Cross-reference to Related Applications

[001] The following application claims benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Nos. 61/497,444, filed June 15, 2011, 61/606,109, filed March 2, 2012, 61/621084, filed April 6, 2012 and 61/621,095, filed April 6, 2012, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

Background

[002] Fuel cells are receiving increasing attention as a viable energy-alternative. In general, fuel cells convert electrochemical energy into electrical energy in an environmentally clean and efficient manner. Fuel cells are contemplated as potential energy sources for everything from small electronics to cars and homes. In order to meet different energy requirements, there are a number of different types of fuel cells in existence today, each with varying chemistries, requirements, and uses.

[003] As one example, Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs) rely upon the oxidation of methanol on an electrocatalyst layer to form carbon dioxide. Water is consumed at the anode and produced at the cathode. Positive ions (H+) are transported across a proton exchange membrane to the cathode where they react with oxygen to produce water. Electrons can then be transported via an external circuit from anode to cathode providing power to external sources.

[004] As another example, polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells (also called proton exchange membrane fuel cells) use pure hydrogen (typically supplied by a hydrogen tank) as a fuel. A stream of hydrogen is delivered to the anode side of a membrane-electrode assembly (MEA), where it is catalytically split into protons and electrons. As with the DMFC, the positive ions are transported across a proton exchange membrane to the cathode where they react with oxygen to produce water.

[005] Currently, one of the limiting factors in the wide scale commercialization of PEM and DMFC fuel cells is the cost associated with precious metals. Both DMFC and PEM fuel cells commonly use platinum as an electrocatalyst. Nobel metals such as platinum are needed to catalyze the sluggish oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) at the cathode. One of the major routes to overcome this limitation is to increase the platinum utilization in noble-metal based electrocatalysts. Another viable route is to use a less expensive, yet still sufficiently active catalyst in larger quantities. Several classes of non-platinum electrocatalysts have been identified as having adequate oxygen reduction activity to be considered as potential electrocatalysts in commercial fuel cell applications.

[006] Generally, known non-platinum electrocatalysts are supported on high surface area carbon blacks. This is done to increase dispersion, active surface area, and conductivity of the catalytic layer. The synthesis procedure usually includes precipitation of the precursor molecules onto the supporting substrate and pyrolyzation of the supported precursor.

[007] M-N-C catalysts have been found to be very promising for electrochemical oxygen reduction applications in fuel cell membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs), stacks and fuel cell systems. Critical aspects of the materials include the presence of metallic particles, conjugated carbon-nitrogen-oxide-metallic networks, and nitrogen-bonded carbon. The metallic phase includes metallic, oxide, carbide, nitride, and mixtures of these states. The chemical states and bonding of the N/C/M networks and N/C networks influences performance, for example, increased overall nitrogen content improves ORR performance. However, these systems still suffer from several significant drawbacks including: low stability in acidic environments, low durability in acid and alkaline environments, high costs of nitrogen precursors and low activity in ORR compared with platinum. The problem of low stability in acid is connected to leaching of metal from carbon-nitrogen network. Low durability in acid and alkaline solutions is explained by the evolution of significant amount of H2O2 in these environments which is corrosive for both metal and carbon-nitrogen networks. The low activity is possibly due to the low metal loading, and as a result in low concentration of active sites in such catalysts due to using external carbon source (high surface carbons like Vulcan, KetjenBlack etc).

[008] A previously described pyrolysis-based methods for synthesizing unsupported M-N-C catalysts that overcame a number of the problems identified above involved templating a nitrogen and carbon containing porphyrins that are known to have some initial catalytic activity on a sacrificial support such as silica, pyrolyzing the templated support, and then removing the support, for example via etching. See e.g., U.S. Patent No. 7,678,728 issued March 15, 2010, which is hereby incorporated by reference.

Summary

[009] The M-N-C systems are known catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). However, they possess a number of significant disadvantages including: low stability in acid media, low activity compared to conventional ORR catalyst (platinum), and high cost of precursors. In the present disclosure a method of preparation of M-N-C catalysts utilizing a sacrificial support approach and using inexpensive and readily available polymer precursors is described. The synthesized catalysts made using this approach perform well in both alkaline and acid media are highly durable, and inexpensive to manufacture.

Brief Description of the Drawings

[010] Fig. 1 is an X-ray diffractogram of an Fe-M-C catalyst prepared as described herein. [Oi l] Fig. 2 is an SEM image of Fe-AApyr catalysts prepared using the methods described herein.

[012] Fig. 3 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro- voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for Fe-AApyr catalysts prepared using the methods described herein.

[013] Fig. 4 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro- voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for Fe-AAPyr prepared with a variety of heat treatment temperatures.

[014] Fig. 5 is a graph of the number of electrons participating in ORR for a variety Fe- AAPyr catalysts prepared as described herein.

[015] Fig. 6 is a graph of hydrogen peroxide yield for a variety of Fe-AAPyr catalysts prepared as described herein.

[016] Fig. 7 is a graph of the number of electrons participating in ORR for Fe-AAPyr catalysts prepared as described herein.

[017] Fig. 8 is a graph of hydrogen peroxide yield for a variety of Fe-AAPyr catalysts prepared as described herein.

[018] Fig. 9 is a schematic illustration of a method for producing catalysts having a multimodal pore size distribution, as described herein.

[019] Fig. 10A is an SEM image of a mono-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and HS5 silica with a scale bar at 500nm.

