PHARMACOLOGICAL PROPHYLACTICS AGAINST STRESS-INDUCED

AFFECTIVE DISORDERS AND THEIR ASSOCIATED SYMPTOMS CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/256.506 filed November 17, 2015, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

This invention was made with government support under grant numbers: DP5 OD017908-01 awarded by the National Institutes of Health, T32HD07430 awarded by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, R37 MH068542 awarded by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), and R01 AG043688 awarded by the National Institute of Aging. The government has certain rights in this nvention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to ketamine compositions and their use in methods of treatment or prevention of stress-induced affective disorders such as post -traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In certain aspects, a ketamine composition can be administered prior to a stressor.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Stress commonly precipitates psychiatric illness, particularly in vulnerable populations. For example, one in five soldiers returns from combat with posttraumatic stress disorder or combat-associated major depressive disorder (MDD) ί i). Perhaps more surprising is that many soldiers do not develop psychopathology. While there has been extensive research on factors promoting susceptibility to psychiatric illnesses, fe studies have examined what makes individuals resistant or stress resilient. Until recently, the sparse research on stress resilience has been predicated on the assumption that it is a passive property— more or less the absence of the risk factors that make individuals susceptible to stress-induced pathology (2). Recent work in animal models suggests that stress resilience is mediated through active processes and often distinct, parallel mechanisms to those of susceptibility (3-5). The idea that increasing stress resilience could protect: against the development of psychiatric disorders is appealing, but treatments to increase resilience are still in their infancy. Current interventions are all behavioral, with psychotherapy and exercise being the best available tools to increase resilience (6-8). Rodent studies further support a role for exercise and enriched environment in stress resilience (9-11).

Traditionally, affective disorders have been treated from a symptom-suppression approach. Existing drugs aim to mitigate the impact of these chronic diseases, but do not cure or prevent the disease itself. There are no known cures. Antidepressants are typically used to treat existing depressi ve symptoms, but chronic antidepressant, treatment may also protect against subsequent depressive episodes (17-21). This is known as "tertiary prevention" or "tertiary prophylaxis," Tertiary preventions suppress symptoms and mitigate the impact of a chronic disease, hut do not treat the underlying disease. Maintenance treatmen in MOD patients is often referred to as prophylaxis against the development of additional depressive episodes (22). but this should not be confused with "primary prevention" or "primary prophylaxis," which aims to prevent the disease before It ever occurs. No antidepressants have yet been shown to be primar prophylactics. Whether these tertiary prophylactic antidepressants, which can decrease the incidence of symptomatic episodes in disordered individuals, are also able to work as primary prophylaxis and prevent de novo psychiatric disorders remains to be tested. Importantly, classical antidepressant efficacy is neither sufficient for, nor necessarily predictive of, primary prophylactic efficacy.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is an illness characterized by persistent, vivid re-experiencing of a traumatic event, hyperarousal, and avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma (Charney et al ., 1993). The National Center for PTSD reports that 7-8% of the United States population will experience PTSD at some point: in their lives, and about 8 million adults suffer from the disorder each year (National Center for PTSD, 2015). PTSD i often comorbid with other prevalent psychiatric illnesses such as major depressive disorder (MOD) (28%) and substance use (73%) (Brady et al, 2000).

Currently, clinicians rely on several methods to reduce the sytnptomology of PTSD including pharmacology, psychotherapy, or a combination of both methods. A first-line approach to the pharmacological treatment of PTSD involves the use of selective serotonin .reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) (Pradhan et al., 201.6). However, Stein and colleagues found that only 59% of individuals receiving SSRIs for PTSD responded to treatment after 14 weeks of treatment (Stein et al., 2(X)6). Other pharmacotherapies incl ude benzodiazepines and autiadrenergic agents, but these drugs are largely ineffective (Henry et al., 2007). These studies suggest that there is a critical need for improvements in drug therapy lor PTSD. Alternatively, psychiatrists use cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which involves fear extinction through safe exposure to trauma-related cues (Goluh et al., 2009), Other methods of psychotherapy include group therapy (Lubin et ai, 1 98), eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (Shapiro and Solomon, 2010), mindfulness-basecl cognitive training techniques (Hofmann et al., 2010), and physical activity (Rosenbaum et al., 2015). However, given the lack of empirical evidence and clinical utility of psychotherapy for tr uma victims, consistent therapies have not been established (National Center for PTSD, 2016), As a result, there are currentl disparate standpoints on the benefits of pharmacotherapy or psychotherapy for PTSD treatment, as many studies utilize incongruent techniques, making meta-analytic conclusions weak or flawed (Klein, 2000).

In light of the paucity of treatments for PTSD, researchers are pursuing potential strategies to prevent the onset of the PTSD and other psychiatric illnesses (Bernardini et al., 2016; Horn et al., 2016; Skeffmgton et al, 2016; Wald et al., 2016). Part of this work stems from an interest in methods to enhance stress resilience to prevent the onset of mental illness (Horn et al, 20! 6). A focus on preventative approaches can alleviate years of psychological and financial burden in victims of Ff SD and their loved ones.

Ketamine is an antagonist of the glutamate IN-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor and an activator of AMPA receptors. Ketamine has emerged as a rapid acting antidepressant for treatment-resistant MDD patients . It produces antidepressant effects as rapidly as 2 h following a single injection in patients with MOD (Zarate et al, 2006) and has sustained effects for approximately 1-2 weeks following the infusion (Berman et al, 2000). In contrast to previously mentioned SSRTs, ketamine has the benefit of being administered as a single dose (Zarate et al., 2006; Murrough et al., 201 ). In addition to its antidepressan properties, ketamine has been found to be efficacious in the treatment, of chrome PTSD (Feder et al., 2014), Feder and colleagues found that intravenous infusion of ketamine hydrochloride was associated with significant and rapid reduction in PTSD symptom severity when compared with midazolam (Feder et al., 2014), An initial study showed that the prevalence of PTSD was decreased in military patients that received ketamine during an operation for burns when compared with patients not receiving ketamine (McGhee et al., 2008). However, a follow-up study by the same authors failed to replicate their initial findings (McGhee et al., 2014). These studies bring into question how the dosing and timing of ketamine alters its efficacy as a treatment for PTSD. When ketamine should be administered in order to maximize its therapeutic effects remains unknown. Furthermore, whether any drugs are able to protect against PTSD has yet to be studied. There is an unmet need for effective prophylactic therapies to prevent the onset of stress-induced affective disorders.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In certain embodiments, the present invention relates to a method for preventing or delaying a stress-induced affective disorder or stress -induced psychopathology in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutic composition comprising ketamine, a keiamirse analog, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, derivative, or metabolite thereof, to a subject prior to a stressor,

In additional embodiments, the invention relates to a method for inducing and/or enhancing stress resilience in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutic composition comprising ketamine, a ketamine analog, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, derivative, or metabolite thereof, to a subject prior to a stressor.

In. further embodiments, the invention, relates to a method for preventing or delaying a stress-induced affective disorder in a subject, or for inducing and/or enhancing stress resilience in a subject, the method comprising: administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutic composition comprising an antagonist of the giutarrmte N-methyi-D-asparia te (NMDA) receptor to a subject prior to a stressor.

In certain embodiments, the antagonist: of the NMDA receptor comprises ketamine, a ketamine analog, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, derivative, or metabolite thereof.

In further embodiments, the invention relates to a method for preventing or delaying a stress-induced affective disorder in a subject, or for inducing and/or enhancing stress resilience in a subject, the method comprising: administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutic composition, comprising an. a-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid ⁽ AMPA) receptor agonist, to a subject prior to a stressor.

In certain embodiments, the AMPA receptor agonist is selected from the group consisting of giutamate, AMPA, 5-iluorowiHardjme, domoic acid, quisqualate acid, and (2i?.6i?)~hydroxynorketamine, CX546, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, derivative, or m etabol i te the reo .

In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutic composition is administered to the subject about 48 hours to about 3 weeks prior to a stressor. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutic composition is administered to the subject about 72 hours to about 2 weeks prior to a stressor.

In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutic composition is administered to the subject about 1 week prior to a stressor. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutic composition is adininktered io the subject once prior to a stressor. In certain embodiments, the

pharmaceutic composition is administered orally, intravenously, intranasal]}', or via injection to the subject.

in certain embodiments, the pharmaceutic composition comprises metabolites, including norketamine. hydroxyketemines. dehydronorketamine and hydroxynorketamine (HNK). In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutic composition comprises the ketamine metabolite (2/?,6fl)-HNK or (2S,6S>HNK.

In certain embodiments, the stress-induced affective disorder comprises major depressive disorder and/or posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), In certain embodiments, the stress-induced affective disorder is selected from the group consisting of: depressive-like behavior and associated affective disorders, anhedonie behavior and associated affective disorders, anxiety and associated affective disorders, cognitive impairments and deficits and associated disorders, and combinations thereof.

in additional embodiments, the stress-induced affective disorder comprises stress- induced psychopathoiogy. in certain embodiments, the stress-induced psychopathology comprises depressive and/or anxious behavior,

in certain embodiments, the preventing or delaying stress-induced cognitive impairment and/or decline.

in certain embodiments, the method further comprises administering an effective amount of an anti -depressant, an anxiolytic, or combinations thereof.

in certain embodiments, the method further comprises administering an effective amount of a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor CSSRi), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or derivative thereof.

in certain embodiments, the method further comprises administering an effective amount of fluoxetine, paroxetine, sertraline, lithium, riluzole, prazosin, lamotrigine, ifenprodil, or combinations thereof.

In additional embodiments, the subject is a mammal. In certain embodiments, the subject is a human.

