Non-fractionated legume based animal fat substitute

Introduction

Plant based foods have grown in popularity in recent years, driven in part by concerns around sustainability of animal based products. A very important component of such products is the animal fat substitute.

The aroma, juiciness, tenderness, and overall mouthfeel from fat create a delicious and memorable product. Animal-free fats that can substitute the traditional fat experience are essential for plant based meat substitutes to compete with the taste of conventional meats. These animal fat substitutes should be sustainable and scalable.

It is very common for prior art animal fat substitutes to comprise additional non-natural jellifying agents such as carrageenan, or gums or plant protein extracts or concentrates. Such ingredients are not perceived as wholesome or healthy and generally have a poor image with consumers.

WO2022/187736 discloses the use of textured soy protein. The soy could be textured, for example, by extrusion. Textured proteins are denatured and already gelled. Consequently, they do not make stable emulsions. W02014/001016 discloses the use of pulse seed albumin. Both gelatinized starch and nonstarch polysaccharide of low density are required, which do not have a good image with consumers. WO2022/031172 discloses the use of protein and hydrocolloid which are crosslinked. This reference only shows examples with protein isolates.

There is a clear need to provide a good tasting, cost effective, clean label, natural and healthy animal fat substitute for plant based meat analogues. The fat substitute should have reduced calories and saturated fat.

Summary of invention

The present invention relates to an animal fat substitute for meat analogue based on flour, water and vegetable oil. The flour proteins were found to stabilize the concentrated oil in water emulsion. The starch present in legume flours was found to jellify and provides texture to the fat substitute. In case of some oilseeds flour or soya, starch is in very low quantity and protein provides texture. Jollification is either provided by heat protein denaturation or by using transglutaminase. The invention relates in general to an animal fat substitute, wherein said animal fat substitute is an emulsion comprising between 1 to 25 wt% non-fractionated legume, between 20 to 70 wt% oil, and between 20 to 60 wt% water, wherein the legume is soy or chickpea.

In some embodiments, the legume is a legume flour. In some embodiments, the legume flour is defatted. In some embodiments, the legume flour is non-defatted.

In some embodiments, the oil has less than 70% saturated fat, preferably less than 60% saturated fat.

In some embodiments, the oil contains high oleic sunflower oil or rapeseed oil.

In some embodiments, said animal fat substitute comprises 5 to 20 wt% legume flour, 30 to 65 wt% oil, and 28 to 50 wt% water.

In some embodiments, the legume flour contributes at least 95% of the total solid content of the animal fat substitute.

In some embodiments, said animal fat substitute comprises between 2 to 11% protein and up to 15% starch.

In some embodiments, said animal fat substitute is substantially devoid of non-natural jellifying agent ingredients. Non-natural jellifying ingredients include carrageenans, alginates, cellulose derivatives, caseinates and polyvinyl alcohol clays.

In some embodiments, said animal fat substitute is substantially devoid of animal-derived ingredients.

In some embodiments, said animal fat substitute has a hardness value between 5 Newtons and 100 Newtons, preferably between 8 to 60 Newtons.

In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute is an emulsion comprising between 5 wt% to 25 wt% legume flour. In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute is an emulsion comprising between 7 wt% to 20 wt% legume flour. In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute is an emulsion comprising between 8 wt% to 15 wt% legume flour.

In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute is an emulsion comprising between 32 wt% to 70 wt% oil. In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute is an emulsion comprising between 34 wt% to 60 wt% oil. In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute is an emulsion comprising between 36 wt% to 55 wt% oil. In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute is an emulsion comprising between 38 wt% to 50 wt% oil. In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute is an emulsion comprising between 40 wt% to 45 wt% oil. In some embodiments, the oil is selected from sunflower oil, high oleic sunflower oil, rapeseed oil, high oleic rapeseed oil, soy oil, palm oil, palm stearin, shea, butter, shea oil, shea butter, cocoa butter or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, said method comprising mixing between 1 to 25 wt% legume flour in 20 to 60 wt% water, adding 20 to 70 wt% oil, and heating to form a gel.

In some embodiments, between 0.01 to 0.3 wt%, preferably between 0.03 to 0.15wt% transglutaminase is added before the heating step.