[020] Fig. 10B is an SEM image of a mono-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and HS5 silica with a scale bar at 300nm.

[021] Fig. 11A is an SEM image of a bi-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and M5 silica with a scale bar at 500nm.

[022] Fig. 11B is an SEM image of a bi-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and M5 silica with a scale bar at 300nm.

[023] Fig. 12A is an SEM image of a bi-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and LM130 silica with a scale bar at 500nm.

[024] Fig. 12B is an SEM image of a bi-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and LM130 silica with a scale bar at 300nm.

[025] Fig. 13 A is an SEM image of a catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and A90 silica with a scale bar at 500nm. [026] Fig. 13B is an SEM image of a catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and A90 silica with a scale bar at 300nm.

[027] Fig. 14 is an SEM image of a bi-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and mixture of L90 and A90 silicas.

[028] Fig. 15 A is an SEM image of a tri-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and mixture of L90 and EH5 silicas with a scale bar at 500nm.

[029] Fig. 15B is an SEM image of a tri-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and mixture of L90 and EH5 silicas with a scale bar at 400nm.

[030] Fig. 15C is an SEM image of a tri-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and mixture of L90 and EH5 silicas with a scale bar at 300nm.

[031] Fig. 16 is an SEM image of a bi-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and mixture of L90 and M5 silicas with a scale bar at 500nm.

[032] Fig. 17 is an SEM image of a bi-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and mixture of L90 and LM130 silicas with a scale bar at 500nm.

[033] Fig. 18 is an SEM image of a bi-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and mixture of L90 and A200 silicas.

[034] Fig. 19 is an SEM image of a bi-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPy and mixture of L90 and A380 silicas.

[035] Fig. 20A is an SEM image of a spherical catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and M5 silica.

[036] Fig. 20B is another SEM image of a spherical catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and M5 silica.

[037] Fig. 20C is another SEM image of a spherical catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and M5 silica.

[038] Fig. 20E is another SEM image of a spherical catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and M5 silica.

[039] Fig. 21 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for RDE data for catalysts prepared from Fe-AAPyr and HS5, L90 and L90 + EH5 silicas.

[040] Fig 22 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for RDE data for catalysts prepared from Fe-AAPyr and L90, LM130, and L90 + LM130 silicas.

[041] Fig. 23 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for RDE data for catalysts prepared from Fe-AAPyr and L90, L90 + A90, and A90 silicas. [042] Fig. 24 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for RDE data for catalysts prepared from Fe-AAPyr and L90 and L90 + EH5 silicas.

[043] Fig. 25 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for RDE data for catalysts prepared from Fe-AAPyr and L90, M5 and L90 + M5 silicas.

[044] Fig. 26 is an SEM image of Fe ₃ Co-AAPyr catalyst prepared using the methods described herein.

[045] Fig 27 is an SEM image of FeCo-AAPyr catalyst prepared using the methods described herein.

[046] Fig. 28 is an SEM image of FeCo ₃ -AAPyr catalyst prepared using the methods described herein.

[047] Fig. 29A is an SEM image of FeCu ₃ -AAPyr bi-metallic catalyst prepared using the methods described herein.

[048] Fig. 29B is another SEM image of FeCu ₃ -AAPyr bi-metallic catalyst prepared using the methods described herein.

[049] Fig. 30A is an SEM image of FeMn ₃ -AAPyr bi-metallic catalyst prepared using the methods described herein.

[050] Fig. 30B is another SEM image of FeMn ₃ -AAPyr bi-metallic catalyst prepared using the methods described herein.

[051] Fig. 31 A is an SEM image of FeNi ₃ -AAPyr bi-metallic catalyst prepared using the methods described herein.

[052] Fig. 3 IB is another SEM image of FeNi ₃ -AAPyr bi-metallic catalyst prepared using the methods described herein.

[053] Fig. 32A is an SEM image of FeCoCu-AAPyr tri-metallic catalyst prepared using the methods described herein.

[054] Fig. 32B is another SEM image of FeCoCu-AAPyr tri-metallic catalyst prepared using the methods described herein.

[055] Fig. 33A is an SEM image of FeCoMn-AAPyr tri-metallic catalyst prepared using the methods described herein.

[056] Fig. 33B is another SEM image of FeCoMn-AAPyr tri-metallic catalyst prepared using the methods described herein.

[057] Fig. 34A is an SEM image of FeCuMn-AAPyr tri-metallic catalyst prepared using the methods described herein. [058] Fig. 34B is another SEM image of FeCuMn-AAPyr tri-metallic catalyst prepared using the methods described herein.

[059] Fig. 35 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for Fe _x Co _y -AAPyr bi-metallic catalysts compared to Co-AAPyr.

[060] Fig. 36 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for Fe _x Ni _y -AAPyr bi-metallic catalysts compared to Ni-AAPyr.

[061] Fig. 37 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for Fe _x Cu _y -AAPyr bi-metallic catalysts compared to Cu-AAPyr.

[062] Fig. 38 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for Fe _x Cr _y -AAPyr bi-metallic catalysts compared to Cr-AAPyr.

[063] Fig. 39 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for Fe _x Mn _y -AAPyr bi-metallic catalysts compared to Mn-AAPyr.

[064] Fig 40 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for FeM ^I M ^II -AAPyr tri-metallic catalysts.

[065] Fig. 41 is a schematic illustration of a batch-wise process for producing M-N-C catalysts according to the present disclosure.