In additional embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is administered in a booster series.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Figures 1A-J.G are schematics and graphs showing that ketamine protects against depressive-like behavior following social defeat (SD), Fig. 1A is a schematic showing the experimental design. Fig. IB is a graph showing that on day 2 of the forced swim test (FST), group housed (Ctri)-salinc (Sal) and Ctri-ketamine (K) mice did not differ from each other. Fig. 1C is a graph showing that SD-K mice exhibited significantly less immobility time when compared with SD-Sal mice. Fig. ID is a graph showing that average immobility time for minutes 3 to 6 was increased in the SD-Sal mice when compared with Ctrl-Sal mice. The SD- K mice displayed an average immobility time that was less than the SD-Sal mice. Fig. IE shows traces of the exploration paths of the mice during dominant interaction (Dl). Fig. IF is a graph showing that SD-Sal mice spent significantly more time investigating the empty enclosure when compared with the Ctrl-Sal mice. Conversely, SD-K mice spent significantly less time investigating the empty enclosure when compared with the SD-Sal mice. Fig, 1G is a graph showing that SD-K mice spent considerably more time investigating a CD-I mouse when compared with SD-Sal mice. Error bars represent ± SEM. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p

< 0.001. CFC, contextual fear conditioning; EPM, elevated plus maze; NSF, novelty suppressed feeding; Sac, sacrifice.

Figures 2A-2F are graphs showing the ketamine-indoced protection against depressive-like behavior is dose-specific. Fig. 2A is a graph showing that on day 2 of the forced swim test (FST), social defeat (SD)-saline (Sal) mice displayed significantly more immobility time in the FST when compared with group housed (Ctrl)-Sal mice. Fig. 2B is a graph showing that SD-Sal and SD-ketamine (K) (10 mg kg ^"1 ) mice did not differ in immobility. Fig. 2C is a graph showing that SD-K (30 mg kg ^"5 ) mice displayed significantly less immobility time when compared with SD-Sal mice. Fig. 2D is a graph showing that SD- Sal and SD-K (90 mg kg ^"1 ) mice did not differ in immobility time. Fig. 2E is a graph showing that for minutes 3 to 6 (averaged), SD-Sal mice displayed significantly more immobility in the FST when compared with Ctrl-Sal mice. SD-K (30 mg kg ^"1 ) mice again displayed decreased immobility when compared with SD-Sal mice. Fig. 2F is a graph showing that following a. brief stressor, SD-Sal mice had significantly lower levels of corticosterone when compared with Ctrl-Sal mice, (n = 7-8 male mice per group). Error bars represent + SEM. *p

< 0.05.

Figures 3A-3E are schematics and graphs showing that ketamine (K) protects against depressive-like behavior in learned helplessness (LH). Fig. 3 A. is a schematic showing experimental design. Fig. 3B is a graph showing that activity in the habituation phase during testing did not differ between groups. Figs. 3C-D are graphs showing that the latency to escape the shock was significantly less in the K-injected mice (indicated by the solid line) when compared with the saline (Sal)-injected mice (indicated as the dotted line). Fig. 3E is a graph showing that the total session length for all 30 trials was significantly less in the - injected mice when compared with the Sal-injected mice, (n = 8-9 male mice per group). Error bars represent ± SEM. *p < 0.05. ITT, inter-trial interval; ns, nonsignificant.

Figures 4A-4F are schematics and graphs showing that ketamine ( ) protects against depressive-like and anxiety behavior induced with a neuroendocrine model. Fig. 4A is a schematic showing the experimental paradigm. Figs. 4B-C are graphs showing that

corticosterone (CORT) mice administered K (90 mg kg ^" ' ) or .fluoxetine (Fix) (18 mg kg ^" Vday) exhibited significantly reduced immobility in the forced swim test (FST). Fig. 4D is a graph showing that chronic CORT increased the latency to groom during the sucrose splash test (ST). In contrast to Fix, K for the highest doses tested (90 mg kg ^"1 ) decreased the latency to groom during the ST. Fig. 4E is a graph showing that K (10 and 90 mg kg ^"1 ) decreased the latency to feed in the novelty suppressed feeding (NSF), Fig. 4F is a graph showing that K (90 mg kg ^"1 ) increased home food consumption in the NSF. (n— 10-15 male mice per group). Error bars represent ± SEM. #p < 0.05, ##p < 0.01. EPM, elevated plus maze; Sal saline; Veh, vehicle,

Figures 5A-5G are graphs showing that ketamine alters fighting behavior during social defeat bouts. Fig. 5A is a graph showing that the bout length did not differ for all groups of mice during week 1 or week 2. Fig. 5B is a graph showing that average immobility time during week I was not significantly different in all groups of mice. However, average immobility during week 2 of SD was significantly altered in mice administered ketamine. Fig. 5C is a graph showing that the percent of time vocalizing did not differ between groups. Fig, SD is a graph showing that the number of approaches by the 129S6/SvEv mouse to the CD-I did not differ between the groups. Figs. 5E-G are graphs showing that interestingly, the latency of the CD-i to attack the 129S6/SvEv mouse only differed in SD-K (30 mg kg ^'1 ) mice when compared with SD-Sai mice, n = 7-8 male 129S6/SvEv mice per group. Error bars represent ± SEM . * p < 0.05, * * p < 0.01 ; * * * p < 0.001.

Figures 6A-6L are graphs and schematics showing that ketamine, as an antidepressant, increases adult hippocampal neurogenesis. F gs. 6A-B are graphs showing that ketamine significantly decreased the latency to approach the food pellet in Ctrl mice. SD- Sai and SD-K mice did not differ from one another. Fig. 6C is a graph showing that body weight did not differ in any of the groups of mice before the start of novelty suppressed feeding (NSF). Fig. 6D is a graph showing that before NSF, SD-Sal mice lost more body weight than Ctrl-Sal mice. Ketamine attenuated this weight loss. Fig. 6E is a graph showing that SD mice lost more body weight than Ctrl mice during the fast for NSF. Fig. 6F is a graph showing that SD mice consumed significantly more food than Ctrl mice. Figs. 6G-J are results showing that all groups of mice had comparable levels of freezing during CFC training and following re-exposure to the fearful context A and to a similar context A', n = 13-15 129S6/SvEv male mice per group. Fig. 6K is a graph showing that ketamine increases the number of i67 ⁺ cells when compared to saline in Ctrl mice but not in SD mice. Fig. 6L is a graph showing that ketamine does not alter DCX levels, n - 6-9 12 S6/SvEv male mice per group. Error bars represent ± SEM. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 , *** p < 0.001. Figs. 6K-L are imniunohistoehemistry results.

Figures 7A-7E are experimental design schemes and graphs showing that prophylactic ketamine admini tration I week before CFC results in a decreased fear response. Fig. 7A is a schematic showing the experimental design. Fig. 7B is a graph showing that during CFC training, mice injected with saline or ketamine displayed similar levels of freezing. Fig. 7C is a graph showing that both groups of mice traveled comparably during each of the 3 shock presentations Fig. 7D is a graph showing that during the first extinction exposure, prophylactic ketamine-injected mice expressed significantly less freezing behavior when compared with saline-injected mice. Both groups of mice expressed similar levels of freezing behavior during subsequent extinction trials, reinstatement, and secondary extinction trials. Fig. 7E is a graph showing the differences in fear extinction between ketamine-injected and saline-injected mice, (n ~ 5 mice per group). Error bars represent + SEM. ** p < 0.01, and *** p <0.001. Sal, saline; K, ketamine; CFC, contextual fear conditioning; E, extinction; R, reinstatement: No., number.

Figures 8A-8D are experimental design schemes and graphs showing that prophylactic ketamine administration 1 month before CFC does not result in a decreased fear response or facilitate extinction. Fig. 8A is a schematic showing the experimental design. Fig, 8B is a graph showing that during CFC, mice injected with saline or ketamine displayed similar levels of freezing. Fig. 8C is a graph showing that both groups of mice traveled comparably during each of the 3 shock presentations. Fig. 8D is a graph showing that mice administered saline or ketamine 1 month before CFC exhibited similar levels of freezing behavior during CFC training and during extinction, (n = 5 mice per group). Error bars represent + SEM. Sal, saline; , ketamine; CFC, contextual fear conditioning; E, extinction; JN'o,, number.

Figures 9A-9H are experimental design schemes and graphs showing that prophylactic ketamine administration immediately before CFC does not result in a decreased fear response or facilitate extinction. Fig. 9A is a schematic showing the experimental design. Fig. 9B is a graph showing that during CFC, ketamine-injected mice ha ve increased immobility before the shock presentation when compared with saline-injected mice. Fig. 9C is a graph showing that ketamine-injected mice travel less during the shock presentation than saline-injected mice. Fig. 9D is a graph showing that both groups express equal levels of freezing behavior during almost all extinction trials, (n = 10 mice per group). Fig. 9E is a schematic showing the experimental design. Fig. 9F is a graph showing that mice injected with: saline or with ketamine expressed equal levels of freezing behavior during CFC training. Fig, 9G is a graph showing that saline- and ketamine-injected mice traveled equall during the shock presentation. Fig. 9H is a graph showing that both groups of mice displayed similar levels of freezing behavior during all but one extinction trial, (n = 5 mice per group). Error bars represent + SEM. * p < 0.05, and ** p < 0.01 . Sal, saline; K, ketamine; CFC, contextual fear conditioning; E, extinction; No., number.

Figures 10A-10F are experimental design schemes and graphs showing that ketamine administration does not facilitate extinction when administered following CFC. Fig. 10A is a schematic showing the experimental design. Fig. 10B is a graph showing thai mice injected with saline or with ketamine 1 h after CFC express equal levels of freezing behavior during all extinction trials, (n = 5 mice per group). Fig. IOC is a schematic showing the experimental design. Fig. 10D is a graph showing that mice injected with saline or with ketamine 1 week after CFC, but 1 week before extinction, expressed, equal levels of freezing behavior during all extinction trials, (n- 10 mice per group). Fig. 10E is a schematic showing the experimental design. Fig. 10F is a graph showing that mice injected with saline or with ketamine 1 h before extinction expressed equal levels of freezing behavior during all extinction trials, in = 5 mice per group). Error bars represent + SEM. Sal, saline; K, ketamine; CFC, contextual fear conditioning; E, extinction; No., number.