In some embodiments, the pH of the mixture is adjusted to between 6.2 to 7.2 before the addition of oil, for example sunflower oil or rapeseed oil.

In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute has substantially the same recipe as shown in examples 2 to 9.

In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute has a hardness between 5 to 15 Newtons (N), or about 10 Newtons. In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute has a fracturability between 1 to 5 N, or about 2.3 N. In some embodiments, said animal fat substitute comprises chickpea flour, for example about 15% chickpea flour. In some embodiments, said animal fat substitute is made with transglutaminase.

In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute has a hardness between 45 to 60 Newtons (N), or about 53 Newtons. In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute has a fracturability between 15 to 25 N, or about 20 N. In some embodiments, said animal fat substitute comprises defatted soy flour, for example about 10% defatted soy flour. In some embodiments, said animal fat substitute is made with transglutaminase.

In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute has a hardness between 1 to 10 Newtons (N), or about 5 Newtons. In some embodiments, said animal fat substitute comprises defatted soy flour, for example about 5% defatted soy flour. In some embodiments, said animal fat substitute is made with transglutaminase.

In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute has a hardness between 50 to 65 Newtons (N), or about 57 Newtons. In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute has a fracturability between 20 to 35 N, or about 28 N. In some embodiments, said animal fat substitute comprises defatted soy flour and rapeseed oil, for example about 10% defatted soy flour and about 60% rapeseed oil. In some embodiments, said animal fat substitute is made with transglutaminase. In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute has a hardness between 45 to 60 Newtons (N), or about 52 Newtons. In some embodiments, said animal fat substitute comprises defatted soy flour, rapeseed oil, and cocoa butter, for example about 10% defatted soy flour, about 60% rapeseed oil, and about 25% cocoa butter. In some embodiments, said animal fat substitute is made with transglutaminase.

In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute has a hardness between 5 to 15 Newtons (N), or about 10 Newtons. In some embodiments, said animal fat substitute comprises defatted soy flour and rapeseed oil, for example about 20% defatted soy flour and about 30% rapeseed oil. In some embodiments, said animal fat substitute is made with transglutaminase.

The hardness and fracturability are measured substantially as described herein.

The invention further relates to a food product comprising the animal fat substitute according to the invention, wherein said food product is plant-based foie gras or liver pate.

The invention further relates to use of legume flour and sunflower oil to make an animal fat substitute according to the invention.

Detailed description of invention

Animal fat substitute

In some embodiments, the non-fractionated legume is soy, chickpea, pea, lentil, or faba. In some embodiments, the non-fractionated legume is soy, chickpea, pea, or lentil. In some embodiments, the non-fractionated legume is soy, chickpea, or pea. In some embodiments, the non-fractionated legume is soy or chickpea. Preferably, the non-fractionated legume is a legume flour. In some embodiments, the legume flour is defatted, for example defatted soy flour. In some embodiments, the legume is nondefatted. In some embodiments, the legume contributes at least 80%, or at least 85%, or at least 90%, or at least 95% of the total solid content of the animal fat substitute.

In some embodiments, the oil has less than 90% saturated fat, or less than 80% saturated fat, or less than 70% saturated fat, or less than 60% saturated fat. In some embodiments, the oil has between 50 to 90% saturated fat, or between 50 to 80% saturated fat, or between 50 to 70% saturated fat, or between 50 to 60% saturated fat. In some embodiments, the oil is rapeseed oil, sunflower oil or high oleic sunflower oil. In some embodiments, the non-fractionated legume is chickpea flour, for example between 10 to 20 wt% chickpea flour. In some embodiments, the oil is high oleic sunflower oil, for example between 40 to 60 wt% oil. In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute comprises between 25 to 45 wt% water.

In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute comprises 6 to 20 wt% legume flour, 30 to 60 wt% oil, and 28 to 55 wt% water.

In some embodiments, the animal fat substitute comprises about 15% chickpea, about 35% water, about 50% HOSFO.