[066] Fig. 42A is an SEM image of spherical, highly porous Fe-N-C catalysts prepared on low surface area silica with a scale bar at ΙΟμιη.

[067] Fig. 42B is an SEM image of spherical, highly porous Fe-N-C catalysts prepared on low surface area silica with a scale bar at 2μιη.

[068] Fig. 42C is an SEM image of spherical, highly porous Fe-N-C catalysts prepared on low surface area silica with a scale bar at Ιμιη.

[069] Fig. 42D is an SEM image of spherical, highly porous Fe-N-C catalysts prepared on low surface area silica with a scale bar at 500nm.

[070] Fig. 43A is an SEM image of a first batch of spherical, highly porous Fe-N-C catalysts prepared on high surface area silica with a scale bar of 5μιη.

[071] Fig. 43B is an SEM image of the first batch of spherical, highly porous Fe-N-C catalysts prepared on high surface area silica with a scale bar of 2μιη.

[072] Fig. 43C is an SEM image of the first batch of spherical, highly porous Fe-N-C catalysts prepared on high surface area silica with a scale bar of 500nm.

[073] Fig. 44A is an SEM image of a second batch of spherical, highly porous Fe-N-C catalysts prepared on high surface area silica with a scale bar of 3μιη.

[074] Fig. 44B is an SEM image of a second batch of spherical, highly porous Fe-N-C catalysts prepared on high surface area silica with a scale bar of 2μιη. [075] Fig. 45 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for RDE data for spherical F-N-C catalysts prepared by the presently described method in 0.5M H ₂ S0 ₄ saturated with 0 ₂ (catalysts loading: 600 μg cm ^"2 , 1200RPM, 5mV s ^"

\

Detailed Description

[076] According to an embodiment the present disclosure provides novel catalysts and methods for making the same. In previously described methods for forming M-N-C catalysts, the source of nitrogen and carbon is typically a porphyrin precursor having an initial catalytic activity. This initial catalytic activity is them improved upon by complexing with metallic particles. The present disclosure relies on the surprising and unexpected discovery that M-N-C catalysts can be synthesized by using non-porphyrin precursors with no initial catalytic activity, as the source of nitrogen and carbon. Examples of suitable non- catalytic non-porphyrin precursors include, but are not necessarily limited to low molecular weight precursors that form complexes with iron such as 4-aminoantipirine, phenylenediamine, hydroxysuccinimide, ethanolamine, and the like. According to some embodiments, the non-catalytic precursors may be selected due to their ability to complex with iron. According to yet other embodiments, the non-catalytic precursors may be selected because they contain moieties that are the same or similar to the active sites in precursors that have initial catalytic activity, the crystal structure of which is then stabilized by means of high temperature heat treatment.

[077] According to an embodiment, an M-N-C catalyst according to the present disclosure may be prepared via wet impregnation of iron precursors in the form of iron nitrate and C-N precursors in the form of 4-aminoantipirine (AAPyr) onto the surface of a sacrificial support of fumed silica. Other suitable iron precursors include, but are not limited to iron sulfate, iron acetate, iron chloride etc.

[078] It will be appreciated that other transition metals such as Ce, Cr, Cu Mo, Ni, Ru, Ta, Ti, V, W, and Zr can be substituted in place of iron, by simply using precursors of those metals instead. Examplary transition metal precursors include, but are not limited to cerium nitrate, chromium nitrate, copper nitrate, ammonium molybdate, nickel nitrate, ruthenium chloride, tantalum isopropoxide, titanium ethoxide, vanadium sulfate, ammonium tunstanate and zirconium nitrate. Furthermore, according to some embodiments and as described in greater detail below, the presently described methodologies may utilize precursors of two or more metals to produce multi-metallic catalysts. [079] Suitable sacrificial supports include, but are not limited to silicas, zeolites, aluminas, and the like. The support may take the form of spheres, particles, or other two or three dimensional regular, irregular, or amorphous shapes. The spheres, particles, or other shapes may be monodisperse, or irregularly sized. The spheres, particles, or other shapes may or may not have pores and such pores may be of the same or different sizes and shapes.

[080] It should be appreciated, and as described in greater detail below, the size and shape of the silica particles may be selected according to the desired shape(s) and size(s) of the voids within the electrocatalyst material. Accordingly, by selecting the particular size and shape of silica particles, one can produce a electrocatalyst having voids of a predictable size and shape. For example, if the silica particles are spheres, the electrocatalyst will contain a plurality of spherical voids. Those of skill in the art will be familiar with the electrocatalyst Pt-Ru black, which consists of a plurality of platinum-ruthenium alloy spheres. An electrocatalyst formed from using silica spheres with the above-described method looks like a negative image of the Pt-Ru black; the space that existed as a void in the Pt-Ru black is filled with metal electrocatalyst, and the space that existed as metal electrocatalyst in the Pt-Ru black is void.

[081] As stated above, according to some embodiments, silica spheres of any diameter may be used. In some preferred embodiments, silica particles having an characteristic lengths of between 1 nm and 100 nm, in more preferred embodiments, silica particles having an characteristic lengths of between 100 nm and 1000 nm may be used and in other preferred embodiments, silica particles having an characteristic lengths of between 1 mm and 10 mm may be used. Further mesoporous silica can also be used in the templating synthesis approach. In this case the templating involves intercalating the mesopores of the material and results in a self-supported electrocatalysts with porosity in the 2-20 nm range. In one particular embodiment, the silica template is Cabosil amorphous fumed silica (325 m ² /g). As stated above, because the spheres serve as the template for the formation of the electrocatalyst, in an embodiment where silica particles having an average diameter of 20 nm is used, the spherical voids in the electrocatalyst will typically have a diameter of approximately 20 nm. Those of skill in the art will be familiar with a variety of silica particles that are commercially available, and such particles may be used. Alternatively, known methods of forming silica particles may be employed in order to obtain particles of the desired shape and/or size.