Figures 11A-11L are experimental design schemes and graphs showing thai ketamine administration following extinction does not buffer against subsequent fear-inducing stimuli but increases vigilance. Fig. 11 A is a schematic showing the experimental design. Fig. 11B is a graph showing that mice injected with saline or with ketamine 24 h after the last extinction trial expressed equal levels of freezing behavior during reinstatement and during secondary extinction trials. Fig. 11C is a graph showing that both groups of mice traveled comparably during the reinstatement shock presentation. Fig. 11D is a graph showing that both groups of mice exhibited equal level of immobility in the EST on day 1 and on day 2. Fig. FIE is a graph showing that both groups of mice exhibited equal level of movement in the OF. Fig. 11F is a graph showing that ketamine-injected mice displayed an increased number of rearing bouts when compared with saline-injected mice, in = 5 mice per group). Fig. 11G is a schematic showing the experimental design. Fig, 1IH is a graph showing thai saline and ketaraine-injec ted mice displayed comparable levels of fear behavior during reinstatement and during secondary extinction trials. Fig. Ill is a graph showing that both groups of mice traveled comparably during each of the 3 reinstatement shock presentations. Fig. 11J is a graph showing that both groups of mice exhibit equal levels of immobility in the FST on day 1 and on day 2. Figs ll -L are graphs showing that both groups of mice exhibited equal levels of movement in the OF and had a comparable number of rearing bouts, (n - 9- 10 mice per group). Error bars represent + SEM. * p < 0.05. Sal, saline; K, ketamine; CFC. contextual fear conditioning; E, extinction; R, reinstatement; FST, forced swim test; OF, ope field; No., number.

Figures 12.4-12E are experimental design schemes and graphs showing that ketamine administration following reinstatement decreases tear following 3 -shock CFC, but not I - shock CFC. Fig. 12A is a schematic showing the experimental design. Fig. 12B is a graph showing that mice injected with saline and ketamine 1 h after 1 -shock reinstatement express comparable levels of fear behavior during secondary extinction trials, (n = 5 mice per group). Fig. 12C is a schematic showing the experimental design. Fig. 12D is a graph showing that mice injected with ketamine 1 h after 3-shock reinstatement express decreased fear when compared with mice injected with saline, (n - 9-10 mice per group). Fig. 12E is a graph showing that mice injected with saline or ketamine 24 h after 3-shock reinstatement express comparable levels of freezing behavior during secondary extinction trials, (n = 5 mice per group). Error bars represent + SEM. * p < 0.05, and ** p < 0,01. Sa!, saline; K, ketamine; CFC, contextual .fear conditioning; E, extinction; R, reinstatement; No., number.

Figures 13A-C are graphs showing experimental design and results of fear expression at differing administi'ation times for ketamine compared with saline injected mice. Fig. 1.3A shows results for 1 month or 1 week prophylactic administration of ketamine compared with saline injected mice. Fig. 13B shows results for 1 hour after CFC or 1 hour before extinction administration of ketamine compared with saline injected mice. Fig. 13C shows results for 1 week before reinstatement or 1 hour after reinstatement administration of ketamine compared with saline injected mice.

Figures 14A-14D are graphs illustrating comparison of contextual fear extinction paradigms. Fig. 14A shows the Experimental design. Mice were administered 3-shock CFC training. Four days later, they were placed in the same context for 3 minutes once per day for 10 days. Fig. 14B shows freezing levels for mice throughout the extinction trials. Mice expressed less than 20 percent freezing at the seventh extinction trial. Fig. 14C shows experimental design. Mice were administered 3-shoek CFC training. Four days later, they were placed in the same context for 30 minutes twice per day for 8 days. Fig. 14D is a graph showing freezing levels for mice throughout the extinction trials. Values represent the first three minutes of each trial. Mice expressed less than 20 percent freezing at the third extinction trial, n - 7- 1 1 mice per group.

Figures 15Λ-Β show the experimental design and graph illustrating that prophylactic metabolites of ketamine administration decrease behavioral despai r. Fig. ISA is a schematic of the experimental design for prophylactic administration of ketamine metabolites. Fig. 15B is a graph illustrating that prophylactic K-injected mice expressed significantly less immobilit in day 2 of the FST when compared wi th Sal-injected mice. Moreover, prophylactic metabolites of ketamine (HNK) are efficacious as prophylactics at 10 and 30 mg/kg. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 , *** p < 0.001.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The idea that increasing stress resilience could protect against the development of psychiatric disorders is appeali ng, but treatments to increase resilience are still in their infancy. Current interventions are all behavioral, with psychotherapy and exercise being the best available tools to increase resilience (6-8), Traditionally, affective disorders have been treated from a symptom-suppression approach. Existing drugs aim to mitigate the impact of these chronic diseases, but do not cure or prevent the disease itself. There are no known cures. Antidepressants are typically used to treat existing depressive symptoms, but chronic antidepressant treatment may also protect against subsequent depressive episodes (17-21), This is known as "tertiary prevention" or "tertiary prophylaxis." Tertiary preventions suppress symptoms and mitigate the impact of a chronic disease, but do not treat the underlying disease. Maintenance treatment in MDD patients is often referred to as

prophylaxis against the development of additional depressive episodes (22), but this should not be confused with ' ^' primary prevention" or "primary prophylaxis," which aims to prevent the disease before it ever occurs. No antidepressants have yet been shown to be primary prophylactics. Whether these tertiary prophylactic antidepressants, which can decrease the i ncidence of symptomatic episodes in disordered individuals, are also able to work as primary prophylaxis and prevent de novo psychiatric disorders remains to be tested. Importantly, classical antidepressant efficacy is neither sufficient for, nor necessarily predicti ve of, primary prophylactic efficacy. For example, fluoxetine does not demonstrate such primary prophylactic efficacy. The results described herein address and illustrate that ketamine and ketamine metabolites exhibit such primary prophylactic efficacy. The present disclosure provides methods for prophylactically treating a stress-induced affective disorder or stress-induced psyehopathology in a subject. Also encompassed by the present disclosure are methods for inducing and/or enhancing stress resilience in a subject. In certain embodiments, an effective amount of an antagonist of the glutamate N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, such as ketamine or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or derivative thereof, is administered to a subject prior to a stressor.

The present agent/composition may be administered therapeutically to achieve a therapeutic benefit or prophylacticall to achieve a prophylactic benefit. By therapeutic benefit is meant eradication or amelioration of the underlying stress-induced affective disorder being treated, and/or eradication or amelioration of one or more of the symptoms associated with the underlying disorder. By prophylactic benefit is meant prevention or delay of die onset of a stress-induced affecti ve disorder, and/or prevention or delay of the onset of one or more of the symptoms associated with a stress-induced affective disorder. In certain embodiments, an effective amount of the present agent/composition to be administered prevents stress -rel ted disorders from developing or being exacerbated into more serious conditions.

in certain embodiments, for prophylactic administration, the present

agent/composition may be administered to a patient at risk of developing a stress-induced affective disorder, or to a patient reporting one or more of the physiological symptoms of a stress-induced affecti e disorder, even though a diagnosis of a stress-induced affective disorder may not have yet been made. In certain embodiments, prophylactic administration is applied to avoid the onset of the physiological symptoms of the underlying disorder, before the symptom manifests cyclically. In this latter embodiment, the therapy is prophylactic with respect to the associated physiological symptoms instead of the underlying indication. In certain embodiments, the present agent/composition is administered prior to recurrence of a stressor. In certain embodiments, the present agent/composition is administered prior to the onset of a particular symptom.

in a further embodiment, the present invention provides for the use of the present agent or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or a physiologically functional derivative thereof, in the preparation of a medicament for the treatment of a stress-induced affective disorder.

"Treating" or "treatment" of a state, disorder or condition includes: (1) preventing or delaying the appearance of clinical symptoms of the state, disorder, or condition developing in a person who may be afflicted with or predisposed to the state, disorder or condition but does not yet experience or display clinical symptoms of the state, disorder or condition; or

(2) inhibiting the state, disorder or condition, i.e., arresting _! , reducing or delaying the development of the disease or a relapse thereof (in case of maintenance treatment) or at least one clinical symptom, sign, or test, thereof; or

(3) relieving the disease, i.e., causing regression of the state, disorder or condition or at least one of its clinical or sub-clinical symptoms or signs.

The benefit to a subject to be treated is either statisticall significant or at least perceptible to the patient or to the physician.

A "prophylacticaliy effective amount" refers to an amount effective, at dosages and for periods of time necessary, to achieve the desired prophylactic result, in certain embodiments, since a prophylactic dose is used in subjects prior to or at an earlier stage of a disorder, the prophylacticaliy effective amount is less than the therapeutically effective amount, in certain embodiments, the prophylacticaliy effective amount is similar to, identical to, or more than, the therapeutically effective amount.

A therapeutically effective amount, or an effective amount, of a drug is an amount effective to demonstrate a desired activity of the drug. A "therapeutically effective amount" will vary depending on the compound, the disorder and its severity and the age, weight, physical condition and responsiveness of the subject to be treated. In certain embodiments, a effective amount of ketamine, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or a physiologically functional derivative thereof, is an amount effective to prevent or delay the onset of a stress-induced affective disorder, and/or effective to alleviate, one or more of the symptoms of a stress-induced affective disorder,

lit certain embodiments, an effective amount of the present agent is a sub-anesthetic amount of ketamine, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or a

physiologically functional derivative thereof, in certain embodiments, an effective amount of the present agent is a sub-analgesic amount of ketamine, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or a physiologically functional derivative thereof.

in certain embodiments, a subject is treated with ketamine, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or a physiologically functional derivative thereof, via intravenous, oral, transdermal or intranasal administration. In certain embodiments, a subject is injected with ketamine, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or a physiologically functional derivative thereof.

