the deposited silicon-containing metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) when aluminum is co-deposited adjacent to or within the substrate. In some cases, silicon may be deposited adjacent to or within the substrate in an amount up to or exceeding 10 wt% without increased embrittlement of the substrate or surface spalling of the deposited silicon-containing metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) when aluminum is co-deposited in an amount up to or exceeding 6 wt%. adjacent to or within the substrate.

[00299] Provided herein includes magnetically-enhanced substrates comprising a metal diffusion layer, which metal diffusion layer comprises a diffusion frontier boundary proximate thereto formed within the substrate.

[00300] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a measured core loss of about 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, 0.05, or any range between the foregoing values, watts per kilogram under W 10/60 magnetic field conditions. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a measured core loss of no more than about 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, 0.05 watts per kilogram under W 10/60 magnetic field conditions. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a measured core loss of no less than about 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, 0.05 watts per kilogram under W 10/60 magnetic field conditions. [00301] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a measured core loss of about 750, 700, 650, 600, 550, 500, 450, 400, 350, 300, 250, 200, 150, 100, 50, 25, 10, 5, or any range between the foregoing values, watts per kilogram under W 10/5000 magnetic field conditions. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a measured core loss of no more than about 750, 700, 650, 600, 550, 500, 450, 400, 350, 300, 250, 200, 150, 100, 50, 25, 10, 5 watts per kilogram under W 10/5000 magnetic field conditions. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a measured core loss of no less than about 750, 700, 650, 600, 550, 500, 450, 400, 350, 300, 250, 200, 150, 100, 50, 25, 10, 5 watts per kilogram under W 10/5000 magnetic field conditions.

[00302] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the metal diffusion layer extends about 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, or any range between the foregoing values, into an average thickness of said magnetically-enhanced substrate. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the metal diffusion layer extends less than about 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5% into an average thickness of said magnetically- enhanced substrate. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the metal diffusion layer extends more than about 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5% into an average thickness of said magnetically-enhanced substrate.

[00303] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the metal diffusion layer extends about 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or any range between the foregoing values, into an average thickness of said magnetically-enhanced substrate. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the metal diffusion layer extends about 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or more into an average thickness of said magnetically-enhanced substrate. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the metal diffusion layer extends about 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or less into an average thickness of said magnetically- enhanced substrate.

[00304] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the diffusion frontier boundary is characterized by a composition substantially identical to a native substrate composition as described above.

[00305] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the diffusion frontier boundary has an average concentration of silicon that is between about 90% and about 95%, between about 90% and about 100%, between about 90% and about 105%, between about 90% and about 110%, between about 90% and about 115%, between about 95% and about 100%, between about 95% and about 105%, between about 95% and about 110%, between about 95% and about 115%, between about 100% and about 105%, between about 100% and about 110%, between about 105% and about 110%, of a native substrate silicon concentration. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the diffusion frontier boundary has an average concentration of silicon that is about 90%, 95%, 100%, 105%,

110%, or any range between the foregoing values, of a native substrate silicon concentration. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the diffusion frontier boundary has an average concentration of silicon that at least 90%, 95%, 100%, 105%, 110% of a native substrate silicon concentration. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the diffusion frontier boundary has an average concentration of silicon that at most 90%, 95%, 100%, 105%, 110% of a native substrate silicon concentration.

[00306] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the diffusion frontier boundary has an average concentration of aluminum that is between about 90% and about 95%, between about 90% and about 100%, between about 90% and about 105%, between about 90% and about 110%, between about 90% and about 115%, between about 95% and about 100%, between about 95% and about 105%, between about 95% and about 110%, between about 95% and about 115%, between about 100% and about 105%, between about 100% and about 110%, between about 105% and about 110%, of a native substrate silicon concentration. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the diffusion frontier boundary has an average concentration of aluminum that is about 90%, 95%, 100%, 105%, 110%, or any range between the foregoing values, of a native substrate silicon concentration. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the diffusion frontier boundary has an average concentration of aluminum that at least 90%, 95%, 100%, 105%, 110% of a native substrate silicon concentration. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the diffusion frontier boundary has an average concentration of aluminum that at most 90%, 95%, 100%, 105%, 110% of a native substrate silicon concentration.

[00307] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the diffusion frontier boundary is characterized by a composition different from a native substrate composition.

[00308] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the substrate comprises a metal, metal oxide, or metal alloy. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the substrate comprises iron, carbon, nitrogen, silicon, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the substrate comprises carbon or nitrogen. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the substrate comprises steel.

[00309] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the steel comprises, by weight, about 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.08%, 0.06%, 0.04%, 0.02%, or any range between the foregoing values, carbon. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the steel comprises, by weight, at most about 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.08%, 0.06%, 0.04%, or 0.02% carbon. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the steel comprises, by weight, at least about 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.08%, 0.06%, 0.04%, or 0.02% carbon.

[00310] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the steel comprises, by weight, about 0.1% to about 5%, about 0.1 to about 0.5%, about 0.1 to about 1%, about 1% to about 2%, about 1% to about 3%, about 1% to about 5%, about 2% to about 3%, about 2% to about 5%, or about 3% to about 5% silicon. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the steel comprises, by weight, about 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 3.5%, 4%, 4.5%, 5%, or any range between the foregoing values, silicon. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the steel comprises, by weight, at most about 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 3.5%, 4%, 4.5%, or 5% silicon. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the steel comprises, by weight, at least about 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 3.5%, 4%, 4.5%, or 5% silicon.

[00311] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the substrate comprises about 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or any range between the foregoing values, by volume, one or more ferritic microstructures at a temperature from about 100 degrees Celsius (°C) to about 1000 °C, from about 200°C to about 1000 °C, from about 500°C to about 1000 °C, from about 100°C to about 500 °C, or from about 200°C to about 500 °C. In some embodiments of the magnetically- enhanced substrate, the substrate comprises at least about 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% by volume, one or more ferritic microstructures at a temperature from about 100 °C to about 1000 °C, from about 200°C to about 1000 °C, from about 500°C to about 1000 °C, from about 100°C to about 500 °C, or from about 200°C to about 500 °C. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the substrate comprises at most about 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% by volume, one or more ferritic microstructures at a temperature from about 100 °C to about 1000 °C, from about 200°C to about 1000 °C, from about 500°C to about 1000 °C, from about 100°C to about 500 °C, or from about 200°C to about 500 °C.

[00312] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the substrate has an average thickness of about 0.063, 0.05, 0.03, 0.02, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001, or any range between the foregoing values, inches. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the substrate has an average thickness of no more than about 0.063, 0.05, 0.03, 0.02, 0.01, 0.001, or 0.0001 inches. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the substrate has an average thickness of no less than about 0.063, 0.05, 0.03, 0.02, 0.01, 0.001, or 0.0001 inches. [00313] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the metal diffusion layer has an average thickness of about 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 5, or any range between the foregoing values, micrometers (μm). In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the metal diffusion layer has an average thickness of no more than about 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, or 5 micrometers (μm). In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the metal diffusion layer has an average thickness of no less than about 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, or 5 micrometers (μm).

[00314] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the metal diffusion layer comprises an elemental species selected from the group consisting of silicon, manganese, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, copper, zirconium, boron, aluminum, and phosphorus. In some embodiments, the elemental species is silicon. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is nickel. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is cobalt. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is aluminum. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is manganese. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is cobalt. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is cobalt. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is aluminum. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is molybdenum. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is copper. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is aluminum. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is aluminum. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is molybdenum. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is copper. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is boron. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is aluminum. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is copper. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the elemental species is phosphorus.

[00315] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the metal diffusion layer comprises a plurality of elemental species comprising said elemental species. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the plurality of elemental species comprises two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, or ten elemental species selected from the group consisting of silicon, manganese, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, copper, zirconium, boron, aluminum, and phosphorus. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the plurality of elemental species comprises at least two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, or ten elemental species selected from the group consisting of silicon, manganese, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, copper, zirconium, boron, aluminum, and phosphorus. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the plurality of elemental species comprises at most two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, or ten elemental species selected from the group consisting of silicon, manganese, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, copper, zirconium, boron, aluminum, and phosphorus. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the plurality of elemental species comprises silicon and aluminum.

[00316] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of silicon of about 10 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 4.5 wt%, or any range between the foregoing values. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of silicon of at most about 10 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 5 wt%, or 4.5 wt%. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of silicon of at least about 10 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 5 wt%, or 4.5 wt%. [00317] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of silicon of about 10 wt%, 9 wt%, 8 wt%, 7 wt%, 6 wt%, 5 wt%, 4 wt%, 3 wt%, 2 wt%, 1 wt%, or any range between the foregoing values. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of silicon of at most about 10 wt%, 9 wt%, 8 wt%, 7 wt%, 6 wt%, 5 wt%, 4 wt%, 3 wt%, 2 wt%, or 1 wt%. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of silicon of at least about 10 wt%, 9 wt%, 8 wt%, 7 wt%, 6 wt%, 5 wt%, 4 wt%, 3 wt%, 2 wt%, or 1 wt%.

[00318] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of aluminum of about 6 wt%, 5 wt%, 4 wt%, 3 wt%, 2 wt%, 1 wt%, or any range between the foregoing values. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of aluminum of at most about 6 wt%, 5 wt%, 4 wt%, 3 wt%, 2 wt%, or 1 wt%. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of aluminum of at least about 6 wt%, 5 wt%, 4 wt%, 3 wt%, 2 wt%, or 1 wt%.

[00319] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of cobalt of at least about 50 wt%, 40 wt%, 30 wt%, 20 wt%, 10 wt%, or any range between the foregoing values. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of cobalt of at most about 50 wt%, 40 wt%, 30 wt%, 20 wt%, or10 wt%. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of cobalt of at least about 50 wt%, 40 wt%, 30 wt%, 20 wt%, or 10 wt%.

[00320] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of nickel of at least about 50 wt%, 40 wt%, 30 wt%, 20 wt%, 10 wt%, or any range between the foregoing values. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of nickel of at most about 50 wt%, 40 wt%, 30 wt%, 20 wt%, or10 wt%. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has an average surface concentration of nickel of at least about 50 wt%, 40 wt%, 30 wt%, 20 wt%, or 10 wt%. [00321] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a concentration profile of silicon that decreases substantially linearly from a surface of said magnetically-enhanced substrate, through said metal diffusion layer, to said diffusion frontier boundary. In some embodiments, the concentration profile of silicon decreases at a rate of about 0.001 wt% to about 1 wt%, about 0.001 wt% to about 0.1 wt%, about 0.001 wt% to about 0.01 wt%, about 0.01 wt% to about 1 wt%, about 0.01 wt% to about 0.1 wt%, about 0.1 wt% to about 1 wt%, per micrometer (μm) (i.e., 1 micrometer = 10 ^-6 meter). In some embodiments, the concentration profile of silicon decreases at a rate of about 0.001 wt%, 0.01 wt%, 0.1 wt%, 1 wt%, or any range between the foregoing values, per μm. In some embodiments, the concentration profile of silicon decreases at a rate of at most about 0.001 wt%, 0.01 wt%, 0.1 wt%, or 1 wt% per μm. In some embodiments, the concentration profile of silicon decreases at a rate of at least about 0.001 wt%, 0.01 wt%, 0.1 wt%, or 1 wt% per μm.

[00322] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a concentration profile of silicon that is substantially uniform therethrough. In some embodiments, the concentration profile of silicon is of about 1 wt% to about 5 wt%, about 2 wt% to about 5 wt%, about 1 wt% to about 3 wt%, about 3 wt% to about 5 wt%, or about 2 wt%to about 3 wt% that varies by about 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.1 wt%, 0.05 wt%, 0.01 wt%, or any range between the foregoing values, therethrough.

[00323] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a concentration profile of silicon that is substantially uniform therethrough. In some embodiments, the concentration profile of silicon is of about 1 wt% to about 5 wt%, about 2 wt% to about 5 wt%, about 1 wt% to about 3 wt%, about 3 wt% to about 5 wt%, or about 2 wt% to about 3 wt% that varies by less than about 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.1 wt%, 0.05 wt%, or 0.01 wt% therethrough. In some embodiments, the concentration profile of silicon is of about 1 wt%, 2 wt%, 3 wt%, 4 wt%, 5 wt%, or any range between the foregoing values, that varies by less than about 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.1 wt%, 0.05 wt%, or 0.01 wt% therethrough. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a concentration profile of silicon that is substantially uniform therethrough. In some embodiments, the concentration profile of silicon is of about 1 wt% to about 5 wt%, about 2 wt%to about 5 wt%, about 1 wt% to about 3 wt%, about 3 wt% to about 5 wt%, or about 2 wt% to about 3 wt% that varies by more than 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.1 wt%, 0.05 wt%, or 0.01 wt% therethrough. In some embodiments, the concentration profile of silicon is of at least about 1 wt%, 2 wt%, 3 wt%, 4 wt%, or 5 wt% that varies by less than about 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.1 wt%, 0.05 wt%, or 0.01 wt% therethrough. In some embodiments, the concentration profile of silicon is of at most about 1 wt%, 2 wt%, 3 wt%, 4 wt%, or 5 wt% that varies by less than about 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.1 wt%, 0.05 wt%, or 0.01 wt% therethrough.

[00324] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a concentration profile of aluminum that decreases substantially linearly from a surface of said magnetically-enhanced substrate, through said metal diffusion layer, to said diffusion frontier boundary. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the concentration profile of aluminum decreases at a rate of about 0.001 wt% to about 1 wt% per μm. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the concentration profile of aluminum decreases at a rate of about 0.001 wt%, 0.01% wt%, 0.1 wt%, 1 wt%, or any range between the foregoing values, per μm. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the concentration profile of aluminum decreases at a rate of at most about 0.001 wt%, 0.01% wt%, 0.1 wt%, or 1 wt% per μm. In some embodiments, the concentration profile of aluminum decreases at a rate of at least about 0.001 wt%, 0.01% wt%, 0.1 wt%, or 1 wt% per μm.

