| CLAIMS
1. Order-charge states of matter and order-force bound states of matter, whether stable, metastable or unstable, the reactions to produce these states including sources of order- charged states of matter, the apparatuses to implement these reactions and/or produce these states, the uses of these order-charged states, and their end-products or energy they produce and ways of extracting the same.
2. Order charge bound states of matter according to claim 1 including the following states, where the left hand side shows the order-charged constituents and the right hand side, the states indicated by a f :
3. Order charged states of matter and sources of order charge as in the claims above: a. Alpha particles, especially from radioactive decay or a reactor; b. Neutrons; fission neutrons; fission fragments; other products from a reactor; c. Other radioactive decay products; d. Order-charged (including order-bound) states such as order-charged neutrons, deuterons, alphas or other nuclei, from one or more of the following: nuclear or particle interactions of any kind, including spallation reactions, however produced (eg by reactor; accelerator; storage ring; radioactive source; cosmic rays or some combination thereof); e. Crystals; minerals; pleochroic halos; f. Living or once living matter; organisms; tissues; g. Halo nuclei or nuclei bound or partially bound by order charge where the order charge can be separated out in some way, such as by nuclear or particle interactions; stripping reactions; charge transfer to target particle(s); h. Any one or more sources of order charge, whether listed above or not, which may be processed by an order charge separator to concentrate the order charge.
4. Sources of order charged neutrons as in the claims above, produced by one or more of the following reactions: p + 7 Li = 7 Be (0) + n (0) - 1.65 MeV (8) p + 3 H = 3 He (0) + n (0) - 0.765 MeV (9) α<°> + 9 Be = 12 C + n (0) + 5.7 MeV (10) other reaction(s) producing order-charged neutrons.
5. Sources of order charged protons as in the claims above, produced by one or more of the following reactions: n (c) + 7 βe = 7 U + p (c) + 1 - 65 MeV ( 1 1 ) n (c) + 3 He = 3 H + p (c) + 0 J 6 Me γ ( 12 ) α W + 14 N = 16 O + p(e) . L 19 MeV (13) n (O + 31p = 32 S j + p (c) . 0 7 Me γ (14) other reaction(s) producing order-charged protons.
6. Sources of order-charged deuterons as in the claims above, produced by one or more of the following reactions: n (c) + p = D (o) + γ + 2.2 MeV (15) n (c) + 10 B = 9g e + D (c) . 3 81 Me γ ( 16)
(n c + p) or (n + p c ) = D c + γ + 2.23 MeV (26) γ + 6 Li = ηe (c) + D (c) - 1.46 MeV (45) other reaction(s) producing order-charged deuterons.
7. Sources of order-charged alpha particles as in the claims above, produced by one or more of the following reactions: n (0 + io B = 7 Li + α (c) + 2.79 MeV (17) n <c) + 6 Li = 3 H + ηe (c> + 2.78 MeV (18) other reaction(s) producing order-charged alpha particles.
8. Improved sources of order charge as in the claims above, in which electrically charged carriers of the order charge (such as protons, deuterons, alphas) are passed through an order charge separator to increase the fraction of particles carrying order charge.
9. Other sources of order charge as in the claims above:
10. The reactions to produce the order-charge bound states and any other order-charge facilitated reactions as in the claims above such as: n c + α c = ηe t + Os/γs + 0.756 MeV (19) n c + 6 Li = ηe f + D - 2.43 MeV (20) p c + a c = 5 Li t + Os/γs + 0.344 MeV (21) p(c) + s Li t = 6 Be t + Os / 7S + Q MeV (22) α c + a c = 8 Be* + Os/γs + 0.263 MeV (23) pc + s Be c = 9 B t + Os/γs + o 103 MeV ( 24)
Any other reaction which produces an order-charge bound state;
Any nuclear reaction involving order-charged reactants;
Any other reaction in which the reaction is caused by one or more of the following: by order charge(s); by order fields.
11. Order-induced fusion as in the claims above, by one or more of the following reactions:
D c + D c = 4 He 1 + Os/γs + 0.66 MeV → 4 He + Os/γs + 23.19 MeV (25)
(n c + p) or (n + p c ) = D c + γ + 2.23 MeV (26) n c + D (o = τ + Os/γs + 6 26 MeV (27) p c + T = 4 He + + Os/γs + Q = 4 He + Os/γs + 19.8 - Q MeV (28) p c + D c = ηe f + Os/γs + 5.49 MeV (29) n (o + 3 He t = 4 He (t) + Os/γs + Q = 4 He + OS/ΎS + 20.6 - Q MeV (30)
D c + T° = ηe f + Os/γs + 16.6 MeV (31) p + 9 Be = D (c) + 2 4 He + 0.66 MeV (44) other order-induced fusion reactions.
12. Order catalyzed fusion as in the claims above, by one or more of the following reactions: D + T =/OC→ 4 He + n + 17.6 MeV (32) D + D =/OC→ 3 He + n + 3.27 MeV 50% (33)
= /OC→ T + p + 4.03 MeV 50% (34)
D + 3 He =/OC→ 4 He + p + 18.3 MeV (35)
T + T =/OC→ 4 He + 2n + 11.3 MeV (36)
3 He + 3 He =/OC-» 4 He + 2p + 12.9 MeV (37)
3 He + T =/OC→ 4 He + p + n + 12.1 MeV 51 % (38)
= /OC→ 4 He + D + 14.3 MeV 43% (39)
D + 6 Li =/OC→ 2 4 He + 22.4 MeV (40) p + 6 Li =/OC→ 4 He + 4.0 MeV (41)
3 He + 6 Li =/OC→ 2 4 He + p + 16.9 MeV (42) p + 11 B =/OC→ 3 4 He + 8.7 MeV (43) other order-catalyzed fusion reactions.
13. The apparatuses to effectuate or otherwise bring about the reactions or processes in the claims above:
14. Additional systems, components, features to implement the above reactions, processes and apparatuses as in the claims above and below: a. Vacuum systems, vacuum pipes, getters, gauges, vacuum pumps, heating elements, etc. b. Supports, brackets, dowels, alignment systems, etc. c. Optics, beam optics, typically electromagnetic and/or mechanical, bending devices (eg magnets, electrical), focusing devices (quadrupole magnets or higher and/or electric devices), cooling (eg stochastic), electrostatic devices, electrodes, acceleration, deceleration, range, beam stops, accelerators, decelerators, race tracks, cavities, pick-ups, etc. d. Shielding, electromagnetic, biological, radiation shielding etc. e. Detectors, control systems, electronics, logic, feedback, sensors, actuators, computers, microprocessors, software, instruments, electrolysis equipment, electrolytes, etc. f. Moderators, eg for neutrons, cooling systems, heat exchangers, temperature regulation, etc. g. Guides, slits, baffles, thin or special windows, etc. h. Cables, wiring, printed circuit boards, components, connectors, insulation, etc. j. Power supplies, power, electrical, RF, high voltage, regulators, generators, etc. k. Sources, materials, supplies, radioactive sources, ion sources, gases, etc.
1. Targets, liquid, gas, cryogenics, thermal insulation, heating systems, or other, etc.
15. Apparatus to bring together order-charge neutrons and order-charged alpha particles within a small enough distance and a small enough energy range that they may bind together to produce order-charge bound states of helium-5 t by means of reaction (19) as in the relevant claims above, which includes of a suitable source of neutrons, a target (moving or stationary) of order-charged alphas, and if required a method of separating the helium-S 1 , either in-line or off-line, including items from claim 14 as required, which may take at least one of the following forms:
A. A nuclear reactor with off-line separation (eg as in figure IA) in which: the reactor may be a slow reactor, fast reactor, a tritium-production reactor
(eg with additional lithium-6), or other type;
Method of collecting and storing waste gases from the reactor, which include helium-4 and helium-5 1 , if required;
Method of separating other gases from the heliums, for example by cooling;
Methods of separating helium-4 from helium-S* for example by means of one or more of the following: a mass spectrometer; liquefaction if they liquify at different temperatures;
B. Using mono-energetic neutrons with in-line detection (eg figure IB), in which:
Hydrogen from a source (eg a bottle of the gas) is ionised and fed to an accelerator;
An accelerator which accelerates the protons to an energy above threshold for neutron production by means of reactions (8) or (9);
Said protons are directed onto a target of lithium-7 or tritium to produce mono-energetic neutrons;
The mono-energetic neutrons are then directed onto a target of order-charged helium-4, either gaseous, gas jet or liquid, if necessary suitably enclosed, if necessary with a thin window to allow the incident neutrons to penetrate, if necessary with a thin window to allow helium-5 t to escape;
Methods of separation of the helium^ from the helium-4 by means of one or more of the following:
A spectrometer, either in-line or off-line;
Off-line for example by liquefaction; C. Using a reactor to produce order-charged neutrons and alphas with in-line separation (eg figure 1C), in which:
Thermal neutrons are taken from a nuclear reactor and arranged to collide with a boron- 10 target so as to produce order-charged alphas (reaction 17); The order-charge alphas are deflected sufficiently (eg through nearly 180 degrees), by one or more of the following means: magnetic, electric, electromagnetic, mechanical, also using acceleration, deceleration, focusing as required, and directed to cross the path of the thermal neutrons from the reactor or other source, so as to collide and produce helium-S 1 ; Separation of the helium-5 t by one or more of the following: a magnet, electrically, slits and/or baffles, a spectrometer; Collection of the helium-5 r ;
D. Using a reactor with an order-charged helium-4 target (eg figure ID) which includes:
Slow neutrons from a reactor which are directed onto a target (liquid or gaseous) of order-charged helium-4, obtained from the same reactor or another;
Bombardment over a period of time to allow helium-5 1 to build up;
Off-line separation by means of liquefaction, a mass spectrometer or both'
E. Alternatively fast neutrons (above threshold) say from a reactor, are directed onto a lithium-6 target (eg a foil) to produce helium^ by means of reaction (20) where the helium-S 1 is separated and collected by one or more of the following means:
Some helium-S 1 will escape from a thin (foil) target and may be separated by means of a mass spectrometer, with prior acceleration and/or focusing as required;
With a thicker target, most of the helium-5 f would collect inside it and could be separated chemically or heated off-line to remove the helium-5 t , which might boil off other gases such as deuterium which could be separated by liquefaction.
16. Apparatus to bring together order-charge protons and order-charged alpha particles within a small enough distance and a small enough energy range that they may bind together to produce order-charge bound states of lithium^ by means of reaction (21) as in the relevant claims above, which consists of a suitable source of protons, a target (moving or stationary) of order-charged alphas, and if required a method of separating the lithium^, either in-line or off-line, including items from claim 14 as required, which may take at least one of the following forms:
A. A reactor plus an order-charged helium-4 target (eg figure 2A) in which:
Slow neutrons from a reactor are directed onto a beryllium-7 target so as to produce protons via reaction (11), and where the beryllium-7 window may double as a window into the target vessel containing order-charged helium-4, say from this or another reactor;
The proton energies and target are arranged so that protons stop within the helium-4, so that they may interact to produce lithium^;
A means of separating the lithium-5 f and collecting it either in-line or off-line by one or more of the following means:
Electrostatically, mechanically, chemically, a mass spectrometer;
B. A reactor with a target containing both helium-3 and order-charged helium-4 (eg figure 2B) in which:
Slow neutrons from the reactor are directed into a target vessel containing helium-3 and order-charged helium-4, to produce protons via reaction (12), which then interact with the order-charged helium-4 to produce lithium-^; Separation of the lithium-5 f as above;
C. A reactor with two target foils of boron- 10 and beryllium-7 (eg figure 2C) in which:
Neutrons are taken from the reactor into the boron- 10 (or lithium-6) target foil to produce order-charged alpha particles via reaction (17) (or 18); Neutrons are also directed onto the beryllium-7 foil (or helium-3) to produce order-charged protons via reaction (11) (or 12);
The energies of these alphas and protons are adjusted so that they are in the optimum range to produce helium-S 1 (allowing for the method of collision) and they are guided (electrically, magnetically or both) so that they interact one or more of the following ways:
There is one-pass crossing of the two beams; Repeated crossing such as in storage ring(s), where the relative energies of the two beams and their relative directions of motions are arranged (acceleration, deceleration) so that the interaction energy is optimized for helium-5 f production;
When a lithium-5 1 nucleus is produced, it would no longer follow the same orbits as the protons or alphas, and so it may be guided by one or more: electrically, magnetically, mechanically, for detection and/or collection, using a mass spectrometer if necessary.
17. Apparatus to bring together order-charge protons and lithium-5 t within a small enough distance and a small enough energy range that they may bind together to produce order- charge bound states of beryllium-ό 1^ by means of reaction (22) as in the relevant claims above, which consists of a suitable source of protons, a target (moving or stationary) of lithium-S 1 , and if required a method of separating the beryllium-ό^ probably off-line probably by chemical means, including items from claim 14 as required, which may take at least one of the following forms:
A. Slow neutrons from a reactor are directed into a beryllium-7 foil to make order- charged protons by reaction (11), which are slowed as required, by range-energy losses and/or by deceleration and directed onto a lithium-S* target (eg figure 3A);
B. Slow neutrons from a reactor are directed into a helium-3 target to make order- charged protons by reaction (12), which are slowed as required, by range-energy losses and/or by deceleration and directed onto a lithium-S 1 target (eg figure 3B).