Method of making animal fat substitute

The invention further relates to a method of making an animal fat substitute, for example an animal fat substitute as described herein. In some embodiments, said method comprises mixing legume flour, water, and oil. In some embodiments, said method comprises mixing legume flour in water, adding oil, and heating to form a gel. In some embodiments, transglutaminase is added, for example before heating to form a gel. In some embodiments, at least 0.5% transglutaminase, or at least 0.75% transglutaminase, or at least 1% transglutaminase per gram of protein in the animal fat substitute is added. In some embodiments, the pH is adjusted, for example before adding oil.

In some embodiments, the method comprises mixing about 560 g water with 240 g legume flour, for example de-flavoured chickpea flour, for example in a Thermomix. The mixing step can be at speed 5 for about 15 minutes. About 800 g of oil, for example high oleic sunflower oil (HOSFO), may be added. The speed may then be increased stepwise until a speed of about 10200 rpm is reached. This may be held for about 45 seconds. The residues may then be scraped off and the process repeated.

One part of the sample, for example about 800 g, may be introduced into a closed container and heated at about 90°C for about one hour. The other part of the sample, for example about 800 g of sample, a mixture of about 2.42 g of water and about 0.27 g of transglutaminase may be introduced. The sample may be heated for about 30 minutes at about 40°C. This enables the transglutaminase to create covalent bonds between proteins molecules. The sample may then be heated for about 30 minutes at about 90°C.

Legume flour

Unless stated otherwise, legume flours as described herein are non-defatted. A non-defatted legume flour typically comprises greater than 10% fat, or greater than 20% fat. When the legume flour is soybean flour, then the flour preferably comprises (a) between 30 to 50% protein, or about 41% protein; and/or (b) between 20 to 30% fat, or about 25% fat; and/or () between 5 to 10% moisture, or about 7% moisture.

When the legume flour is defatted soybean flour, then the flour preferably comprises (a) between 40 to 60% protein, or about 50% protein; and/or (b) less than 5% fat, or about 1 % fat; and/or (c) between 5 to 10% moisture, or about 8% moisture. Soybean flour may be defatted.

When the legume flour is faba flour, then the flour preferably comprises (a) between 20 to 40% protein, or about 31% protein; and/or (b) less than 5% fat, or about 2% fat; and/or (c) between 45 to 65% carbohydrates, or about 55% carbohydrates; and/or (d) between 10 to 20% moisture, or about 14% moisture.

When the legume flour is pea flour, then the flour preferably comprises (a) between 20 to 30% protein, or about 25% protein; and/or (b) less than 5% fat, or about 2% fat; and/or (c) between 50 to 70% carbohydrates, or about 61% carbohydrates; and/or (d) between 10 to 20% moisture, or about 14% moisture.

When the legume flour is chickpea flour, then the flour preferably comprises (a) between 15 to 25% protein, or about 20% protein; and/or (b) less than 5% fat, or about 1% fat; and/or (c) between 55 to 75% carbohydrates, or about 65% carbohydrates; and/or (d) between 5 to 10% moisture, or about 8% moisture.

In one embodiment, the legume flour is an unrefined flour.

The oil is preferably sunflower oil, high oleic sunflower oil, or rapeseed oil. Additional sources may be palm fat, palm stearin, shea butter, shea oil, shea stearin, coconut fat, cocoa butter.

Definitions

When a composition is described herein in terms of wt%, this means a mixture of the ingredients on a moisture free basis, unless indicated otherwise.

As used herein, the term "about" is understood to refer to numbers in a range of numerals, for example the range of -30% to +30% of the referenced number, or -20% to +20% of the referenced number, or -10% to +10% of the referenced number, or -5% to +5% of the referenced number, or -1% to +1% of the referenced number. All numerical ranges herein should be understood to include all integers, whole or fractions, within the range. As used herein, the term "emulsion" is understood to be an oil in water emulsion.

As used herein, the term "fat substitute" is considered to be an edible analogue of a substance in regard to one or more of its major characteristics. An "animal fat substitute" as used herein is a substitute of animal fat in the major characteristics of purpose and usage. The animal fat may be a substitute of animal fat found in beef, pork, chicken, duck, turkey, goose, or fish.