[00325] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a concentration profile of aluminum that is substantially uniform therethrough. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the concentration profile of aluminum is of about 1 wt% to about 10 wt% or about 2 wt% to about 8 wt% that varies by less than about 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.1 wt%, 0.05 wt%, or 0.01 wt% therethrough. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the concentration profile of aluminum is of about 1 wt% to about 10 wt% or about 2 wt% to about 8 wt% that varies by about 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.1 wt%, 0.05 wt%, 0.01 wt%, or any range between the foregoing values, therethrough. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the concentration profile of aluminum is of about 1 wt% to about 10 wt% or about 2 wt% to about 8 wt% that varies by more than about 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.1 wt%, 0.05 wt%, or 0.01 wt% therethrough. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the concentration profile of aluminum is of about 1 wt%, 2 wt%, 3 wt%, 4 wt%, 5 wt%, 6 wt%, 7 wt%, 8 wt%, 9 wt%, 10 wt%, or any range between the foregoing values, that varies by less than about 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.1 wt%, 0.05 wt%, or 0.01 wt% therethrough. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the concentration profile of aluminum is of at least about 1 wt%, 2 wt%, 3 wt%, 4 wt%, 5 wt%, 6 wt%, 7 wt%, 8 wt%, 9 wt%, 10 wt%, or any range between the foregoing values, that varies by less than about 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.1 wt%, 0.05 wt%, or 0.01 wt% therethrough. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the concentration profile of aluminum is of at most about 1 wt%, 2 wt%, 3 wt%, 4 wt%, 5 wt%, 6 wt%, 7 wt%, 8 wt%, 9 wt%, 10 wt%, or any range between the foregoing values, that varies by less than about 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.1 wt%, 0.05 wt%, or 0.01 wt% therethrough.

[00326] In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the average surface concentration or the concentration profile is determined by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis.

[00327] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate further comprises an insulator adjacent to said surface layer or said metal diffusion layer. In some embodiments of the magnetically- enhanced substrate, the insulator comprises a metal oxide species. In some embodiments, the metal oxide species comprises titanium oxide, aluminum oxide, magnesium oxide, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, the insulator comprises a plurality of metal oxide species comprising said metal oxide.

[00328] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a core loss of about 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, or any range between the foregoing values, watts per kilogram under W 10/60 magnetic field conditions. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a core loss of no more than about 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, or 0.5 watts per kilogram under W 10/60 magnetic field conditions. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a core loss of no less than about 1.0, 0.9,

0.8, 0.7, 0.6, or 0.5 watts per kilogram under W 10/60 magnetic field conditions.

[00329] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a fracture toughness of about 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 80, or any range between the foregoing values, megaPascal-meter½. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a fracture toughness of at least about 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 or 80 megaPascal-meter½. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate has a fracture toughness of at most about 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 or 80 megaPascal-meter½.

[00330] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate comprises about 90%, 91%,

92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, or any range between the foregoing values, by volume, one or more ferritic microstructures at a temperature from about 100 degrees Celsius (°C) to about 1000 °C. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate comprises at least about 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, or 95%, by volume, one or more ferritic microstructures at a temperature from about 100 degrees Celsius (°C) to about 1000 °C. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate comprises at most about 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, or 95%, by volume, one or more ferritic microstructures at a temperature from about 100 °C to about 1000 °C. In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate comprises at least about 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, or 95% by volume, one or more ferritic microstructures at a temperature of about 100 °C, 200°C, 300°C, 500°C, 700°C, 800°C, 1000 °C, or any range between the foregoing values.

[00331] In a diffusion alloy, the alloyed elemental species’ surface concentration can be equal to or higher than the alloyed elemental species’ concentration at the diffusion frontier boundary. The diffusion frontier boundary may be defined as the depth from the surface of a substrate at which the concentration of an elemental species is the concentration of the native state for the substrate. In some embodiments, the diffusion frontier boundary may be characterized by a composition substantially identical to the native substrate composition. For the case of alloys formed with silicon, this means the surface of the alloy may have a concentration of 6.5 wt% silicon, and the frontier may have a concentration less than 0.5 wt% if desired. In some embodiments, the diffusion frontier boundary may comprise an average concentration of silicon of between about 90% to about 110%, 95% to 115%, 90% to 105%, 95% to 110%, or 95% to 105% of a native substrate silicon concentration. In some embodiments, the diffusion frontier boundary may be characterized by a composition different from the native substrate composition. FIGs 7A - 7F depict various concentration profile cross-section for a SODA formed with Si as an elemental species. FIGs 7A - 7C shows increasing penetration of the diffusion frontier into the core. FIG. 7D depicts a composition with a non-zero Si concentration in the core and a higher Si concentration at the surface.

FIG. 7F depicts a SODA with a uniform Si concentration throughout its cross-section. FIG. 7E depicts a concentration profile for a SODA with two co-deposited elemental species. Since the transition between 6.5 wt% Si and the wt% Si at the alloy diffusion frontier is gradual, and tensile and yield strength of steel is strongly influenced by silicon or other alloying element content, the stresses between the high silicon surface and low silicon core may be reduced such that the sheets with this alloying configuration can be rolled to light gauge without fracturing the strip or the alloy layer. For high frequency applications (e.g., above 5000-Hz), where the majority of the eddy current skin depth may focus itself to within 10’s of micrometers from the surface, whether or not the core of the material is composed of a silicon alloyed steel is not important for limiting core loss. For medium frequency applications, non-alloyed or silicon steel with SODA can be used to make electrical steels with higher performance. With SODA it also is possible to alloy through the thickness of a non-alloyed steel to make a traditional alloy configuration. In some cases, a uniform concentration fo the alloyed elemental species may be finally established after the substrate has been rolled or drawn to a lighter gauge.

[00332] In some embodiments, a metal diffusion layer comprising a diffusion frontier boundary may extend into the substrate (e.g., a magnetically-enhanced substrate) between about 10% to about 70% of the average thickness of the substrate. In some embodiments, a metal diffusion layer may extend into the substrate less than 70%, 60%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 20%, or 10% of the average thickness of the substrate. A metal diffusion layer may extend into the substrate more than 70%, 60%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 20%, or 10% of the average thickness of the substrate. A metal diffusion layer may extend 70%, 60%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 20%, or 10% into an average thickness of a substrate (e.g., a magnetically-enhanced substrate). A metal diffusion layer may extend 50% or more into an average thickness of a magnetically-enhanced substrate.

[00333] Additionally, it is possible to alloy electrical steels containing other alloying elements of EM importance, such as silicon, aluminum, cobalt, and nickel, manganese and others. Given the mechanical strength imparted by these alloying elements, it is convenient to leave some amount of silicon etc. out of the alloy so that it can be rolled from heavier to fighter gauge. In figure 3e, a hypothetical alloy composition X at (potentially having elements Si, Al, Co, Ni, Mn, etc in some combination at a%) can be alloyed with silicon or other EM important alloying elements at the surface to further improve EM properties such as magnetic flux density, core loss and permeability, or mechanical properties like tensile and yield strength.

[00334] In some embodiments, the diffusion frontier boundary may comprise an average concentration of aluminum of between about 90% to about 110%, 95% to 115%, 90% to 105%, 95% to 110%, or 95% to 105% of a native substrate aluminum concentration. In some embodiments, the diffusion frontier boundary may comprise an average concentration of cobalt of between about 90% to about 110%, 95% to 115%, 90% to 105%, 95% to 110%, or 95% to 105% of a native substrate cobalt concentration. In some embodiments, the diffusion frontier boundary may comprise an average concentration of nickel of between about 90% to about 110%, 95% to 115%, 90% to 105%, 95% to 110%, or 95% to 105% of a native substrate nickel concentration. In some embodiments, the diffusion frontier boundary may comprise an average concentration of manganese of between about 90% to about 110%, 95% to 115%, 90% to 105%, 95% to 110%, or 95% to 105% of a native substrate manganese concentration. [00335] Electrical steel compositions may be formed from a variety of steel substrates. A steel substrate may be chosen based upon composition or other physical properties that may optimize a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) deposition process. A steel substrate may be chosen based upon properties that will minimize core loss in a final product. In some cases, a steel substrate with interstitial elements and/or substitutional elements beneath a threshold concentration may be utilized for a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) deposition process. In some cases, a steel substrate may be utilized if it possesses lower concentrations of C, N, O, S, and/or P than common interstitial-free and/or low carbon steel grades. In some cases, a steel substrate may be a degassed grade of steel and/or be largely free of precipitated ceramic particles. Exemplary steel substrates may include commercially-available steels such as IF steels, enameling steels, and/or low-carbon steels. Additional properties of steel substrates are described in detail above.

[00336] A substrate may be characterized by a particular gauge or thickness. A substrate may have an average thickness or gauge of at least about 0.00001 inches (in), 0.00001 in, 0.001 in, 0.002 in, 0.003 in, 0.004 in, 0.005 in, 0.006 in, 0.007 in, 0.008 in, 0.009 in, 0.010 in, 0.011 in, 0.012 in, 0.013 in, 0.014 in, 0.015 in, 0.016 in, 0.017 in, 0.018 in, 0.019 in, 0.020 in, 0.025 in, 0.03 in, 0.04 in, 0.05 in, 0.06 in, 0.07 in, 0.08 in, 0.09 in, 0.1 in, 0.125 in, 0.15 in, 0.2 in, 0.25 in, 0.375 in, 0.5 in, 0.625 in, 0.75 in, 1 in or more, where 1 inch equals to 2.54 centimeter. A substrate may have an average thickness or gauge of no more than about 1 in, 0.75 in, 0.625 in, 0.5 in, 0.375 in, 0.25 in, 0.2 in, 0.15 in, 0.125 in, 0.1 in, 0.09 in, 0.08 in, 0.07 in, 0.06 in, 0.05 in, 0.04 in, 0.03 in, 0.025 in, 0.020 in, 0.019 in, 0.018 in, 0.017 in, 0.016 in, 0.015 in, 0.014 in, 0.013 in, 0.012 in, 0.011 in, 0.010 in, 0.009 in, 0.008 in, 0.007 in, 0.006 in, 0.005 in, 0.004 in, 0.003 in, 0.002 in, 0.001 in, 0.00001 in, 0.000001 in or less.

[00337] Electrical steel compositions may be generated by the deposition of elemental species into one or more surfaces of a steel substrate. The elemental species may be supplied to the one or more surfaces of the steel substrate by a slurry coating comprising an alloying agent containing the elemental species. A slurry may comprise any combination of components, including elemental species, halide activators, solvents, binders, and inert particles. In some cases, halide activators or binders may not be present in the slurry. Slurries of the present invention are described in detail above. In some cases, a slurry may comprise about 1 wt% to about 90 wt% of an alloying agent. In some cases, the slurry may comprise about 0.5 wt% to about 90 wt% of a solvent, such as water or an organic solvent. In some cases, a slurry may comprise about 0% to about 20 wt% of a metal halide activator. In some cases, a slurry may comprise about 0 wt% to about 20 wt% of an organic or inorganic binder, such as magnesium acetate. [00338] Metal layers (or metal diffusion layers) of the present invention may be formed by the deposition of one or more elemental species selected from the group consisting of silicon, aluminum, manganese, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, copper, zirconium, boron, or phosphorus, a ferroalloy of any of these elements, oxides of any of these elements, or a combination thereof. Slurries may comprise elemental species, such as silicon and/or aluminum, in powder or particulate forms. Elemental species may be supplied to the slurry with an average powder or particle size of at least about 500 nanometers (nm), 1 μm, 3 μm, 5 μm, 10 μηι, 15 μm, 20 μm, 25 μηι, 30 μm, 35 μm, 40 μm, 44 μm, 45 μm, 50 μm, 100 μm, or more. Elemental species may be supplied to the slurry with an average powder or particle size of no more than about 100 μm, 50 μm, 45 μm, 44 μm, 40 μm, 35 μm, 30 μm, 25 μm, 20 μm, 15 μm, 10 μm, 5 μm, 3 μm, 1 μm, 500 nm or less. Elemental species may be supplied to the slurry with an average powder or particle size in a range from about 500 nm to 10 μm, 500 nm to 25 μm, 500 nm to 50 μm, 500 nm to 100 μm, 10 μm to 25 μm, 10 μm to 50 μm, 10 μm to 100 μm, 25 μm to 50 μm, 25 μm to 100 μm, or about 50 μm to 100 μm. In some cases, elemental species may be supplied to the slurry with a powder or particle size in a range from about 3 μm to 44 μm. Elemental species may be supplied to the slurry with an average powder or particle mesh size less than about 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 325, 350, 400, 500 or less. Elemental species may be supplied to the slurry with an average powder or particle mesh size of at least about 500, 400, 350, 325, 300, 250, 200, 150, 100, 50 or more. In some cases, powder or particle sizes may be chosen based on the rheological performance of the slurry, e.g., due to the ease of suspension and the smoothness of the cured dry film. An inert powder may also be employed in the slurry to prevent sintering and aid in the suspension of the silicon or aluminum powder.

[00339] In some cases, the amount of available elemental species (e.g., silicon) may be varied to increase or decrease the amount of elemental species deposited into the substrate. In some cases, the slurry may be formulated with an increased or decreased loading of alloying agent or the dried slurry coating weight per surface area on the substrate may be increased or decreased. In some cases, higher amounts of alloying agent (e.g., silicon, aluminum, etc) in the slurry, or higher dry film weights per surface area on the substrate may equate to more rapid and/or total deposition of the elemental species. In some cases, decreasing the alloying agent (e.g., silicon, aluminum) proportion in the slurry, or decreasing the dry film weights per surface area on the substrate may equate to less rapid and/or minimal deposition of the elemental species. In some cases, additives to the slurry (such as non-primary elemental species, activators, binders, or inert species) may decrease the ratio R', wherein R' may be defined as the rate of deposition of the elemental species during the alloying process divided by the rate of depletion of the elemental species during the alloying process. Without wishing to be bound by theory, control of R’ may permit control of the deposition of an elemental species such that brittle phases may not be formed at the start of the alloying process. R' may be maintained at a sufficient level such that the elemental species in the surface alloy composition may be at a desired concentration at the end of the alloying process. Slurry additives may permit finer control of the alloying process which, as illustrated in FIG. 22. In FIG. 22, lines Beta and Gamma represent a slurry formulation applied at different dry film thicknesses (Beta being higher thickness and Gamma being lower thickness). Beta has an initial R' that will cause a high concentration of the elemental species in the alloy at the surface, possibly leading to embrittlement of the surface and/or spalling during the alloying process. At the end of the process, an alloy with a rough (due to spalling) surface may have a sufficient elemental species concentration in the alloy based upon a target concentration. Line Gamma has an initial R' that may not form a high concentration of the elemental species, thereby reducing, minimizing, eliminating or mitigating spalling during the alloying process. Such a method will not produce a sufficiently high alloy concentration at the surface by the end of the alloying process. Line Alpha depicts an applied slurry formulation with additives that change the deposition rate of the elemental species such that, at a given depletion rate, the initial R' may be suppressed enough to avoid brittle phase formation and final R' may remain high enough to meet the target alloy composition at the surface. In some cases where the slurry comprises a carbon-containing binder, the carbon-containing binders may be burnt out and/or removed either prior to the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) formation step, or thereafter. Relative ratios of slurry components can additionally be varied to achieve desired rheological profiles and dried green strength levels as deemed fit by the processing requirements.