18. Apparatus to bring together two or more order-charged alpha particles within a small enough distance and a small enough energy range (which is large enough to overcome enough of the Coulomb barrier to get within the range of the order force so that it may create the order- charge bound state, but not so much energy as to exceed the break-up energy of that state) so that they may bind together to produce order-charge bound states of beryllium-8 t by means of reaction (23) as in the relevant claims above, which consists of a suitable source of order charged alpha particles and if required a method of separating the beryllium-δ 1 , probably offline probably by chemical means, including items from claim 14 as required, which may take at least one of the following forms:
A. Beryllium-δ 1 may be made in a nuclear reactor and may be separated in-line (eg with a mass-spectrometer) or off-line chemically, by means of a mass-spectrometer, or both if required, from the materials within the reactor including waste products (eg figure 4A);
B Production by passing order-charged alphas through an order charge separator (eg figure 4B) in which:
Any source of order-charged alphas such as waste gases from a nuclear reactor, or from reactions (17) or (18) (where slow neutrons, for example from a reactor, are directed onto a target of boron- 10 or lithium-6); These alphas are then focused, decelerated, accelerated as required into an order charge separator, which separates the order-charged ones from those which are order-neutral, and then focuses the former in the collection area, where provided they come together close enough and in the right energy range, they may combine to form beryllium-δ^
C. Nuclear reactor and an order-charged helium-4 target (eg figure 4C) in which:
Slow neutrons from a nuclear reactor are directed into a boron- 10 (or lithium- 6) target where they produce order-charged alphas according to reaction (17) (or 18);
If necessary the alphas are slowed by range-energy losses and/or decelerated They are then directed into the target of order-charged helium-4, where they may combine;
D. Nuclear reactor with boron- 10 (or lithium-6) target(s) (eg figure 4D) in which:
Slow neutrons from the reactor are directed onto the boron-10 (or lithium-6) target(s) in such a way as to produce two beams of order-charged alphas;
These beams are arranged to cross each other, so that they may interact and produce beryllium^;
One or more of focusing, acceleration, deceleration may be used to increase the probability of interaction;
In-line collection of beryllium^ using a beam stop or a mass spectrometer or both;
E. Colliding beams of order-charged alphas (eg figure 4E) in which:
One or two beams of order-charged alphas are produced by directing slow neutrons from a reactor onto one or two targets of boron-10 (or lithium-6); The beam(s) is/are then guided into device which causes the alphas to repeatedly cross their trajectories, which may be implemented in one or more of several ways:
By means of a cyclotron magnet, where the alphas are kept in orbit by a magnetic field, which may contain deliberate perturbation(s) to "pinch" the orbit(s) so as to increase the probability of interaction; By means of a colliding beam device or two race tracks in which each beam is guided to cross the other repeatedly, either in opposite directions (head-on collisions) or similar directions (apart from the crossing angle) so as to produce collisions with relatively low interaction energy;
By means of a figure-of-eight race track where by a single beam of order-charged alphas is directed to repeatedly cross itself in the same direction (apart from the crossing angle);
Methods of extracting, separating and collecting the beryllium-8 t produced, for example, in the case of beams crossing in the same direction, apart from the crossing angle, the beryllium-δ 1 ions will be emitted tangentially to both beams, thereby avoiding deflection back into the race track(s), so that they may be collected possibly with deceleration in a bottle, or on a beam stop for subsequent use or chemical separation.
19. Apparatus to bring together order-charged protons alpha particles and beryllium-δ 1 within a small enough energy range that they may bind together to produce order-charge bound states of boron-9 f by means of reaction (24) as in the relevant claims above, which consists of a suitable source of order charged protons, beryllium-δ 1 already prepared, and possibly carrying extra order charge, and if required a method of separating the boron-9 t , probably off-line probably by chemical means, including items from claim 14 as required, which may take at least one of the following forms:
Slow neutrons from a reactor are directed onto a foil of beryllium-7 (or target of helium-3) to produce order-charged protons via reaction (11) (or 12) (eg figs 5A, B);
Their energy is adjusted to be within the required range by one or more of the following means: range-energy losses, deceleration, acceleration, focusing;
They are directed onto the target of beryllium-8 t , which could be a beam of beryllium-β^, to form boron-9 f ;
Separation of the boron-9 f either by mass spectrometer or by chemical means.
20. Apparatus for producing order-charged deuterons from reactions (15), (16), (26) or (45) or by other means, as in the above relevant claims, and bringing them close together within the appropriate energy range (so that they overcome the Coulomb repulsion sufficiently that they are bound by the order force but not so energetically that they exceed the break-up energy of that state) so that they may fuse and release energy, which may be collected or extracted as required, including items in claim 14 as required, in which order-charged deuterons are produced by one or more of the following means:
A nuclear reactor or an alpha source with a beryllium-9 target (reaction 10) followed by a moderator, is used to provide slow neutrons to produce order-charged deuterons by means of reactions (15) or (26) (eg figure 6A or 6C);
Or using fast neutrons (produced for example by bombarding uranium-235 with slow neutrons or from fission of a radioactive source such as uranium-238, or those produced using an alpha source to bombard beryllium-9 as in reaction 10), which are directed onto a target of boron- 10 to produce order-charged deuterons by reaction
(16) (eg figures 6B or 6D);
An accelerator to produce protons which are directed onto a beryllium-9 target to produce order-charged deuterons (eg figure 6E);
A radioactive gamma source to produce order-charged deuterons by reaction (45).
21. Apparatus to bring together deuterons, whether order-charged or not, at the appropriate respective energies (in the optimum energy range for order-charged deuterons to form helium- 4 f , and high enough to have a reasonable probability of fusion in the case of ordinary deuterons) and distances that they may fuse and thereby release energy which is removed by suitable heat transfer devices, as in the claims above, including items from claim 14 as required, which may take any of the following forms:
A. A beam of order-charged deuterons whose energy is adjusted to the optimum range by range-energy loss, deceleration or both, or acceleration if required, is directed into a target of order-charged deuterons which is surrounded by an heat exchanger to remove excess heat (eg figure 6F);
B. Two beams of order-charged deuterons, who's energy is adjusted to the optimum range by acceleration or deceleration with focusing if required, are arranged to cross where they interact and fuse and the energy released may be removed by a heat exchange (eg figure 6G);
C. One or two beams of deuterons, either order charged or not, are directed into a ring or rings where the deuterons are kept circulating in a ring or rings and directed to cross their paths at one or more interaction points as in a low-energy version of a particle physics storage ring, except that the electromagnets may be replaced by permanent magnets;
D. A beam of deuterons, either order-charged or not, with corresponding appropriate energies, is fed into a figure-of-eight device where the single beam is guided to cross itself repeatedly, using permanent magnets if possible, in such a way that significant numbers of deuterons fuse and energy is extracted.
22. Order catalyzed fusion by means of reactions 32 to 43 inclusive or variants thereof, according to the above relevant claims, in which external order charges (ie not attached directly to the reactants) and their resulting order fields bring reactants closer together, whether order charged or not, so that the probability that the reactants fuse is enhanced, but after fusing the external charges are available to catalyze further reactants, together with a supply of reactants and an apparatus to facilitate the same, including items from claim 14 as required, and including removal of excess heat if required (eg figures 7 A and 7B).
23. Order catalyzed fusion device as in the above relevant claims in which order charges are inserted or embedded into matter, solid materials or structures to support said charges, or order-charge fabricated states of matter, or both, are arranged so as to create certain form(s), patterns, spacial arrangements of order charges and hence the resulting order fields which enhance the probability of fusion for reactants in close proximity to said charges and/or their fields, for example where order-charged particles are embedded in a material which is not porous to said particles, but which is porous to reactants, so reactants can penetrate into the fusion catalyzing regions.
24. Apparatus to catalyze fusion reactions, as in the relevant claims above, in which order charged alphas and/or order-charged nuclei such as lithium-6, are embedded (eg by ion bombardment from a source or accelerator) into palladium which is porous to hydrogen isotopes, so that hydrogen isotopes may be introduced into the order-charge catalyzing regions and fusion may be catalyzed according to reactions 25, 28, 29, 31 or 32, 33, 34, 36 (including variations of these reactions because the catalyzation process may alter the final states (eg by absorption of energy and/or balancing of momenta by said field(s)), resulting in emission of orderons and/or photons instead of neutron(s) and/or proton(s)), for example as in figure 7C, where palladium or other material impregnated with order charge(s) in such a way as to create region(s) where the probability of fusion is enhanced, and this may be used in a cold-fusion device to receive reactants and fuse them thereby converting it into an order- catalyzed fusion device, including items from claim 14 as required, and where excess heat is removed by a heat exchanger or cooling system and may be used for heating, generating electricity or otherwise to do work.
25. Apparatus or devices to bring about order-catalyzed fusion, as in the relevant claims above, may suffer damage caused by radiation which may need to be repaired, and also may experience build-up of end-products, such as helium in the palladium lattice, which may block or poison the fusion catalyzing regions, which could be dealt with in one or more of the following ways:
Clogging materials could be removed on-line, off-line, continuously or in batches; The clogged materials could be treated to drive off excess products, rebuilt order charges and catalyzing regions if necessary or create new ones either intermittently or continuously;
Palladium could be heated to drive off helium isotopes, but this could disturb the order charge if it is attached to alpha particles, and so it may be necessary to attach the order charge to other kinds of embedded nuclei which are not affected by the heat treatment, furthermore it may be necessary to rebuild the order-charge structures from time-to-time either in-line or off-line for example by swapping used palladium with refurbished palladium, which might be done by rotating the components so that they may be moved out of active use to refurbishment and then back again as required. |
ORDER FORCE EFFECTS, STATES AND REACTIONS
This invention concerns order-force and/or order-charged or impregnated states of matter and/or order-induced reactions and/or reactions made possible by order-charged states of matter, and/or otherwise unstable states which are bound by order charge, and/or new states of matter created by the same, and/or interactions stimulated by the order charge. However, this invention is not limited to these fields and also concerns physics including nuclear physics, chemistry, elementary particle physics (or high energy physics), theoretical physics including string theory, and the discovery of a new force of nature which we call the "order force". This discovery impacts upon other fields of science and technology and other areas of human knowledge and thought. (The order force has already been briefly described in UK patent number 2243786 {International patent number WO 99/10895 Order Charge Separation and Order-Charge type Separation). When we use the term "order charge separator" we are referring to devices described in that patent). We will give further evidence for the existence of this force below.
The existence of the order force, with a coupling constant approximately six times stronger than electromagnetism, being the same strength as the unified field, opens up a range of new phenomena. The fourier transform of this force is a nuclear force, which affects hadrons (protons, neutrons, alpha particles and nuclei), when they carry the order charge. It has been discovered in halo nuclei, where it causes a neutron(s) or proton(s) to orbit outside a core nucleus, a bit like the electron in a hydrogen atom, but on a smaller scale. In order to use the order force, one has to have sources of the order charge, and so the first part of the invention consists of sources of order charge. The second part of the invention consists of ways to make new order-charged states of matter, such as order-charged protons, neutrons, deuterons, and alphas, the reactions and apparatuses to make them. The third part of the invention concerns the use of the order charge to make stable states of matter which previously were unstable. For example, if a neutron and alpha particle come together to form helium-5, they will normally fly apart in about lO "21 seconds because the state is unstable with the release of energy. However, if an order-charged neutron and an order-charged alpha particle come together in the right way, they may form a stable form of helium-5, which is actually a halo nucleus. The invention includes these new stable states of matter, which will have unusual properties, the reactions to produce them, and the apparatuses to bring these about and separate them where required. The fourth and fifth parts of the invention concern the use of the order force to overcome the coulomb barrier and facilitate reactions which normally would not occur at low energies, the reactions themselves, the energy released (if any) and the apparatuses necessary to bring this about.
Background: Fundamental Physics
The background to this invention is to be found in physics. Since World War II, of order $100 billion has been spent on elementary particle or high energy physics (HEP) research. There are major research installations at CERN near Geneva, Batavia, Illinois, Stanford, California, DESY near Hamburg, in Russia and Japan, and possibly elsewhere. The particle accelerators are up to 22 kilometres in circumference. This is big science, yet it regularly produces Nobel prize winners because it is the core of modern physics. Furthermore, most major universities are involved in this research. Since World War II several hundred new (mainly unstable) states of matter have been discovered. Originally these were called "elementary particles", but in recent decades it has been realized that most of them are made from quarks, which appear to be the more fundamental form of matter (even though one cannot produce isolated quarks). Physicists have also discovered "new" forces: the electro- weak and colour (strong) interactions. Also new theories have been discovered such as QED, QCD, electro- weak theory and string theory.
As a result of this research over more than fifty years, physicists have discovered a new ultra microscopic world which is smaller in extent than an atom by the inverse of the same factor (approximately 10 20 ) that the solar system is larger than an atom. In other words, there is a whole inner world between 10 '8 cms and 10 28 cms. In their quest for the origins of matter, physicists have found more than they expected. Smallness is not nothing, but an inner world which contains strange phenomena such as quarks, higher dimensions and the unified field. It has also given rise to string theory which is widely seen as being the greatest intellectual achievement of humanity. At the same time, this knowledge seems to have found no practical use.