[082] After deposition and/or impregnation of the C-N and metal precursors on the sacrificial support, the catalysts is heat treated either in an inert atmosphere such as N ₂ , Ar, or He, or in a reactive atmosphere such as NH ₃ or acetonitrile. Inert atmospheres are typically used when the C-N precursor is nitrogen rich, as the inert atmosphere enables the production of a high number of active sites with Fe (or other metal) N4 centers. However, it may be desired to use a nitrogen rich atmosphere if the C-N precursor is rich in carbon and depleted in nitrogen, as the nitrogen rich atmosphere will enable production of the Fe (or other metal) N4 centers.

[083] According to an embodiment, optimal temperatures for heat treatment are between 500 and 1100°C. According to some embodiments, heat treatment between 800 and 900 °C is preferred, as this temperature is high enough to pyrolize the material, but is typically not high enough to destroy the active sites.

[084] After heat treatment, the sacrificial support is removed using suitable means. For example, the sacrificial support may be removed via chemical etching. Examples of suitable etchants include NaOH, KOH, and HF. According to some embodiments, it may be preferable to use KOH, as it preserves all metal and metal oxide in the catalyst and, if the species are catalytically active, use of KOH may, in fact, increase catalytic activity. Alternatively, in some embodiments, HF may be preferred as it is very aggressive and can be used to remove some poisonous species from the surface of the catalyst. Accordingly, those of skill in the art will be able to select the desired etchants based on the particular requirements of the specific catalytic material being formed.

[085] According to a specific exemplary embodiment, Fe-AAPyr catalysts were prepared via wet impregnation of iron and aminoantipyrine precursors onto the surface of fumed silica

(Cab-O-Sil EH-5, surface area: -400 m g ^" ). First, lg of silica was dispersed in water using the sonobath. Then, a solution of lg of AAPyr in water was added to the silica, and sonicated for 20 minutes. Then, an aqueous solution of lg iron nitrate (Fe(N0 ₃ )3»9H ₂ 0, Sigma- Aldrich) was added to the Si0 ₂ -AAPyr solution and then sonicated for 8 hours in the sonobath. After sonication, a viscous solution of silica and Fe-AApyr was dried overnight at T=85 °C. The solid was ground to a fine powder in an agate mortar, and then subjected to the heat treatment (HT). The conditions of HT were: UHP N ₂ atmosphere flowing at a rate of 100 cc min ¹ , HT temperatures of 800°C, HT temperature ramp rates of 10°C min ¹ , and HT durations of 1 hour.

[086] Figs. 1-2 illustrate structural and morphological data for selected M-N-C catalysts prepared using the methods described herein.

[087] Fig. 1 is an X-ray diffractogram illustrating that the Fe-M-C catalyst prepared from iron nitrate as a metal source and AAPyr as a source of nitrogen and carbon mainly consists of nanoparticles (less than 2nm) of iron imbedded into a carbon matrix. [088] Fig. 2 is an SEM image of Fe-AApyr catalysts prepared using the methods described herein illustrating that this material possesses a highly developed porous structure with pore size of about 50-70nm. The porosity is thought to improve catalytic properties towards oxygen reduction.

[089] Figs. 3 and 4 show the results of oxygen reduction tests and thus demonstrate the utility of the materials described herein.

[090] Fig. 3 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro- voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for Fe-AApyr catalysts prepared with different amounts of aminoantipiryne precursor in 0.5M H ₂ S0 ₄ saturated with 0 ₂ (catalyst loading 160 mg cm ^"2 , 1600 RPM, scan rate 20mV s ^" \

[091] Fig. 4 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro- voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for Fe-AAPyr prepared with a variety of heat treatment temperatures in 0.5M H ₂ SO ₄ saturated with O2 (catalyst loading: 160 mg cm ^"2 , 1600 RPM, scan rate 20mV s ^"1 )

[092] The reaction tests demonstrate that M-N-C catalysts prepared using inexpensive heteroatomic amines precursors and the methods disclosed herein, possess high activity in both alkaline and acid media, and should therefore also be active in neutral pH.

[093] Figs. 5-8 illustrate mechanistic studies of the catalysts prepared as described herein and show low H2O2 production yield, thus indicating a reaction pathway that proceeds via the more efficient 4 electron mechanism.

[094] Fig. 5 is a graph of the number of electrons participating in ORR for Fe-AAPyr catalysts, with variation of the amount of aminoantipiryen precursor in 0.5M H ₂ SO ₄ saturated with 0 ₂ (catalyst loading: 160mg cm ^"2 , 1600RPM, 20mV s ^"1 )

[095] Fig. 6 is a graph of hydrogen peroxide yield for Fe-AAPyr catalysts prepared with different amounts of aminoantipiryen precursor in 0.5M H2SO4 saturated with O2 (catalyst loading: 160mg cm ^"2 , 1600RPM, 20mV s ^"1 ).