[00340] In some cases, a slurry may be formulated with components that remove trace elements such as sulfur and nitrogen from a substrate. Without wishing to be bound by theory, sulfur is a known impurity which tends to precipitate as a manganese sulfide, copper sulfide, or a mixture of the two. Nitrogen is another known impurity that can form precipitates such as Titanium nitride (TiN), Aluminum nitride (AIN), and Niobium nitride (NbN) or mixtures of these nitrides with analogous metal carbides, oxides and sulfides. Carbon and oxygen are also impurities in electrical steels that are known to have deleterious effects on mechanical and magnetic properties. In some cases, basic oxides, e.g., Calcium oxide (CaO), Magnesium oxide (MgO), and Titanium oxide (TiO _x ) amongst others, may be added to the slurry in various amounts to aid in the removal of trace elements from the substrate. In some cases, during thermal treatment, dissolved sulfur and/or nitrogen may migrate to the surface and, in the presence of hydrogen, form hydrogen sulfide (H ₂ S) or ammonia (NH3), which are volatile compounds. In other cases where the slurry comprises a basic oxide, sulfur and/or may be sequestered as metal sulfides and or metal nitrides, thereby removing them from the vapor phase and from an equilibrium with the substrate, thereby lowering the total sulfur and/or nitrogen in the substrate. A reduced sulfur content reduces the number of and size of precipitates containing sulfur. In some cases, due to the very high stability of metal nitrides, less nitrogen may be available for sequestration unless Ti, Al, and Nb levels are kept very low in the substrate. In some cases, certain slurry components may not be used when a basic oxide is used for trace element sequestration. For example, a slurry containing both MgO and magnesium chloride hexahydrate would undergo spontaneous reaction to form a cement and therefore MgO may not be used in a slurry containing chloride activator.

[00341] In some cases, a slurry for creating an electrical steel composition may comprise one or more inert species. In some cases, the inert species may comprise a metal oxide, such as a stable metal oxide. In some cases, the stable metal oxide may comprise titanium oxide, aluminum oxide, silicon oxide or magnesium oxide. In some cases, the metal oxide species may comprise aluminum oxide. In some cases, the metal oxide species may comprise titanium oxide. In some cases, the metal oxide species may comprise silicon oxide. In some cases, the presence of a metal oxide species during the formation of a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may improve the surface finish of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer), improve the electrical and/or magnetic and/or mechanical properties of the electrical steel composition, or improve the control of the deposition of one or more elemental species during the formation of the metal layer. Without wishing to be bound by theory, metal oxide species may serve as oxygen donors to a metal layer-forming system (e.g., water introduction, CO/C O ₂ mixtures to pin O ₂ concentrations, etc.). In some cases, a slurry may comprise a plurality of metal oxide species. In some cases, a slurry may comprise two or more inert species. For example, a slurry may comprise a mixture of titanium oxide and aluminum oxide. In some cases, a slurry may comprise two metal oxide species. For example, a slurry may comprise silicon oxide and aluminum oxide. Inert species (e.g., metal oxides) may be provided to the slurry in particular mass or molar ratios. In some cases, inert species (e.g., metal oxides) may be provided to the slurry at a mass or molar ratio of about 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4, 1:5, 1:6, 1:7, 1:8, 1:9, 1:10, 1:15, 1:20, 1:25, or 1:50. In some cases, inert species may be provided to the slurry at amass or molar ratio of at least about 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4, 1:5, 1:6, 1:7, 1:8, 1:9, 1:10, 1:15, 1:20, 1:25, 1:50, or more than 1:50.

[00342] The choice of slurry composition and processing method for creating an electrical steel may be varied based upon the specific desired properties of the final product. For example, the electrical steel sheet provided to a motor manufacturer may be strong enough to withstand the in-operando forces, may be easily cut, and may be a gauge that optimizes motor performance and manufacturing costs. In some instances, thinner sheet performs better, but becomes more expensive to manufacture due to the number of laminations that must be prepared and stacked for core assembly. Additionally, the inherent air-gap between imperfect laminations may reduce the flux-carrying capacity of the core. Therefore, the more laminations in a core made with thinner laminations may inherently reduce the flux carrying capacity of the core. In some cases, the stacking factor can be estimated for a given lamination thickness:

[00343] FIG. 10 displays a graph of the equation presented to estimate stacking factor given gauge. It is important to note that actual stacking factor may deviate from this equation given realities of manufacturing (stamping, burrs, handling, and core stacking or winding). In some instances, while improvements to core losses can be made simply by reducing gauge, they must be greater than the inherent efficiency limitations to be worthwhile.

[00344] Once a substrate and slurry have been decided on, it may be necessary to determine the slurry dry film weight per surface area of substrate, anneal temperature, and anneal time. Practically speaking, a sheet steel substrate may be coated with the wet slurry to a desired thickness. The slurry may then be dried in place and either a coil or stack of sheets may be generated. This mass of rolled steel or laminates may then be introduced into a high temperature furnace and annealed in a controlled atmosphere to allow the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) formation process to occur. Annealing conditions may promote the volatilization, deposition on, and transport of an elemental species (e.g., silicon, aluminum) into the steel substrate. After annealing the spent slurry may be removed, leaving a final (e.g., silicon, aluminum) alloyed steel substrate. [00345] A loading amount of an elemental species for the formation of an electrical steel must be determined before slurry formulation. The total amount of the elemental species (e.g., silicon, aluminum) deposited into a substrate cannot be greater than the amount of the elemental species introduced into the system via the slurry. This may be a first important consideration when determining the correct amount of elemental species to generate a given alloy layer. Based upon the amount of elemental species in the slurry, and the thickness of slurry applied to a surface of the substrate, a targeted dry film weight (DFW) of the elemental species may be achieved. The dry film weight may be defined as the weight of non-liquid slurry components per unit length or per unit area coated onto the surface of a substrate. In some cases, the slurry may have a dry film weight of at least about 0.005 g/in, 0.01 g/in, 0.02 g/in, 0.03 g/in, 0.04 g/in, 0.05 g/in, 0.06 g/in, 0.07 g/in, 0.08 g/in, 0.09 g/in, 0.10 g/in, 0.11 g/in, 0.12 g/in, 0.13 g/in, 0.14 g/in, 0.15 g/in, 0.16 g/in, 0.17 g/in, 0.18 g/in, 0.19 g/in, 0.20 g/in, 0.25 g/in, 0.30 g/in or more. In some cases, the slurry may have a dry film weight of no more than about 0.30 g/in, 0.25 g/in, 0.20 g/in, 0.19 g/in, 0.18 g/in, 0.17 g/in, 0.16 g/in, 0.15 g/in, 0.14 g/in, 0.13 g/in, 0.12 g/in, 0.11 g/in, 0.10 g/in, 0.09 g/in, 0.08 g/in, 0.07 g/in, 0.06 g/in, 0.05 g/in, 0.04 g/in, 0.03 g/in, 0.02 g/in, 0.01 g/in, or 0.005 g/in or less. In some cases, the amount of elemental species present in a slurry formulation may be limited beneath a threshold amount to prevent, minimize or mitigate substrate attack caused by delamination of brittle phases formed near the surface of the substrate during a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) formation process. In some cases, the alloying agent may be formulated in the slurry to affect the optimal surface concentration for minimizing substrate attack and resultant surface roughness or loss of substrate thickness.

[00346] The annealing temperature of the deposited slurry during metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) formation may be chosen based upon the desired depth of diffusion for the elemental species and the desired surface concentration of the elemental species in the substrate. In some cases, higher temperature may achieve more rapid transport and slightly elevate the surface concentration of the elemental species (e.g., silicon, aluminum) in the alloy for a given diffusion depth. In some cases, the annealing temperature and/or annealing time may be chosen to optimize the grain orientation of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to the substrate or the substrate itself. In some cases, the annealing process may increase the grain orientation of the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) when compared to the original or final grain orientation of the substrate. Grain orientation may be measured by interpretation of the diffraction pattern of electrons via electron backscatter diffraction measured on a sheet surface or cross-section. The annealing temperature for the formation of an electrical steel composition may be about 700 °C, 725 °C, 750 °C, 775 °C, 800 °C, 825 °C, 850 °C, 875 °C, 900 °C, 925 °C, 950 °C, 975 °C, 1000 °C, 1025 °C, 1050 °C, 1075 °C, 1100 °C, 1125 °C, 1150 °C, 1175 °C, 1200 °C, 1225 °C, 1250 °C, 1275 °C, 1300 °C, 1350 °C, 1400 °C, 1450 °C, or 1500 °C,. The annealing temperature for the formation of an electrical steel composition may be at least about 700 °C, 725 °C, 750 °C, 775 °C, 800 °C, 825 °C, 850 °C, 875 °C, 900 °C, 925 °C, 950 °C, 975 °C, 1000 °C, 1025 °C, 1050 °C, 1075 °C, 1100 °C, 1125 °C, 1150 °C, 1175 °C, 1200 °C, 1225 °C, 1250 °C, 1275 °C, 1300 °C, 1350 °C, 1400 °C, 1450 °C, or 1500 °C or more. The annealing temperature for the formation of an electrical steel composition may be no more than about 1500 °C, 1450 °C, 1400 °C, 1350 °C, 1300 °C, 1275 °C, 1250 °C, 1225 °C, 1200 °C, 1175 °C, 1150 °C, 1125 °C, 1100 °C, 1075 °C, 1050 °C, 1025 °C, 1000 °C, 975 °C, 950 °C, 925 °C, 900 °C, 875 °C, 850 °C, 825 °C, 800 °C, 775 °C, 750 °C, 725 °C, 700 °C, or less. In some embodiments, the annealing temperature for aluminum deposition may be about 850 °C.

[00347] At any given temperature, holding the anneal time for longer durations may increase the amount of total elemental species (e.g., silicon, aluminum) deposited into the system. In some cases, more elemental species may be deposited into the substrate if the alloying agent in the slurry has not been exhausted. The annealing time for the formation of an electrical steel composition may be about 1 hr, 2 hrs, 3 hrs, 4 hrs, 5 hrs, 6 hrs, 7 hrs, 8 hrs, 9 hrs, 10 hrs, 11 hrs, 12 hrs, 13 hrs, 14 hrs, 15 hrs, 16 hrs, 17 hrs, 18 hrs, 19 hrs, 20 hrs, 21 hrs, 22 hrs, 23 hrs, 24 hrs, 25 hrs, 30 hrs, 40 hrs, 48 hrs, 50 hrs, 60 hrs, 70 hrs, 72 hrs, 80 hrs, 90 hrs or 100 hrs. The annealing time for the formation of an electrical steel composition may be at least about 1 hr, 2 hrs, 3 hrs, 4 hrs, 5 hrs, 6 hrs, 7 hrs, 8 hrs, 9 hrs, 10 hrs, 11 hrs,

12 hrs, 13 hrs, 14 hrs, 15 hrs, 16 hrs, 17 hrs, 18 hrs, 19 hrs, 20 hrs, 21 hrs, 22 hrs, 23 hrs, 24 hrs, 25 hrs,

30 hrs, 40 hrs, 48 hrs, 50 hrs, 60 hrs, 70 hrs, 72 hrs, 80 hrs, 90 hrs or 100 hrs or more. The annealing time for the formation of an electrical steel composition may be no more than about 100 hrs, 90 hrs, 80 hrs, 72 hrs, 70 hrs, 60 hrs, 50 hrs, 48 hrs, 40 hrs, 30 hrs, 25 hrs, 24 hrs, 23 hrs, 22 hrs, 21 hrs, 20 hrs, 19 hrs, 18 hrs, 17 hrs, 16 hrs, 15 hrs, 14 hrs, 13 hrs, 12 hrs, 11 hrs, 10 hrs, 9 hrs, 8 hrs, 7 hrs, 6 hrs, 5 hrs, 4 hrs, 3 hrs, 2 hrs, or 1 hr or less.

[00348] This thickness of the deposited layer may be independent of the initial substrate gauge or thickness. For example, for a 0.5 mm substrate, it may be possible to achieve a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) that spans the full thickness of the substrate at elevated temperatures. It may be additionally possible to start with a thinner substrate to generate an alloy layer that comprises a greater percentage of the total substrate thickness under differing deposition conditions. In some cases, the slurries of the present invention may be engineered to leave behind a metal oxide coating at the surface.

In some cases, a metal oxide coating at the surface may behave as an electrical insulator. In some cases, the insulating layer may be retained on the surface of the substrate after a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) formation process.

[00349] The deposited elemental species may have a particular surface concentration in the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) formed on one or more surfaces of a substrate (e.g., magnetically-enhanced substrate). The elemental species may have a surface concentration of about 0.1 wt%, 0.2 wt%, 0.5 wt%,

1 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 10 wt%, 15 wt%, 20 wt% or more. The elemental species may have a surface concentration of at least about 0.1 wt%, 0.2 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 1 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 10 wt%, 15 wt%, 20 wt% or more. The elemental species may have a surface concentration of no more than about 20 wt%, 15 wt%, 10 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 6.5 wt %, 6 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.2 wt%, 0.1 wt% or less. In some embodiments, the substrate (e.g., magnetically-enhanced substrate) may have an average surface concentration of silicon of about 1 wt%,

1.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 7 wt%,

7.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 10 wt%. The substrate may have an average surface concentration of silicon of at most about 10 wt%, 9 wt%, 8 wt%, 7 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 5 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 3 wt%, 2 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 1 wt%, or less. The substrate may have an average surface concentration of silicon of at least about 1 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 10 wt%, or more. In some embodiments, the substrate (e.g., magnetically-enhanced substrate) may have an average surface concentration of aluminum of about 1 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 4 wt%,

4.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 10 wt%,

11 wt%, 12 wt%, 13 wt%, 14 wt%, 15 wt%, 20 wt%. The substrate may have an average surface concentration of aluminum of at most about 20 wt%, 15 wt%, 14 wt%, 13 wt%, 12 wt%, 11 wt%, 10 wt%, 9 wt%, 8 wt%, 7 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 5 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 3 wt%, 2 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 1 wt%, or less. The substrate may have an average surface concentration of aluminum of at least about 1 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 10 wt%, 11 wt%, 12 wt%, 13 wt%, 14 wt%, 15 wt%, 20 wt% or more. In some embodiments, the substrate (e.g., magnetically-enhanced substrate) may have an average surface concentration of cobalt of about 1 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 10 wt%, 11 wt%, 12 wt%, 13 wt%, 14 wt%, 15 wt%, 20 wt%, 25 wt%, 30 wt%, 35 wt%, 40 wt%, 50 wt%, 55 wt%,

60 wt%. The substrate may have an average surface concentration of cobalt of at most about 60 wt%, 55 wt%, 50 wt%, 45 wt%, 40 wt%, 35 wt%, 30 wt%, 25 wt%, 20 wt%, 15 wt%, 14 wt%, 13 wt%, 12 wt%,

11 wt%, 10 wt%, 9 wt%, 8 wt%, 7 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 5 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 3 wt%, 2 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 1 wt%, or less. The substrate may have an average surface concentration of cobalt of at least about 1 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 10 wt%, 11 wt%, 12 wt%, 13 wt%, 14 wt%, 15 wt%, 20 wt%, 25 wt%, 30 wt%, 35 wt%, 40 wt%, 50 wt%, 55 wt%, 60 wt% or more. In some embodiments, the substrate (e.g., magnetically-enhanced substrate) may have an average surface concentration of nickel of about 1 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 10 wt%, 11 wt%, 12 wt%, 13 wt%, 14 wt%, 15 wt%, 20 wt%, 25 wt%, 30 wt%, 35 wt%, 40 wt%, 50 wt%, 55 wt%, 60 wt%. The substrate may have an average surface concentration of nickel of at most about 60 wt%, 55 wt%, 50 wt%, 45 wt%, 40 wt%, 35 wt%, 30 wt%, 25 wt%, 20 wt%, 15 wt%, 14 wt%, 13 wt%, 12 wt%, 11 wt%, 10 wt%, 9 wt%, 8 wt%, 7 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 5 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 3 wt%, 2 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 1 wt%, or less. The substrate may have an average surface concentration of nickel of at least about 1 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 10 wt%, 11 wt%, 12 wt%, 13 wt%, 14 wt%, 15 wt%, 20 wt%, 25 wt%, 30 wt%, 35 wt%, 40 wt%, 50 wt%, 55 wt%, 60 wt% or more.