Einstein maintained that we live in one Universe and so it should be described by one set of equations. He called this the Unified Field theory. String theory is widely believed to be this theory and is now often called the Theory of Everything, because it is believed to be the theory of all dimensions, all spaces, all forces, all particles of matter and all energy in the Universe. String theory is so important that we will discuss it below.
This academic research is published openly and is widely available. However, some of it is very difficult to understand (ie 11 dimensional mathematics) and it does not seem to have any practical applications and so there is no HEP industry. Thus there are few if any patents in this field, and the patent examiner may not be familiar with this large body of knowledge or its technical jargon. One of the problems of science is that it tells us what we know, not what we don't know, which biasses our minds. If we do not know what is already known, then they may be doubly biassed.
The author and inventor has a doctorate in elementary particle physics from Oxford University, had a Royal Society European Exchange Fellowship which he took up at the University of Bologna, and has worked at CERN, the University of Virginia and Los Alamos National Laboratory, where he reported to J Keyworth who became President Reagan's science advisor. He has published or co-authored more than 50 papers (one of which had the sixth highest citation rate of all the papers published in science in 1972). The inventor has worked alongside Nobel prize winners. The inventor has applied his knowledge and experience to discover the order force and to this invention. There is thus a vast amount of research, knowledge and experience behind this invention, quite a lot of which the examiner may not be familiar with. There is real hard evidence for the order force and it can be related to existing theory.
The history of forces in physics is interesting. Newton discovered action at a distance and formulated his theory of gravitation, which united celestial and terrestrial gravitation in one theory. Two hundred years later, Faraday's experimental work on electricity and magnetism led Maxwell to unify these two forces into a single set of equations for electromagnetism, which predicted radio waves and led to radio and a lot of modern technology.
In the first half of the 20th century, the strong and weak nuclear forces were recognized, making (with gravity and electromagnetism) four known forces of nature. In the 1960s to 80s, the weak interaction was unified with electromagnetism to make the electro- weak interaction. In the 1980s, the first version of string theory was developed which united all these forces in the unified field.
Not many physicists know that physics did not start with Copernicus and Galileo, but in fact can be traced back to Robert Grosseteste, the first Chancellor of Oxford University in about 1214 {Robert Grosseteste and the origins of experimental science 1100-1700, by A C Crombie, Oxford University Press, 1953). Ockham's razor is known to most physicists, and is named after William of Ockham (circa 1285 to 1349). This is evidence for the earlier origins of science, because he lived some 300 years before Galileo (1564 to 1642). Ockham's razor is the smoking gun. In the first 300 years from the 13th to the 16th centuries, science was developed within the framework of Christian neoplatonism as required by the Church. Galileo rejected this, but a number of physicists are beginning to think that platonism is the correct philosophy of physics (Shadows of the Mind by Roger Penrose, Vintage 1995). One reason for this is because string theory appears to be the mathematics of Christian Neoplatonism. For example, the unified field could be spirit.
String theory is very important because it provides a framework for uniting relativity and quantum mechanics in a single coherent theory. Whilst these two theories have been very precise, philosophically they seem to describe different universes (one which changes smoothly, the other in jumps). Thus linking together quantum mechanics and relativity into a single theory is a very important step, which offers deeper insights into nature.
For example one can only unify relativity and quantum mechanics in a universe with at least ten dimensions. Physicists believe that the six higher dimensions are folded up very tightly in space all round us, and this is now accepted by most physicists. Physicists have found experimentally that there is a hierarchy of forces which go back to the unified field at very high energies (10 16 GeV) corresponding to very short distances. It is believed that the higher dimensions are associated with this. Furthermore, in string theory the Universe is created from the top (ie the unified field) downwards instead of from the bottom up which science has traditionally favoured.
String theory is a complete theory of all dimensions, all spaces, all forces, all particles and
energy. It is thus widely believed to be the Theory of Everything, the current name for Einstein's Unified Field theory. Furthermore, it is completely geometrical, which Einstein would have approved of. Even the elementary particles of matter are no longer point-like, but vibrating strings of space- time. Different vibrations in the loop correspond to different particles of matter, a bit like the Ancient Greeks envisioned it. There is even a version of string theory which predicts the existence of the order force with the same strength as that observed. I have found experimental evidence for such a force in nuclei and in sunlight and other areas.
Background: the Order Force
Physicists divide particles into three categories: hadrons, leptons and bosons. Hadrons are strongly interacting particles like neutrons, protons, pions and so on, and also nuclear matter (also called hadronic matter). These particles have been found to be made of quarks. The leptons are electrons, muons and neutrinos, which are not strongly interacting (they interact via the electro- weak interaction) and do not appear to be composite particles (although that is not completely ruled out).
Bosons are the particles which propagate a force. Forces are also divided into two classes, non-abelian and abelian, depending on whether their bosons carry their charge or not. For example, photons are the bosons of electromagnetism, and they do not carry the electric charge. Therefore photons do not interact very much with each other and you can shine one beam of light through another without them interacting noticeably. Electromagnetism is said to be an abelian force.
Non-abelian forces are different because their bosons carry the charge of the force and so interact. Gluons are the bosons of the strong colour interaction, and they carry colour-anti-colour charge pairs, and so interact strongly. As a result they may form complex networks of interacting gluons. Furthermore, at low energies the strong interaction coupling constant is greater than one: α s > 1, so > α s so the more that the gluons interact, the stronger the interaction becomes. As a result gluons have a self-limiting range and confine themselves within a distance of order 1 fermi (10 15 m) of the source of the colour charge (normally a quark). If a gluon field could be separated from a quark, it would continue to limit itself in this way, and confine itself as a "glueball".
The evidence I have is that the order force charge is carried by hadrons (it may also be carried by leptons, but I do not have evidence for this), such as neutrons, protons, alpha particles and other nuclear matter. It is actively involved in nuclear interactions but it is not one of the known nuclear forces and is not limited to short ranges or nuclei only.
The author has found evidence for this new force of nature in halo nuclei. The reader will recall that normal nuclei are like a liquid drop, with a constant density throughout the volume of the nucleus to its surface, where the density falls very rapidly to zero. Halo nuclei are unlike other nuclei in that they do not have a sharply defined surface, and the density of nuclear matter falls to zero much more slowly than for a normal nucleus over a distance of order 10 fermis. There is evidence that there are quasi-free nucleons beyond the surface of a core nucleus, hence the slow decrease in density. The nuclear force has a short range of about fιlm τ = 1.4 fermi which cuts off very rapidly with distance due to the large mass of the pion which transmits this force - hence the well-defined surface of a normal nucleus. The problem with halo nuclei is that there are nucleons beyond the range of the nuclear force and so they are unbound. The question is what keeps them there. One possible explanation is that the nucleons are due to the tail of their wave function penetrating beyond the surface of the core nucleus where they are actually bound, so giving them a finite probability of being beyond the nuclear surface. This is a well-known quantum mechanical effect, a bit like tunnelling, except that the nucleon remains bound.
There is however a problem with this, because there is clear evidence for proton halos (ie a proton outside a core nucleus), and protons would experience a Coulomb (ie electrostatic) repulsion which would force them away from the core nucleus. In other words, once a proton is outside the surface of the core nucleus and so beyond the range of the nuclear force, it would be repelled from it by the Coulomb repulsion. This can happen even if they are bound strongly to a nucleus as is an alpha particle, and in fact this is the standard theory of alpha particle decay due to Gamow. In this theory, a positively charged alpha particle tunnels through the potential well of the nucleus and once outside the nucleus, it experiences the Coulomb repulsion and is repelled from the nucleus. Gamow's theory successfully explains alpha-particle decay and accounts for the range of life times differing by a factor of 10 25 . Therefore one would expect a proton outside the surface of a core nucleus to be
similarly repelled from it (ie proton decay) and not to be bound to it as a halo.
However, proton halos are observed, and so the only way to explain their existence is if there is a force which overcomes the Coulomb repulsion and binds the proton to the core nucleus. In order to test this hypothesis, the author made a model of a halo nucleus like an hydrogen atom except that the electron is replaced by a nucleon (neutron or proton) and the electrostatic attraction is replaced by a new central potential strong enough to bind it stably.
It is not appropriate to present all the evidence for the existence of this force here, so we just outline the reasoning. We assume a halo nucleus consists of a neutron or a proton orbiting a core nucleus under the influence of a new force of nature, of unknown strength. We present the quantum mechanical equations for this below. We have then calculated the strength of the force required to bind various halo nuclei. If the same strength force is required to bind both neutrons and protons (allowing for the electrostatic repulsion for the latter), for a number of different halo nuclei, then this would be evidence for the existence of this force. We present a summary of these results below. Background: Neutron Halo Nuclei
We consider a neutron halo nucleus to be a two body system, for example the halo nucleus "Be consists of a core of 10 Be orbited by a single neutron. The Hamiltonian for this neutron halo nucleus can then be written as follows:
E = C N C n a c m r c2 (2)
2n 2 If we solve this for the coupling constant of the force required to bind the neutron, we get:
We can then use the values for the energy levels of neutron halo nuclei to determine the coupling constant α c . In order to do this we have to choose the quantum numbers unambiguously. For the ground state of a halo nucleus, n = 1 (n = 2 for the first excited state, etc). The simplest choice on probability grounds for the charge quantum numbers is C n = C N = 1. This minimum set of quantum numbers is unambiguous. In this way we calculated the results for a number of halo nuclei and these are summarized below.
Background: Proton Halo Nuclei
A proton halo nucleus is different because the proton outside the core nucleus will also experience an electrostatic repulsion from the core. Thus the potential energy will be given by:
C N C n a c hc + Zαftc (4)
V(r) = -
where Z is the electric charge on the core nucleus, and a is the fine structure constant. The proton will only be bound if the attraction due to this new force is greater than the Coulomb repulsion:
C ■ Ά λ γ r C_α > Za. (5)
If we put the above potential into the Hamiltonian for this protonic hydrogen atom and solve
the corresponding Schrόdinger equation, we obtain the following energy level spectrum: m e*
E n = (-C N C a a c + Za) 2 -^- ( 6)
If we solve this subject to the condition (5) above for bound states, we find:
The quantum numbers are determined as for the neutrons, except that equation (5) provides an additional constraint. Historically we first calculated a value for α c from two neutron halos, and then used this value to determine the quantum numbers for three proton halos using equation (5). Then several years later when new data became available, we used the values of a c obtained from the old data to determine the quantum numbers for the new proton data, which meant that the calculations became progressively more precise. Background: Results
If we find that the same strength force is required to bind both neutrons and protons in a number of different halo nuclei, then this is good evidence that this force exists.
When I first did this calculation some years ago, I only had data for five nuclei, two neutron halos and three proton halos. These agreed within the errors, especially the proton data were very self-consistent. For the concept of a new force to be valid, the data have to require one force with the same strength to explain both the proton and neutron halos, even though the Coulomb repulsion acts on the protons and not on the neutrons. These five halo states did indeed give this result, and so this was then preliminary evidence that the hypothesis of a single force to bind each of these different halo nuclear states was correct. Furthermore, these results could not be explained in terms of any known force, and so this was evidence for a new force of nature.
Several colleagues in the physics community have looked at these results and found no fault. However, they were never published, possibly because the statistical significance was a bit low.
Last year I found more data. I then repeated the calculations for 11 more halo nuclei. We now have results from 16 halo nuclei (6 neutron halos and 10 protons halos), and the results are completely consistent with the previous results within the errors, as shown in table 1:
Table 1 : Comparison of Results from Old and New Data Old Data New Data δα c o£ 0.038 ± 0.005 0.04504 ± 0.00758 -0.0070 ± 0.0091 al 0.0464 ± 0.002 0.04622 ± 0.00473 0.0002 ± 0.0051 δa c -0.0084 ± 0.0054 -0.00118 ± 0.00893 where α° is the coupling constant for this new force derived from the neutron halo data, and αj! that from the proton halo data, and α c when both types of data are combined.
If we look at the original data, we see that the neutron and proton data agree approximately (1.6σ). If we look at the new data, we see that the neutron and proton data agree much more precisely. If we then compare the old and new data, we see that they also agree very well, especially the proton data. If one thinks about it, neutrons can stray into the core nucleus and so be affected by the nuclear force as well, but protons are effectively excluded by the Coulomb repulsion, so the normal nuclear force does not affect them, and so the results of the calculations will be more accurate for protons, as is observed. The fact that the same strength force is required to bind both neutrons and protons for so many halo nuclei, is good evidence for the existence of this new force.
In effect, the results from the original calculations on the old data make a prediction. The results from the new data confirm that prediction and triple the statistical significance of the results. These results show that the old data and new data agree within the errors. Thus one single force is required to explain the six neutron halos and the ten proton halos. This confirms our hypothesis that these data require a new force of nature to explain them. We may thus average the results from the old and new data:
a a c = 0.04266 ± 0.00730 for 6 neutron halo nuclei a p c = 0.04628 ± 0.00393 for 10 proton halo nuclei α c = 0.04493 ± 0.00551 for all 16 states
This is convincing evidence that one needs a unique force with a coupling constant of α c = 0.0449 ± 0.0055 to bind neutrons and protons into halos around the core nuclei.