In certain embodiments, a subject is treated with a single dose of an effecti e amount of ketamine, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or a physiologically functional derivative thereof, prior to and/or after a stressor. In some aspects, a subject is treated with multiple doses of an effective amount of ketamine, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or a physiologically functional derivative thereof, prior to and/or after a stressor.

In certain embodiments, the present agent, such as ketamine, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or a physiologically functional derivative thereof, is administered in a composition comprising a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, cxcipient or diluent. Also provided herein is a pharmaceutical composition that comprises ketamine, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or a physiologically functional derivative thereof, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, excipient or diluent, for use in the prophylactic treatment of a stress-induced affective disorder.

"Patient" or "subject" refers to mammals and includes human and veterinary subjects. In certain embodiments, the subject is mammalian.

Ketamine

Ketamine ({RS)-2-(2-chlorophenyi)-2-(methylamino)cyclohexanone) is an antagonist of the g!utamate N-methyl-D-aspartate (N DA) receptor (NMDAR). Ketamine also acts on opioid receptors, sigma receptors, muscarinic receptors, monoamine transporters, etc.

Ketami e is a chiral compound. As used herein, the term "ketamine" may refer to (S)- ketamine (also referred to as S(+)-keiamme or esketamine), (R)-ketamine (R(-)-ketamine), or a racemic mixture of (S)-ketamine and (R)-ketamine. In certain embodiments, the ketamine compositions contain different proportions of the S(+) and R(-) stereoisomers. In certain embodiments, the ketamine compositions contain only (S)-kelamine or (R)-kelamme, or are enantiomerically enriched for a ketamine enantiomer. In certain embodiments, the ketamine composition is enriched to contain, for example, greater than 60%, greater than 70%, greater than 80%, greater than 90%, greater than 95%, greater than 99%, or greater than 99.9 of (S)- ketamine or (R)-ketamine.

Paul et al., "Comparison of racemic ketamine and S-ket amine in treatment-resistant major depression: report of two cases". World J. of Bio. Psych., 2009, pp 241 -244, Vol. 1 (3); Paskaiis et al.. Oral Administration of the NTviDA Receptor Antagonist S-Ketamine as Add-on Therapy of Depression: A Case Series, Pharmacopsychiatry, 2010, pp 33-35, Vol, 40; Noppers et al., Absence of long-term analgesic effect from a short-term S-keiamine infusion on fibromyalgia pain: A randomized, prospective, double blind, active placebo- controlled trial", Eur. J. of Pain., 201 1 , 15(9):942-9; Matthews et al., Ketamine for

Treatment- esistant Unipolar Depression, CNS Drugs, 2012, 1-16; and International Patent Publication No. WO2013138322.

The term "pharmaceutically acceptable derivative" refers to any pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate or prodrug, e.g. ester, of a compound which upon administration to the recipient is capable of providing (directly or indirectly) a compound or an active metabolite or residue thereof. Such derivatives are recognizable to those skilled in the art, without undue experimentation. Derivatives are described, for example, in Burger's

Medicinal Chemistry and Drug Discovery, 5th Edition, Vol 1: Principles and Practice, which is incorporated herein by reference. In certain embodiments, pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives include salts, solvates, esters, carbamates, and phosphate esters. In one embodiment, the present composition contains a hydrochloride salt of ketamine.

The present agent may be administered by various routes, including intravenous (i.v. or IV), intranasal (i.n. or IN), intramuscular (i.m. or 1M), caudal, intrathecal, and

subcutaneous (s.c.) routes.

NMDA receptor antagonists— etamine and other compounds

NMDA receptor antagonists are compounds that antagonize, or inhibit, the action of the NMDA receptor. An NMDA receptor antagonist may be a competitive antagonist, an uncompetitive antagonist, a noncompetitive antagonist, and/or a glycine antagonist.

Non-limiting examples of NMDA receptor antagonists include, ketamine, dextromethorphan (DXM), histogranin, memantine, meperidine, methadone, methoxetamine (MXE), phencyclidine (PCP), nitrous oxide (N ₂ 0), APS (APV, -2-amino-5- phosplionopentanoate), AP7 (2-amino-7-phosphonoheptanotc acid), CPPene ((3-[(R)-2- carbo ^' sypiperaziii-4-yl]-prop-2-enyl- i-phosphonic acid), Selfotel, Amantadine, Atemoxetine, AZD6765, Agmatine, chloroform, dextrailorphan, dextromethorphan, dextrorphan, diphenidine, dizocilpine (MK-801). ethanol, eticyclidine, gaeychdine, ibogaine, magnesium, memantine, nitromemantine, rolicyclidine, tenocyclidme, methoxydine, tiietamine.

neramexane, eliprodil, dexoxadroj, etoxadroL remacemide, deiucemine, WMS-2539, NEFA, 8A-PDHQ, HU-21 1 , Aptigane! (Cerestat, CNS- 1 102), rhynchophylline, kynurenic acid, Rapastinel (GLYX-13), NRX-1074, 7-Chlorokynurenic acid, 4-Chlorokynurenine (AV- lOi ), TK-40, 1 -Aminocyclopropanecarboxylic acid (ACPC), L-Phenyialanine, Xenon, or analogs or derivatives thereof, etamine derivatives such as Rapastinel or Glyx-13 are also included. Rapastinel is an MDA receptor glycine site partial agonist, it is an amidated tetrapeplide (Thr-Pro-Pro-Thr-NHj) which rapidly crosses the blood brain barrier, but is not active orally .

Compounds that are mechanistically similar to ketamine are expected to be protective against stress-induced de novo psychopathology. Such compounds include:

• Ro 25-6981, a GluN2B- -selective antagonist (Miller OH, et al. (2014), eLife

3:e03581), which has been shown to have rapid antidepressant actions in rodent models of depression.

• CP- 101 ,606, a Gl«N2B-selec-tive antagonist (Preskom S, et al. (2007): A placebo- controlled trial of the NR2B specific NMDA antagonist CP-101, 606 plus paroxetine for treatment resistant depression (TRD). American Psychological Association meeting), which has been shown to be protective in animal models of brain injury and stroke.

• GLYX- 13, a novel N-methyl-D -aspartate receptor (NMDAR) glycine-sHe functional partial agonist and rapid-acting antidepressant (Burgdorf J, et al, (2 13),

Neiiropsychopharmacology 38:729-42). GLYX- 13 received Breakthrough

Therapy designation from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for adjunctive treatment of MDD in January, 2016, and

• CX546 (Tocris), an ampakine (an AMPA receptor agonist) (Zhou W, et al. (2014), Eur. Psychiatry 29:41 -23), which relieves the respiratory depression induced by fentanyl.

Non-limiting examples of the NMDA receptor antagonists also include anti-receptor antibodies, anti-ligand antibodies, etc.

Several synthetic opioids function as NMDA receptor-antagonists, such as pethidine, methadone, meperidine, dextropropoxyphene, tramadol, levorphanol, and ketobemidone.

AMPA receptor agonists

AMPA receptor agonists are compounds that activate the action of the a-amtno-3- hydroxy-5-metliyl-4-isoxazoiepiOpionic acid (AMPA) receptor. It is expected that

compounds that activate the AMPA receptor, including metabolites, will have a similar effect as the present effects shown with ketamine, in view of recent findings that a ketamine metabolite's antidepressant activity in mice was due to sustained activation of the AMPA receptor, rather than inhibiting NMDAR. (See. Zanos et aL (2016). "NMDAR inhibition- independent antidepressant actions of ketamine metabolites. Nature, 533: 4 1 -486.)

Thus, in certain embodiments, AMPA receptor agonists may be used in the methods described herein. Non-limiting examples of the AMPA receptor agonists include glutamate, AMPA, 5-fiuorowillardiine, domoie acid, quisquaiic acid, (2R,6R)-hydiOxynorketamine, CX546, etc.

Ketamine Metabolites

Ketamine is a derivative of aryicyelohexyiamme and contains a chiral center. Since the 1950s, a large number of aiylcyclohexylamines have been synthesized: these compounds have shown a wide range of possible pharmacological activities. When administered orally, it undergoes first-pass metabolism, where it is stereo selectively metabolized into a broad array of metabolites, including norketamine, hydroxyketaraines, dehydronorkeiamine and

hydroxynorketamine (HNK). After ketamine administration, (25,6S;2/?,6 ?)-HNK are the two major I-1NK metabolites found in the plasma and brain. Interestingly, a recent study has shown that the (2K.6R)-HNK metabolite is: 1) essential for the antidepressant effects of ketamine, 2) dependen on -aimno-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazoiepropionie acid (AMPA) receptor activation, and 3) non-hypnotic (Zanos et aL, 2016). All of these compounds are expected to behave similarly in the presently described, methods, including enantiomers and non-psychotomimetic metabolites of ketamine.

Ketamine "s enantiomers and non-psychotomimetic metabolites are also expected to be protective against stress-induced de novo psychopathology, as shown i the results in Figs, 15A-B. Such compounds include:

1. (2 f,6 i)-HNK, a metabolite of ketamine that may mediate the antidepressant effects of ketamine and lacks the ketamine -related side effects (Zanos et al., 2016) (see Figs, 15A-B)

2. (2,$',6S)-HNK, a metabolite of ketamine (Zanos et al., 201 , synthesis of these compounds (2/?,6/?}-HNK and(25,6S)-H K are described in Zanos et al. 2016 and Wainer et al. WO 2013/056229 (2013.), The use of (2R,6R)- hydroxynorfcetamine, (S)-dehydronorketamine and other stereoisomeric dehydro and hydroxylated metabolites of (R,S)-ketamine in the treatment of depression and. neuropathic pain).

3. (/?)-ketamtne, the /f-enantiomer of ketamine, which has rapid-onset and

sustained antidepressant effects without psychotomimetic side effects (Yang et aL, 2015). and 4. (S)-ke famine, the S-cnantiomer of ketamine. which is being developed as an intranasal spray, currently in phase ill clinical trials for treatment-resistant depression.