[00350] The elemental species may have a concentration at the diffusion frontier of about 0.1 wt%, 0.2 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 1 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 10 wt%, 15 wt%, 20 wt% or more. The elemental species may have a concentration at the diffusion frontier of at least about 0.1 wt%, 0.2 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 1 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 10 wt%, 15 wt%, 20 wt% or more. The elemental species may have a concentration at the diffusion frontier of no more than about 20 wt%, 15 wt%, 10 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 6.5 wt %, 6 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 5 wt%,

4.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.2 wt%, 0.1 wt% or less. The elemental species may have an internal concentration within the core of about 0.1 wt%, 0.2 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 1 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 6 wt%, 6.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 10 wt%, 15 wt%, 20 wt% or more. The elemental species may have an internal concentration within the core of at least about 0.1 wt%, 0.2 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 1 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 6 wt%,

6.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 10 wt%, 15 wt%, 20 wt% or more. The elemental species may have an internal concentration within the core of no more than about 20 wt%, 15 wt%, 10 wt%, 9.5 wt%, 9 wt%, 8.5 wt%, 8 wt%, 7.5 wt%, 7 wt%, 6.5 wt %, 6 wt%, 5.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 4.5 wt%, 4 wt%, 3.5 wt%, 3 wt%, 2.5 wt%, 2 wt%, 1.5 wt%, 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.2 wt%, 0.1 wt% or less. [00351] The concentration of the elemental species (e.g., silicone, aluminum, nickel or cobalt) may decrease substantially linearly from the surface of the substrate (e.g., magnetically-enhanced substrate) through the metal diffusion layer, to the diffusion frontier boundary. In some embodiments a magnetically-enhanced substrate may have a concentration profile of silicon that decreases substantially linearly from the surface of the magnetically-enhanced substrate, through the metal diffusion layer, to the diffusion frontier boundary at a rate of between about 0.001 wt% to about 1 wt% per micrometer (μm) (i.e., 1 micrometer = 10 ^-6 meter). Silicon concentration may decrease at a rate of about 0.001 wt% to about 0.005 wt%, about 0.001 wt% to about 0.01 wt%, about 0.001 wt% to about 0.05 wt%, about 0.001 wt%to about 0.1 wt%, about 0.001 wt% to about 0.5 wt%, about 0.001 wt%to about 1 wt%, about 0.005 wt% to about 0.01 wt%, about 0.005 wt% to about 0.05 wt%, about 0.005 wt% to about 0.1 wt%, about 0.005 wt% to about 0.5 wt%, about 0.005 wt% to about 1 wt%, about 0.01 wt% to about 0.05 wt%, about 0.01 wt% to about 0.1 wt%, about 0.01 wt% to about 0.5 wt%, about 0.01 wt% to about 1 wt%, about 0.05 wt% to about 0.1 wt%, about 0.05 wt% to about 0.5 wt%, about 0.05 wt% to about 1 wt%, about 0.1 wt% to about 0.5 wt%, about 0.1 wt% to about 1 wt%, or about 0.5 wt% to about 1 wt%. The concentration profile of silicon in the magnetically enhanced substrate may decrease at a rate of about 0.001 wt% per μm, 0.002 wt% per μm, 0.003 wt% per μm, 0.004 wt% per μm, 0.005 wt% per μm, 0.006 wt% per μm, 0.007 wt% per μm, 0.008 wt% per μm, 0.009 wt% per μm, 0.01 wt% per μm, 0.02 wt% per μm, 0.03 wt% per μm, 0.04 wt% per μm, 0.05 wt% per μm, 0.06 wt% per μm, 0.07 wt% per μm, 0.08 wt% per μm, 0.09 wt% per μm, 0.1 wt% per μm, 0.2 wt% per μm, 0.3 wt% per μm, 0.4 wt% per μm, 0.5 wt% per μm, 0.6 wt% per μm, 0.7 wt% per μm, 0.8 wt% per μm, 0.9 wt% per μm, 1 wt% per μm. The rate of change of silicon concentration profile in the magnetically-enhanced substrate may be at least about 0.001 wt% per μm, 0.002 wt% per μm, 0.003 wt% per μm, 0.004 wt% per μm, 0.005 wt% per μm, 0.006 wt% per μm, 0.007 wt% per μm, 0.008 wt% per μm, 0.009 wt% per μm, 0.01 wt% per μm, 0.02 wt% per μm, 0.03 wt% per μm, 0.04 wt% per μm, 0.05 wt% per μm, 0.06 wt% per μm, 0.07 wt% per μm, 0.08 wt% per μm, 0.09 wt% per μm, 0.1 wt% per μm, 0.2 wt% per μm, 0.3 wt% per μm, 0.4 wt% per μm, 0.5 wt% per μm, 0.6 wt% per μm, 0.7 wt% per μm, 0.8 wt% per μm, 0.9 wt% per μm, 1 wt% per μm or more. The rate of change of silicon concentration profile in the magnetically-enhanced substrate may be at most about 1 wt% per μm, 0.9 wt% per μm, 0.8 wt% per μm, 0.7 wt% per μm, 0.6 wt% per μm, 0.5 wt% per μm, 0.4 wt% per μm, 0.3 wt% per μm, 0.2 wt% per μm, 0.1 wt% per μm, 0.09 wt% per μm, 0.08 wt% per μm, 0.07 wt% per μm, 0.06 wt% per μm, 0.05 wt% per μm, 0.04 wt% per μm, 0.03 wt% per μm, 0.02 wt% per μm, 0.01 wt% per μm, 0.009 wt% per μm, 0.008 wt% per μm, 0.007 wt% per μm, 0.006 wt% per μm, 0.005 wt% per μm, 0.004 wt% per μm, 0.003 wt% per μm, 0.002 wt% per μm, 0.001 wt% per μm, or less.

[00352] The concentration profile of the elemental species (e.g., silicone, aluminum, nickel or cobalt) in a magnetically-enhanced substrate may be substantially uniform. In some embodiments, the concentration profile of silicon may be about 1 wt% to about 5 wt%, about 1 wt% to about 2 wt%, about 1 wt% to about 3 wt%, about 1 wt% to about 4 wt%, about 1 wt% to about 5 wt%, about 2 wt% to about 3 wt%, about 2 wt% to about 4 wt%, about 2 wt% to about 5 wt%, about 3 wt% to about 4 wt%, about 3 wt% to about 5 wt%, or about 4 wt% to about 5 wt%. A variation of the upper limit and the lower limit of a range of concentration profile may be at most about 1 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 0.1 wt%, 0.05 wt%, or 0.01 wt%. In some embodiments, a concentration of an elemental species (e.g., a surface concentration or a concentration profile) in a substrate (e.g., magnetically-enhanced substrate) may be determined by energy-dispersive X- ray spectroscopy (EDS), glow-discharge mass spectrometry analysis, glow-discharge optical emission spectrometry analysis, or a combination thereof.

[00353] In some cases, two elemental species (e.g., silicon and aluminum) may be co-deposited in a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to the surface of a substrate to a particular surface concentration or diffusion boundary concentration. For example, silicon may be deposited to a surface concentration of 10 wt% and aluminum may be co-deposited to a surface concentration of 6 wt%. In some casesf, the concentrations or concentration gradients of the co-deposited elemental species may differ. In some cases, more than one elemental species may be deposited by multiple rounds of slurry coating and annealing.

For example, silicon and aluminum may be co-deposited by first depositing silicon by a first slurry coating and annealing process, then depositing aluminum by a second slurry coating and annealing process. [00354] Surprisingly, it has been found that high activity of elemental species such as silicon during deposition is not intrinsically a good thing for the formation of good electrical steels. In some cases, if too much is deposited, and the elemental species percentage increases too much at the surface, substrate attack may occur. This may result in less magnetic media for the magnetic field to travel through and be amplified, thereby resulting in greater core loss and lower permeability. Substrate attack basically may have the effect of increasing the total volume of the air gap between laminations. Several methods are available to impact the local activity of the elemental species to decrease deposition rates, thereby preventing the over-deposition of the elemental species early on, while still achieving optimal concentrations of elemental species in the metal layer.

[00355] In some cases, the activity or availability of an elemental species may be controlled via the deposition of the elemental species in the absence of a halide activator. In some cases, the activity or availability of an elemental species may be controlled via the deposition of the elemental species in the presence of an atmosphere comprising hydrogen gas. In some cases, the hydrogen gas may behave as an activator to facilitate the transport of the elemental species into the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to the substrate. Without wishing to be bound by theory, hydrogen gas may facilitate the transport of an elemental species into the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to a substrate by the formation of hydride species. For example, metal elemental species may be diffused into the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) by the formation of gaseous metal hydrides, e.g., silicon hydride, aluminum hydride, nickel hydride, cobalt hydride, or manganese hydride. The transport of hydride species may control the amount of metal available to diffuse into the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) adjacent to the substrate. For example, the alloying agent may be configured to react with the hydrogen gas to form a hydride compound that is capable of transport into the substrate. In some embodiments, the alloying agent configured to react with the hydrogen gas may be selected from a group consisting of aluminum, silicon, and/or manganese.

[00356] For example, in the case of silicon deposition in a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer), these methods may be intended to decrease the amount of silicon available to deposit based on the following equations:

[00360] Where Si is the initial silicon source, hydrogen activates the silicon to form volatile silicon hydride species such as silane. In the above equations, SiH _x is the representation of these volatile silicon species, Fe _sub is the steel substrate, Fe(Si) is the silicon alloyed steel substrate, and Fe _x Si _y represents various intermetallic phases that may be detrimental to the final performance. In some cases, decreasing the amount of the volatile silicon species by attenuating the silicon activity and hydrogen concentration may decrease the amount of intermetallic species formed. In some cases, an elemental species (e.g., silicon or aluminum) may be deposited in a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) under an atmosphere of hydrogen or a mixture of hydrogen and an inert gas. A gas mixture may comprise about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99% hydrogen. A gas mixture may comprise at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 99%, or more than 99% hydrogen. A gas mixture may comprise no more than about 99%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%,

50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, or less than 5% hydrogen. An inert gas in a gas mixture may comprise nitrogen, helium, or argon.

[00361] Deposition of an elemental species such as silicon in the presence of gases other than hydrogen may have the effect of decreasing the rate of silicon delivery to the surface, and preventing the formation of brittle silicide phases that spall off. Attack may also be controlled by considering the DFW and total mass of panels with coating in relation to the total furnace atmosphere.

[00362] In some cases, it may be possible to decrease deposition rates of the elemental species by formulating a slurry with one or more species that limit the rate of transport of the elemental species. In some cases, a slurry may be formulated with an alloyed elemental species such as a ferroalloy (e.g., FeSi, FeNi, FeCo, FeAl, FeMn). In other cases, a slurry may be formulated by incorporating iron powder, which may act to absorb initial silicon atoms that the substrate would not be able to accommodate without spalling. In some cases, an alloyed species, such as a ferroalloy may contain a particular mass or molar percentage of an elemental species (e.g., Si, Al, Co, Ni, Mn). An alloyed species may contain a particular elemental species at a mass or molar percentage of about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99%. An alloyed species may contain a particular elemental species at a mass or molar percentage of at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 99%, or more than 99%. An alloyed species may contain a particular elemental species at a mass or molar percentage of no more than about 99%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, or less than 5%.