Properties of the Order Force
The coupling constant of this new force is α c ~ 0.0449. We do not present the evidence here, but it is a curious fact that this is the same strength as that of the unified field, as determined at the LEP at CERN, within the experimental errors. Furthermore, a version of string theory predicts that the order force comes directly from the unified field with this strength. It also predicts that this force is non-abelian, a bit like the colour interaction, so that its bosons, the orderons, can interact with each other. They may thus form self-interacting networks as do gluons, except that they are not confined (to hadrons or the nucleus) and can be more spatially extensive. The properties of these networks of orderons have not yet been properly established, but there is evidence that they exist and they are definitely complex and unusual.
The order force does not interact with electrons, at least not directly, because it is not an electromagnetic force. There are reasons to believe that most nuclei are not charged with the order charge and so they are "order-neutral".
The order force is about 6.1 times stronger than electromagnetism, but its range is not infinite like electro-magnetism, rather it appears to be limited. I have evidence that it acts over distances of a few fermis up to a few tens of microns. This is sufficient range for it to catalyse processes from nuclear distances to molecular distances, and in fact since ajcx ~ 6.1 it can overcome the coulomb barrier between nuclei.
Background: Predictions
The existence of the order force leads to all kinds of interesting results. In table 2 we show an extract from the table of isotopes. You will see that it lists five unstable isotopes, which decay rapidly by the strong interaction, because these states are not bound. The mass of each isotope exceeds that of its decay products, and so it requires energy to make these states, and they promptly decay.
Table 2: Extract from Isotope Tables
Isotope Mass Lifetime Decay Q (M
A mode
5 He 5.0123 2XlO 21 S n,α 0.964
5 Li 5.0125 10 "21 S p,α 1.798
6 Be 6.0198 > 4XlO 21 S 2p,α 1.174 2 8 Be 8.0053 3xl0 16 s 2α 0.098
9 B 9.01333 > 3xlO 19 s p,2α 0.051
' Energy released in these decays. These states are unstable because Q > 0.
2 This state is stable for the decay (p, 5 Li) (Q = -0.624 MeV), but 5 Li is unstable.
However, if the constituents carry the order charge it will bind them into stable states, which are halo nuclei, as shown in table 3.
Table 3: Stable Isotopes and Metastable States created by Order Charge
System m r n zZα C N CJ 1 S (MeV) Q (
(n c +α c )→ ? He t 750.46 1 0 1 0.756
(p c +α c )→ 5 Li t 750.04 1 0.0146 1 0.344
(P^ 5 LiV 6 Be 1 781.73 1 0.0219 1 0.207
(α c -l-aVBe 1 1864.2 1 0.0292 1 0.263
(p c , 8 Be c HB f 833.92 1 0.0292 1 0.103
(D c + D 0 HHe^ 4 He 938.07 1 0.0073 1 0.663 23.85
(α c + 8 Be 0 H 2 CW 2 C 2485.6 1 0.0584 2 1.226 7.36
' The minimum value for C N C π which satisfies equation (5).
2 Order charge will shift the masses slightly so therefore the Q-values are approximate.
3 The second proton will probably have to carry order charge for this state to be stable.
where C N C 1 , has the minimum value required to satisfy the condition C N C n α c > zZα, so that the state is bound. The separation energy, S, is then calculated from equation 6. The order force thus creates stable states, similar to unstable isotopes, except that they are halo nuclei. The elements made from these will then have interesting properties both because these isotopes do not exist, and because their nuclei are bound by the order force. In more detail:
1. If a neutron and alpha particle each carry one order charge and they are reasonably close together, they will be drawn into an order-charge bound halo state of "helium-5", which we denote by helium^ or 5 He f . (We were tempted to use an asterisk as 5 He*, but this implies an excited state, so we chose f instead.)
2. If a proton and an alpha particle each carry one order charge, and they are close enough together, they will be drawn into a bound state of lithium-S*.
3. If this lithium-5 1 is close enough to a normal proton, then they could combine to produce beryllium-6 1 , with the release energy. However, the energy released (about 0.624 MeV) is greater than the separation energy and so some or all of the states so produced may be broken up. Furthermore, this nucleus consists of a normal proton, an order-charged proton and an alpha particle. So there is a finite probability that the alpha particle would form normal lithium-5 with the normal proton, which is unstable and it would then decay. The solution to this is to make this state from order-charged protons.
4. If two order-charged alpha particles are brought together they will orbit each other in a bound form of beryllium-8 t more like positronium than a normal halo nucleus.
5. If this beryllium-8 t is combined with an order-charged proton the state boron-9 f may form. All of these states depend for their stability upon the order charge to bind them. There are two exceptions to this, helium-4 and carbon-12 shown at the bottom of the table. If two order- charged deuterons are brought close enough together, they will attract each other and go into orbit around each other, like positronium. However, an alpha particle is a deeply bound stable state, and nearly 24 MeV is released when two deuterons fuse together to form one. Normally this cannot happen easily because of the Coulomb barrier. It is true that the deuterons bound by the order charge are held apart by the Coulomb repulsion. However, they may reverse-tunnel (ie tunnel inwards) through the electrostatic barrier to form an alpha particle. This reaction may occur without the emission of a neutron, but it will require the emission of orderon(s) and/or photon(s) to conserve energy and momentum, and carry off the energy released.
The other exoergic reaction occurs when an order-charged alpha particle comes reasonably close to a beryllium-8 state carrying an extra order charge. These will form a halo-nuclear state which will reverse tunnel to carbon-12, because it is the energetically preferred state. Again some excess energy will be carried away by orderon(s) and/or photon(s) which will also conserve energy and momentum.
It is interesting to note that there is a problem with the formation of carbon-12 in stars, because at first sight it requires the spontaneous fusion of three alpha particles, which is very unlikely to occur in the small time-window required. If three alpha particles could fuse simultaneously to form carbon-12, then they would release 7.266 MeV of energy. It was pointed out by Fred Hoy Ie that if there is an excited state of carbon-12 near this energy, then the resonance with this excited state would make this reaction much more likely to occur, thereby facilitating the manufacture of carbon in stars. An excited state of carbon-12 was found at 7.65 MeV and the discoverers duly won the Nobel Prize, which was a bit tough on Fred Hoy Ie who had predicted it. The scientific community was content that this problem was solved. But is it?
If we look carefully again at the figures, you will see that the rest energy of the three alpha particles is (7.65 - 7.266) = 0.384 MeV below that of the resonance. The temperature in a star will provide some kinetic energy to bring the energies of the alphas closer to this resonance, but there is quite a gap to jump. 0.384 MeV corresponds to a temperature of 4.5XlO 9 0 K, and even if you divide this by three, it requires a star with a temperature of 1.5xlO 9 0 K to have alphas at the right energy to be on this resonance. Of course they don't have to be exactly on this resonance, but the farther they are away, the less likely the reaction will be. The problem is that the temperature of the core of the sun is only 1.5xlO 7 0 K, which is too cool by a factor of 100, which makes one wonder if this really is the mechanism whereby carbon is produced. Order charge provides a different mechanism for carbon production in stars. Which process is the dominant one will require much more detailed
calculations.
Description of the Inventions
There are a number of inventions which may be divided into several categories, each of which may contain one or more inventions, which may stand alone as separate inventions, or which may be combined together with other inventions to make more complete inventions (eg sources of order charged matter combined to effect certain reactions). The categories of inventions are as follows:
I. Sources of the order force and/or order charge including order-charged states of matter, either natural or man-made, such as n c , p c , α ς or other order-charged states.
II. Order-charge bound states of matter: such as those shown in table 3.
III. The reactions required to produce these order-charge bound states and/or any other order- charge facilitated reactions, and/or the associated apparatuses to bring about these reactions.
IV. Order-charge induced fusion reactions, some of which are shown in table 3 above.
V. Order catalyzed fusion.
There is evidence that order charge and/or the order force play important roles in living organisms and hence medicine, and the inventor has been developing a new system of medical therapy using the order force. Thus order-charged states of matter and order-bound states of matter such as those in table 3, will have important medical and consciousness applications. Furthermore, the new states of matter make available new isotopes which will have applications in physics, chemistry, materials science, and work involving unusual isotopes, as a tracer, substitute or a new chemical substance, etc. They may also be found occurring naturally in certain minerals, and they may be used to make new states of mineral otherwise similar to existing minerals but using one or more order- bound and/or charged elements. Also the fusion reactions which produce energy may have important applications for just that purpose, but see below.
We now present the inventions in more detail. I. Sources of order force, order charge and order-charged states of matter.
In order to use the order force, one has to have a source of it, whether as the order field, order charge, orderons or some combination of the same. The primary source of the order force is the unified field. In a sense, the order force is an extension to longer ranges of the unified field. For the purposes of this invention, the order force is synonymous with the unified field, since they have the same strength to within the experimental errors. This arises because there is little or no symmetry breaking, and as a result the order force has properties similar to that of the unified field.
There are both natural sources of the order force and man-made sources. In the natural state it primarily occurs as order charge and orderons. We will consider the former first.
Order charge occurs naturally in certain nuclei, and possibly all nuclei. However, most nuclei on the earth appear to be order-neutral, and so are not a direct source of order charge. However, certain nuclei are radioactive and emit particles such as alpha particles, neutrons, nuclear fragments, protons, pions or other particles which may carry order charge. However, some of these are not so common (ie pion decay), others such as electrons, neutrinos (and their respective anti-particles) and photons probably do not carry order charge but will not be excluded if it is later found that they do so. The most readily available and practical sources of order charge are likely to be alpha particles, some of which carry order charge, neutrons, and fission products, for example from reactors which produce large fluxes of neutrons. Fission of heavy nuclei produces neutrons and lighter isotopes, some of which may carry order charge.
Sunlight is a natural source of orderons, as opposed to the order charge. Orderons from sunlight can be collected and "stored", eg in water. It is known that sunlight also contains small fluxes of protons and alpha particles, and copious neutrinos, which pass right through the earth and probably do not carry the order charge. It is possible that some of the protons and alphas bring order charge to the earth, but if they do so, the flux is low especially at the earth's surface and it is not of much practical use. Order charge may also exist in living organisms, but getting it in a form suitable for use may be difficult and in some cases unethical.
Order charge can also be produced artificially. For example, any kind of nuclear and/or particle interaction can cause hadronic matter to produce order-charged fragments. Thus particle accelerators or nuclear reactors can produce order-charged states of matter. (It may be possible to
produce order charge free of any matter, but that has not been observed yet, except for the orderons which carry order-charge-anti-order-charge pairs, and so their properties are different from free order charges because the anti-charge cancels most of the effect of the charge.) A particle accelerator, device, apparatus and/or material of any type which can cause nuclear interactions or elementary particle interactions, can be used to produce order charge. But the cost is likely to be high and the currents and hence yields tend to be low, and so this is not a very economical way to produce order charge. Nuclear reactors already exist for other purposes and can be used to produce order charge. The helium from the alphas from reactors will carry some order charge.
In addition to these natural and man-made sources of order charge, order charge may be separated from order-neutral matter and as a result concentrated. (This is the subject of UK patent number 2243786 (International patent number WO 99/10895 "Order Charge Separation and Order- Charge type Separation) already mentioned.) An order charge separator is then a source of order charge.
Sources of order charge are: a. Alpha particles, especially from radioactive decay or a reactor. b. Fission neutrons and/or fragments, and/or neutrons and/or other products from a reactor. c. Other radioactive decay products. d. Nuclear and/or particle interactions of any kind, including spallation reactions, whether brought about by a reactor, a particle accelerator, a storage ring and/or radioactive source, and/or natural radioactivity or cosmic rays, or some combination of the same, and/or order-charged and/or order-bound states from one or more of the same. e. Crystals and/or minerals and/or pleochroic halos. f. Living or once living matter and/or organisms and/or tissues. g. Halo nuclei or nuclei bound or partially bound by order charge where the order charge can be separated out in some way, such as by nuclear and/or particle interactions including stripping reactions, and/or the charge transferred to target particle(s). h. Any one or more of the sources of order charge, whether listed above or not, which may or may not be processed by an order charge separator to concentrate the order charge.
Radioactive sources have the advantage that they can readily supply order-charged states of matter such as alpha particles, but the fraction of these particles carrying the order charge is not known and is probably less than 100% and may be significantly less than that. One can obtain a more concentrated source of order-charge from an order-charge separator. The output from the separator can be supplied directly to where it is to be used, or it can be stored in some form for later use, which may require some prior processing (eg order-charged alphas can be converted into order- charged helium and stored for example as a gas or liquid, which may require heating and/or decompression and/or ionization).
We now discuss sources of specific types of order charged particles.
IA. Sources of order-charged neutrons a. Mono-energetic fast neutrons:
The following reactions can be used to produce mono-energetic fast neutrons, some of which will be order charged, with energies up to about 4 MeV: p + 7 Li = 7 Be (c) + n (c) - 1.65 MeV (8) p + 3 H = ηe (c) + n (c) - 0.765 MeV (9)
An alternative reaction uses deuterons. The superfix "c" which indicates order charge, is put in brackets to indicate that only some of the particles of a particular type carry this charge (ie < 100%). These reactions are endoergic and so the protons have to be accelerated (eg by an accelerator) to be above threshold for the reaction to occur. In this case the apparatus would consist of a supply of hydrogen, an ion source to produce ionised protons, an accelerator to accelerate the protons to the required energy, a target (eg 7 Li or 3 H) to produce the neutrons, a suitable vacuum system and if required a way to feed the neutrons through to the next stage where they would be used.