Finally, other ketamine analogs are also expected to be protective. Such compounds include:

5. Fluorodeschloroketamine, an analog of ketamine where the chlorine (CI) group lias been replaced by fluorine (F), and

6. Tiletamine. an analog of ketamine commonly used as a veterinary anesthetic.

Pharmaceutical Compounds

The compounds used in the present methods include all hydrates, solvates, and complexes of the compounds. If a chiral center or another form of an isomeric center is present in a compound of the present invention, all forms of such isomer or isomers, including enantiomers and diastereomers, are intended to be covered herein. Compounds containing a chiral center may be used as a racemic mixture, an enantiomerically enriched mixture, or the racemic mixture may be separated using well-known techniques and an individual enantiomer may be used alone. The compounds described in the present invention are in racemic form or as individual enantiomers. The enantiomers can be separated using known techniques, such as those described in Pure and Applied Chemistr 69, 1469-1474, (1997) iUPAC. In cases in which compounds have unsaturated carbon-carbon double bonds, both: the cis (Z) and trans (E) isomers are within the scope of this invention. In cases wherein compounds may exi t in tautomeric forms, such as keto-enol taut mers, each tautomeric form is contemplated as being included within this invention whether existing in equilibrium or predominantly in one form.

When the structure of the compounds used in this invention includes an asymmetric carbon atom such compound can occur as racemaies, racemic mixtures, and isolated single enantiomers. All such isomeric forms of these compounds are expressly included in this invention. Each stereogenic carbon may be of the R or S configuration. It is to be understood accordingly that the isomers arising from such asymmetry (e.g., all enantiomers and diastereomers) are included within the scope of this invention, unless indicated otherwise. Such isomers can be obtained in substantially pure form by classical separation techniques and by stereochemically controlled synthesis, such as those described in "Enantiomers, Racem tes and Resolutions" by J, Jacques, A. Collet and S. Wiien, Pub. John Wiley & Sons. NY, 198.1 , For example, the resolution may be carried out by preparative chromatography on a chiral column. The present disclosure is also intended to include use of all isotopes of atoms occumng on the compounds disclosed herein, isotopes include those atoms having die same atomic number but different mass numbers, Isotopieally-labeled compounds can generally be prepared by conventional techniques known to those skilled in the art or by processes analogous to those described in d e Examples disclosed herein using an appropriate

isotopicalJy-labeled .reagents in place of the non-labeled reagents employed.

The compounds of the instant invention may be i a salt form. As used herein, a "salt" is a salt of the instant compound which ha been modified by making acid or base, salts of the compounds. In the case of compounds used for treatment of mammals, the salt is

pharmaceutically acceptable. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable salts include, but are not limited to, mineral or organic acid salts of basic residues such as amines; alkali or organic salts of acidic residues such as phenols. The salts can be made using an organic or inorganic acid. Such acid salts are chlorides, bromides, sulfates, nitrates, phosphates, sulfonates, formates, tartrates, maleates, malates, citrates, benzoates, salicylates, ascorbates, and the like. Phenolate salts are the alkaline earth metal salts, sodium, potassium or lithium. The term

"pharmaceutically acceptable salt" in this respect, refers to the relatively non-toxic, inorganic and organic acid or base addition salts of compounds of the present invention. These salts can be prepared in situ during the final isolation and purification of the compounds of the invention, or by separately treating a purified compound of the invention in its free base or free acid form with a suitable organic or inorganic acid or base, and isolating the salt thus formed. Representative salts include the hydrobromide, hydrochloride, sulfate, bisulfate, phosphate, nitrate, acetate, valerate, oleate, palmitate, slearate, laurate, benzoate, lactate, phosphate, tosyiate, citrate, maleate, fumarate, succinate, tartrate, napthylate, mesylate, glueoheptonate, lactobionate, and laurylsulphonate salts and the like. (See, e.g., Berge et al. ( 1 77} "Pharmaceutical Salts", Pharm. Sci . 66: 1 - 19).

The present methods also encompass administering a physiologically functional derivative of the present compound. As used herein, the term "ph iologically functional derivative" refers to a compound (e.g, a drug precursor) that is transformed in vivo to yield the present compound or its active metabolite, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate or solvate of the compound. The transformation may occur by various mechanisms (e.g., by metabolic or chemical processes), such as, for example, through hydrolysis in blood.

Prodrugs are such derivatives, and a discussion of the use of prodrugs is provided by T. Higuchi and W. Stella, ''Pro-drugs as Novel Delivery Systems," Vol. 14 of the A.C.S. Symposium Series, and in Bioreversible Carriers in Drug Design, ed. Edward B. Roche.

American Pharmaceutical Association and Pergamon Press, 1 87.

Dosages

In certain embodiments, the effective amount of the present compound is a dose of about 0.01 to about 3 mg of ketamine per kilogram of body weight of the subjec t (mg kg), i.e., from about 0.01 mg kg to about 3 mg kg body weight. In certain embodiments, the effective amount of the present compound ranges 0.00! to approximately 3 mg/kg body weight, 0.001 to approximately 2 mg/kg body weight, from about 0.01 mg kg to about 3 mg/kg body weight, from about 0.01 to about 2 mg kg of body weight, about 0.0.1 to about 1 ,5 mg/kg of body weight, about 0.05 to about 1.4 mg kg of body weight, about 0,05 to about 1 .3 mg kg of body weight, about 0.05 to about 1.2 mg/kg of body weight, about 0.05 to about 1.1 mg/kg of body weight, about 0. 1 to about 1 mg/kg of body weight, or about 0.05 to about 0.7 mg/kg of body weight, in some aspects, the dose is about 0.05 to about 0.5 mg kg. In some aspects, the dose is less than about 0,5 mg/kg, less that about 0.4 mg kg, or less than about 0.3 mg/kg body weight. In some aspects, die effective amount of the present compound is a dose in the range of from about 0.01 mg kg to about 1.5 mg/kg body weight. In some aspects, the effecti ve amount of the present compound is a dose in the range of from about 0.01 mg/kg to about 1 mg/kg body weight. In some aspects, the effective amount of the present compound is a dose in the range of from about 0.0.1 mg/kg to about 0.75 mg/kg body weight, in some aspects, the effective amount of the present compound is a dose in the range of from about 0.75 mg/kg to abou 1.5 mg/kg body weight. In some aspects, the effective amount of the present, compound is a dose in the range of from about 0.5 mg kg to about 1.2 mg/kg body weight, in some aspects, the effective amount of the present compound is a dose in the range of from about 0,05 mg/kg to about 0.5 mg kg. In some aspects, the effective amount of the present compound is a dose of about 0.2 mg kg or about 0.4 mg/kg body weight. In some aspects, the dose of the present compound is, about 0.01 to about 1 mg/kg, about 0.1 to about 0.5 mg kg, about 0.8 to about 1.2 mg/kg, about 0.7 to about 1.! mg kg, about 0.05 to about 0.7 mg/kg, about 0. 1 mg kg, about 0.05 mg/kg, about 0. 1 mg/kg, about 0.2 mg/kg, about 0.3 mg/kg, about 0.4 mg/kg, about 0.5 mg/kg, about 0.6 mg kg, about 0.7 mg/kg, about 0.8 mg kg, about 0.9 mg/kg, about 1.0 mg/kg, about 1.1 mg/kg, about 1.2 mg/kg, about 1 .3 mg/ksr, about 1.4 mg/kg, about 1.5 msr/kg, about 1.6 mg/kg, about 1.7 mg kg, about 1.8 mg/kg, about 1 .9 mg/kg, about 2.0 mg/kg, or about 3 mg/kg body weight.

In certain embodiments, the dose of the present compound per administration is from about 1 to about 250 mg, from about 10 mg to about 300 mg, about 10 mg to about 250 mg. about 10 to about 200 mg, about 15 to about 175 mg, about 20 to about 175 mg, about 8 mg to about 32 ing, about 50 mg to about 75 rag, about 25 to about 150 mg, about 25 to about 125 mg, about 25 to about 100 mg, about 50 to about 100 mg, about 50 mg to about 75 mg, about 75 mg to about 100 mg, or about 75 mg to about 200 mg, about 1 mg, 2 mg, 4 mg, 5 mg, 10 mg, 15 nig, 20 mg, 25 mg, 30 mg, 35 mg, 40 mg, 45 mg, 50 mg, 55 mg, 60 nig, 65 mg, 70 .mg, 75 mg, 80 mg, 85 mg, 90 mg, 95 mg, .100 mg, 1 10 mg, 120 mg, 130 mg, 140 .mg, 150 mg, 160 mg, 170 mg, 180 mg, 190 mg, 200 mg, 210 mg, 220 mg, 230 mg, 240 mg, and 250 mg. In some aspects, the dose of the present compound is about 50 mg. In some aspects, the dose of the present compomid is about 75 mg. In some aspects, the total dose of the present compound is about 1 0 mg.

In some aspects, the therapeutically effective amount of the present compound is a sub-anesthetic dose. In some aspects, the therapeutically effective amount of (he present compound is a sub-analgesic dose, in certain embodiments, the therapeutically effective amount of the present compound is below the level that results in one or more side effects of the compound, in certain embodiments, the therapeutically effective amount of the present compound is an anesthetic dose or analgesic dose, U.S. Patent Publication Mo, 20160067196.

In some aspects, the (therapeutically) effective amount of the present compound is about 0.01 mg to about 1000 mg, from about 0.01 mg to about 500 mg, from about 0.1 mg to about 250 mg, or any amount or range therein. In another aspect, the (therapeutically) effective amount of the present compound is, e.g., 0.01 mg, 0.025 mg, 0.05 mg, 0.1 mg, 0.5 mg, 1 mg, 5 mg, 10 mg, 25 mg, 50 mg, 55 mg, 60 mg, 65 mg, 70 mg, 75 mg, 80 mg, 90 mg, 95 mg, 100 mg, 1 0 mg, 200 mg, 250 mg, or 500 mg.

in certain embodiments, a therapeutically effective dose of the present compound may be adjusted depending on conditions of the disease disorder to be treated or prophetically treated, the age, body weight, general health conditions, sex. and diet of the subject, dose intervals, admini tration routes, excretion rate, and combinations of drugs.