[00363] The electrical steel composition may be mechanically altered or formed before, during, or after a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) deposition process. In some cases, a substrate may be, for example, rolled to a thin gauge before a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) is deposited on one or more surfaces of the substrate. In other cases, a substrate may have a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) deposited and then be firmed, e.g., rolled to a thinner gauge. The altered substrate may be altered in one or more dimensions, including increasing or reducing the thickness of the pre- or post-deposition substrate in one or more dimensions. FIG. 9 shows a cross-sectional view of a SODA that has been rolled from a gauge of 0.020 inches ( in) to a gauge of 0.008 in after the deposition of a 6.5% Si-containing metal layer. In some cases, a part may be formed prior to the annealing of the metal layer. For example, in some cases, parts may be cut from a sheet, then deposited with a slurry that may be annealed to firm a metal layer. In other cases, a sheet may be deposited with a slurry before parts are cut and a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) fumed. [00364] A metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) deposition method for the formation of an electrical steel composition may comprise more than one annealing cycle. For example, it may be optimal to form an initial metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) by a first annealing step, then mechanically form the annealed substrate (e.g., rolling to a thinner gauge). In some embodiments of the methods described herein, at least one dimension of the substrate can be reduced in a single process of mechanical reduction. In some embodiments of the methods described herein, at least one dimension of the substrate can be reduced in a plurality of processes of mechanical reduction. In some embodiments, a process of mechanical reduction of the substrate may comprise rolling (e.g., cold rolling). In some embodiments, the plurality of processes of mechanical reduction may comprise a first process of mechanical reduction and a second process of mechanical reduction. The first and the second processes of mechanical reduction may be independently selected from the group consisting of stretch forming, tension level, thermal flattening, draw forming, re-striking, crash forming, spin forming, roll forming, hydro-forming, CNC forming, flanging, crimping, hemming, hot stamping, extrusion, and/or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the mechanically reduced dimension of the substrate may be smaller than an average thickness of the substrate. After the substrate is formed (e.g., mechanically reduced at least in one dimension), it may undergo a subsequent annealing step under similar or differing annealing conditions to further alter the concentration profile of the deposited elemental species. In some cases, one or more subsequent annealing cycles may increase the penetration of the elemental species into the core of the substrate. In some cases, one or more subsequent annealing cycles may generate a uniform or nearly uniform concentration of the deposited elemental species throughout the substrate, especially for thin- gauged materials. [00365] In some embodiments, a mechanically reduced substrate may undergo a subsequent annealing step at a temperature of about 500 °C to about 1,400 °C. The subsequent annealing temperature may be about 500 °C to about 600 °C, about 500 °C to about 700 °C, about 500 °C to about 800 °C, about 500 °C to about 900 °C, about 500 °C to about 1,000 °C, about 500 °C to about 1,100 °C, about 500 °C to about 1,200 °C, about 500 °C to about 1,300 °C, about 500 °C to about 1,400 °C, about 600 °C to about 700 °C, about 600 °C to about 800 °C, about 600 °C to about 900 °C, about 600 °C to about 1,000 °C, about 600 °C to about 1,100 °C, about 600 °C to about 1,200 °C, about 600 °C to about 1,300 °C, about 600 °C to about 1,400 °C, about 700 °C to about 800 °C, about 700 °C to about 900 °C, about 700 °C to about 1,000 °C, about 700 °C to about 1,100 °C, about 700 °C to about 1,200 °C, about 700 °C to about 1,300 °C, about 700 °C to about 1,400 °C, about 800 °C to about 900 °C, about 800 °C to about 1,000 °C, about 800 °C to about 1,100 °C, about 800 °C to about 1,200 °C, about 800 °C to about 1,300 °C, about 800 °C to about 1,400 °C, about 900 °C to about 1,000 °C, about 900 °C to about 1,100 °C, about 900 °C to about 1,200 °C, about 900 °C to about 1,300 °C, about 900 °C to about 1,400 °C, about 1,000 °C to about 1,100 °C, about 1,000 °C to about 1,200 °C, about 1,000 °C to about 1,300 °C, about 1,000 °C to about 1,400 °C, about 1,100 °C to about 1,200 °C, about 1,100 °C to about 1,300 °C, about 1,100 °C to about 1,400 °C, about 1,200 °C to about 1,300 °C, about 1,200 °C to about 1,400 °C, or about 1,300 °C to about 1,400 °C. The subsequent annealing temperature may be about 500 °C, about 600 °C, about 700 °C, about 800 °C, about 900 °C, about 1,000 °C, about 1,100 °C, about 1,200 °C, about 1,300 °C, or about 1,400 °C. The subsequent annealing temperature may be at least about 500 °C, about 600 °C, about 700 °C, about 800 °C, about 900 °C, about 1,000 °C, about 1,100 °C, about 1,200 °C, 1,300 °C, 1,400 °C, or more. The subsequent annealing temperature may be at most about 1,400 °C, about 1,300 °C, about 1,200 °C, about 1,100 °C, about 1,000 °C, about 900 °C, about 800 °C, about 700 °C, about 600 °C, about 500 °C, or less.

[00366] The substrate (e.g., magnetically enhanced substrate) may undergo the annealing process, subsequent to the process of mechanical reduction, to reach a ferritic phase and stay in the ferritic phase for a duration of time. The duration of time that the substrate may undergo annealing when reaching the ferritic phase may be between about 10 seconds (sec) to about 5 hours. The duration may last for at least about 10 sec, 20 sec, 30 sec, 40 sec, 50 sec, 1 min, 30 min, 1 hour, 2 hours, 3 hours, 4 hours, 5 hours, or more. The duration may last for at most about 5 hours, 4 hours, 3 hours, 2 hours, 1 hour, 30 min, 1 min,

50 sec, 40 sec, 30 sec, 20 sec, 10 sec, or less. The duration may last for about 10 sec, about 20 sec, about 30 sec, about 40 sec, about 50 sec, about 1 min, about 30 min, about 1 hour, about 2 hours, about 3 hours, about 4 hours, or about 5 hours. The substrate in a ferritic phase may comprise at least 99%, by volume, one or more ferritic microstructures. The substrate in a ferritic phase may comprise 100% one or more ferritic microstructures. The substrate in a ferritic phase may comprise about 99% to about 100%, by volume, one or more ferritic microstructures.

[00367] The formation of an electrical steel composition from a substrate may alter the electrical and/or magnetic and/or mechanical properties of the starting substrate. Altered electrical and/or magnetic properties may include the electrical conductivity, electrical resistance, magnetic permeability, and magnetic susceptibility. Altered mechanical properties may include tensile strength, yield strength, maximum strain, and fracture toughness. The electrical and/or magnetic and/or mechanical properties of an electrical steel composition may be uniform throughout the composition or may vary as a function of depth from a surface of the composition. A change in electrical and/or magnetic and/or mechanical properties may be measured with respect to the original properties of the starting substrate. Property values of the altered properties may be increased or decreased by the formation of one or more metal layers (or metal diffusion layers) on or adjacent to a surface of the substrate. Property values may vary with changing temperature or changes in an applied magnetic and/or electrical field.

[00368] An electrical steel composition may be characterized as having a particular electrical conductivity. The electrical conductivity may be measured at the surface of the composition or as a bulk property. An electrical steel composition may have an electrical conductivity of at least about 1x10 ⁶ Siemens/meter (S/m), 5x10 ⁶ S/m, 10x10 ⁶ S/m, 15x10 ⁶ S/m, 20x10 ⁶ S/m, 25x10 ⁶ S/m, 30x10 ⁶ S/m, 35x10 ⁶ S/m, 40x10 ⁶ S/m, 45x10 ⁶ S/m, 50x10 ⁶ S/m, 55x10 ⁶ S/m, 60x10 ⁶ S/m, 65x10 ⁶ S/m, 70x10 ⁶ S/m, 75x10 ⁶ S/m, 80x10 ⁶ S/m, 85x10 ⁶ S/m, 90x10 ⁶ S/m, 95x10 ⁶ S/m, 100x10 ⁶ S/m or more. An electrical steel composition may have an electrical conductivity of no more than about 100x10 ⁶ Siemens/meter (S/m), 95x10 ⁶ S/m, 90x10 ⁶ S/m, 85x10 ⁶ S/m, 80x10 ⁶ S/m, 75x10 ⁶ S/m, 70x10 ⁶ S/m, 65x10 ⁶ S/m, 60x10 ⁶ S/m, 55x10 ⁶ S/m, 50x10 ⁶ S/m, 45x10 ⁶ S/m, 40x10 ⁶ S/m, 35x10 ⁶ S/m, 30x10 ⁶ S/m, 25x10 ⁶ S/m, 20x10 ⁶ S/m, 15x10 ⁶ S/m, 10x10 ⁶ S/m, 5x10 ⁶ S/m, 1x10 ⁶ S/m or less. Electrical conductivity may be measured by any known method, such as an ohmmeter.

[00369] The electrical conductivity of a substrate may be increased or decreased by the formation of an electrical steel composition. The electrical conductivity of a substrate may increase or decrease by about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 100%, 125%, 150%, 200%, 300%, 400%, 500% or more by the formation of an electrical steel composition. The electrical conductivity of a substrate may increase or decrease by no more than about 500%, 400%, 300%, 200%, 150%, 125%, 100%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%,

50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5% or less by the formation of an electrical steel composition.

[00370] An electrical steel composition may be characterized as having a particular relative magnetic permeability. The relative magnetic permeability may be defined as the ratio of the magnetic permeability of a substance to the magnetic permeability of free space. The magnetic permeability may vary as a result of changing temperature, magnetic field strength, or magnetic field frequency. The relative magnetic permeability may be measured at the surface of the composition or as a bulk property. An electrical steel composition may have a relative magnetic permeability of at least about 1, 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, 6000, 7000, 8000, 9000, 10000, 15000, 20000, 30000, 40000, 50000, 100000, 500000, 1000000 or more. An electrical steel composition may have a relative magnetic permeability of no more than about 1000000, 500000, 100000, 50000, 40000, 30000, 20000, 15000, 10000, 9000, 8000, 7000, 6000, 5000, 4000, 3000, 2000, 1000, 500, 100, 50, 10, 1 or less.

[00371] The relative magnetic permeability of a substrate may be increased or decreased by the formation of an electrical steel composition. The relative magnetic permeability of a substrate may increase or decrease by about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 100%, 125%, 150%, 200%, 300%, 400%, 500% or more by the formation of an electrical steel composition. The relative magnetic permeability of a substrate may increase or decrease by no more than about 500%, 400%, 300%, 200%, 150%, 125%, 100%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%,

70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5% or less by the formation of an electrical steel composition.

[00372] An electrical steel composition of the present invention may have a particular core loss. The core loss may be measured at the surface of the composition or as a bulk property. In some cases, the core loss may be about 15.0 Watts per kilogram (W/kg), 14 W/kg, 13 W/kg, 12 W/kg, 11 W/kg, 10 W/kg, 9 W/kg,

8 W/kg, 7 W/kg, 6 W/kg, 5 W/kg, 4.9 W/kg, 4.8 W/kg, 4.7 W/kg, 4.6 W/kg, 4.5 W/kg, 4.4 W/kg, 4.3 W/kg, 4.2 W/kg, 4.1 W/kg, 4.0 W/kg, 3.9 W/kg, 3.8 W/kg, 3.7 W/kg, 3.6 W/kg, 3.5 W/kg, 3.4 W/kg, 3.3 W/kg, 3.2 W/kg, 3.1 W/kg, 3.0 W/kg, 2.9 W/kg, 2.8 W/kg, 2.7 W/kg, 2.6 W/kg, 2.5 W/kg, 2.4 W/kg, 2.3 W/kg, 2.2 W/kg, 2.1 W/kg, 2.0 W/kg, 1.9 W/kg, 1.8 W/kg, 1.7 W/kg, 1.6 W/kg, 1.5 W/kg, 1.4 W/kg, 1.3 W/kg, 1.2 W/kg, 1.1 W/kg, 1.0 W/kg, 0.9 W/kg, 0.8 W/kg, 0.7 W/kg, 0.6 W/kg, 0.5 W/kg, 0.4 W/kg, 0.3 W/kg, 0.2 W/kg, or 0.1 W/kg. In some cases, the core loss may be no more than about 15.0 W/kg, 14 W/kg, 13 W/kg, 12 W/kg, 11 W/kg, 10 W/kg, 9 W/kg, 8 W/kg, 7 W/kg, 6 W/kg, 5.0 W/kg, 4.9 W/kg, 4.8 W/kg, 4.7 W/kg, 4.6 W/kg, 4.5 W/kg, 4.4 W/kg, 4.3 W/kg, 4.2 W/kg, 4.1 W/kg, 4.0 W/kg, 3.9 W/kg, 3.8 W/kg, 3.7 W/kg, 3.6 W/kg, 3.5 W/kg, 3.4 W/kg, 3.3 W/kg, 3.2 W/kg, 3.1 W/kg, 3.0 W/kg, 2.9 W/kg, 2.8 W/kg, 2.7 W/kg, 2.6 W/kg, 2.5 W/kg, 2.4 W/kg, 2.3 W/kg, 2.2 W/kg, 2.1 W/kg, 2.0 W/kg, 1.9 W/kg, 1.8 W/kg, 1.7 W/kg, 1.6 W/kg, 1.5 W/kg, 1.4 W/kg, 1.3 W/kg, 1.2 W/kg, 1.1 W/kg, 1.0 W/kg, 0.9 W/kg, 0.8 W/kg, 0.7 W/kg, 0.6 W/kg, 0.5 W/kg, 0.4 W/kg, 0.3 W/kg, 0.2 W/kg, or 0.1 W/kg or less. In some cases, the core loss may be at least about 0.1 W/kg, 0.2 W/kg, 0.3 W/kg, 0.4 W/kg, 0.5 W/kg, 0.6 W/kg, 0.7 W/kg, 0.8 W/kg, 0.9 W/kg, 1.0 W/kg, 1.1 W/kg, 1.2 W/kg, 1.3 W/kg, 1.4 W/kg, 1.5 W/kg, 1.6 W/kg, 1.7 W/kg, 1.8 W/kg, 1.9 W/kg, 2.0 W/kg, 2.1 W/kg, 2.2 W/kg, 2.3 W/kg, 2.4 W/kg, 2.5 W/kg, 2.6 W/kg, 2.7 W/kg, 2.8 W/kg, 2.9 W/kg, 3.0 W/kg, 3.1 W/kg, 3.2 W/kg, 3.3 W/kg, 3.4 W/kg, 3.5 W/kg, 3.6 W/kg, 3.7 W/kg, 3.8 W/kg, 3.9 W/kg, 4.0 W/kg, 4.1 W/kg, 4.2 W/kg, 4.3 W/kg, 4.4 W/kg, 4.5 W/kg, 4.6 W/kg, 4.7 W/kg, 4.8 W/kg, 4.9 W/kg, 5.0 W/kg, 6 W/kg, 7 W/kg, 8 W/kg, 9 W/kg, 10 W/kg, 11 W/kg, 12 W/kg, 13 W/kg, 14 W/kg, 15 W/kg or more. Core loss may be measured by any known method in the art, such as Epstein pack testing, dual-yoke single sheet testing, and single-yoke single sheet testing, amongst others. [00373] The relative magnetic permeability and/or core loss may be measured in a magnetic field strength of at least about 0.1 T, 0.2 T, 0.3 T, 0.4 T, 0.5 T, 0.6 T, 0.7 T, 0.8T, 0.9 T, 1 T, 1.5 T, 2 T or more. The relative magnetic permeability and/or core loss may be measured in a magnetic field strength of no more than about 2 T, 1.5 %, 1 T, 0.9 T, 0.8 T, 0.7 T, 0.6 T, 0.5 T, 0.4 T, 0.3 T, 0.2 T, 0.1 T or less. A relative magnetic permeability and/or core loss may be measured at a frequency of at least about 10 Hz, 50 Hz, 60 Hz, 100 Hz, 200 Hz, 300 Hz, 400 Hz, 500 Hz, 600 Hz, 700 Hz, 800 Hz, 900 Hz, 1000 Hz, 1500 Hz, 2000 Hz, 2500 Hz, 3000 Hz, 3500 Hz, 4000 Hz, 4500 Hz, 5000 Hz, 10000 Hz, 20000 Hz or more. A relative magnetic permeability and/or core loss may be measured at a magnetic field strength of no more than about 20000 Hz, 10000 Hz, 5000 Hz, 4500 Hz, 4000 Hz, 3500 Hz, 3000 Hz, 2500 Hz, 2000 Hz, 1500 Hz, 1000 Hz, 900 Hz, 800 Hz, 700 Hz, 600 Hz, 500 Hz, 400 Hz, 300 Hz, 200 Hz, 100 Hz, 60 Hz, 50 Hz or less. In some cases, hotter and longer anneal times may give lower core losses. In some cases, annealing thin gauge material at high temperatures for long periods of time may result in an electrical steel with very low core losses. An electrical steel composition may be characterized by an induction at 400 A/m of at least about 1 Tesla (T), 1.1 T, 1.2 T, 1.3 T, 1.4 T, 1.5 T, 1.6 T, 1.7 T, 1.8 T, 1.9 T, 2.0 T or more. An electrical steel composition may be characterized by an induction at 5000 A/m of at least about 1 Tesla (T), 1.1 T, 1.2 T, 1.3 T, 1.4 T, 1.5 T, 1.6 T, 1.66 T, 1.7 T, 1.8 T, 1.9 T, 2.0 T or more. A magnetic permeability and/or core loss may be measured at a particular field condition, such as W10/50, W 10/60, W 10/400, WlO/1000, W10/1500, W10/2500, W10/5000, W2/10000, or W0.5/20000. In this designation, the first number denotes the magnetic field strength in Tesla times ten and the second number denotes the magnetic field frequency. For example, a field condition of 0.1 Tesla and 1000 Hz would be denoted as Wl/1000. [00374] The core loss of a substrate may be increased or decreased by the formation of an electrical steel composition. The core loss of a substrate may increase or decrease by about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 100%, 125%, 150%, 200%, 300%, 400%, 500% or more by the formation of an electrical steel composition. The core loss of a substrate may decrease by no more than about 500%, 400%, 300%, 200%, 150%, 125%, 100%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5% or less by the formation of an electrical steel composition.