High yields of neutrons can also be produced by bombarding deuterium (or tritium) with deuterons. By selecting the deuteron energy appropriately, it is possible to produce mono-energetic neutrons in the energy range from 2 to 30 MeV. b. Neutrons with a range of energies produced by an alpha source:
It is sometimes convenient to be able to produce neutrons which carry order charge using a radioactive source. In the following reaction, alphas from an alpha source produce neutrons, some of which will be order-charged, by bombarding a foil of beryllium-9. α (c) + 9 Be = 12 C + n (c) + 5.7 MeV (10)
In its simplest form, a beryllium foil is irradiated by an alpha source. (For example americium-241 will typically produce 6xlO "5 neutrons with energies in the range 4 to 8 MeV for each americium decay.) Some of the neutrons produced will carry order charge. The alphas do not have to carry order charge as indicated by the superfix in brackets. But if they do, this will increase the fraction of order-charged neutrons, for example by order-charge exchange. The neutrons may be moderated to produce slower neutrons, some of which will carry order charge. There are variations of this reaction where the alphas come from, say, an accelerator, the beryllium may be thicker than a foil, and so on. c. A high flux of thermal neutrons:
A nuclear reactor with a suitable port in the side will produce a high flux of thermal and intermediate energy neutrons, some of which will carry order charge. However, the process of moderation in the reactor may reduce the amount of order charge carried by these neutrons. d. A high flux of fast neutrons with a range of energies:
In addition to thermal neutrons, some reactors may produce fast neutrons. However, a better way to produce fast neutrons is to run a beam of thermal neutrons (from a reactor) into a target of uranium-235. The thermal neutrons will trigger fission in the uranium-235 which produces fission fragments and neutrons with energies up to 8 MeV. This would be a high flux source of fast neutrons, some of which would carry order charge. If neutrons are required with lower energies, then a suitable thickness of moderator could be placed in the beam to slow them down by a few collisions (as required). However, it is possible that some of the order charge may be lost in the moderator.
IB. Sources of Order-Charged Protons a. The following reaction may be used to produce a high flux of protons with energies up to about 1.65 MeV, some of which will carry order charge: n (O + 7 βe = 7 L j + p (e) + L65 MeV (H)
Slow neutrons from a nuclear reactor will trigger this reaction, so high fluxes of order-charged protons can be produced in this way. If protons of a different energy are required, then an accelerator/decelerator can be used to provide them. b. An alternative reaction which will produce high fluxes of protons in a lower energy range, is: n (e) + 3 He = 3 H + p (c) + 0 J 6 Meγ ( 12 )
Again slow neutrons from a nuclear reactor or somewhat faster neutrons may be used to drive this reaction. Protons of these low energies have a short range in matter, and so they would have to be deployed in the vacuum system where they are produced, or transmitted through a very thin window to where they will be used, unless they were first accelerated. Further stages of acceleration and/or deceleration may be required. c. The following reaction produces some order-charged protons:
Q ;(C) + 14 N = 16 0 + p (e) . L 19 MeV ( 13 )
By irradiating air with alphas (with energies above the threshold for this reaction of course), one can produce protons, some of which will carry order charge. If the alphas carry order charge, for example if they come from an alpha source, then this will increase the fraction of order-charged protons. There are variations of this where the alphas come from an accelerator and/or the nitrogen is supplied in a pure form or may be present in a liquid (either as liquid air or liquid nitrogen) or in a compound (eg ammonia). The protons from the reaction may be passed through an order-charge separator to concentrate those which carry the order charge. d. Another reaction which produces order-charged protons is: n (c) + 31p = 32 S j + p(c) _ 0 7 Me γ ( 14)
The energy of the neutrons has to be above the threshold for endoergic reactions, which is about 1 MeV for this reaction.
IC. Sources of Order-charged Deuterons a. Deuterons may be produced by the following reaction: n (c > + p = D (c > + γ + 2.2 MeV (15)
Slow neutrons, for example from a reactor, will initiate this reaction. If the protons in this reaction are in the form of hydrogen, then the deuterons produced will pick up electrons and become deuterium, which would be mixed in with the hydrogen. For many applications, this deuterium would have to be separated (eg electromagnetically) from the hydrogen, before it could be ionised to deuterons and used. b. Another reaction which produces order-charged deuterons is: n (c) + io B = 9 Be + jye) . 3 81 MeV ( 16)
Since this is an endoergic reaction, it will require fast neutrons (eg from fission of uranium-235) with energies above threshold to drive this reaction. Alternatively, mono-energetic neutrons from reactions (8) or (9) with their energies adjusted to suit the application, could be used to initiate the reaction. Fast neutrons are directed onto a film or foil of boron- 10 and produce deuterons, which can then be directed at the place where they are to be used, eg electromagnetically. Alternatively, since boron-10 is a solid at room temperature and deuterium a gas, it should be easier to separate and collect the deuterium. ID. Sources of Order-Charged Alpha Particles a. Alpha particles are produced directly, some of which carry the order charge, by alpha decay, which mainly occurs in heavier nuclei. Different sources produces different ranges of energy of alphas and different intensities. The percentage of the alphas carrying order charge may also vary. b. Alpha particles with energies up to about 2.7 MeV which may carry the order charge, are be produced by the following reaction:
J1 (O + io B = 7 Li + α ( C ) + 2.79 MeV (17)
Slow neutrons with energies up to 1 keV, for example from a nuclear reactor, colliding with a boron- 10 foil will drive this reaction and produce large numbers of alpha particles, some of which carry the order charge. c. Another reaction which produces alpha particles is:
J 1 ( C) + 6 Li = 3 H + 4 He ( c ) + 2 .78 MeV (18)
Slow or fast neutrons from a reactor or other source striking a lithium-6 foil will produce this reaction. d. Nuclear reactors produce fission products, some of which emit alpha particles as they decay. The alpha particles pick up electrons and become helium, which can be collected as a gas from the reactor. Some reactors are designed to produce tritium for example by the reaction (18), in which lithium-6 is placed inside the reactor. The gases collected from such a reactor contain a mixture of tritium, helium-4 and other gases, and so the helium, some of which is order-charged would have to be separated out (eg electromagnetically or cryogenically). There is an unexpected effect which could occur, because order-charged alphas could combine at thermal energies to form beryllium-δ 1 , and so the amount of order-charged alphas produced by a reactor could be significantly reduced by this reaction. Furthermore, there could be problems of storing this gas as order-charged helium, because it would tend to convert to beryllium-δ 1 . See section III.4. A below for more details.
IE. Improved sources of order charge
In the case of electrically charged carriers of the order charge (protons, deuterons, alphas, etc) the percentage of the particles carrying an order charge may be increased by passing the particles through an order charge separator.
The particles may also be made more suitable for use in a particular application by acceleration, deceleration, focusing or some combination of these. IF. Other sources of order charge a. These are just a few examples of interactions which produce order-charged states of matter. Practically any nuclear or particle interaction will produce some order-charged states, albeit with a greater or lesser efficiency and/or yield. b. There is evidence that crystals and minerals contain some order charge and/or order fields. This is particularly true of pleochroic halos, which form around radioactive inclusions in the mineral. A mineral thus may be processed to extract the order charged states of matter. This processing could
include but is not limited to mechanical processing, such as milling, chemical treatments, nuclear processes, and/or passing through an order charge separator to extract and/or concentrate the order charged states. c. There is also evidence that living organisms contain order charge and/or order force. The order charge could be extracted, by reducing the organisms to ash, for example. The order charge could then be purified separated and concentrated using mechanical, chemical and/or order charge separations methods as appropriate. For ethical reasons, it may be necessary to limit the use of living organisms to plants. d. Certain nuclei such as halo nuclei or nuclei bound by the order charge may be a suitable source of order charge. The order charge may be separated out by spallation, disintegration, fragmentation and/or stripping reactions, and if necessary processed in one or more ways including being passed through an order charge separator. For example, by stripping the halo nucleons from the core of a halo nucleus, one has order-charged neutrons and protons and core nucleus.
IG. Conclusions
Order-charge matter produced by one or more of the above methods can be used directly in an application, or used in other inventions described below.
II. Order-charge bound states of matter
In table 3 we list five states of matter ( 5 He f , 5 Li f , 6 be f , 8 Be f , and 9 B 1 ) which become stable (against strong decay, although they may decay weakly) when bound by order charge on their constituents. These are inventions, and there may be others, stable or unstable, which are not included in this table, but which are included in these inventions. The principle is explained above, where we show that order charge binds states of matter together, which otherwise would fly apart.
III. The reactions required to produce these order-charge bound states and any other order- charge facilitated reactions.
The following reactions are also considered to be inventions: 1. The reaction to produce the first order-bound state in table 3 is: n c + α c = ηe t + Os/γs + 0.756 MeV (19) where the superscript "c" indicates that the particle is order-charged, that is that it carries at least one order charge. The symbols "Os/γs" mean one or more orderons (being the boson of the order force) and/or one or more photons are emitted. The point is that when an order-charged neutron fuses with order-charged alpha particle to form 5 He f , one or more particles have to be emitted to balance energy and momentum. The emitted particle(s) would normally be a photon (eg gamma ray), but in this case because the two primary particles are order-charged, as they change energies to produce the helium- 5\ they could emit either one or more orderons and/or photon(s) in varying numbers.
In order for this reaction to proceed certain conditions have to be met. Firstly an order charged neutron and an order charged alpha particle have to be brought together within the range of the order force and with the required energy. The range of the order force is at least 10 fermis, and there is evidence that it extends out to several tens of microns or more. The energy required needs some discussion.
If there was no order charge involved in this reaction, then an ordinary neutron would momentarily combine with an ordinary alpha to produce ordinary helium-5 and the Q-value would be negative (-0.969 MeV). As a result there would be a threshold energy for this reaction of about 1 MeV. However, the order force changes that, because it binds the (now order-charged) neutron and alpha particle into the halo-nuclear form of helium-5 t , with a separation energy of 0.756 MeV. The neutron does not experience any Coulomb repulsion from the alpha particle, and is drawn to it by the order force, thereby releasing energy, which has to be radiated away by the orderons and/or gammas. Thus there is no threshold energy for this reaction, but the particles do have to be close enough. However, if the energy of the neutron (or alpha) is too high (eg above 0.756 MeV), then the neutron and alpha particle will tend to scatter off each other, and this halo-nuclear state will not be formed. Thus the neutron and alpha particle have to be brought together with relative energy which lies in a narrow band between thermal energies and 0.756 MeV. The cross-section is likely to be highest at thermal energies.
Logically the apparatus to produce reaction consists of a suitable source of neutrons, a target
of order-charged helium nuclei, and if required a method of separating the helium^ from the helium- 4 in the target, for example a mass spectrometer, either in-line or off-line. There are several experimental set-ups which may implement this:
A. A nuclear reactor, with off-line separation, as shown in figure IA.
In this case, a nuclear reactor is producing alpha particles which form helium-4 which is collected in the waste gases. Some of these order-charged alpha particles may have interacted with order-charged neutrons within the reactor to produce helium^ 1 , which is collected with the other waste gases. Thus all one has to do is to take the waste gases from a reactor, if necessary pre- separate the heliums (for example by cooling) and then separate helium-4 from helium-S* by running them through a mass spectrometer or by liquefaction if they liquify at different temperatures. This would be a simple way to search for the effect and verify that helium-S 1 is produced. It would also be of interest to repeat this for a normal slow reactor, a fast reactor and a tritium production reactor (eg where 6 Li has been inserted within the reactor to produce tritium- and hence alphas), to find which has the better yield.
The reader may wonder why, if helium-5 1 is produced in this way, why it has not been observed before. Einstein once said that "theory determines what we can think" . Firstly it would not be easy to observe, and why look with expensive instrumentation if one "knows" it cannot be produced. However, if someone has in fact observed the production of helium-S 1 , then they are likely to have dismissed it as an anomaly, because "everybody knows that helium-5 is unstable and decays rapidly to helium-4". Even if they did believe in the effect and it persisted, it is likely they would have trouble getting the result published for this very reason. The pear-review process tends to stop the publication of anomalous results.
B. Use of mono-energetic neutrons with in-line detection, as shown in figure IB.
One could use reactions (8) or (9) to produce mono-energetic neutrons. In this case, an accelerator would accelerate protons to an energy above threshold for neutron production. The protons would strike the target of lithium-7 (or tritium) where it would produce neutrons of defined energies. These would then interact with a target of order-charged helium-4, which could be gaseous or liquid. Neutrons can easily penetrate a thin metal window around the target, but the helium-5 1 produced would not escape so easily. As a result, it would tend to collect in the target and would have to be separated out afterwards, which could be difficult. If one wanted to use an in-line spectrometer to detect the helium-S 1 event-by-event as it is produced, then one would have to use say a gas jet target and there may need to be some pre-acceleration (of the helium-S 1 ) into the spectrometer.