An initial dose of the present compound may be larger, followed by one or more smaller maintenance doses. Other ranges are possible, depending on the subject's response to the treatment. An initial dose may be the same as, or lower or higher than subsequently administered doses.

The dose may be administered daily, weekly, biweekly, several times daily, semi- weekly, ever other day, bi-weekly, quarterly, several times per week, semi-weekly, monthly etc., to maintain an effective dosage level. The duration and frequency of treatment may depend upon the subject's response to treatment. In certain embodiments, a subject may be administered 1 dose. 2 doses. 3 doses, 4 doses, 5 doses, 6 doses or more of the present composition, in certain embodiments, a single dose of the present agent/compos tion is administered in the present method. In certain embodiments, multiple doses of the present agent/composition (e.g., 2 doses, 3 doses, 4 doses, 5 doses, 6 doses, 7 doses, 8 doses, 9 doses, 10 doses or more) are administered in the present method.

In certain embodiments, when there are more than one doses of the present compound/composition administered to a subject, the second dose is lower than the first dose. In certain embodiments, the second dose is an amount that is at most one-half, one-quarter, or one-tenth the amount of the first dose.

The number and frequency of doses may be determined based on the subject's response to administration of the composition, e.g., if one or more of the patient's symptoms improve and/or if the subject tolerates administration of the composition without adverse reaction.

In certain embodiments, the present agent/composition is administered at least once a day, at least twice a day, at least three times per day, or more. In certain embodiments, the present agent/composition is administered at least once a week, at least twice a week, at least three times per week, or more frequently. In certain embodiments, the present

agent/composition is administered at least twice per month, or at least once per month.

Treatment using the present method can continue as long as needed.

Dosing Time Frame

In certain embodiments, the present agent/composition is administered to a subject prior to a stressor. In certain embodiments, the present agent/composition is administered to a subject both prior to and after a stressor. In certain embodiments, the present

agent/composition is administered to a subject after a stressor. In certain embodiments, the present agent/composition is administered to a subject prior to a stressor, and again prior to a recurrence of the stressor or a different stressor.

In certain embodiments, the present agent/composition is administered to the subject about 12 hours to about 4 weeks, about 18 hours to about 4 weeks, about 1 day to about 3.5 weeks, about 2 days to about 3 weeks, about 3 days to about 3 weeks, about 4 days to about 3 weeks, about 5 days to about 3 weeks, about 6 days to about 3 weeks, about 2 days to about 2.5 weeks, about 3 days to about 2.5 weeks, about 4 days to about 2.5 weeks, about 5 days to about 2,5 weeks, about 6 days to about 2,5 weeks, about 1 week to about 2.5 weeks, about I week to about 2.5 weeks, about 1 week to about 2 weeks, about 3 days, about 4 days, about 5 days, about 6 days, about 1 week, about 8 days, about 9 days, about 10 days, about ί 1 days, about 12 days, about 1 days, about 2 weeks, about 2.5 weeks, about 3 weeks, about 3,5 weeks, or about 4 weeks, prior to, and/or after a stressor.

In certain embodiments, the administration of the present agent/composition is continued over a period of up to 2 days, up to 3 days, up to 4 days, up to 5 days, up to 6 days, up to 1 week, up to 2 weeks, up to 3 weeks, up to 4 weeks, 2 weeks, 3 weeks, 4 weeks, 5 weeks, 6 weeks, 7 weeks, 8 weeks, 9 weeks, 10 weeks, or longer.

In certain embodiments, the present agent/composition is administered once, twice, at least twice, at least three times, at least four times, at least five time, at least six times, at least seven times, at least eight times, at least nine times, or more per treatment.

In certain embodiments, the present agent composition is administered at least once a day, at least twice a day, at least three times per day, at least once a week, at least twice a week, at least three times a week, at least once per month, at least twice per month, or more frequently. Treatment can conti nue as long as needed.

Stressors

A stressor is a stimulus that causes stress. It can be an event or other factor that disrupts the body's homeostasis of temperature, blood pressure, and/or other functions, in certain embodiments, a stressor is a traumatic or stressful event. Because humans have sophisticated brains and thought processes, anticipating a disruption can also be a stressor. In certain embodiments, a stressor is injury, trauma, combat, warfare, surgery, an accident, a criminal assault, child abuse, natural or human-caused disasters, a crash, grief, hunger, heat, cold, chemical exposure, autoimmune disease, infectious disease, viral infection, cancer, exhaustion, physical distress, neuropathy, hyperalgesia, aliodyni , emotional distress, or depression. A traumatic event may be an event or something that threatens the person's l ife or the life of a close one or it could be something witnessed. U.S. Patent Application No.

2014001 8339.

A stressor may be acute, or may be chronic.

There are numerous physiological processes that are altered in response to stress. Among these are altered Cortisol, corticotropin, catecholamine and serotonin levels. These levels return to baseline after an acute stressor is removed (McEwen N Eng J Med 1998 338(3): 1 71 - 179). These biochemical markers of stress in turn lead to ill health and psychosocial disorders. Consequently, stress plays a major role in physical and mental health. Stress can affect the onset of, or susceptibility to disease. It can also affect the progression or course of disease even when there is another underlying pathoph siology of (he disease. Recovery from an existing disease can also be delayed due to stress. For example, stress is a contributing factor to high blood pressure, heart disease, headaches, colitis, irritable bowel syndrome, temporomandibular joint disorder, cancer, peptic ulcers, insomnia, skin disorders and asthma. Stress can also aggra vate other conditions such as multiple sclerosis, diabetes, herpes, mental illness, substance abuse and psychiatric disorders characterized by the presence of violent or aggressive tendencies. Particularly, stress contributes to functional somatic disorders, affective disorders and major depressive disorder. These include disorders such as chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), fibromyalgia (FMS), Gulf War Syndrome, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Stressors that disrupt normal exercise or sleep patterns.

Additional examples of use include administration prior to military deployment to protect Service members (active combat soldiers, battlefield surgeons, etc.) and even military working dogs against stress. Potential non-military use cases include, but are not limited to: police, firefighters, first responders, EMTs, ER doctors, prison guards (and prisoners), humanitarian aid workers, and refugees.

In certain embodiments, a subject may be administered the present agent or composition prior to a situation in which the subject (such as an early res ponder or military personnel) is likely to be exposed to traumatic stress, immediately after exposure to traumatic stress, and/or when the subject feels that his or her PTSD symptoms are likely to appear.

Resilience to Stress

Resilience to stress refers to the capacity of a subject to adapt or change successfully, and/or to maintain physiological, neurological, or psychological homeostasis, in the face of a stressor (e.g., adversity). As used herein, the term "enhancing resilience" refers to increasing the ability of a subject to experience a stressor (e.g., a traumatic event) without suffering a stress-induced affective disorder, and/or with less post-event symptomatology or disruption of homeostasis and/or normal activities of daily living, in certain embodiments,

improving resilience can prevent a stress-induced affective disorder. In certain embodiments, improving resilience can reduce at least one of the signs, symptoms, or symptom clusters of a stress-induced affecti e disorder. In certain embodiments, the present method enhances a subject's resilience to stress, helps protect against developing stressor-re!ated

psychopathology, decrease the functional consequences of stressor-induced disorders (e.g., PTSD, etc.), and reduce medical morbidity and mortality.

The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) is a 25-item self-report scale, each rated on a 5-point scale (0-4), with higher scores reflec ting greater resilience (Connor K M & Davidson, J R T. Development of a new resilience scale: the Connor-Davidson

Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depression and Anxiety, 2003: 1 : 71 -82).

Resilience, psychological growth and life satisfaction may be measured with the CD- RISC, the Purpose in Life Scale, the abbreviated MOS Social Support Survey, the PTGI, and the Q-LES-Q.

Combination Therapy

The present compound or composition may be administered to a subject alone, or may be administered to a subject in combination with one or more other treatments/agents.

In certain embodiments, the second agent is an anti-depressant, an anxiolytic, or combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, the second agent is a serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI), or a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI). In certain embodiments, the second agent is fluoxetine, paroxetine, sertraline, lithium, riluzole, prazosin, lamotrigine, ifenprodil, or combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, the second agent is a dual serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor compound (DRI). In certain embodiments, the second agent is venlafaxine, duloxetine, miinacipran. or combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, the second agent is a non-trieyclic triple reuptake inhibitor (TRI).

In certain embodiments, the present compound or composition is administered to a subject in combination with one or more treatments/agent such as antidepressants, analgesics, muscle relaxants, anorectics, stimulants, antiepileptic drugs, and

sedative/hypnotics. Non-limiting examples of compounds that can be administered in combination with the present compound or composition include, neurontin, pregabalin, pramipexole, L-DOPA, amphetamine, tizanidine, cionidine, tramadol, morphine, tricyclic antidepressants, codeine, carbamazepine, sibutramine, amphetamine, valium, trazodone and combinations thereof.

In certain embodiments, combination therapy means simultaneous administration of the compounds in the same dosage form, simultaneou administration in separate dosage forms, or separate administration of the compounds.

In certain embodiments, the second agent/treatment is used as adjunctive therapy to the present compound or composition. In certain embodiments, the treatment includes a phase wherein treatment with the second agent/treatment takes place after treatment with the present compound or composition has ceased. In certain embodiments, the treatment includes a phase where treatment with the present compound or composition and treatment with the second agent/treatment overlap. Combination therapy can be sequential or can be administered simultaneously. In either case, these drugs and/or therapies are said to be "co-administered." it is to be understood that "co-administered" does not necessarily mean that the drugs and or therapies are administered in a combined form (i.e., they may be administered separately (e.g., as separate compositions or formulations) or together (e.g., in the same formulation or composition) to the same or different sites at the same or different t mes).