[096] Fig. 7 is a graph of the number of electrons participating in ORR for Fe-AAPyr catalysts prepared with variation of heat treatment temperature in 0.5M H2SO4 saturated with O2 (catalyst loading: 160mg cm ^"2 , 1600RPM, 20mV s ^"1 )

[097] Fig. 8 is a graph of hydrogen peroxide yield for Fe-AAPyr prepared with variation of heat treatment temperature in 0.5M H2SO4 saturated with O2 (catalyst loading: 160mg cm ^"2 , 1600RPM, 20mV s ^"1 ).

[098] As stated above, the mechanism of oxygen reduction shows the direct reduction of oxygen to water by the preferred 4 electron pathway, thus avoiding corrosive peroxide production and therefore improving the stability and durability of the resulting catalysts. [099] As demonstrated in Figs. 3, 5, and 6, the properties of the resulting catalyst can be varied by selecting the amount of nitrogen-containing precursor to use in the preparation method. In general, the higher concentration of nitrogen in the catalyst, the higher the activity in ORR. Furthermore, as demonstrated in Figs. 4, 7 and 8, the properties of the catalysts can also be altered by varying the heat treatment temperature. It will be appreciated that it is desirable to optimize the heat treatment temperature for each combination of transition metals and C-N precursors, as too low a temperature will not create active sites, and too high a temperature will decompose the materials.

[0100] As mentioned above, the presently described methods can be used to produce catalysts from non-iron metals such as Co, Ni, Cu, Cr, Mn, and the like.

[0101] As a specific non-limiting example, Fe-AAPyr catalysts were prepared via wet impregnation of iron and aminoantipyrine precursors onto the surface of fumed silica (Cab- O-Sil EH-5, surface area: -400 m ² g ^"1 ). First, lg of silica was dispersed in water using the sonobath. Then, a solution of lg of AAPyr in water was added to the silica, and sonicated for 20 minutes. Then, an aqueous solution of lg iron nitrate (Fe(NC>3)3»9H ₂ 0, Sigma-Aldrich) was added to the Si0 ₂ -AAPyr solution and then sonicated for 8 hours in the sonobath. After sonication, a viscous solution of silica and Fe-AApyr was dried overnight at T=85 °C. The solid was ground to a fine powder in an agate mortar, and then subjected to the heat treatment (HT). The conditions of HT were: UHP N ₂ atmosphere flowing at a rate of 100 cc min ^"1 , HT temperatures of 800°C, HT temperature ramp rates of 10°C min ^"1 , and HT durations of 1 hour.

[0102] According to yet another non-limiting example, Fe-Mn- AAPyr catalysts were prepared via wet impregnation of iron, manganese and aminoantipyrine precursors onto the surface of fumed silica (Cab-O-Sil EH-5, surface area: -400 m g ^" ). First, 3g of silica was dispersed in water using the sonobath. Then, a solution of 1.98g of AAPyr in water was added to silica, and sonicated for 20 minutes. Then, an aqueous solution of 1.4g iron nitrate (Fe(N0 ₃ )3»9H ₂ 0, Sigma-Aldrich) and 3.2g of manganese nitrate were added to the Si0 ₂ - AAPyr solution and then sonicated for 8 hours in the sonobath. After sonication, a viscous solution of silica and Fe-Mn-AApyr was dried overnight at T=85 °C. The solid was ground to a fine powder in an agate mortar, and then subjected to the heat treatment (HT). The conditions of HT were: UHP N ₂ atmosphere flowing at a rate of 100 cc min ^"1 , HT temperatures of 800°C, HT temperature ramp rates of 10°C min ^"1 , and HT durations of 1 hour.

[0103] According to still another non- limiting embodiment, Fe-Cr- AAPyr catalysts were prepared via wet impregnation of iron and aminoantipyrine precursors onto the surface of fumed silica (Cab-O-Sil ^™ EH-5, surface area: -400 m ² g ^"1 ). First, 2g of silica was dispersed in water using the sonobath. Then, a solution of 3.5g of AAPyr in water was added to the silica, and sonicated for 20 minutes. Then, an aqueous solution of lg iron nitrate (Fe(N0 ₃ )3»9H ₂ 0, Sigma- Aldrich) and 1.25g of chromium nitrate were added to the Si0 ₂ - AAPyr solution and then sonicated for 8 hours in the sonobath. After sonication, a viscous solution of silica and Fe-AApyr was dried overnight at T=85 °C. The solid was ground to a fine powder in an agate mortar, and then subjected to the heat treatment (HT). The conditions of HT were: UHP N ₂ atmosphere flowing at a rate of 100 cc min ¹ , HT temperatures of 850°C, HT temperature ramp rates of 10°C min ^"1 , and HT durations of 4 hour.

[0104] According to embodiment, the M-N-C catalysts described herein can be deposited onto conductive dispersed supports (both carbon and non-carbon) in a fashion that facilitates the charge transfer of the heteroatom atom and the support. According to some embodiments, usage of non-carbon support, like conductive Mo or W oxides can significantly decrease hydrogen peroxide production, increase durability and stability of catalysts in acid and alkaline media.

[0105] As described above, sacrificial supports of different sizes and shapes may be used together to produce catalysts having a variety of different morphologies. For example, in some embodiments it may be desirable to produce catalysts having multi-modal porosity, that is, where the catalyst comprises two or more distinct populations of pores, wherein each population consists of pores having an average diameter that is differentiable from the other population(s). For example, a catalyst that has one population of pores with an average diameter of approximately lOnm, a second population of pores with an average diameter of approximately 50nm and a third population of pores with an average diameter of between 150-200 nm would be considered to have a multi-modal pore size distribution.