As used herein, the term "vegan" refers to an edible composition which is entirely devoid of animal products, or animal derived products, for example eggs, milk, honey, fish, and meat.

As used herein, the term "vegetarian" relates to an edible composition which is entirely devoid of meat, poultry, game, fish, shellfish or by-products of animal slaughter.

Those skilled in the art will understand that they can freely combine all features of the present invention disclosed herein. In particular, features described for the compositions of the present invention may be combined with the method or uses of the present invention and vice versa. Further, features described for different embodiments of the present invention may be combined. Where known equivalents exist to specific features, such equivalents are incorporated as if specifically referred to in this specification.

Further advantages and features of the present invention are apparent from the figures and non-limiting examples.

EXAMPLES

Example 1

Reference fat substitute comprising soy protein isolate

A fat substitute was made which had the following composition: 5% SPI, 45% water, 50% rapeseed oil, and in the presence or absence of 1.18% TG per gram protein. In 710 g water, 90 g SPI was added in a Thermomix at speed 5 for 15 minutes. The pH was measured as 7.18. 800 g of rapeseed oil was slowly added and the speed was increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10 (10200 rpm) was reached. This was held for 45 seconds. The residues were then scraped off and the speed was increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10 was reached. This was held for 45 seconds.

The sample was then divided in two parts. 800 g was introduced into a closed container and heated at 90°C for one hour to obtain a sterile sample. In the remaining 800g, a mixture of 4.33 g of water and 0.48 g of transglutaminase was introduced. The sample was heated for 30 minutes at 40°C to enable the transglutaminase to create covalent bonds between proteins molecules. The sample was then heated for 30 minutes at 90°C to create a stable sample.

The sample without transglutaminase had a strong gel strength and neutral taste. The sample in which transglutaminase was added resulted in an even stronger gel which broke easily upon deformation and therefore had a high fracturability.

The textural properties of the emulgel (EG) were measured using a TA.HD plus C Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro Systems, Surrey, UK) equipped with a 75 mm compression plate at 4°C. A load cell of 5 kg is used. The samples were prepared in aluminum rings with a height of 20 mm and an inner diameter of 32 mm. Force was applied to reach a compressive strain of 75% in two consecutive cycles with 5 sec rest. The hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, adhesiveness, gumminess and chewiness values were achieved by plotting force as function of time. The trigger force is set at lg, the pre-test speed at 2 mm/sec, test speed at 1 mm/sec and post-test speed at 5 mm/sec. Eight gels of each sample were prepared and measured independently.

The table below shows the textural parameters of the emulsion gel with 5% SPL The disadvantage of using soy protein isolate is that is not regarded as a natural or sustainable ingredient.

Example 2

Fat substitute comprising 15% chickpea flour

A fat substitute was made which had the following composition: 15% chickpea, 35% water, 50% HOSFO, and in the presence or absence of 1.18% TG per gram protein. In 560 g water, 240g de-flavoured chickpea flour. The ingredients were added in a Thermomix at speed 5 for 15 minutes. The pH was 6.65. 800 g of high oleic sunflower oil (HOSFO) was slowly added and the speed was increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10 (10200 rpm) was reached. This was held for 45 seconds. The residues were then scraped off and the speed was increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10 was reached. This was held for 45 seconds.

The sample was divided in two parts. 800 g was introduced into a closed container and heated at 90°C for one hour to obtain a sterile sample. In the remaining 800g, a mixture of 2.42 g of water and 0.27 g of transglutaminase was introduced. The sample was heated for 30 minutes at 40°C to enable the transglutaminase to create covalent bonds between proteins molecules. The sample was then heated for 30 minutes at 90°C to create a stable sample.

Both samples had a viscous texture with a pleasant taste. No sensorial difference was found when transglutaminase was added.

The textural properties of the EG were measured using a TA.HD plus C Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro Systems, Surrey, UK) equipped with a 75 mm compression plate at 4°C. A load cell of 5 kg is used. The samples were prepared in aluminum rings with a height of 20 mm and an inner diameter of 32 mm. Force was applied to reach a compressive strain of 75% in two consecutive cycles with 5 sec rest. The hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, adhesiveness, gumminess and chewiness values were achieved by plotting force as function of time. The trigger force is set at lg, the pre-test speed at 2 mm/sec, test speed at 1 mm/sec and post-test speed at 5 mm/sec. Eight gels of each sample were prepared and measured independently.