In certain embodiments, a subject is treated concurrently (or concomitantly) with the present compound or composition and a second agent. In certain embodiments, a subject is treated initially with the present compound or composition, followed by cessation of the present compound or composition treatment and initiation of treatment with a second agent. In certain embodiments, the present compound or composition is used as an initial treatment, e.g., by administration of one, two or three doses, and a second agent is administered to prolong the effect of the present compound or composition, or alternatively, to boost the effect of the present compound or composition. A person of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that other variations of the presented schemes are possible, e.g., initiating treatment of a subject with the present compound or composition, followed by a period wherein the subject is treated with a second agent as adjunct therapy to the present compound or composition treatment, followed by cessation of the present compound or composition treatment.

The present compound and the other pharmaceutically active agent(s) may be administered together or separately and, when administered separately this may occur simultaneously or sequentially in any order. The amounts of the present compound and the other pharmaceutically active agent(s) and the relative timings of administration will be selected in order to achieve the desired combined therapeutic effect.

In various embodiments, the therapies (e.g., a composition provided herein and a second agent in a combination therapy) are administered less than 5 minutes apart, less than 30 minutes apart, 1 hour apart, at about 1 hour apart, at about 1 to about 2 hours apart, at about 2 hours to about 3 hours apart, at about 3 hours to about 4 hours apart, at about 4 hours to about 5 hours apart, at about 5 hours to about 6 hours apart, at about 6 hours to about 7 hours apart, at about 7 hours to about 8 hours apart, at about 8 hours to about 9 hours apart, at about 9 hours to about 10 hours apart, at about 10 hours to about 11 hours apart, at about 1 1 hours to about 12 hours apart, at about 12 hours to 18 hours apart, 18 hours to 24 hours apart, 24 hours to 36 hours apart, 36 hours to 48 hours apart, 48 hours to 52 hours apart, 52 hours to 60 hours apart, 60 hours to 72 hours apart, 72 hours to 84 hours apart, 84 hours to 96 hours apart, or 96 hours to 120 hours part, In certain embodiments, the therapies are administered no more than 24 hours apart or no more than 4H hours apast. In certain embodiments, two or more therapies are administered within the same patient visit. In other embodiments, the composition provided herein and the second agent are administered concurrently, in other embodiments, the- composition provided herein and the second agent are administered at about 2 to 4 days apart, at about 4 to 6 days apart, at about i week part, at about 1 to 2 weeks apart, or more than 2 weeks apart. In certain embodiments, administration of the same agent may be repeated and the administrations may be separated by at least 1 day, 2 days, 3 days. 5 days, 10 days, 15 days, 30 days, 45 days, 2 months, 75 days, 3 months, or 6 months. In other embodiments, administration of the same agent may be repeated and the adm istration may be separated by at least at least 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 5 days, 10 days, 15 days, 30 days, 45 days, 2 months, 75 days, 3 months, or 6 months, in certain embodiments, a composition provided herein and a second agent are administered to a subject in a sequence and within a time interval such that the composition provided herein can act together with the other agent to provide an increased benefit than if they were administered otherwise. For example, the second active agent can be administered at the same time or sequentially in any order at different points in time; however, if no administered at the same time, they should be administered sufficiently close in time so as to provide the desired therapeutic or prophylactic effect. In one embodiment, the composition provided herein and the second active agent exerts their effect at times which overlap. Each second active agent can be administered separately, in any appropriate form and by any suitable route. In other embodiments, the composition provided herein is administered before, concurrently or alter administration of the second active agent. The term "about" refers to +10% of the referenced value. In other embodiments, courses of treatment are administered concurrently to a patient, i.e., individual doses of the second agent are administered separately yet within a time interval such that the compound provided herein can work together with the second active agent. For example, one component can be administered once per week in combination with the other components that can be administered once every two weeks or once every three weeks. In other words, the dosing regimens are carried out concurrently even if the therapeutics are not administered simultaneously or during the same day. The second agent can act additively or

synergistically with the compound provided herein, in one embodiment, the composition provided herein is administered concurrently with one or more second agents in the same pharmaceutical composition. In another embodiment, a composition provided herein is administered concurrently with one or more second agents in separate pharmaceutical compositions. In still another embodiment, a composition provided herein is administered prior to or subsequent to administration of a second agent. Also contemplated are

administration of a composition provided herein and a second agent by the same or different routes of administration, e.g., oral and parenteral. In certain embodiments, when the composition provided herein is administered concurrently with a second agent that potentially produces adverse side effects including, but not limited to, toxicity, the second active agent can advantageously be administered at a dose that falls below the threshold that the adverse side effect is elicited.

Encompassed by the present disclosure are methods to prophylactic-ally treat a subject prior to a stressor. In certain embodiments, the present method prevents or delays a stress- induced affective disorder or stress-induced psychopathology in a subject, in certain embodiments, stress-induced affective disorders include major depressive disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder.

Stress-Induced Affective Disorders

There are numerous disorders that are either caused by or exacerbated by stress. These include addictive disorders such as substance abuse, anorexia, bulimia, obesity, smoking addiction, and. weight addiction; anxiety disorders such as agoraphobia, anxiety disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, panic attacks, performance anxiety, phobias, and posttraumatic stress disorder; autoimmune diseases such as allergies, arthritis, fibromyalgia, fibromytosis, ^" lupus, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, Sjogren's syndrome, and vitiligo; cancer such as bone cancer, brain cancer, breast cancer, cervical cancer, colon cancer,

Hodgkin's disease, leukemia, liver cancer, lung cancer, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, and prostate cancer; cardiovascular disorders such as arrhythmia, arteriosclerosis. Burger's disease, essential hypertension, fibrillation, mitral valve prolapse, palpitations, peripheral vascular disease, Raynaud's disease, stroke, tachycardia, and Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome; and developmental disorders such as attention deficit disorder, concentration problems, conduct disorder, dyslexia, hyperkinesis, language and speech disorders, and learning disabilities.

Anxiety Disorders

The five major types of anxiety disorders are: panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, generalized anxiety disorder and phobias (including social phobia, also called social anxiety disorder). Each anxiety disorder has its own distinct features, but they are ail bound together by the common theme of excessive, irrational fear and dread. It is common for an anxiety disorder to accompany depression, eating disorders, substance abuse, or another anxiety disorder.

Panic disorder is characterized by repeated episodes of intense fear that strike often and without warning. Physical symptoms include chest pain, heart palpitations, shortness of breath, dizziness, abdominal distress, feelings of unreality, and fear of dying. Obsessive- compulsive disorder is characterized by repeated, unwanted thoughts or compulsive behaviors that seem impossible to stop or control. Generalized Anxiety Disorder is characterized by exaggerated worrisome thoughts and tension about everyday routine life events and activities, lasting at least six months. Almost always anticipating the worst even though there is little reason to expect it; accompanied by physical symptoms, such as fatigue, trembling, muscle tension, headache, or nausea. Phobias are characterized into two major types of phobias, social phobia and specific phobia. People with social phobia have an overwhelming and disabling fear of scrutiny, embarrassment, or humiliation in social situations, which leads to avoidance of many potentially pleasurable and meaningful activities. People with specific phobia experience extreme, disabling, and irrational fear of something that poses little or no actual danger; the fear leads to avoidance of objects or situations and can cause people to limit their lives unnecessarily.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Typically, a subject suffering from PTSD was exposed to a traumatic event in which the person experienced, witnessed, or was confronted with an event or events that involved actual or threatened death or serious injury, or a threat to the physical integrity of self or others and the person's response involved intense fear, helplessness, or horror.

Having repeated intrusive memories of the trauma exposure is one of the core symptoms of PTSD, Patients with PTSD are known to display impairments in learning and memory during neuropsychological testing, Other core symptoms of PTSD include heightened stress sensitivity (startle), tension and anxiety, memory disturbances, and dissociation.

In certain embodiments, the present method prevents or inhibits the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in a subject. In certain embodiments, the present method prevents or inhibits the development of one or more PTSD-like symptoms, in certain embodiments, a subject may be administered the present agent or composition prior to a situation in which the subject (such as an early responder or military personnel) is likely to be exposed to traumatic stress, immediately after exposure to traumatic stress, and/or when the subject feels that his or her PTSD symptoms are likely to appear. Typically, (he traumatic event is persistently re-experienced in one or more of the following ways: recurrent and intrusive distressing recollections of the event, including images, thoughts, or perceptions, recurrent distressing dreams of the event, acting or feeling as if the traumatic event were recurring (includes a sense of reliving the experience, illusions, hallucinations, and dissociative flashback episodes, including those that occur on awakening or when intoxicated), intense psychological distress at exposure to internal or external cues that symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic event, physiological reactivity on exposure to internal or external cues that symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic event. An indi vidual suffering from PTSD also has persistent avoidance of stimuli associated wi th the trauma and numbing of general responsiveness (not present before the trauma), as indicated b 3 or more of the following: efforts to avoid thoughts, feelings, or conversations associated with the trauma, efforts to avoid activities, places, or people that arouse recollections of the trauma, inability to recall an important aspect of the trauma, significantly diminished interest or participation in significant acti vities, feeling of detachment or estrangement from others, restricted range of affect (e.g., unable to have loving feelings), sense of a foreshortened future (e.g., does not expect to have a career, marriage, children, or a normal life span ), persistent symptoms of increased arousal (not present before the trauma), as indicated by 2 or more of the following: difficulty falling or staying asleep, irritability or outbursts of anger, difficulty concentrating, hypervigilance, exaggerated startle response. The disturbance, which has lasted for at least a month, causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning,

in certain embodiments, the present compound or composition prevents, reduces, eliminates or delays one or more of the symptoms including, but not limited to, re- experiencing of the traumatic experience in the form of intrusive memories, nightmares, flashbacks; emotional and physical reactions triggered by reminders of the trauma; distancing from others; decreased interest in activities and other people; numbi g of feelings; avoidance of trauma reminders; hyperarousal symptoms, including disrupted sleep, irritability, hypervigilance, decreased concentration; increased startle reflex; and combinations thereof.