C. Use a reactor to produce order-charged neutrons and alphas, with in-line separation, figure 1C.
In this form of the invention, thermal neutrons are taken from a nuclear reactor and arranged to collide with a boron- 10 target so as to produce order-charged alphas (reaction 17), which in turn are deflected (say electromagnetically) through nearly 180 degrees, and may be subjected to acceleration and/or deceleration and/or focusing, as required. Thermal neutrons are also taken from the reactor and allowed to collide with this beam of alphas. By focusing the alphas one may increase the yield. (The interaction between two colliding beams depends upon the product of their fluxes per unit area. By focusing one increase the flux per unit are and hence the interaction rate.) A mass spectrometer is positioned so as to detect any helium^ which is produced.
When a neutron and alpha particle combine, the alpha energy would change and so the helium-4 and helium-5 t could be separated electromagnetically, for example by means of a magnet, slits if necessary and/or if necessary by means of a more sophisticated spectrometer. This method could combine the advantages of high yield with direct separation of the helium-S*.
D. Use of a reactor with an order-charged helium-4 target, see figure ID.
Slow neutrons from a reactor are directed into a target (liquid or gaseous) of order-charged helium-4, which would probably have been obtained from a reactor, either from the same reactor, or one designed to produce tritium from lithium-6. Continuous bombardment of the helium-4 could result in higher levels of helium-5 f building up. These could then be separated off-line from the helium-4 by means of a mass spectrometer or other method.
In the cases where helium-5 f is formed in a mixture with helium-4, it is necessary to separate the two. If they liquify at different temperatures, then they could be separated this way. Otherwise,
they would have to be separated as other isotopes, for example by means of a mass spectrometer.
E. It may prove easier to use another reaction to produce this state. For example: n c + 6 Li = 5 He t + D . 2.43 MeV (20) where the lithium-6 could be a solid and the helium^ a gas, so that they could be separated more easily. In this case, fast neutrons (to be above threshold) impinge upon a lithium-6 foil target. The helium-5 f would tend to stay in the foil or be knocked forwards even out of the foil, depending on the neutron energy and the foil thickness. If the neutron energy is only just above threshold so that the helium^ remains in the lithium, then one would have to heat the lithium (off-line) to extract the helium^. Deuterium and/or other gases would tend to boil off in the process. One way to separate the helium^ would be by liquefaction. If the neutron energy is high enough and the foil thin enough, 5 He 1 would be knocked forwards out of the foil so that it could be detected possibly by a spectrometer, although acceleration, etc, may be required as well. Other reactions, such as spallation reactions, may prove more convenient and/or practical.
The helium-S 1 , the reaction(s) to produce it and the apparatus(es) to implement them are all inventions. 2. A reaction to produce the second state in table 3 is: p c + α c = 5 Li 1 + Os/γs + 0.344 MeV (21) where the notation is the same, so that p c is an order-charged proton. Similar comments as above apply. Similar conditions apply, namely that the proton and alpha have to come close enough and not move too energetically with respect to each other. Whilst both the proton and alpha particle are positively charged electrically and will repel each other, the order force is strong enough to overcome this.
However, the range of the order force is limited and it cuts off beyond a certain range which is not yet known precisely. Beyond this cut-off, two positively charged particles will experience Coulomb repulsion only, even if they are order-charged. Thus reactions such as (21) above (and all other reactions where both reactants carry electric charge(s) of the same sign) have a threshold energy below which the reaction cannot proceed directly, although it may occur by tunnelling at a reduced rate. For the above reaction, the Coulomb barrier is 144 keV at 20 fermis and decreases as 1/r - the actual value depending on the cut-off of the order force.
At the same time, the two particles bound by the order force have a separation energy, which is 344 keV for the above reaction. If the centre-of-mass energy exceeds this amount, then the order- charged proton and alpha particle will not be bound. Therefore there is an optimum energy range to produce such states (which is unique to each state). Outside this range, the production rate will fall off because of tunnelling on the low side and break-up on the high side.
Throughout this document, wherever the reactants both carry electric charges of the same sign, there is an optimum energy range to create the order-charged bound state of these particles, and therefore, even if it does not state it every time in the text, it is part of the invention that the particles are brought together within this energy range, or as close to it as possible.
There are several different ways to implement this reaction:
A. A reactor plus an order-charged helium-4 target, as in figure 2A
Slow neutrons taken from a reactor are directed to bombard a beryllium-7 target so as to produce protons via reaction (11). The beryllium-7 foil also doubles as a window into the target vessel containing order-charged helium-4, say from a reactor. The target size and density is chosen so that the protons stop within the helium-4, where they may interact to produce lithium-^. For instrumental purposes, one could cause the lithium-5 f so produced to drift to a detector where they could be identified possibly by pulse height, or the window of the target vessel made thin enough so that the lithium-S 1 ion could be accelerated through it into an spectrometer. For production purposes, the lithium^ 1 being a metal, would collect in the target vessel, from which it could be collected mechanically. If these ions did not fall to the bottom of the target vessel sufficiently efficiently, then they could be encouraged to drift to a collection point (eg electrostatically).
One advantage of this reaction is that lithium^ is a different element from helium and so can be separated from it relatively easily. In fact, it is probably a solid at room temperature, as are normal states of lithium, and so it should separate mechanically and/or chemically to give lithium^ 1 .
B. A reactor with a helium-3 plus order-charged helium-4 target, figure 2B.
Slow neutrons are taken from a reactor into a target vessel containing helium-3, so as to produce protons via reaction (12), and order-charged helium-4 so as to produce lithium-^ upon interaction with order-charged protons. Separation would then be as above. C. A reactor with two targets foils of boron-10 and beryllium-7, as in figure 2C.
Neutrons are taken from a reactor into a target foil of boron-10 to produce order-charged alpha particles via reaction (17) and neutrons are also directed into a foil of beryllium-7 to produce order-charged protons. These alphas and protons are then guided into a suitable region where they may interact. This could be a one-pass crossing of the two beams, or they could be guided in such as way as to repeatedly cross each other, such as in storage ring(s). When a helium-.? halo nucleus is produced, it would no longer follow the same orbits as the protons or alphas, and thus could be guided, eg electromagnetically, into a mass spectrometer, for detection and/or collection.
The main problem with this method is that reactions (17) and (11) produce alphas and protons with energies up to 2.79 MeV and 1.65 MeV respectively, whereas reaction (21) requires that the total energy should not be much more than 0.344 MeV, for otherwise there is a risk that the lithium- 5 f will break up before it is produced. One solution to this is that instead of running the proton and alpha particles head-on into each other, they be directed to move in the same direction, so that they are brought together by their relative motion. This could be done with a single pass system, or a multi-pass system where the particles rotated in the same direction.
Other reactions are in principle possible for this reaction. The lithium^, the reaction(s) to produce it and the apparatus(es) to implement them are all inventions.
3. The obvious reaction to produce the third state in table 3 is: p(c) + 5 Lj t = 6 Be f + Qs/γs + Q Me y (22) where lithium-5 is bound to a proton. The hard part is to make enough lithium-S 1 to act as the target. One way would be to make the lithium^ via reaction (21) as above. However it is made, it would have to be bound by order charge, because otherwise it would be highly unstable and reaction (22) would not be feasible.
The Q-value for this reaction is positive. If the incident proton is not order-charged, it will be 0.62 MeV. However, if it is order-charged it will be about 0.82 MeV. There are thus two ways to make this interaction, either with ordinary protons or with order-charged protons:
A. Since the reaction is exoergic, thermal protons could initiate this reaction except that they would initially be repelled by the coulomb interaction. Thus protons from an accelerator would have to be fired at the lithium-5 t target.
B. Figure 3 A: As pointed out in the background section above, beryllium-ό* may be unstable if it contains a proton which does not carry the order charge. Therefore this state should be made using order-charged protons. Take slow neutrons from a reactor into a beryllium-7 foil (reaction 11) followed by the lithium-5 1 target. The neutrons will produce some order-charged protons in the beryllium-7 which will produce beryllium-6 1 in the lithium-5 f target. This reaction will produce protons with energies up to 1.65 MeV, which is somewhat above the Q of reaction (22). Energy losses in the beryllium-7 foil and the target would work to reduce the proton energies. If they were still too high, then lower energy order-charged protons could be produced by using a target of helium- 3 instead of beryllium-7. In this case, the lithium-5 t would follow the helium-3, for example at the downstream end of the vessel containing the helium-3, either in the wall or as an exit window.
Once the lithium-5 f target has been exposed to protons, the beryllium-6 f could be separated out chemically.
4. The obvious reaction to produce the fourth state in table 3 is: α c + α c = 8 Be t + Os/γs + 0.263 MeV (23)
The existence of this reaction is very interesting because, as noted above, it could play a key role in the creation of carbon in stars. Both carbon and oxygen are important for life, and they have three and four alpha particles in their nuclei respectively. Thus it could be that beryllium-8 1 , consisting of two alpha's bound by the order force, could be very important in living organisms. Beryllium-7 is highly toxic, so if beryllium-δ 1 is not, this would be quite dramatic, and would be additional evidence that the order force plays important roles in living organisms.
The way this reaction occurs and the rate depend upon the range of the order force. The product of the electric charges on the two alphas is twice that of the proton and alpha in reaction (21), therefore the Coulomb repulsion will be twice as great at any given separation (ie 288 keV at 20
fermis). Furthermore, the separation energy of beryllium-8 t is only 263 keV. Therefore, if the cutoff in the the range of the order force is too short, it may not be possible to bring these two alphas together at energies above threshold for this reaction to occur without casing the product to break up. Therefore it may be necessary to use energies below theshold and allow the beryllium-8 f to form by tunnelling. In which case, the optimum energy range for this reaction may be very narrow. NB this applies to other states with low separation energies. We now consider different ways of implementing this reaction by bringing alpha particles together in the optimum energy range.
A. Beryllium-δ 1 from nuclear reactors, as in figure 4A.
Despite what has been written above, the range of the order force may not be so short. If it's range is several tens of microns, as some evidence suggests, then this would be long enough range to bind the two alpha particles at low, even thermal energies. In fact the existence of this reaction may mean that nuclear reactors may not produce much order-charged helium-4, because most of the order-charged ones have been bound together to produce beryllium-??. Beryllium-δ 1 is a solid and so it could be deposited in a nuclear reactor, along with the many other products of nuclear reactions, and nobody has noticed it. So one possible source of beryllium-^ is existing nuclear reactors and/or their waste products. If this is the case, then the statements elsewhere in this document that order- charged alpha particles/helium-4 can be obtained from reactors, whilst they may not be completely wrong, the amounts of order-charged helium-4 available from such sources may be less because of this reaction (23). However, the separation energy of beryllium-8 t is only 0.263 MeV and so fast or fission products would cause it to break up into alpha particles. This could lead to a dynamical balance between order-charged alphas and beryllium-S* in a reactor. The position of the balance and the amount of beryllium-δ 1 may depend upon the type and/or design of the reactor. It may be enhanced by inserting lithium-6 into the reactor or other substance, to make order-charged alphas.
B. Production by means of an order charge separator, as in figure 4B.
There are two separate phenomena to be considered here. Firstly, there is the case where the source produces alphas of which only a small percentage carry the order charge. When helium-4 gas from these alphas (eg after stopping them and collecting them) are brought together, the order-neutral helium-4 atoms will tend to keep the small number of order-charged ones apart. The latter may keep the former sufficiently apart that the rate of formation of beryllium-δ* is negligible. Secondly, if the source produces high energy alphas, then the likelihood of them combining (unless they are almost mono-energetic) is negligible (because beryllium-8 t is so delicately bound). In either case, if one was to pass these alphas through an order-charge separator so as to concentrate the order-charged ones and if necessary decelerate them, and bring them close together, then beryllium-δ 1 could form.
There is another problem here that the volume of phase space tends to be constant, so if you decelerate a beam of particles it will tend to expand spatially and disperse. As a result it is difficult to satisfy the energy and spacial requirements of equation (23) at the same time, at least with a single beam system.
C. Nuclear reactor and an order-charged helium-4 target, as in figure 4C.
In view of reaction (23), it may well be that order-charged helium-4 cannot be stored in any form, without it converting to beryllium-S 1 . However, if it can be stored, then one could use it as follows. Slow neutrons are directed from a nuclear reactor into a beryllium- 10 target, where they would produce order-charged alphas according to reaction (17). These then enter the target of order- charged helium-4 and combine with them. Reaction (17) will produce alphas with energies up to 2.79 MeV, and so they would need to be slowed before reaction (23) could occur, this could be done by deceleration or by range-energy losses.
D. Nuclear reactor with boron- 10 target, as in figure 4D.
Slow neutrons are taken into a boron- 10 foil target and the order-charged alphas produced may interact with each other to form beryllium-8 t , some even doing so in the target. Alphas leaving the foil target could be focused, say with a quadrupole magnet, into a small region of space, to increase their probability of interacting. If they were also decelerated, this would further increase the dwell time they spend close together. Beryllium-δ* so formed would, depending on the energy of the beam, collect on a beam stop, from which it might have to be separated (say chemically) or drop to the bottom of the vacuum system where it would collect as a fine dust.