The textural properties of the two samples are shown in the table below. The hardness was slightly lower than the hardness of the reference sample when SPI is added. This was probably due to the lower protein content of the chickpea flour. This demonstrates that wholesome flour can replace soy protein isolate, it provides good mechanical properties and is without off-taste. In addition, wholesome flours are very sustainable compared to soy protein isolate.

Example 3

Fat substitute comprising defatted soy flour

A fat substitute was made which had the following composition: 10% defatted soy flour, 40% water, 50% rapeseed oil, and in the presence or absence of 1.18% TG per gram protein. In 640 g water, 160 g of soy flour was added in a Thermomix at speed 5 for 15 minutes. The pH was measured, which was 6.54. 800 g of rapeseed was slowly added and the speed was increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10 (10200 rpm) was reached. This was held for 45 seconds. The residues were then scraped off and the speed was increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10 was reached. This was held for 45 seconds.

The sample was divided in two parts. 800 g was introduced into a closed container and heated at 90°C for one hour to obtain a sterile sample. In the remaining 800g, a mixture of 4.33 g of water and 0.48 g of transglutaminase was introduced. The sample was heated for 30 minutes at 40°C to enable the transglutaminase to create covalent bonds between proteins molecules. The sample was then heated for 30 minutes at 90°C to create a stable sample.

The textural properties of the EG were measured using a TA.HD plus C Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro Systems, Surrey, UK) equipped with a 75 mm compression plate at 4°C. A load cell of 5 kg is used. The samples were prepared in aluminum rings with a height of 20 mm and an inner diameter of 32 mm. Force was applied to reach a compressive strain of 75% in two consecutive cycles with 5 sec rest. The hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, adhesiveness, gumminess and chewiness values were achieved by plotting force as function of time. The trigger force is set at lg, the pre-test speed at 2 mm/sec, test speed at 1 mm/sec and post-test speed at 5 mm/sec. Eight gels of each sample were prepared and measured independently.

The textural properties of the emulsion gel stabilized by defatted soy flour are shown in the table below. The protein content was similar to the reference sample at 5%. For both samples, the hardness was almost twice as high as the reference sample, suggesting that other components of the flour besides protein influenced the gel strength. This demonstrates that wholesome flour can replace soy protein isolate, it provides better mechanical properties, and is without off-taste. In addition, wholesome flours are very sustainable compared to soy protein isolate.

Example 4

Fat substitute comprising full fat soy flour

A fat substitute was made which had the following composition: 10% full soy fat flour, 40% water, and 50% HOSFO. In 640g water, 160g of full fat soy flour was slowly added in a Thermomix at speed 5 (2000 RPM). After all the flour was added, the Thermomix was operated for 15 minutes at speed 5, and at pH of about 6.4. 800g of high oleic sunflower oil was added at speed 5 (2000 RPM). The speed was then increased by 0.5 steps every 5 seconds until a speed of 10 (10200 rpm) was reached. This speed was held for 90 seconds.

About 80 g of the obtained mixture was transferred into glass vial and heated for 10 minutes at 90°C. Samples were then placed in the fridge. After one day of storage, the mixture had a high viscosity. It did not flow under gravity and was elastic. The taste and texture of a mixture sample was found to be very pleasant.

Example 5

Fat substitute comprising full fat soy flour and transglutaminase The composition and process were the same as for Example 4, except that after addition of high oleic sunflower oil and shearing of the mixture at speed 10 (10200 rpm) for 90 seconds, 2 g of transglutaminase was added.

The sample was heated for 1 hour at 40°C to enable the transglutaminase to create covalent bonds between proteins molecules. The sample was then heated at 90°C for 10 minutes to obtain a sterile sample. Compared to Example 1, the sample was harder and more viscous.

Example 6

Fat substitute comprising a decreased defatted soy flour content

A fat substitute was made which had the following composition: 5% defatted soy flour, 45% water, 50% rapeseed oil, and in the presence and absence of 1.18% TG per gram protein.