[0106] Turning to Fig. 9, according to an embodiment, such multi-modal pore size distribution could be produced by templating the above-described precursors onto sacrificial supports formed from spheres (or otherwise shaped particles) having different diameters. As shown, larger spheres 10 having a diameter dl and smaller spheres 12 having a diameter d2 are mixed together to form a sacrificial support on which the precursor materials are deposited and pyrolized. Once the support is removed, the resulting catalytic material 16 contains differently sized pores 18, 20 corresponding to the different particle diameters.

[0107] It will be appreciated that in order to have complete control over the morphology of the resulting catalytic material, it will be desirable to template the precursors into sacrificial supports with known shapes and sizes. According to a particular embodiment where the sacrificial support is formed from silica particles, the different shapes and sizes of sacrificial supports may be produced by using different types of silica to reliably and reproducibly produce differently sized silica particles. The resulting catalysts will then have a multi-modal pore distribution, where the specific size and shape of the pores is known.

[0108] According to a specific example, a catalyst as described herein formed on EH5 and LM130 silica was prepared via wet impregnation of iron and aminoantipyrine precursors onto the surface of different fumed silicas and their mixtures (Cab-O-Sil surface areas 90-400 m g ^"1 ). First, lg of silica EH5 and lg of silica LM130 were dispersed in water using the sonobath. Then, a solution of lg of AAPyr in water was added to silica, and sonicated for 20 minutes. Then, an aqueous solution of lg iron nitrate (Fe(NC>3)3»9H ₂ C>, Sigma- Aldrich) was added to the Si0 ₂ -AAPyr solution and then sonicated for 8 hours in the sonobath. After sonication, a viscous solution of silica and Fe-AApyr was dried overnight at T=85 °C. The solid was ground to a fine powder in an agate mortar, and then subjected to the heat treatment (HT). The conditions of HT were: UHP N ₂ atmosphere flowing at a rate of 100 cc min ^"1 , HT temperatures of 800°C, HT temperature ramp rates of 10°C min ^"1 , and HT durations of 1 hour.

[0109] According to yet another specific example, a catalyst as described herein formed on M5D and A90 silica was prepared via wet impregnation of iron and aminoantipyrine precursors onto the surface of different fumed silicas and their mixtures (Cab-O-Sil surface areas 90-400 m ² g ^"1 ). First, 2g of silica M5D and 0.25g of silica A90 were dispersed in water using the sonobath. Then, a solution of 1.3g of AAPyr in water was added to silica, and sonicated for 20 minutes. Then, an aqueous solution of 4g iron nitrate (Fe(N0 ₃ )3»9H ₂ 0, Sigma-Aldrich) was added to the Si0 ₂ -AAPyr solution and then sonicated for 8 hours in the sonobath. After sonication, a viscous solution of silica and Fe-AApyr was dried overnight at T=85 °C. The solid was ground to a fine powder in an agate mortar, and then subjected to the heat treatment (HT). The conditions of HT were: UHP N ₂ atmosphere flowing at a rate of 100 cc min ^"1 , HT temperatures of 800°C, HT temperature ramp rates of 10°C min ^"1 , and HT durations of 1 hour.

[0110] Figs. 10-20 depict the morphological data for a various M-N-C catalysts having multimodal porosity and prepared as described herein.

[0111] Fig. 10 is an SEM image of a mono-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and HS5 silica. It can be seen that pore size is in the range of 40-60nm.

[0112] Fig. 11 is an SEM image of a bi-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and M5 silica. It can be seen that first type of pores have diameter 40-60nm, while second type of pores have diameter <10nm. [0113] Fig. 12 is an SEM image of a bi-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and LM130 silica. It can be seen that first type of pores have diameter -lOOnm, while second type of pores have diameter ~30nm.

[0114] Fig. 13 is an SEM image of a catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and A90 silica. It can be seen that pores have diameter ~30nm, while there is also nano-channels with diameter 40- 60nm.

[0115] Fig. 14 is an SEM image of a bi-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and mixture of L90 and A90 silicas. It can be seen that first type of pores have diameter ~150nm, while second type of pores have diameter ~20nm.

[0116] Fig. 15 is an SEM image of a tri-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and mixture of L90 and EH5 silicas. It can be seen that first type of pores have diameter ~150-200nm, second type of pores have diameter ~40-60nm, and third is about 20nm.

[0117] Fig. 16 is an SEM image of a bi-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and mixture of L90 and M5 silicas. It can be seen that first type of pores have diameter -lOOnm, while second type of pores have diameter ~25nm.

[0118] Fig. 17 is an SEM image of a bi-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and mixture of L90 and LM130 silicas. It can be seen that first type of pores have diameter ~150-200nm, while second type of pores have diameter ~30nm.

[0119] Fig. 18 is an SEM image of a bi-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and mixture of L90 and A200 silicas. It can be seen that first type of pores have diameter ~100-200nm, while second type of pores have diameter ~50nm.

[0120] Fig. 19 is an SEM image of a bi-modal catalyst derived from Fe-AAPy and mixture of L90 and A380 silicas. It can be seen that first type of pores have diameter -lOOnm, while second type of pores have diameter <20nm.

[0121] Fig. 20 is an SEM image of a spherical catalyst derived from Fe-AAPyr and M5 silica. It can be seen that spheres of catalyst are in the range of 1-3μιη, while pores have diameter about 50-70nm.