A variation of this is that two beams of order-charged alphas are created in this way (for example using two beams of thermal neutrons and two boron- 10 targets), and are allowed to cross
each other at a small angle. If both beams of alphas are focused into the same region of space, with or without deceleration, they would cross each other slowly, increasing the chance of interacting. If the deceleration is different for the two beams, the interaction energy could be changed to maximise the yield. E. Colliding beams of order-charged alphas as in figure 4E.
In this apparatus two beams of alphas are created, either from one neutron beam with one boron- 10 target and a way of dividing the alphas (eg slits or metal plate), or from two neutron beams with two boron-10 targets. The two lots of alphas are then guided into a system which causes them to repeatedly cross each other's trajectories. For example, by colliding alpha particles in a storage ring(s) or colliding beam type device(s), at a suitable energy(ies). (It is possible that the alpha particles be made to circulate in a single magnetic field, like in a cyclotron, but they will all go in the same direction and not interact significantly, because they all carry the same electric charge. In this case it would probably be necessary to focus or "pinch" the beam at some point in the cycle, in order to encourage the alphas to fuse to beryllium-δ 1 .)
For example, the two beams of alphas could be guided into two race tracks (eg constructed from two or more magnets) so that the beams of alphas cross each other in a small region of space. Focusing could be used to enhance this. The boron-10 is most sensitive to neutrons with energies less than 1 keV. Therefore the energy available in this reaction will come essentially from the Q-value of 2.79 MeV, which will be shared between the alpha particle and lithium-7 so as to balance energy and momentum. As a reult, the energies and directions of the alphas will vary. By focusing some of these into each race track, quite intense beams of order-charged alphas will build up. These two beams can be arranged to cross either going in opposite directions (ie head on) or in the same direction (approximately). The former method will not produce many beryllium-8 f ions unless the beam energies total less than 0.263 MeV, so they would have to be decelerated. However, if they are going in the same direction with almost the same energies, deceleration would not be required.
The luminosity or interaction rate of two colliding beams is proportional to the product of the currents of the two beams divided by the gaussian widths of the beams in the horizontal and vertical planes. Thus collecting particles in each beam to increase the currents and focusing the beams to a small spot size where they cross, both increase the interaction rate.
If the two beams repeatedly cross each other, then a significant number of beryllium-δ 1 nuclei will form. If the two beams have slightly different energies (eg because of deceleration and/or acceleration and/or range-energy losses) then the yield of beryllium-δ 1 may be increased.
There is potentially a problem separating out the beryllium-δ 1 (almost double the mass, double the charge and double the energy) because it's cyclotron radius would be similar to that of a single alpha particle, although its energy will have changed slightly as a result of the interaction. However, when the two beams of alphas cross at an angle, the transverse momenta of the two fusing alpha particles will cancel out, and the resulting beryllium-8 t will follow a different trajectory along the median line between the two beams. With careful design, the beryllium-δ 1 ions will leave the system, using electromagnetic and/or mechanical means, so that it can be guided to a detector, to observe its production, or into a mass spectrometer to confirm its production, and/or into a system to trap it, such as a beam stop and/or deceleration. If the two beams have slightly different energies, then this is modified accordingly.
Whilst this last method is more elaborate to construct, it has several advantages: a. By accumulating alphas in race tracks, it should be possible to build up quite high currents of alphas. b. By crossing the beams going in the same direction, approximately (ie not head on collisions) it should be possible to concentrate the alphas into a small volume of space together with a small separation of energies, so that reaction (23) should occur readily. c. By careful design, it should be possible to separate out the beryllium-δ 1 on-line.
5. The obvious reaction to produce the ωfth state in table 3 is: pc + 8 Be c = 9 B t + Os/γs + o 103 MeV (24)
Unlike reaction (22), this state will not be bound unless both the proton and the beryllium-δ^ are order charged. Beryllium-8 f has to contain two order-charged alphas in order to bind it into a stable state. This may be sufficient to bind an additional order-charged proton. If not, then either the proton would have to carry two order charges, if that was possible, or the beryllium-8 f would have to be
formed with one alpha carrying two order charges. It is likely that some of the beryllium-8 t produced by the methods described above will carry this extra order charge, but would be mixed in with the more normal beryllium-δ 1 and be difficult to separate. Alternatively, it could be made specially, either by order-charge transfer reactions (which might be difficult to implement because it is delicately bound), or by first separating doubly order-charged alphas (say using an order-charge separator), before combining them with singly order-charged alphas, as described in section 4 above. The apparatus to bring about the above reaction would then be as follows:
Figure 5 A. Slow neutrons, say from a reactor, would be directed onto a foil of beryllium-7, so that order-charged protons would be produced. However, the protons so produced could be too + energetic and tend to break up the beryllium-δ 1 (which has a binding energy of only 0.263 MeV), or the boron-9 1 before it has formed. Therefore the protons would have to be slowed down, either by deceleration or by range-energy losses, which anyway would tend to occur in the targets. Suitable adjustment of the thicknesses of the targets might be sufficient. However, beryllium-^ would be a rare commodity expensive to produce, at least at the beginning, and it might be sensible not to bombard it with any high energy protons because they would tend to break up these delicately bound nuclei. Therefore it would be best to slow down the protons before they encounter any beryllium-δ^ (It would also make sense to guide the protons away from the flux of neutrons to avoid bombarding the beryllium-δ 1 with neutrons for similar reasons.) These slowed protons would then collide with a target of beryllium-8 f , where boron-9 1 would form. Boron-9 f produced by this method should be stable, and can be separated from the beryllium-8 t by chemical means. 6. Other states and reactions
This invention includes any nuclear reaction involving order-charged reactants and/or in which order charge reactants and/or order charge(s) and/or order fields cause it to happen. There may be other states one can create by means of similar reactions involving order-charged interactants producing order-charge bound states, which are not listed here but which are included in the invention. For example, helium^ can be produced from D c plus T c as reaction 31 below. Furthermore, the above states may be produced by other reactions, for example spallation reactions, or by knocking a few nucleons out of a slightly heavier nucleus.
IV. Order-induced fusion
In the reactions in section III above order charge transforms unstable states (ie negative Q- values), into stable halo nuclei maintained by the order force. The following reactions, and possible other similar ones, have tightly bound end products with positive Q- values and so proceed through the halo-nucleus stage to the normal end product with the emission of significant amounts of energy. For example:
D c + D c = 4 He 1 + Os/γs + 0.66 MeV → 4 He + Os/γs + 23.19 MeV (25)
If you look at table 3, you will see that two order-charged deuterons can form a stable state with a separation energy of 0.66 MeV. When two order-charged deuterons approach each other, the attraction of the order force is strong enough to bring them into a bound state (with the emission of soft orderon(s) and or photon(s) to carry off the binding energy of 0.66 MeV), a bit like positronium except that the order force is binding them together and the electrostatic repulsion is trying to force them apart. The separation of the two deuterons in this "deutronium" (which we designate by " 4 He f "), is of order 2.3 fermis, so that they may tunnel through the electrostatic barrier to form normal helium-4, thereby releasing energy. In practice, the tails of the nuclear forces from the two deuterons may overlap slightly, and this will provide another, rapid way for them to fuse. In both cases one or more orderons and/or gammas will be emitted to carry off the excess energy.
The reader who is knowledgeable about fusion reactions will know that the normal deuterium fusion reactions are D(d,p)T and D(d,n) 3 He, so that an energetic proton or neutron is produced in the final state. Furthermore, the Coulomb barrier acts to strongly inhibit these reactions. As a result the rate is negligible at low energies (1 keV = 1.2xlO 7 °K) and increases rapidly with energy to a peak at about 100 keV (= 1.2x10 9 0 K). The order force changes all of that because it effectively overcomes the Coulomb barrier at room temperature, subject to the condition that both particles carry order charge which is "consumed" in the reaction. Thus the order force facilitates a form of fusion a bit like what has been called "cold fusion". Perhaps they are related. Perhaps the order force is the physics of cold fusion.
So if two slow moving (even thermal) order charged deuterons approach within a certain distance (probably less than a few microns, but may be closer), they will interact with each other. It is normal convention that like charges repel and unlike charges attract, and this applies to the order charge as well. As a result, when two deuterons carrying different order charges, come close enough together, they will attract each other into a potentially stable state, where one deuteron orbits the other with a separation of about 2.3 fermis. This brings them sufficiently close that they will fuse either by reverse tunnelling or by the direct interaction of their respective nuclear forces. In the first phase of this process, they are drawn into a potential well 0.66 MeV deep, with the emission of soft orderons and/or photons to conserve energy and momentum. In the second stage of the process, they move a few fermis into a potential well about 23 MeV deep, with the emission of orderons and/or gammas to carry off the excess energy. (In some cases a proton may be emitted, but then the potential well would not be so deep.)
There are a number of related reactions:
(n c + p) or (n + p c ) = D c + 7 + 2.23 MeV (26) n c + jye ) = j c + o s / γs + 6.26 MeV (27) p c + T = 4 He 1 + Os/γs + Q = 4 He + Os/γs + 19.8 - Q MeV (28) p c + D c = 3 He^ + Os/γs + 5.49 MeV (29) n (0 + 3 He t = 4 He (t) + o s / γs + Q = 4 He + Os/γS + 2 ().6 - Q MeV (30)
D c + T = ηe f + Os/γs + 16.6 MeV (31) and no doubt a number of other related reactions. (NB we have not always included the soft orderons and/or soft photons emitted in the intermediate state.)
Let us look at reaction (25) again. Here two order-charged deuterons attract each other, are drawn together and neutralize each other. Both interactants have to be order-charged to make the reaction go, and then upon fusion this charge is "consumed" by the interaction. As a result, such a reaction can only go as fast as the order-charged deuterons can be produced. The problem here is that the primary sources of order charge are say neutrons from a reactor or alpha particles from a radioactive source. In the first case, reaction (15) or (26) could be used to produce a significant flux of order-charged deuterons. These could then be brought together under the right conditions to produce helium^ 1 and thence helium-4 plus energy. In the case of the alpha source, one could make neutrons via reaction (10) and these could be slowed and made to interact with protons to produce order-charged deuterons via reaction (15). This would require a very intense alpha source to produce significant numbers of order-charged deuterons.
The problem is that whilst reactions (26) do not require both interactants to be order-charged, the others do. The most important exoergic reactions require both reactants have to carry order charge, such as reactions (25), (28) and (29), in order to overcome the Coulomb repulsion, and this order charge is then neutralized by the reaction. Thus these reactions are driven by the order charge and consume it in the process. Thus there is no possibility of a chain reaction and no possible way to recycle the order charge. Fresh order charged states have to be made for each pair of reactants. Thus these reactions can only go as fast as the reactants are made.
However, the inability to create a chain reaction is not a problem for an energy source. In fact it is an advantage because it means the source will be stable, because it can only produce as much energy as order charged reactants are supplied. An energy source has to produce more energy than it consumes. Thus if order charged reactants can be made for less energy than they produce when they fuse, one has an energy "profit" and it may be a worthwhile source. In practice one has to make considerably more energy as heat as electricity is consumed to allow for the inefficiency of conversion of heat to electrical energy. There are several ways to make order-charged deuterons: 1. Nuclear Reactor
The reactions are, using slow neutrons: n (c) + p = D (c) + γ + 2.2 MeV (15)
(n c + p) or (n + p c ) = D c + γ + 2.23 MeV (26) see figure 6 A or 6C. Or using fast neutrons, eg by bombarding uranium-235 with slow neutrons, or from the fission of a radioactive source, such as uranium-238: n (c) + ,o B = 9g e + jyc) . 3 81 MeV ( 16) see figures 6B or 6D
The order-charged deuterons so produced have to be brought together so that reaction 25 (and/or 33 and/or 34) may occur. Copious numbers of neutrons can be obtained from a reactor, and so this method could produce large numbers of deuterons and hence of power. However, this method or production of order-charged deuterons would probably be used mainly for research, because if one wanted heat, it might as well come directly from the nuclear reactor. However, this method of fusion might have uses where one wanted to produce heat by means of fusion for some specific purpose and/or in a specific place. It also might be more useful if one could store the order-charged deuterons. The problem is that one expects them to fuse even at room temperatures. Perhaps at liquid nitrogen temperatures they may be more stable.
2. Accelerator p + 9 Be = D (c) + 2 4 He + 0.66 MeV (44)
Order charged deuterons can be produced by bombarding a beryllium-9 target with protons. It is likely that the current of the accelerator will limit the number of order-charged deuterons produced by this method to values which are too low. Furthermore, the power required to accelerate the protons is likely to exceed that produced by the deuterons when they fuse, in which case this method would not be energy productive.
3. Radioactive Source
One can produce neutrons by the following reaction using an alpha source: α (c> + 9 Be = UQ + n (c) + 5 7 MeV ( 10) and then produce the order-charged deuterons by one of the above reactions (15, 26, or 16), but this would require an intense alpha source. If the beryllium-9 foil was followed by boron- 10, then order- charged deuterons would be produced by the fast neutrons the above reaction as in reaction (16). Alternatively, one could produce the order-charged deuterons directly using a gamma source and the following reaction: γ + 6 Li = ηe (c) + D (c) - 1.46 MeV (45)
This reaction could be preferable to reaction (10) because it does not produce neutrons, with the health physics problems they can create. Production of order-charged deuterons by a radioactive source(s) is likely to be the most energy efficient method, but it is likely that the source(s) have to be highly active to get significant amounts of power from the fusion process.