In 720 g water, 80g soy flour was added in a Thermomix at speed 5 for 15 minutes. The pH was measured, which was 6.89. 800 g of rapeseed oil was slowly added and the speed was increased 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10 (10200 rpm) was reached. This was held for 45 seconds. The residues were then scraped off and the speed increased 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10. This was held for 45 seconds.

The samples were divided in two parts. 800 g was introduced into a closed container and heated at 90°C for one hour to obtain a sterile sample. In the remaining 800g, a mixture containing 2.16 g of water and 0.24 g of transglutaminase was introduced. The sample was heated for 30 minutes at 40°C to enable the transglutaminase to create covalent bonds between proteins molecules. Then, the sample was heated for 30 minutes at 90°C to create a stable sample.

The textural properties of the EG were measured using a TA.HD plus C Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro Systems, Surrey, UK) equipped with a 75 mm compression plate at 4°C. A load cell of 5 kg is used. The samples were prepared in aluminum rings with a height of 20 mm and an inner diameter of 32 mm. Force was applied to reach a compressive strain of 75% in two consecutive cycles with 5 sec rest. The hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, adhesiveness, gumminess and chewiness values were achieved by plotting force as function of time. The trigger force is set at lg, the pre-test speed at 2 mm/sec, test speed at 1 mm/sec and post-test speed at 5 mm/sec. Eight gels of each sample were prepared and measured independently. Both samples had a neutral taste and the texture was creamy and soft. The samples without TG did not show a high enough gel strength to measure with the texture analyzer. The texture profile of the samples with TG are shown in the table below.

Example 7

Fat substitute comprising defatted soy flour and an increased oil content

A fat substitute was made which had the following composition: 10% defatted soy flour, 30% water, 60% rapeseed oil, and in the presence or absence of 1.18% TG per gram protein.

In 480g water, 160g soy flour was added in a Thermomix at speed 5 for 15 minutes. The pH was 6.43. 960 g of rapeseed oil was slowly added and the speed was increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10 (10200 rpm) was reached. This was held for 45 seconds. The residues were then scraped off and the speed increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10. This was held for 45 seconds.

The samples were divided in two parts. 800 g was introduced into a closed container and heated at 90°C for one hour to obtain a sterile sample. In the remaining 800g, a mixture containing 4.33 g of water and 0.48 g of transglutaminase was introduced. The sample was heated for 30 minutes at 40°C to enable the transglutaminase to create covalent bonds between proteins molecules. The sample was then heated for 30 minutes at 90°C to create a stable sample.

The textural properties of the EG were measured using a TA.HD plus C Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro Systems, Surrey, UK) equipped with a 75 mm compression plate at 4°C. A load cell of 5 kg is used. The samples were prepared in aluminum rings with a height of 20 mm and an inner diameter of 32 mm. Force was applied to reach a compressive strain of 75% in two consecutive cycles with 5 sec rest. The hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, adhesiveness, gumminess and chewiness values were achieved by plotting force as function of time. The trigger force is set at lg, the pre-test speed at 2 mm/sec, test speed at 1 mm/sec and post-test speed at 5 mm/sec. Eight gels of each sample were prepared and measured independently.

Both gels had a neutral taste and were chewy. The table below showed that both samples were extremely viscous and had a high gel strength. Compared to example 6, the higher oil content in the sample causes the gel to be even more strong and a higher brittleness.

Example 8

Fat substitute comprising 25% rapeseed oil and 25% cocoa butter

A fat substitute was made which had the following composition: 10% defatted soy flour, 40% water, 25% rapeseed oil, 25% cocoa butter, and in the presence or absence of 1.18% TG per gram protein.

400 g cocoa butter was melted in 400 g rapeseed oil in the Thermomix at 70°C. In 640g water, 160g soy flour was added in a Thermomix at speed 5 for 15 minutes. The pH was measured, which was 6.50. 800 g of rapeseed oil-cocoa butter mixture was slowly added and the speed was increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10 (10200 rpm) was reached. This was held for 45 seconds. The residues were then scraped off and the speed increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10. This was held for 45 seconds.