[0122] Figs. 21-25 show the results of oxygen reduction tests on a selection of the multimodal catalysts in Figs. 10-20 and thus demonstrate the utility of the materials described herein.

[0123] Fig. 21 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for RDE data for catalysts prepared from Fe-AAPyr and HS5, L90 and L90 + EH5 silicas in 0.5M H ₂ S0 ₄ saturated with 0 ₂ (catalysts loading: 600 mg cm ^"2 , 1200RPM, 5mV s ^"

\ [0124] Fig 22 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for RDE data for catalysts prepared from Fe-AAPyr and L90, LM130, and L90 + LM130 silicas in 0.5M H ₂ S0 ₄ saturated with 0 ₂ (catalysts loading: 600 mg cm ^"2 , 1200RPM, 5mV s ^"

\

[0125] Fig. 23 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for RDE data for catalysts prepared from Fe-AAPyr and L90, L90 + A90, and A90 silicas in 0.5M H ₂ S0 ₄ saturated with 0 ₂ (catalysts loading: 600 mg cm ^"2 , 1200RPM, 5mV s ^"

[0126] Fig. 24 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for RDE data for catalysts prepared from Fe-AAPyr and L90 and L90 + EH5 silicas in 0.5M H ₂ S0 ₄ saturated with 0 ₂ (catalysts loading: 600 mg cm ^"2 , 1200RPM, 5mV s ^"1 ).

[0127] Fig. 25 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for RDE data for catalysts prepared from Fe-AAPyr and L90, M5 and L90 + M5 silicas in 0.5M H ₂ S0 ₄ saturated with 0 ₂ (catalysts loading: 600 mg cm ^"2 , 1200RPM, 5mV s ^" ')·

[0128] It will be appreciated that some in some applications a mono-metallic catalyst may not be sufficiently stable or active to replace traditional platinum- or platinum alloy- based catalysts. Accordingly, as indicated above, according to some embodiments, the presently described method may incorporate the use of precursors of multiple metals in order to achieve a desired stability and/or activity.

[0129] According to various specific embodiments, Fe-AAPyr catalysts were prepared via wet impregnation of iron and second transition metal, or iron, second and third transition metal (transition metals=Co, Ni, Cu, Cr and Mn) and aminoantipyrine precursors onto the surface of fumed silica (Cab-O-Sil ^™ EH-5, surface area: -400 m ² g ^"1 ). First, a lg of silica was dispersed in water using the sonobath. Then, a solution of lg of AAPyr in water was added to silica, and sonicated for 20 minutes. Then, an aqueous solution of lg iron nitrate (Fe(N0 ₃ )3»9H ₂ 0, Sigma- Aldrich) and lg of manganese nitrate was added to the Si0 ₂ - AAPyr solution and then sonicated for 8 hours in the sonobath. After sonication, a viscous solution of silica and Fe-Mn-AApyr was dried overnight at T=85 °C. The solid was ground to a fine powder in an agate mortar, and then subjected to the heat treatment (HT). The conditions of HT were: UHP N ₂ atmosphere flowing at a rate of 100 cc min ^"1 , HT temperatures of 800°C, HT temperature ramp rates of 10°C min ^"1 , and HT durations of 1 hour.

[0130] Figs. 26-34 illustrate structural and morphological data for selected multi-metallic M- N-C catalyst prepared by the above described methods. [0131] Figs. 26-28 show three different catalysts Fe ₃ Co- AAPyr, FeCo-AAPyr and FeCo ₃ - AAPyr, respectively, prepared using the methods described herein. The materials possess a highly developed porous structure with a pore size of about lOOnm.

[0132] Figs. 29A and B are SEM images of FeCu ₃ -AAPyr bi-metallic catalyst illustrating that this material possesses a highly developed porous structure with pore size about 70nm.

[0133] Figs. 30A and B are SEM images of FeMn ₃ -AAPyr bi-metallic catalyst illustrating that this material possesses a highly developed porous structure with pore size about 50nm.

[0134] Figs. 31 A and B are SEM images of FeNi ₃ -AAPyr bi-metallic catalyst illustrating that this material possesses a highly developed porous structure with pore size about 200nm.

[0135] Figs. 32A and B are SEM images of FeCoCu-AAPyr tri-metallic catalyst illustrating that this material possesses a highly developed porous structure with pore size about 150nm.

[0136] Figs. 33A and B are SEM images of FeCoMn- AAPyr tri-metallic catalyst illustrating that this material possesses a highly developed porous structure with pore size about lOOnm.

[0137] Figs. 34A and B are SEM images of FeCuMn- AAPyr tri-metallic catalyst illustrating that this material possesses a highly developed porous structure with pore size about lOOnm.

[0138] The utility of the multi-metallic catalysts described herein is demonstrated by the results of oxygen reduction tests illustrated in Figs. 35-40.

[0139] Fig. 35 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for Fe _x Co _y -AAPyr bi-metallic catalysts compared to Co-AAPyr in 0.5M H ₂ SO ₄ saturated with 0 ₂ (catalyst loading: 600 mg cm ^"2 , 1200RPM, 5mV s ^"1 ).

[0140] Fig. 36 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for Fe _x Ni _y -AAPyr bi-metallic catalysts compared to Ni-AAPyr in 0.5M H ₂ SO ₄ saturated with O2 (catalyst loading: 600 mg cm ^"2 , 1200RPM, 5mV s ^"1 ).