4. Recycling
Alternatively instead of making fresh order charge for each reaction, one could recycle it. Order charge is only required for the first stage of reactions (25, 28, 29 and 31). Fusion in the second stage is bound by the strong nuclear force and the order charge is not required. Therefore the order charge could be extracted from this final state before, during and/or after fusion and reused. For example if another substance (such as hydrogen/protons) was mixed with the deuterium or other reactants, order charge could be transferred to the other substance, eg protons, and then participate in the formation of new states, eg order-charged deuterons and/or order-charge bound di-protons, which facilitate further fusion reactions in a circular fashion.
5. Fusion of Order-charged Deuterons
Having produced deuterons, they can then be brought together to fuse via reaction (25). One way to do this is with two beams of deuterons with energies in the optimum range, which cross each other. This process is similar to two order-charged alphas combining to form beryllium-δ 1 above, using methods similar to figures 4C, 4D and 4E, modified as shown in figures 6F, 6G and 6H.
It takes of order 10 12 reactions per second of reaction (25) (and proportionally more for the others) to produce 1 watt of power. So one requires copious numbers of order charged deuterons to produce significant amounts of heat. The method shown in figure 4E is most interesting in this regard in that the deuterons are kept circulating in a ring or rings and allowed to cross each others paths at one or more interaction points, like a particle physics storage ring, except that at these energies it would probably be possible to use permanent magnets instead of electromagnets. Permanent magnets require no power, and so this would enable one to get large numbers of deuteron interactions for a small amount of power (ie the cost of making the order-charged deuterons and maintaining the vacuum systems, and possible beam stability).
In ordinary storage rings (two ring system), the beams cross at an even number of points. A figure-of-eight race track can only be used to collide identical particles because the beam is guided to cross itself once (additional crossings are possible). Energetically the two systems differ, because
interlaced rings can collide head-on or in the same direction, apart from the crossing angle, and the two beams may have different energies. In a figure-of-eight system the single beam crosses itself in the "same" direction which would normally reduce the energy. However, the collision angle can be designed to be anywhere from almost head-on to almost the same direction, so that the fraction of the beam energy going into collisions can be determined when the system is designed and the crossing angle determined. Thus if the particles are produced at higher energies than they are to be collided at, then by choosing a narrow collision angle, the beams are going in almost the same direction and the transverse momentum provides the reduced collision energy, thereby eliminating the need to decelerate the source particles. Where the particles have to be accelerated before injection, then the amount of acceleration required can be reduced by making the beam cross itself almost head-on.
The use of this storage ring approach would also be a viable alternative to ordinary fusion, replacing a plasma containing device, such as a tokamak. Important advantages of a storage ring(s) device is that the deuterons will experience repeated crossings of each others trajectories until they interact. This helps to conserve deuterons, and if the device uses permanent magnets, this effect is achieved without the overhead of power for the magnets. Furthermore, the energy of the deuterons in the ring(s) could be chosen to suit the fusion reaction required. This could be at a higher temperature than might be possible with a plasma-containment device, and without the overhead of powering the magnets.
The deuterons could be made to interact with other targets, such as tritium, helium-3 or lithium-6 as in reactions (32, 35 and/or 40, etc). The reactions with tritium and/or helium-3 could be combined with the deuterons because they are all gases and can be ionized. The reaction with lithium-6 could be quite useful for a number of reasons: a. Order-charged deuterons may react with order-neutral lithium-6 more easily than expected, eg because of order van der Waals forces. b. More order-charged lithium-6 may occur naturally than expected. c. When fast deuterons are produced (eg by reactions 15, 16, 26, 44 and/or 45, etc) because they may be fast enough to fuse with the lithium-6.
In the last few years, there have been a number of other new methods of stimulating fusion reactions. However, none have produced significant amounts of heat, because they are unable to trigger enough fusion reactions per second. Furthermore to be viable as a source of energy, the process has to produce more energy than it consumes. Thus these processes are likely to remain laboratory curiosities like muon catalyzed fusion. If one could find a way to catalyze fusion then that might be the way forwards. The order force offers the possibility of catalysing fusion reactions, because it is about six times stronger than the electrostatic repulsion, and therefore can overcome it.
V. Order Catalyzed Fusion
Order catalyzed fusion does not require that the reactants carry the order charge (although one or both may), but does require that there is an external order field and/or system of order charges so structured as to increase the probability of fusion occurring when the reactants come close to and/or within the said structure(s). Thus order catalyzed fusion differs from order-induced fusion in that the order charge(s) and/or order field(s) is not consumed in the reaction, because the order charge(s) are not (necessarily) attached to the reactants but are external to them. Instead of the reactants being pulled together by the order charges they carry, they are drawn together by external order charges and/or field(s) acting on them.
In normal nuclear physics (ie ignoring the order-charge) the normal fusion reactions are: D + T =/OC→ 4 He + n + 17.6 MeV (32)
D + D =/OC→ 3 He + n + 3.27 MeV 50% (33)
= /OC→ T + p + 4.03 MeV 50% (34)
D + 3 He =/OC→ 4 He + p + 18.3 MeV (35)
T + T =/OC→ 4 He + 2n + 11.3 MeV (36)
3 He + 3 He =/OC→ 4 He + 2p + 12.9 MeV (37)
3 He + T =/OC→ 4 He + p + n + 12.1 MeV 51 % (38)
= /OC→ 4 He + D + 14.3 MeV 43% (39)
D + 6 Li =/OC→ 2 4 He + 22.4 MeV (40) p + 6 Li =/OC→ 4 He + 4.0 MeV (41)
3 He + 6 Li =/OC→ 2 4 He + p + 16.9 MeV (42) p + 11 B =/OC→ 3 4 He + 8.7 MeV (43)
Where the symbols =/OC→ indicate two reactions, to save writing them twice. The first, represented by the " = " sign, is the normal nuclear physics reaction. The second, indicated by OC and arrow "OC→" indicates the same reaction when it is catalyzed by the order force (ie "OC→" means "order catalyzed fusion"). Depending how strong the order-catalyzation is, so there may be additional reactions (instead of those above) including orderons in the final state, and even reactions with orderons instead of the neutron(s) and/or proton(s) in the final state (eg reaction 25 instead of 33 and/or 34). Energy and momentum can be balanced by emission of orderons and/or photons and/or the surrounding order field.
In the case of the normal nuclear reactions (ie those with the " = ") then even at room temperature, there is a very small but finite probability that these reactions will occur. As the reactants are heated, the probability that fusion will occur increases as the increased thermal energy enables them to come closer together, thereby starting to overcome the Coulomb barrier. Normal fusion reactions take place at useful rates at very high temperatures, which are difficult to achieve and sustain in a controlled way.
The idea of order-catalyzed fusion is to use an arrangement of order charge(s) and/or order field(s) to bring the reactants closer together, whether they are order-charged or not, so as to increase the probability of fusion without the order charge(s) and/or order field(s) being consumed in the process. If the reactants are order charged, the order field(s) can act directly.
If the reactants are order neutral, this bringing together is also possible because the order force can induce order charges in the (otherwise order-neutral) reactants and hence act on them (eg order-van der Waals forces). In the string-theoretical explanation of the order force, there are two physical sectors, one for momenta and the other for coordinates, and the equations of motion are more complex than those for normal physics. We do not go into details here, but the implications are that there is a new type of mechanics. As a result, the order force can induce fusion reactions in ways which would be unexpected in normal physics.
Order-catalyzed fusion therefore takes place when external order charge(s) and/or field(s) act on the reactants so as to bring them together but are not changed (significantly) in the reaction so that they can continue to catalyse other reactants. Thus the invention consists of a supply of reactants, whether order charged or not, a system of order charge(s) and/or order field(s) and/or unified field, and/or orderons, and/or orderon network(s) to catalyse fusion, and apparatus to facilitate the same and/or remove the excess heat, where required. For example see figures 7A and B.
It is possible that the order charges and/or order fields could be inserted into gas(es) and/or liquid(s) and/or plasma(s), but there might then be a problem that the charges move around and the field shapes are not stable, so that one might have to use electromagnetic or other methods to achieve and maintain the required order charge and/or order field structures.
Probably a more practical way to do this would be to use a solid material(s) and/or structure(s) to support the order charge(s), whether stationary or moving so as to create certain form(s), patterns, spacial arrangements of the order charges and their field(s) which enhance the probability of fusion when the reactants are brought close to and/or within these order-enhanced fusion region(s).
One way to do this would be to embed order-charged particles in a material which is not porous to them (so that they cannot move around or their movement is restricted) so as to create the order field(s) (eg by the arrangement of said charge(s)) which enhance the probability of fusion for certain reactants which come close to and/or enter into those order field region(s). Furthermore, if the said material is also porous to the reactants, so that they may enter into the said areas of increased probability of fusion, then fusion may come about and energy be released, which normally would have to be removed by a heat exchanger and/or cooling system to be rejected and/or to do work.
For example order charged alpha particles (helium-4) or heavier order-charged nuclei such as lithium-6 (which could come from fragmentation of halo nuclei) are embedded (eg by ion bombardment from a source and/or from an accelerator) in palladium, which provides a fairly rigid structure which prevents them moving around much so as to maintain the arrangement created, in appropriate way(s) and/or randomly so as to create the required order field(s). Palladium is porous to hydrogen isotopes, so that these may be introduced into the order field region(s) and fusion may
occur, by reactions such as 25, 28, 29 and/or 31, but not necessarily requiring order charged reactants (as specified in those equations), and/or by other reactions such as 32, 33, 34 and/or 36, see figure 1C, and/or by variants of one or more of these reactions or other reactions where the final state is modified by the order field(s) (eg by the absorption of energy and/or the balancing of momenta into the said field(s)) and/or by the emission of orderons and/or photons, for example such reactions may be modified so as not to emit neutron(s) and/or proton(s), and/or by other reactions in which case additional reactants may be required (eg helium-3 or lithium-6). Palladium or other material impregnated with order charge(s) and/or order force in such a way as to create region(s) where the probability of fusion is enhanced could be used in a cold fusion device, in effect converting it to an order-catalyzed fusion device, to provide energy reliably.
Any excess energy would normally have to be removed, eg as heat by a heat exchanger and/or cooling system (or the order field region(s) could become damaged by heat). Damage could also be caused by radiation, and steps might have to be taken to correct for this. Furthermore, when such reactions occur, the end products may build up so as to eventually slow and/or block the reactions in effect by blocking and/or poisoning the fusion region(s). For example, helium isotopes could start to clog up the palladium lattice (or other porous material(s)) and prevent the reactants from getting into the order field fusion region(s). In this way the activity of the material could be reduced and eventually rendered inoperable, at least to any practical purpose. Solutions to this would involve removal of the clogging materials which could either be done on-line and/or off-line continuously and/or in batches. Methods for doing this could involve treating the material in such a way as to drive off excess end products. If this disturbed the order charge(s) and/or field(s), then these would have to be refreshed and/or rebuilt. Alternatively, new order charge(s) and/or order field region(s) could be created in the said material either intermittently and/or continuously to provide alternative region(s) where the probability of fusion was enhanced, which could take over from the other regions as they became clogged and/or poisoned.
For example, the end products of most of the above reactions are helium isotopes which could be driven off from palladium by heating. However, if the order charge(s) have been embedded in it are attached to alpha particles, then these would tend to be disturbed by heating and could even be driven off as well, which would disturb and/or destroy the order field(s) in which case there would have a mechanism(s) and/or system(s) for replacing the order charge(s) and/or rebuilding the order field(s) and/or replacing the used palladium and/or swopping the used palladium with prepared palladium (eg with fusion regions) and/or off line treatment of the used palladium to remove the unwanted helium and rebuild the order charge(s) structures and/or order field(s).
Practical Considerations
The inventions presented herein have often been presented in a simplified or conceptual way without specifying the practical details. All interactions, techniques, devices, apparatuses and/or inventions mentioned and/or described and/or illustrated in this patent may require additional systems and/or components and/or features to make them practical working devices and/or processes and/or systems, these may include but are not limited to: a. Vacuum systems, vacuum pipes, getters, gauges, vacuum pumps, heating elements, etc. b. Supports, brackets, dowels, alignment systems, etc. c. Optics, beam optics, typically electromagnetic and/or mechanical, bending devices (eg magnets, electrical), focusing devices (quadrupole magnets or higher and/or electric devices), cooling (eg stochastic), electrostatic devices, electrodes, acceleration, deceleration, range, beam stops, accelerators, decelerators, race tracks, cavities, pick-ups, etc. d. Shielding, electromagnetic, biological, radiation shielding etc. e. Detectors, control systems, electronics, logic, feedback, sensors, actuators, computers, microprocessors, software, instruments, electrolysis equipment, electrolytes, etc. f. Moderators, eg for neutrons, cooling systems, heat exchangers, temperature regulation, etc. g. Guides, slits, baffles, thin or special windows, etc. h. Cables, wiring, printed circuit boards, components, connectors, insulation, etc. j. Power supplies, power, electrical, RF, high/low voltage, regulators, generators, etc. k. Sources, materials, supplies, radioactive sources, ion sources, gases, etc.
1. Targets, liquid, gas, cryogenics, thermal insulation, heating systems, or other, etc.