The samples were divided in two parts. 800 g was introduced into a closed container and heated at 90°C for one hour to obtain a sterile sample. In the remaining 800g, a mixture containing 4.33 g of water and 0.48 g of transglutaminase was introduced. The sample was heated for 30 minutes at 40°C to enable the transglutaminase to create covalent bonds between proteins molecules. The sample was then heated for 30 minutes at 90°C to create a stable sample.

The textural properties of the EG were measured using a TA.HD plus C Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro Systems, Surrey, UK) equipped with a 75 mm compression plate at 4°C. A load cell of 50 kg was used. The samples were prepared in aluminum rings with a height of 20 mm and an inner diameter of 32 mm. Force was applied to reach a compressive strain of 75% in two consecutive cycles with 5 sec rest. The hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, adhesiveness, gumminess and chewiness values were achieved by plotting force as function of time. The trigger force is set at lg, the pre-test speed at 2 mm/sec, test speed at 1 mm/sec and post-test speed at 5 mm/sec. Eight gels of each sample were prepared and measured independently.

Both gels had a neutral taste, melted in the mouth and were extremely brittle. The texture of the emulsion gel is very close to "foie gras". The table below showed that both samples were extremely viscous and had the highest hardness of all the examples.

Example 9

Fat substitute comprising 20% defatted soy flour and 30% oil

A fat substitute was made which had the following composition: 20% defatted soy flour, 50% water, 30% rapeseed oil, and in the presence or absence of 1.18% TG per gram protein.

In 800g water, 320g soy flour was added in a Thermomix at speed 5 for 15 minutes. The pH was measured, which was 6.32. 480 g of rapeseed oil was slowly added and the speed was increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10 (10200 rpm) was reached. This was held for 45 seconds. The residues were then scraped off and the speed increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10. This was held for 45 seconds.

The samples were divided in two parts. 800 g was introduced into a closed container and heated at 90°C for one hour to obtain a sterile sample. In the remaining 800g, a mixture containing 9.35 g of water and 1.04 g of transglutaminase was introduced. The sample was heated for 30 minutes at 40°C to enable the transglutaminase to create covalent bonds between proteins molecules. The sample was then heated for 30 minutes at 90°C to create a stable sample.

The textural properties of the EG were measured using a TA.HD plus C Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro Systems, Surrey, UK) equipped with a 75 mm compression plate at 4°C. A load cell of 5 kg was used. The samples were prepared in aluminum rings with a height of 20 mm and an inner diameter of 32 mm. Force was applied to reach a compressive strain of 75% in two consecutive cycles with 5 sec rest. The hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, adhesiveness, gumminess and chewiness values were achieved by plotting force as function of time. The trigger force is set at lg, the pre-test speed at 2 mm/sec, test speed at 1 mm/sec and post-test speed at 5 mm/sec. Eight gels of each sample were prepared and measured independently.

Both gels had a slight soy flavour and had a creamy mouthfeel. The table below shows the textural properties of the samples.

Example 10

Negative example fat substitute comprising pea flour A fat substitute was made which had the following composition: 4% pea flour, 46% water, 50% rapeseed oil. In 735 g water, 65 g pea flour was added in a Thermomix at speed 5 for 15 minutes. The pH was 6.65. 800 g of rapeseed oil was slowly added and the speed was increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10 (10200 rpm) was reached. This was held for 45 seconds. The residues were then scraped off and the speed increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10. This was held for 45 seconds. The sample was then heated for 30 minutes at 90°C to create a stable sample.

After one day of storage, the sample was liquid and no gel structure was observed so no TPA test could be performed. Therefore, it can be concluded that this sample does not have the desired texture.

Example 11

Negative example fat substitute with increased defatted soy flour or chickpea flour content

A fat substitute was made which had the following composition: 25% defatted soy flour or chickpea flour, 25% water, 50% rapeseed oil / HSOFO, and in the presence or absence of 1.18% TG per gram protein.

In 400 g water, 400g soy flour/chickpea flour was added in a Thermomix at speed 5 for 15 minutes. 800 g of rapeseed oil/high oleic sunflower oil (HOSFO) was slowly added and the speed was increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10 (10200 rpm) is reached. This was held for 45 seconds. The residues were scraped off and the speed was increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10. This was held for 45 seconds.