[00375] Mechanical properties of an electrical steel composition comprising a deposited metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) may be controlled by the deposition procedure. The mechanical properties of interest in an electrical steel composition may include tensile strength, yield strength, fracture toughness and elongation. Mechanical properties of an electrical steel composition may be measured for a particular gauge or thickness of substrate with a deposited metal layer. In some cases, a treated substrate may have a thickness of about 0.001 in inches ( in) (1 inch equals to 2.54 centimeter), 0.005 in, 0.009 in, 0.010 in, 0.011 in, 0.012 in, 0.015 in, 0.02 in, 0.05 in, 0.1 in, 0.125 in, 0.25 in, or 0.5 in when tested for mechanical properties. In some cases, a treated substrate may have athickness of at least about 0.001 in, 0.005 in, 0.009 in, 0.010 in, 0.011 in, 0.012 in, 0.015 in, 0.02 in, 0.05 in, 0.1 in, 0.125 in, 0.25 in, or 0.5 in or more when tested for mechanical properties. In some cases, a treated substrate may have a thickness or gauge of no more than about 0.5 in, 0.25 in, 0.2 in, 0.125 in, 0.1 in, 0.05 in, 0.02 in, 0.015 in, 0.012 in, 0.011 in, 0.010 in, 0.009 in, 0.005 in, 0.001 in or less when tested for mechanical properties. The mechanical properties may be impacted by the amount of elemental species deposited in the metal layer. Controlling the depth and the amount of elemental species in the substrate may allow for electrical and mechanical properties to be optimized for different applications. For instance, rotating motors have a much more stringent mechanical strength requirements so that they do not tear themselves apart, while transformers would not hold this same requirement.

[00376] An electrical steel composition may be characterized by a tensile strength. In some cases, an electrical steel composition may have a tensile strength of at least about 10 ksi (kilopound per square inch) (where 1 ksi = 6.8947572932 megapascal (MPa), 15 ksi, 20 ksi, 25 ksi, 30 ksi, 35 ksi, 40 ksi, 45 ksi, 50 ksi, 55 ksi, 60 ksi, 65 ksi, 70 ksi, 75 ksi, 80 ksi, 85 ksi, 90 ksi, 95 ksi, 100 ksi or more. In some cases, an electrical steel composition may have a tensile strength of no more than about 100 ksi, 95 ksi, 90 ksi,

85 ksi, 80 ksi, 75 ksi, 70 ksi, 65 ksi, 60 ksi, 55 ksi, 50 ksi, 45 ksi, 40 ksi, 35 ksi, 30 ksi, 25 ksi, 20 ksi, 15 ksi, 10 ksi or less.

[00377] The tensile strength of a substrate may be increased or decreased by the formation of an electrical steel composition. The tensile strength of a substrate may increase or decrease by about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 100%,

125%, 150%, 200%, 300%, 400%, 500% or more by the formation of an electrical steel composition. The tensile strength of a substrate may increase or decrease by no more than about 500%, 400%, 300%, 200%, 150%, 125%, 100%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5% or less by the fonnation of an electrical steel composition.

[00378] . An electrical steel composition may be characterized by a yield strength. In some cases, an electrical steel composition may have a yield strength of at least about 10 ksi (kilopound per square inch) (where 1 ksi = 6.8947572932 megapascal (MPa), 15 ksi, 20 ksi, 25 ksi, 30 ksi, 35 ksi, 40 ksi, 45 ksi, 50 ksi, 55 ksi, 60 ksi, 65 ksi, 70 ksi, 75 ksi, 80 ksi, 85 ksi, 90 ksi, 95 ksi, 100 ksi or more. In some cases, an electrical steel composition may have a yield strength of no more than about 100 ksi, 95 ksi, 90 ksi, 85 ksi, 80 ksi, 75 ksi, 70 ksi, 65 ksi, 60 ksi, 55 ksi, 50 ksi, 45 ksi, 40 ksi, 35 ksi, 30 ksi, 25 ksi, 20 ksi, 15 ksi, 10 ksi or less.

[00379] The yield strength of a substrate may be increased or decreased by the formation of an electrical steel composition. The yield strength of a substrate may increase or decrease by about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 100%,

125%, 150%, 200%, 300%, 400%, 500% or more by the formation of an electrical steel composition. The yield strength of a substrate may increase or decrease by no more than about 500%, 400%, 300%, 200%, 150%, 125%, 100%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5% or less by the formation of an electrical steel composition.

[00380] An electrical steel composition may have an elongation or strain under deformation before failure. In some cases, an electrical steel composition may have an elongation or strain of about 1%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 75% or 100%. In some cases, an electrical steel composition may have an elongation or strain of at least about 1%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 4%,

5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 75% or 100% or more. In some cases, an electrical steel composition may have an elongation or strain of no more than about 100%, 75%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1% or less.

[00381] The elongation or strain before failure of a substrate may be increased or decreased by the formation of an electrical steel composition. The elongation or strain before failure of a substrate may increase or decrease by about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 100%, 125%, 150%, 200%, 300%, 400%, 500% or more by the formation of an electrical steel composition. The elongation or strain before failure of a substrate may increase or decrease by no more than about 500%, 400%, 300%, 200%, 150%, 125%, 100%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5% or less by the formation of an electrical steel composition.

[00382] An electrical steel composition may have a particular fracture toughness. A fracture toughness may represent the resistance to brittle failure in a material such as electrical steel. A fracture toughness may be measured as the amount of energy required to propagate a thin fracture in a material. An electrical steel composition may have a fracture toughness of at least about 1 megaPascal-meter ^½ (MPa-m ^½ ), 2 MPa-m ^½ , 5 MPa-m ^½ , 10 MPa-m ^½ , 15 MPa-m ^½ , 20 MPa-m ^½ , 25 MPa-m ^½ , 30 MPa-m ^½ , 35 MPa-m ^½ , 40 MPa-m ^½ , 45 MPa-m ^½ , 50 MPa-m ^½ , 55 MPa-m ^½ , 60 MPa-m ^½ , 65 MPa-m ^½ , 70 MPa-m ^½ , 75 MPa-m ^½ , 80 MPa-m ^½ , 85 MPa-m ^½ , 90 MPa-m ^½ , 95 MPa-m ^½ , 100 MPa-m ^½ or more. An electrical steel composition may have a fiacture toughness of no more than about 100 MPa-m ^½ , 95 MPa-m ^½ , 90 MPa-m ^½ , 85 MPa- m ^½ , 80 MPa-m ^½ , 75 MPa-m ^½ , 70 MPa-m ^½ , 65 MPa-m ^½ , 60 MPa-m ^½ , 55 MPa-m ^½ , 50 MPa-m ^½ , 45 MPa- m ^½ , 40 MPa-m ^½ , 35 MPa-m ^½ , 30 MPa-m ^½ , 25 MPa-m ^½ , 20 MPa-m ^½ , 15 MPa-m ^½ , 10 MPa-m ^½ , 5 MPa- m ^½ , 2 MPa-m ^½ , 1 MPa-m ^½ or less. A fracture toughness may be measured by any known method in the art, such as a Charpy impact test.

[00383] The fiacture toughness of a substrate may be increased or decreased by the formation of an electrical steel composition. The fracture toughness of an electrical steel composition with a particular surface concentration of an elemental species may be increased or decreased relative to a substrate with a uniform concentration of the same elemental species throughout the volume of the substrate. For example, an electrical steel composition with a 6.5 wt% Si surface content and a 0 wt% Si core content may have a larger fracture toughness than a uniform 6.5 wt% Si steel substrate. The fracture toughness of a substrate may increase or decrease by about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 100%, 125%, 150%, 200%, 300%, 400%, 500% or more by the formation of an electrical steel composition. The fracture toughness of a substrate may increase or decrease by no more than about 500%, 400%, 300%, 200%, 150%, 125%, 100%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5% or less by the formation of an electrical steel composition.

[00384] Electromagnetic and mechanical property trade-offs may be eliminated using alloy compositions not typically produced through traditional manufacturing methods. For example, 5 wt% aluminum in steel has a relatively low yield strength of 45-ksi (kilopound per square inch) (where 1 ksi = 6.8947572932 megapascal (MPa) and is easily reduced to light gauges but is comparable in core loss to 3.0 wt% silicon in steel which is very difficult to reduce to light gauges. By traditional methods, 5 wt% aluminum in steel is very difficult to cast, and due to oxide growth during hot-rolling, is difficult to stamp without wearing out stamping dies. Diffusion alloys, such as those describe above, have been shown to exhibit up to 12 wt% aluminum in steel without forming substantial intermetallic phases. The increased concentration of a co -deposited elemental species, such as aluminum, manganese, cobalt, nickel, and other magnetically useful alloying elements, may be tailored to produce a specific yield or tensile strength without the same brittleness that occurs with silicon addition above 4% all while obtaining the same improved core loss properties. Combinations of alloying elements such as aluminum and silicon may exhibit properties that surpass the sum of their parts. For example, an alloy comprising 6% Aluminum, 84% Iron, and 10% Silicon, may have a permeability much higher than alloys of equivalent silicon or aluminum in iron. FIG. 21A shows an SEM micrograph of an Al-containing substrate with a deposited metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) comprising a substantially increased surface concentration of aluminum. FIG. 2 IB plots EDS linescan data for the composition of FIG. 21 A, displaying A1 concentration as a function of depth. Sheet meeting this requirement has the potential to produce a material with electromagnetic properties far surpassing those of currently available sheet products. [00385] The microstructures of the provided electrical steel compositions may have enhanced performance at higher frequencies and may find themselves best employed in these types of applications. Additionally, putting the electrical steel sheets through a final homogenization anneal may provide exceptional performance at low frequency as well. The provided electrical steel compositions may carry a high concentration of the deposited elemental species, while still being malleable and formable. This may be due to the low elemental species (e.g., Si or Al) content in the core of the material, and may impart the ability for the material to be substantially reduced from a thicker gauge. There are several processing procedures that would take advantage of the provided electrical steel formation methods and they can be outlined in the following ways: 1) deposit at a heavy gauge (e.g., 0.5 mm) such that there may be a low elemental species content in the core, roll that down to a thin gauge (e.g., 0.1 mm, 0.02 mm) which is difficult to achieve with monolithic high silicon alloys, then heat the steel to recrystallize the grains or even normalize the silicon content through the full gauge, 2) a thin gauge (e.g., 0.1 mm, 0.02 mm) which may be difficult to achieve with monolithic steels could be deposited with silicon and used as- is, 3) the slurry coated substrate could be used for stamping parts, which could be annealed once stamped to generate the alloy in the final part.

[00386] A grain size of the magnetically-enhanced substrate may be different from the grain size of the substrate prior to processing the substrate to form the magnetically-enhanced substrate. A change in the grain size may lead to altered properties in the substrate (e.g., magnetically-enhanced substrate or electrical steel). For example, a smaller grain size may increase a strength and toughness of a material such as a fracture toughness. In some embodiments, the process of forming a substrate (e.g., magnetically-enhanced substrate or electrical steel) may alter the grain size of the substrate.

[00387] In some embodiments, the methods to form a substrate (e.g., magnetically-enhanced substrate or electrical steel) disclosed herein may alter a grain orientation in the substrate. For example, the grain orientation in the magnetically-enhanced substrate may have an increased grain orientation compared to a grain orientation of the substrate. In some embodiments, the grain orientation may be altered by heating, annealing, cooling, or rolling (e.g., cold rolling). The altered grain orientation may alter the properties of the substrate (e.g., electrical steel). Rolling (e.g., cold rolling) may alter properties of the substrate to achieve optimal properties in a direction of the rolling. The grain orientation altered by using the methods described herein may enhance the magnetic properties (e.g., core loss) of the substrate. For example, a surface of a magnetically-enhanced substrate may have a core loss that may be at least 5% less than a core loss of the surface of the substrate prior to forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate.