[0141] Fig. 37 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for Fe _x Cu _y -AAPyr bi-metallic catalysts compared to Cu-AAPyr in 0.5M H ₂ SO ₄ saturated with O2 (catalyst loading: 600 mg cm ^"2 , 1200RPM, 5mV s ^"1 ).

[0142] Fig. 38 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for Fe _x Cr _y -AAPyr bi-metallic catalysts compared to Cr-AAPyr in 0.5M H2SO4 saturated with O2 (catalyst loading: 600 mg cm ^"2 , 1200RPM, 5mV s ^"1 ).

[0143] Fig. 39 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for Fe _x Mn _y -AAPyr bi-metallic catalysts compared to Mn-AAPyr in 0.5M H2SO4 saturated with O2 (catalyst loading: 600 mg cm ^"2 , 1200RPM, 5mV s ^"1 ).

[0144] Fig. 40 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for FeM ^: M ⁿ -AAPyr tri-metallic catalysts in 0.5M H2SO4 saturated with O2 (catalyst loading: 600 mg cm ^"2 , 1200RPM, 5mV s ^"1 ). [0145] These reaction tests demonstrate that the multi- metallic M-N-C catalysts prepared from inexpensive C-N precursors using the methods described herein possess activity significantly higher than mono-metallic catalysts. Such high activity makes these materials suitable for us in fuel cell applications as cathode catalysts as they possess high activity in ORR in alkaline, neutral, and acid environments.

[0146] According to some embodiments, it may be desirable to produce large amounts of the catalysts described herein, for example in a batch-wise process. Accordingly, the present disclosure further provides a method for large-scale preparation of the presently described catalysts. According to an embodiment, the present disclosure provides a method which combines a sacrificial support-based methodology with spray pyrolysis to produce self- supported catalysts. According to this method, the spray pyrolysis method is a continuous method while the sacrificial support-based methodology is performed batch-wise. Turning to Fig. 41, it can be seen that the precursor materials described above are mixed with a silica support, atomized, and dried in a tube furnace. The powder obtained from this procedure is then collected on a filter. The collected powder is then heat treated, as needed, depending on the desired application of the catalyst. Finally, the sacrificial support is removed, for example by leaching with HF or KOH.

[0147] It will be appreciated that the above-described large-scale production method is suitable for use for a wide variety of precursors and materials and thus not necessarily limited to the catalysts disclosed herein. Figs. 42-44 illustrate morphological data for selected self- supported metal-nitrogen-carbon (M-N-C) catalyst prepared by the above described method.

[0148] Figs. 42A-D are SEM images of spherical, highly porous Fe-N-C catalysts prepared on low surface area silica.

[0149] Figs. 43A-C are SEM images of spherical, highly porous Fe-N-C catalysts prepared on high surface area silica (Batch 1).

[0150] Fig. 44 is an SEM image of spherical, highly porous Fe-N-C catalysts prepared on high surface area silica (Batch 2).

[0151] Fig. 45 is a Rotating Disc Electrode electro-voltamogram illustrating oxygen reduction for RDE data for spherical F-N-C catalysts prepared by the presently described method in 0.5M H ₂ S0 ₄ saturated with 0 ₂ (catalysts loading: 600 μg cm ^"2 , 1200RPM, 5mV s ^"

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[0152] It can clearly be seen that the morphological properties of the materials are very consistent from batch to batch. The utility of these materials is illustrated in oxygen reduction tests, an example of which is shown in Fig. 5. [0153] The specific methods and compositions described herein are representative of preferred embodiments and are exemplary and not intended as limitations on the scope of the invention. Other objects, aspects, and embodiments will occur to those skilled in the art upon consideration of this specification, and are encompassed within the spirit of the invention as defined by the scope of the claims. It will be readily apparent to one skilled in the art that varying substitutions and modifications may be made to the invention disclosed herein without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. The invention illustratively described herein suitably may be practiced in the absence of any element or elements, or limitation or limitations, which is not specifically disclosed herein as essential. The methods and processes illustratively described herein suitably may be practiced in differing orders of steps, and that they are not necessarily restricted to the orders of steps indicated herein or in the claims. As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms "a," "an," and "the" include plural reference unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, a reference to "a catalyst" includes a plurality of such catalysts, and so forth.

[0154] Under no circumstances may the patent be interpreted to be limited to the specific examples or embodiments or methods specifically disclosed herein. Under no circumstances may the patent be interpreted to be limited by any statement made by any Examiner or any other official or employee of the Patent and Trademark Office unless such statement is specifically and without qualification or reservation expressly adopted in a responsive writing by Applicants.

[0155] The terms and expressions that have been employed are used as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intent in the use of such terms and expressions to exclude any equivalent of the features shown and described or portions thereof, but it is recognized that various modifications are possible within the scope of the invention as claimed. Thus, it will be understood that although the present invention has been specifically disclosed by preferred embodiments and optional features, modification and variation of the concepts herein disclosed may be resorted to by those skilled in the art, and that such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of this invention as defined by the appended claims.

[0156] All patents and publications referenced below and/or mentioned herein are indicative of the levels of skill of those skilled in the art to which the invention pertains, and each such referenced patent or publication is hereby incorporated by reference to the same extent as if it had been incorporated by reference in its entirety individually or set forth herein in its entirety. Applicants reserve the right to physically incorporate into this specification any and all materials and information from any such cited patents or publications.