Due to the high flour content, the water-flour mixture showed a highly viscous texture which was similar to a dough. During the addition of the oil, it was seen that the oil did not mix properly with the mixture. After extensive mixing, the oil and the water-flour mixture remained separate. Therefore, it can be concluded that the limit of soy and chickpea flour content in emulsion gels with 50% oil is below 25%.

Example 12

Negative example fat substitute comprising defatted soy flour and a decreased oil content

A fat substitute was made which had the following composition: 10% defatted soy flour, 60% water, 30% rapeseed oil, and in the presence or absence of 1.18% TG per gram protein. In 960 g water, 160g soy flour was added in a Thermomix at speed 5 for 15 minutes. The pH was 6.66. 480 g of rapeseed oil was slowly added and the speed was increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10 (10200 rpm) was reached. This was held for 45 seconds. The residues were then scraped off and the speed increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10. This was held for 45 seconds.

The samples were divided in two parts. 800 g was introduced into a closed container and heated at 90°C for one hour to obtain a sterile sample. In the remaining 800g, a mixture containing 4.33 g of water and 0.48 g of transglutaminase was introduced. The sample was heated for 30 minutes at 40°C to enable the transglutaminase to create covalent bonds between proteins molecules. The sample was then heated for 30 minutes at 90°C to create a stable sample.

After heating, both samples did not show gel formation as the samples remained liquid. Therefore, no TPA could be executed as the samples did not have the desired texture. Decreasing the oil content to 30% is insufficient to create a stable emulsion gel.

Example 13

Negative example fat substitute comprising a decreased chickpea flour content

A fat substitute was made which had the following composition: 5% chickpea flour, 45% water, 50% HOSFO, and in the presence or absence of 1.18% TG per gram protein.

In 720 g water, 80g chickpea flour was added in a Thermomix at speed 5 for 15 minutes. The pH was 7.17. 800 g of HOSFO was slowly added and the speed was increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10 (10200 rpm) was reached. This was held for 45 seconds. The residues were then scraped off and the speed increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10. This was held for 45 seconds.

The samples were divided in two parts. 800 g was introduced into a closed container and heated at 90°C for one hour to obtain a sterile sample. In the remaining 800g, a mixture containing 0.81 g of water and 0.90 g of transglutaminase was introduced. The sample was heated for 30 minutes at 40°C to enable the transglutaminase to create covalent bonds between proteins molecules. The sample was then heated for 30 minutes at 90°C.

Both samples were liquid after heating. The addition of only 5% of chickpea flourwas insufficient to create an emulsion gel. In example 7 it was showed that an emulsion gel could be made with 5% soy flour when transglutaminase was added, this was probably due to the twice as high protein content of soy flour (51%) compared to chickpea flour (19%), which enhances gel strength.

Example 14

Emulgel comprising soy flour and shea oil

A fat substitute was made which had the following composition: 10% soy flour, 50% water and 40% shea oil. In 500 g water, 100 g soy flour was added in a Thermomix at speed 5 for 15 minutes. The mixture was then heated to 50°C in the Thermomix. 400g of the melted shea oil was slowly added and the speed was increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10 (10200 rpm) was reached. This was held for 45 seconds. The residues were then scraped off and the speed increased by 0.5 every 5 seconds until a speed of 10. This was held for 45 seconds. The samples were then heated for 30 minutes at 90°C. The sample was then cooled to 4°C:

Before heating the oil in water emulsion shows a very homogeneous and smooth texture with a pleasant creamy taste. After heating, samples show also a very homogeneous texture. After cooling, the samples were still very homogeneous, has a white color. Samples were solid (not flowing under gravity). Differential interference microscopy (DIC) reveals that heating did not result in change in oil droplet size. A very homogeneous oil in water emulsion was formed with the large majority of the oil droplets having a diameter less than one micron (before and after heating).

In term of taste, the texture in the mouth was very smooth and pleasant, quite neutral in terms of aroma and giving the sensation of melting in the mouth. This could be used as a vegan substitute for pate.