[00388] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate (e.g., electrical steel) may have a core loss that may be about 5% to about 40% less than a core loss of the surface of the substrate prior to forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate. The magnetically-enhanced substrate (e.g., electrical steel) may have a core loss that may be between about 5% to about 7%, about 5% to about 9%, about 5% to about 11%, about 5% to about 13%, about 5% to about 15%, about 5% to about 17%, about 5% to about 20%, about 5% to about 25%, about 5% to about 30%, about 5% to about 35%, about 5% to about 40%, about 7% to about 9%, about 7% to about 11%, about 7% to about 13%, about 7% to about 15%, about 7% to about 17%, about 7% to about 20%, about 7% to about 25%, about 7% to about 30%, about 7% to about 35%, about 7% to about 40%, about 9% to about 11%, about 9% to about 13%, about 9% to about 15%, about 9% to about 17%, about 9% to about 20%, about 9% to about 25%, about 9% to about 30%, about 9% to about 35%, about 9% to about 40%, about 11% to about 13%, about 11% to about 15%, about 11% to about 17%, about 11% to about 20%, about 11% to about 25%, about 11% to about 30%, about 11% to about 35%, about 11% to about 40%, about 13% to about 15%, about 13% to about 17%, about 13% to about 20%, about 13% to about 25%, about 13% to about 30%, about 13% to about 35%, about 13% to about 40%, about 15% to about 17%, about 15% to about 20%, about 15% to about 25%, about 15% to about 30%, about 15% to about 35%, about 15% to about 40%, about 17% to about 20%, about 17% to about 25%, about 17% to about 30%, about 17% to about 35%, about 17% to about 40%, about 20% to about 25%, about 20% to about 30%, about 20% to about 35%, about 20% to about 40%, about 25% to about 30%, about 25% to about 35%, about 25% to about 40%, about 30% to about 35%, about 30% to about 40%, or about 35% to about 40% less than a core loss of the surface of the substrate prior to forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate. The magnetically-enhanced substrate (e.g., electrical steel) may have a core loss that may be about 5%, about 7%, about 9%, about 11%, about 13%, about 15%, about 17%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, or about 40% less than a core loss of the surface of the substrate prior to forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate. The magnetically- enhanced substrate (e.g., electrical steel) may have a core loss that may be at least about 5%, about 7%, about 9%, about 11%, about 13%, about 15%, about 17%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, or larger percentage less than a core loss of the surface of the substrate prior to forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate. The magnetically-enhanced substrate (e.g., electrical steel) may have a core loss that may be at most about 40%, about 35%, about 30%, about 25%, about 20%, about 17%, about 15%, about 13%, about 11%, about 9%, about 7%, about 5%, or a lower percentage less than a core loss of the surface of the substrate prior to forming the magnetically-enhanced substrate.

[00389] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate may have a core loss of about 0.4 watts per kilogram (W/kg) to about 4 W/kg under W 10/60 magnetic field conditions. The core loss in the magnetically-enhanced substrate may be between about 0.4 W/kg to about 0.5 W/kg, about 0.4 W/kg to about 0.7 W/kg, about 0.4 W/kg to about 1 W/kg, about 0.4 W/kg to about 1.5 W/kg, about 0.4 W/kg to about 2 W/kg, about 0.4 W/kg to about 2.5 W/kg, about 0.4 W/kg to about 3 W/kg, about 0.4 W/kg to about 3.5 W/kg, about 0.4 W/kg to about 4 W/kg, about 0.5 W/kg to about 0.7 W/kg, about 0.5 W/kg to about 1 W/kg, about 0.5 W/kg to about 1.5 W/kg, about 0.5 W/kg to about 2 W/kg, about 0.5 W/kg to about 2.5 W/kg, about 0.5 W/kg to about 3 W/kg, about 0.5 W/kg to about 3.5 W/kg, about 0.5 W/kg to about 4 W/kg, about 0.7 W/kg to about 1 W/kg, about 0.7 W/kg to about 1.5 W/kg, about 0.7 W/kg to about 2 W/kg, about 0.7 W/kg to about 2.5 W/kg, about 0.7 W/kg to about 3 W/kg, about 0.7 W/kg to about 3.5 W/kg, about 0.7 W/kg to about 4 W/kg, about 1 W/kg to about 1.5 W/kg, about 1 W/kg to about 2 W/kg, about 1 W/kg to about 2.5 W/kg, about 1 W/kg to about 3 W/kg, about 1 W/kg to about 3.5 W/kg, about 1 W/kg to about 4 W/kg, about 1.5 W/kg to about 2 W/kg, about 1.5 W/kg to about 2.5 W/kg, about 1.5 W/kg to about 3 W/kg, about 1.5 W/kg to about 3.5 W/kg, about 1.5 W/kg to about 4 W/kg, about 2 W/kg to about 2.5 W/kg, about 2 W/kg to about 3 W/kg, about 2 W/kg to about 3.5 W/kg, about 2 W/kg to about 4 W/kg, about 2.5 W/kg to about 3 W/kg, about 2.5 W/kg to about 3.5 W/kg, about 2.5 W/kg to about 4 W/kg, about 3 W/kg to about 3.5 W/kg, about 3 W/kg to about 4 W/kg, or about 3.5 W/kg to about 4 W/kg under W10/60 magnetic field conditions. The core loss may be about 0.4 W/kg, about 0.5 W/kg, about 0.7 W/kg, about 1 W/kg, about 1.5 W/kg, about 2 W/kg, about 2.5 W/kg, about 3 W/kg, about 3.5 W/kg, or about 4 W/kg under W10/60 magnetic field conditions. The core loss may be at most about 3.5 W/kg, about 3 W/kg, about 2.5 W/kg, about 2 W/kg, about 1.5 W/kg, about 1 W/kg, about 0.7 W/kg, about 0.5 W/kg, about 0.4 W/kg, or less under W10/60 magnetic field conditions. The core loss may be at least about 0.4 W/kg, about 0.5 W/kg, about 0.7 W/kg, about 1 W/kg, about 1.5 W/kg, about 2 W/kg, about 2.5 W/kg, about 3 W/kg, 3.5 W/kg, or more under W10/60 magnetic field conditions.

[00390] In some embodiments, the magnetically-enhanced substrate may have a core loss of about 350 watts per kilogram (W/kg) to 1500 W/kg under W10/5000 magnetic field conditions. The magnetically- enhanced substrate may have a core loss of about 300 W/kg to about 400 W/kg, about 300 W/kg to about 500 W/kg, about 300 W/kg to about 600 W/kg, about 300 W/kg to about 750 W/kg, about 300 W/kg to about 900 W/kg, about 300 W/kg to about 1,100 W/kg, about 300 W/kg to about 1,300 W/kg, about 300 W/kg to about 1,500 W/kg, about 400 W/kg to about 500 W/kg, about 400 W/kg to about 600 W/kg, about 400 W/kg to about 750 W/kg, about 400 W/kg to about 900 W/kg, about 400 W/kg to about 1,100 W/kg, about 400 W/kg to about 1,300 W/kg, about 400 W/kg to about 1,500 W/kg, about 500 W/kg to about 600 W/kg, about 500 W/kg to about 750 W/kg, about 500 W/kg to about 900 W/kg, about 500 W/kg to about 1,100 W/kg, about 500 W/kg to about 1,300 W/kg, about 500 W/kg to about 1,500 W/kg, about 600 W/kg to about 750 W/kg, about 600 W/kg to about 900 W/kg, about 600 W/kg to about 1,100 W/kg, about 600 W/kg to about 1,300 W/kg, about 600 W/kg to about 1,500 W/kg, about 750 W/kg to about 900 W/kg, about 750 W/kg to about 1,100 W/kg, about 750 W/kg to about 1,300 W/kg, about 750 W/kg to about 1,500 W/kg, about 900 W/kg to about 1,100 W/kg, about 900 W/kg to about 1,300 W/kg, about 900 W/kg to about 1,500 W/kg, about 1,100 W/kg to about 1,300 W/kg, about 1,100 W/kg to about 1,500 W/kg, or about 1,300 W/kg to about 1,500 W/kg under W10/5000 magnetic field conditions. The magnetically-enhanced substrate may have a core loss of about 300 W/kg, about 400 W/kg, about 500 W/kg, about 600 W/kg, about 750 W/kg, about 900 W/kg, about 1,100 W/kg, about 1,300 W/kg, or about 1,500 W/kg under W10/5000 magnetic field conditions. The magnetically-enhanced substrate may have a core loss of at least about 300 W/kg, about 400 W/kg, about 500 W/kg, about 600 W/kg, about 750 W/kg, about 900 W/kg, about 1,100 W/kg, about 1,300 W/kg, or more under W10/5000 magnetic field conditions. The magnetically-enhanced substrate may have a core loss of at most about 1,300 W/kg, about 1,100 W/kg, about 900 W/kg, about 750 W/kg, about 600 W/kg, about 500 W/kg, about 400 W/kg, about 300 W/kg, or less under W10/5000 magnetic field conditions. [00391] In some embodiments, the fracture toughness of the substrate (e.g., magnetically-enhanced substrate or electrical steel) may be between about 10 MPa.m ^½ to about 20 MPa.m ^½ , about 10 MPa.m ^½ to about 30 MPa.m ^½ , about 10 MPa.m ^½ to about 40 MPa.m ^½ , about 10 MPa.m ^½ to about 50 MPa.m ^½ , about 10 MPa.m ^½ to about 60 MPa.m ^½ , about 10 MPa.m ^½ to about 70 MPa.m ^½ , about 10 MPa.m ^½ to about 80 MPa.m ^½ , about 10 MPa.m ^½ to about 90 MPa.m ^½ , about 10 MPa.m ^½ to about 100 MPa.m ^½ , about 10 MPa.m ^½ to about 110 MPa.m ^½ , about 10 MPa.m ^½ to about 120 MPa.m ^½ , about 20 MPa.m ^½ to about 30 MPa.m ^½ , about 20 MPa.m ^½ to about 40 MPa.m ^½ , about 20 MPa.m ^½ to about 50 MPa.m ^½ , about 20 MPa.m ^½ to about 60 MPa.m ^½ , about 20 MPa.m ^½ to about 70 MPa.m ^½ , about 20 MPa.m ^½ to about 80 MPa.m ^½ , about 20 MPa.m ^½ to about 90 MPa.m ^½ , about 20 MPa.m ^½ to about 100 MPa.m ^½ , about 20 MPa.m ^½ to about 110 MPa.m ^½ , about 20 MPa.m ^½ to about 120 MPa.m ^½ , about 30 MPa.m ^½ to about 40 MPa.m ^½ , about 30 MPa.m ^½ to about 50 MPa.m ^½ , about 30 MPa.m ^½ to about 60 MPa.m ^½ , about 30 MPa.m ^½ to about 70 MPa.m ^½ , about 30 MPa.m ^½ to about 80 MPa.m ^½ , about 30 MPa.m ^½ to about 90 MPa.m ^½ , about 30 MPa.m ^½ to about 100 MPa.m ^½ , about 30 MPa.m ^½ to about 110 MPa.m ^½ , about 30 MPa.m ^½ to about 120 MPa.m ^½ , about 40 MPa.m ^½ to about 50 MPa.m ^½ , about 40 MPa.m ^½ to about 60 MPa.m ^½ , about 40 MPa.m ^½ to about 70 MPa.m ^½ , about 40 MPa.m ^½ to about 80 MPa.m ^½ , about 40 MPa.m ^½ to about 90 MPa.m ^½ , about 40 MPa.m ^½ to about 100 MPa.m ^½ , about 40 MPa.m ^½ to about 110 MPa.m ^½ , about 40 MPa.m ^½ to about 120 MPa.m ^½ , about 50 MPa.m ^½ to about 60 MPa.m ^½ , about 50 MPa.m ^½ to about 70 MPa.m ^½ , about 50 MPa.m ^½ to about 80 MPa.m ^½ , about 50 MPa.m ^½ to about 90 MPa.m ^½ , about 50 MPa.m ^½ to about 100 MPa.m ^½ , about 50 MPa.m ^½ to about 110 MPa.m ^½ , about 50 MPa.m ^½ to about 120 MPa.m ^½ , about 60 MPa.m ^½ to about 70 MPa.m ^½ , about 60 MPa.m ^½ to about 80 MPa.m ^½ , about 60 MPa.m ^½ to about 90 MPa.m ^½ , about 60 MPa.m ^½ to about 100 MPa.m ^½ , about 60 MPa.m ^½ to about 110 MPa.m ^½ , about 60 MPa.m ^½ to about 120 MPa.m ^½ , about 70 MPa.m ^½ to about 80 MPa.m ^½ , about 70 MPa.m ^½ to about 90 MPa.m ^½ , about 70 MPa.m ^½ to about 100 MPa.m ^½ , about 70 MPa.m ^½ to about 110 MPa.m ^½ , about 70 MPa.m ^½ to about 120 MPa.m ^½ , about 80 MPa.m ^½ to about 90 MPa.m ^½ , about 80 MPa.m ^½ to about 100 MPa.m ^½ , about 80 MPa.m ^½ to about 110 MPa.m ^½ , about 80 MPa.m ^½ to about 120 MPa.m ^½ , about 90 MPa.m ^½ to about 100 MPa.m ^½ , about 90 MPa.m ^½ to about 110 MPa.m ^½ , about 90 MPa.m ^½ to about 120 MPa.m ^½ , about 100 MPa.m ^½ to about 110 MPa.m ^½ , about 100 MPa.m ^½ to about 120 MPa.m ^½ , or about 110 MPa.m ^½ to about 120 MPa.m ^½ . The fiacture toughness of the substrate (e.g., magnetically-enhanced substrate or electrical steel) may be about 10 MPa.m ^½ , about 20 MPa.m ^½ , about 30 MPa.m ^½ , about 40 MPa.m ^½ , about 50 MPa.m ^½ , about 60 MPa.m ^½ , about 70 MPa.m ^½ , about 80 MPa.m ^½ , about 90 MPa.m ^½ , about 100 MPa.m ^½ , about 110 MPa.m ^½ , or about 120 MPa.m ^½ . The fiacture toughness of the substrate (e.g., magnetically-enhanced substrate or electrical steel) may be at least about 10 MPa.m ^½ , about 20 MPa.m ^½ , about 30 MPa.m ^½ , about 40 MPa.m ^½ , about 50 MPa.m ^½ , about 60 MPa.m ^½ , about 70 MPa.m ^½ , about 80 MPa.m ^½ , about 90 MPa.m ^½ , about 100 MPa.m ^½ , about 110 MPa.m ^½ , or more. The fiacture toughness of the substrate (e.g., magnetically-enhanced substrate or electrical steel) may be at most about 110 MPa.m ^½ , about 100 MPa.m ^½ , about 90 MPa.m ^½ , about 80 MPa.m ^½ , about 70 MPa.m ^½ , about 60 MPa.m ^½ , about 50 MPa.m ^½ , about 40 MPa.m ^½ , about 30 MPa.m ^½ , about 20 MPa.m ^½ , about 10 MPa.m ^½ , or less.

Computer Systems

[00392] The present disclosure provides computer systems that are programmed to implement methods of the disclosure. FIG. 4 shows a computer control system 401 that is programmed or otherwise configured to produce the slurry and/or apply a coating of the slurry to a substrate. The computer control system 401 can regulate various aspects of the methods of the present disclosure, such as, for example, methods of producing the slurry and methods of applying a coating of the slurry to the substrate. The computer control system 401 can be implemented on an electronic device of a user or a computer system that is remotely located with respect to the electronic device. The electronic device can be a mobile electronic device.

[00393] The computer system 401 includes a central processing unit (CPU, also “processor” and “computer processor” herein) 405, which can be a single core or multi core processor, or a plurality of processors for parallel processing. The computer control system 401 also includes memory or memory location 410 (e.g., random-access memory, read-only memory, flash memory), electronic storage unit 415 (e.g., hard disk), communication interface 420 (e.g., network adapter) for communicating with one or more other systems, and peripheral devices 425, such as cache, other memory, data storage and/or electronic display adapters. The memory 410, storage unit 415, interface 420 and peripheral devices 425 are in communication with the CPU 405 through a communication bus (solid lines), such as a motherboard. The storage unit 415 can be a data storage unit (or data repository) for storing data. The computer control system 401 can be operatively coupled to a computer network (“network”) 430 with the aid of the communication interface 420. The network 430 can be the Internet, an internet and/or extranet, or an intranet and/or extranet that is in communication with the Internet. The network 430 in some cases is a telecommunication and/or data network. The network 430 can include one or more computer servers, which can enable distributed computing, such as cloud computing. The network 430, in some cases with the aid of the computer system 401, can implement a peer-to-peer network, which may enable devices coupled to the computer system 401 to behave as a client or a server.

[00394] The CPU 405 can execute a sequence of machine-readable instructions, which can be embodied in a program or software. The instructions may be stored in a memory location, such as the memory 410. The instructions can be directed to the CPU 405, which can subsequently program or otherwise configure the CPU 405 to implement methods of the present disclosure. Examples of operations performed by the CPU 405 can include fetch, decode, execute, and writeback.

[00395] The CPU 405 can be part of a circuit, such as an integrated circuit. One or more other components of the system 401 can be included in the circuit. In some cases, the circuit is an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC).

[00396] The storage unit 415 can store files, such as drivers, libraries and saved programs. The storage unit 415 can store user data, e.g., user preferences and user programs. The computer system 401 in some cases can include one or more additional data storage units that are external to the computer system 401, such as located on a remote server that is in communication with the computer system 401 through an intranet or the Internet.

[00397] The computer system 401 can communicate with one or more remote computer systems through the network 430. For instance, the computer system 401 can communicate with a remote computer system of a user (e.g., a user controlling the manufacture of a slurry coated substrate).

Examples of remote computer systems include personal computers (e.g., portable PC), slate or tablet PC’s (e.g., Apple® iPad, Samsung® Galaxy Tab), telephones, Smart phones (e.g., Apple® iPhone, Android- enabled device, Blackberry®), or personal digital assistants. The user can access the computer system 401 via the network 430.

[00398] Methods as described herein can be implemented by way of machine (e.g., computer processor) executable code stored on an electronic storage location of the computer system 401, such as, for example, on the memory 410 or electronic storage unit 415. The machine executable or machine readable code can be provided in the form of software. During use, the code can be executed by the processor 405. In some cases, the code can be retrieved from the storage unit 415 and stored on the memory 410 for ready access by the processor 405. In some situations, the electronic storage unit 415 can be precluded, and machine-executable instructions are stored on memory 410.

[00399] The code can be pre-compiled and configured for use with a machine having a processer adapted to execute the code, or can be compiled during runtime. The code can be supplied in a programming language that can be selected to enable the code to execute in a pre-compiled or as- compiled fashion. [00400] Aspects of the systems and methods provided herein, such as the computer system 401, can be embodied in programming. Various aspects of the technology may be thought of as “products” or “articles of manufacture” typically in the form of machine (or processor) executable code and/or associated data that is carried on or embodied in a type of machine readable medium. Machine- executable code can be stored on an electronic storage unit, such as memory (e.g., read-only memory, random-access memory, flash memory) or a hard disk. “Storage” type media can include any or all of the tangible memory of the computers, processors or the like, or associated modules thereof, such as various semiconductor memories, tape drives, disk drives and the like, which may provide non-transitory storage at any time for the software programming. All or portions of the software may at times be communicated through the Internet or various other telecommunication networks. Such communications, for example, may enable loading of the software from one computer or processor into another, for example, from a management server or host computer into the computer platform of an application server. Thus, another type of media that may bear the software elements includes optical, electrical and electromagnetic waves, such as used across physical interfaces between local devices, through wired and optical landline networks and over various air-links. The physical elements that carry such waves, such as wired or wireless links, optical links or the like, also may be considered as media bearing the software. As used herein, unless restricted to non-transitory, tangible “storage” media, terms such as computer or machine “readable medium” refer to any medium that participates in providing instructions to a processor for execution.

[00401] Hence, a machine readable medium, such as computer-executable code, may take many forms, including but not limited to, a tangible storage medium, a carrier wave medium or physical transmission medium. Non-volatile storage media include, for example, optical or magnetic disks, such as any of the storage devices in any computer(s) or the like, such as may be used to implement the databases, etc. shown in the drawings. Volatile storage media include dynamic memory, such as main memory of such a computer platform. Tangible transmission media include coaxial cables; copper wire and fiber optics, including the wires that comprise a bus within a computer system. Carrier-wave transmission media may take the form of electric or electromagnetic signals, or acoustic or light waves such as those generated during radio frequency (RF) and infrared (IR) data communications. Common forms of computer-readable media therefore include for example: a floppy disk, a flexible disk, hard disk, magnetic tape, any other magnetic medium, a CD-ROM, DVD or DVD-ROM, any other optical medium, punch cards paper tape, any other physical storage medium with patterns of holes, a RAM, a ROM, a PROM and EPROM, a FLASH-EPROM, any other memory chip or cartridge, a carrier wave transporting data or instructions, cables or links transporting such a carrier wave, or any other medium flora which a computer may read programming code and/or data. Many of these forms of computer readable media may be involved in carrying one or more sequences of one or more instructions to a processor for execution.

[00402] The computer system 401 can include or be in communication with an electronic display 435 that comprises a user interface (UI) 440 for providing, for example, parameters for producing the slurry and/or applying the slurry to a substrate. Examples of UI’s include, without limitation, a graphical user interface (GUI) and web-based user interface. [00403] Methods and systems of the present disclosure can be implemented by way of one or more algorithms. An algorithm can be implemented by way of software upon execution by the central processing unit 405. The algorithm can, for example, regulate the mixing shear rate of the slurry, the amount of each ingredient added to the slurry mixture, and the order in which the ingredients are added to the slurry mixture. As another example, the algorithm can regulate the speed at which the slurry is applied to the substrate and the number of coatings of slurry applied to the substrate.

EXAMPLES

Example 1 [00404] A substrate was treated with a slurry comprising silicon to form a silicon-containing metal layer. FIG 11A - 11C show the depth achieved at loadings of 0.033, 0.019, and 0.11 g/in, respectively, of dry film weight (DFW) of slurry formulation #4 from Table 1 after annealing at 950 degrees C for 10 hours. The inset, energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) line scans in red give the silicon weight percent as a function of depth through the diffusion alloy layer. It is obvious that depth is attenuate at lower loadings, and that surface silicon is lowered incrementally as a function of the total silicon introduced into the system by the initial coating weight.

[00405] Greater loadings were found to give more silicon deposition, but a motif that degenerates final performance occurred at higher loadings. This motif is shown in FIG. 12 (0.078 g/in DEW using slurry formulation #4), which shows that the surface concentration of silicon is elevated, but there is loss of substrate thickness at many locations due to substrate attack. This substrate attack is due to the formation of higher concentration Si phases that are brittle and of a substantially different lattice structure than ferritic steel. It is thought that this difference in composition and phase results in delamination of the higher silicon containing areas, presenting as local substrate volume loss. Indeed, higher silicon content EDS signal can readily be measured in these attacked regions. It is important to optimize the amount of silicon deposited in consideration of the amount of substrate attack that will occur when depositing the silicon. Optimal deposition would proceed to generate as high an amount of silicon at the surface as possible without dramatically impacting the substrate surface roughness.

Example 2

[00406] Steel substrates were deposited with a slurry comprising silicon at various annealing temperatures. Higher temperature achieved more rapid diffusion and slightly elevated the surface concentration of the silicon alloy for a given diffusion depth. FIG. 13A - 13D demonstrate the depth of the alloy layer based on anneal temperature for twenty hours at 925 °C, 900 °C, 875 °C, and 850 °C, respectively.

[00407] The thickness of the deposited metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) was independent of initial substrate gauge. For the 0.5 mm substrate demonstrated above, it is possible to achieve an alloy layer that spans the full thickness at elevated temperatures. It is additionally possible to start with a thinner substrate to generate an alloy layer that comprises a greater percentage of the total substrate thickness.

Example 3

[00408] Steel substrates were deposited with a slurry comprising silicon at various annealing times.

At any given temperature, holding the anneal time for longer durations increased the amount of total silicon deposited into the system. This was especially true if the silicon in the slurry had not been exhausted. FIG 14A - 14C demonstrate the depth of the alloy and silicon EDS profile as a function of annealing time at 925 degrees C for 5 hours, 10 hours, and 20 hours, respectively.

[00409] These alloy layers grew at approximately the diffusion law dictated rate of the square root of time. This diffusion depth behavior can deviate substantially on the shallow side as the silicon activity decreases at the surface of the substrate, which is why the earlier loading figures shows decreased depth at the same times and temperatures.

Example 4

[00410] Steel substrates were deposited with a slurry comprising silicon under varying atmospheres. FIG 15A shows metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) formation under a mixture of 35% hydrogen in argon. FIG. 15B shows metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) formation in a pure hydrogen atmosphere. Substrate attack can be decreased by employing a hydrogen-argon mixture rather than pure argon.

[00411] Steel substrates were deposited with a slurry comprising silicon in the form of ferrosilicon powder rather than pure elemental silicon. FIG. 16A shows a metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) formed with the ferrosilicon slurry. FIG. 16B shows the metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) formed with a silicon slurry. Use of the ferrosilicon reduced substrate attack, thereby reducing surface roughness. Example 5

[00412] Core loss measurements were made for steel substrates under a variety of conditions to determine the impact of processing conditions on the electrical performance of the formed electrical steel compositions.

[00413] It was found that initial deposition gives core loss performance under the W10/60 conditions that can be estimated based on the IMP fit of the above data set. IMP fit data is shown in FIG. 17.

[00414] These data demonstrate that the proper substrate chemistry, silicon source activity, and gauge are important considerations in choosing metal layer (or metal diffusion layer) formation conditions. Additionally, hotter and longer anneal schedules give lower core losses. It is apparent that by annealing thin gauge material at high temperatures for long periods of time, very low core loss materials can be achieved.

Example 6

[00415] One of the other important set of properties that can be largely controlled by the deposition procedure are the mechanical properties of the sheet steel. These properties are outlined as a function of annealing conditions in FIGs 18A - 18D. FIG. 18E is a plot of the measured yield strength as a function of the % depth of penetration of the diffusion frontier into the substrate. The yield strength is substantially reduced by increasing the concentration of silicon within the core of the substrate.

[00416] From these data, it is apparent that the mechanical properties can be substantially impacted by the amount of silicon deposited. Controlling this depth and the amount of silicon in the substrate will allow for electrical and mechanical properties to be optimized for different applications Example 7

[00417] The data in FIG. 19 show the performance of differently prepared electrical steels and highlights the benefit of different alloy depths and concentrations for different substrate gauges. From this data, it is concluded that the SODA electrical sheets perform proportionally better at increasing frequencies compared to the monolithic equivalents. Additionally, it is evident that SODA electrical sheets outperform steel at similar gauges, and that greater alloying decreases core loss even further. Example 8

[00418] The stress-strain relationship was measured for a 6.5% Si-containing SODA with a gauge size of 0.020”. FIG. 8A shows an SEM micrograph of the cross-section of the SODA. FIG. 8C shows an EDS measurement of the Si concentration as a function of depth in the SODA depicted in FIG. 8A. FIG. 8B depicts the stress-strain measurements for the SODA shown in FIG. 8A. The SODA shows a tensile strength of over 40 ksi (kilopound per square inch) (where 1 ksi = 6.8947572932 megapascal (MPa) at an elongation of 13%.

Example 9

[00419] A SODA was synthesized with a 4.5 wt% Si surface concentration on a substrate with an initial composition comprising 2.25 wt% Si and 1.7 wt% A1 throughout its volume. FIG. 20A shows a schematic view of the Si concentration in the substrate and FIG. 20B shows an EDS line scan measurement of the silicon concentration in the SODA as a function of depth after deposition of the metal layer. The cores losses for a 4.5 wt% Si-containing SODA and a commercially available silicon electrical steel were measured under a range of magnetic field conditions. Magnetic field strengths varied from 0.05T to 1.0T. The magnetic field frequency varied from 50 Hz to 20000 Hz. The core losses for the SODA composition were measured to be lower under all magnetic field conditions in comparison to the commercial Si steel.

Example 10

[00420] Several SODA compositions are formed by co -depositing Si and A1 on a substrate with an initial composition comprising 2.25 wt% Si and 1.7 wt% Al. The SODA compositions are formed such that the surface concentrations of Si are either 2.25 wt% Si (no Si deposited in the alloying agent), 4.5 wt% Si, 6.5 wt% Si, or 10 wt% Si. The SODA compositions are formed such that the surface concentration of Al are either 1.7 wt% Al (no Al deposited in the alloying agent), 3 wt% Al, 4.5 wt% Al or 6 wt% Al. SODA compositions are tested for core loss and fracture toughness with samples of unmodified substrate and commercially available 3 wt% silicon steel as controls. The SODA compositions show at least 5% less core loss than the unmodified substrate and the commercially- available silicon steel, with the core loss decreasing with increasing silicon content. The SODA compositions also show at least 5% more fracture toughness than the unmodified substrate and the commercially-available silicon steel, with the fracture toughness increasing with increasing aluminum content.

Example 11

[00421] This example illustrates core loss performance of magnetically-enhanced substrates prepared according to methods described herein. FIG. 23 shows the core loss of two exemplary electrical steels (2301 and 2302). The electrical steel 2301 is shown to have a grade at a gauge of 0.004” or 0.10 mm and a core loss of less than 10 W/kg at 1 Tesla and 400 Hz, while maintaining an induction greater than 1.71 T at a field strength of 5000 A/m (not shown). The electrical steel 2302 is shown to have a grade at a gauge of at 0.007”, or 0.18 mm and a core loss of less than 11 W/kg at 1 Tesla and 400 Hz, while maintaining a magnetic induction of 1.75 T at a field strength of 5000 A/m (not shown).

[00422] While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. It is not intended that the invention be limited by the specific examples provided within the specification. While the invention has been described with reference to the aforementioned specification, the descriptions and illustiations of the embodiments herein are not meant to be construed in a limiting sense. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. Furthermore, it shall be understood that all aspects of the invention are not limited to the specific depictions, configurations or relative proportions set forth herein which depend upon a variety of conditions and variables. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed in practicing the invention. It is therefore contemplated that the invention shall also cover any such alternatives, modifications, variations or equivalents. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of the invention and that methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents be covered thereby.