Whatever the source of the problem, some people with PTSD repeatedly relive the trauma in the form of nightmares and disturbing recollections during the day. They may also experience other sleep problems, feel detached or numb, or be easily startled. They may lose interest in things they used to enjoy and have trouble feeling affectionate. They may feel irritable, more aggressive than before, or even violent. Things that remind them of the trauma may be very distressing, which could lead mem to avoid certain places or situations that bring back those memories.

The disorder ma be accompanied by depression, substance abuse, or one or more other anxiety disorders. In severe cases, the person may have trouble working or socializing. M jor Depressive Disorder

Major depressive disorder refers to a class of syndromes characterized by negative affect and repeated episodes of depression without any history of independent episodes of mood elevation and over-acti vity that fulfill the criteria of mania. Multiple subtypes of major depressive disorders are recognized, including these with atypical characteristics, psychotic components, etc. The age of onset and the severity, duration and frequency of the episodes of depression are all highly variable. The disorder may begin at any age. The symptoms of major depressive disorder typically develop over days to weeks. Prodromal symptoms include generalized anxiety, panic attacks, phobias or depressive symptoms and may occur during several months preceding the episode. Individual episodes also last between 3 and 12 months but recur less frequently. Most patients are asymptomatic between episodes, but a minority of patients may develo a persistent depression, mainly in old age. individual episodes of any severity are often precipitated by stressful life events. Common symptoms of a depressive episode include reduced concentration and attention; reduced self-esteem and self-confidence: ideas of guilt and unworthiness, ideas or acts of self-harm or suicide;

disturbed sleep; and diminished appetite. In certain embodiments, a major depressive episode follows a psychosocial stressor, e.g., death of a loved one, marital separation, childbirth or the end of an important relationship.

The lowered mood varies little from day to day and is often unresponsive to circumstances, yet may show a characteristic diurnal variation as the day goes on. As with manic episodes, the clinical presentation shows marked individual variations, and atypical presentations are particularly common in adolescence, in some cases, anxiety, distress, and motor agitation may be more prominent at times that the depression, and the mood change may also be masked by added features such as irritability, excessive consumption o alcohol, histrionic behavior, and exacerbation of pre-existing phobic or obsessional symptoms, or by hypochondria.

Psychiatric evaluations

in certain embodiments, the effects or efficacy of treatment with the present agent/composition are evaluated by the subject and/or a medical professional, e.g., the subject's physician. In certain embodiments, the evaluation is conducted within about 10 minutes, within about 15 minutes, within about 20 minutes, within about 25 minutes, within about 0.5 hours, within about 1 hour, within about 2 hours, within about 2,5 hours, within about 3 hours, within about 3,5 hours, within about 4 hours, within about 4.5 hours, within about 5 hours, within about 5.5 hours, within about 6 hours, within about 6.5 hours, within about 7 hours, within about 7,5 hours, within about 8 hours, within about 8.5 hours, within about 9 hours, within about 9,5 hours, within about 10 hours, within about 10.5 hours, within about 1 1 hours, within about 1 i .5 hours, within about 1 2 hours, within about 1 8 hours, within about 1 day, within about 2 days, within about 3 days, within about 4 days, within about 5 days, within about 6 days, within about J week, within about 2 weeks, within about 3 weeks, wi thin about 4 weeks, within about 1 month, within about 2 months, within about 3 months, within about 4 months, within about 5 months, within about 6 months, within about 1 year, within about 2 years, or longer, following a stressor and/or administration of the present agent/composi tion.

Psychiatric evaluations of a patient being treated with the present method can be conducted to determine whether the method is effective. In certain embodiments, the psychiatric evaluation may be carried out before treatment, at the time of treatment, during treatment, and/or after treatment. When the psychiatric evaluation is carried out both before treatment and after (and/or during) treatment with the present method, the results of the evaluation before treatment can provide a baseline for comparison to the results of the evaluation during and/or after treatment. In certain embodiments, psychiatric evaluation is conducted only after treatment.

Psychophysiological stress tests can be performed to measure the amount of stress- induced anxiety present, in the various systems of the body (i.e. muscular, cardiovascular, digestive, respiratory and neurological systems). These stress tests are routinely used in the art. Test results are compared to both local and national norms, to determine if the individual is exhibiting an excessive amount of physiological anxiety and whether or not they are able to recover from a standardized stressful stimuli in an appropriate length of time.

Psychiatric testing can be used to monitor a subject to determine the emotional and/or social etiology of the stress disorder. These tests are known in the art and include health- related assessments, mental health assessments, personality tests, and personality type assessment.

in certain embodiments, clinician-administered evaluation and/or self-report

instruments are used, with the aitn of measuring baseline symptomatology as well as drug actions on (1) the overall severity of the disorder, (2) the core symptoms, and (3) depressed mood.

Non-limiting examples of psychiatric evaluation tools and questionnaires include the following measures.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) includes the revised diagnostic criteria for PTSD. See, American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Arlington, Va., American Psychiatric Association, 2013. See also ptsd.va.gov/psOiessionai/PTSD- verview/dsm5.„cnteria„ptsd.asp.

The Structured Clinical interview for DSM-iV Axis I Disorders, Patient Edition

(SCJD-P) is a semi-structured interview that provides probe, questions as well as follow-up questions to he asked by the clinician to assist in diagnosis. First et al. Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV T Axis I Disorders. Research Version, Patient Edition (SCID-I P). New York: New York State Psychiatric institute. Biometrics Research; 2001. it includes an overview to obtain information about demographics, work, chief complaint, history of present illness, past history, treatment history, and current functioning. The main body of SCTD-P includes 9 modules that are designed to diagnose 51 mental illnesses in all.

The SCID-P for DSM-5 is the SCID-Patient version, and is the next edition of the SC!D modified to incorporate the new DSM-5 criteria.

The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) is a structured clinical interview designed to assess the essential f eatures of PTSD as defined by the DSM-I V , Weathers et al., Clinician-administered PTSD scale: a review of the first ten years of research. Depress

Anxiety. 2001 ; 13(3): 132-156. The CAPS can be used to provide categorical ratings of diagnostic status as well as a quantitative index of symptom severity. Both frequency and intensity scores are derived for each individual symptom. The CAPS total score is based on an individual's response to the 17 items that assess the frequency and intensity of current PTSD symptoms. Subscales of the CAPS are utilized to assess specific symptom clusters. The total score can range from 0 to 136.

The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5) is a 30-item structured interview that can be used to make current (past month) diagnosis of PTSD, make lifetime diagnosis of PTSD, and to assess PTSD symptoms over the past week. CAPS-5 is a 30-item questionnaire, corresponding to the DSM-5 diagnosis for PTSD. The language of the CAPS-5 reflects both changes to existing symptoms and the addition of new symptoms in DSM-5. Weathers, F. W., et al (201 ). The Clinician- Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS- 5 ».

The Treatment Outcome PTSD Scale (TOP-8) is a brief interviewer-administered scale designed specifically for the assessment of commonly occurring signs and symptoms of PTSD that are subject to change in response to treatment (Davidson, J. R. ₍ & Colfcet, T. (1997 ). The eight-item treatment-outcome post-traumatic stress disorder scale: A brief measure to assess treatment outcome in post-traumatic stress disorder. International Clinical Psyehopharmacology, 12(1), 41-45). The TOP-8 is comprised of eight items, each measured on a scale of 0-4, with defined anchors given for each item. The items are representative of the three core features of PTSD with a maximum possible score of 32.

The Hamilton Psychiatric Rating Scale for Anxiety (HAM-A) is a widely used observational rating measure of anxiety severity. The scale consists of 1.4 items. Each item is rated on a scale of 0 to 4. This scale is administered to assess the severity of anxiety and its improvement during the course of treatment. The HAM-A total score is the sum of the 1 items and the score ranges from 0 to 56. Hamilton M. The Assessment of Anxiety-States by Rating. Br J Med Psychol. 1959; 32(1 ):50-55.

The Montgomery- Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) is a 10-item instrument used for the evaluation of depressive symptoms in adults and for the assessment of any changes to those symptoms. Montgomery S. A., et al., A new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change. Br J Psychiatry. 1979 April; 134:382-389. Each of the 10 items is rated on a scale of 0 to 6, with differing descriptors for each item. These indi vidual item scores are added together to form a total score, which can range between 0 and 60 points.

The Young Mania Rating Scale, item 1 (YMRS- 1 ) used to assess mood elevation on the infusion days. Young R C, et al. Rating- Scale for Mania— eliability, Validity and Sensitivity. Br J Psychiatry. 1978; 133(NOV):429-435.

The Brief Psychi tric Rating Scale (BPRS) is used to assess acute behavioral changes during the infusions. Overall J E et al., The Brief Psychiatric Rating-Scale. Psychol. Rep. 1962; 10(3): 799-812 Four key BPRS items for the positive (+) symptoms of psychosis are used: conceptual disorganization, hallucinatory behavior, suspiciousness, and unusual thought content. Thre items representing the negative (-) symptoms of psychosis will also be used: blunted affect, emotional withdrawal, and motor retardation.

The Clinician- Administered Dissociative States Scale (CADSS) is used to measure dissociative effects during the infusions. Bremner J D, et al., Measurement of Dissociative States with the Clinician-Administered Dissociative States Scale (CADSS). J Trauma Stress. 1 98; 1 1(1 ): 125- 136 The scale includes 19 questions and 8 observer ratings scored from 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely). The CADSS measures impairment in body perception, environmental perception, time perception, memory impairment, and feelings of unreality. The Patient Rating Inventory of Side Effects (PRISE) is a patient self-report used to quali y side effects by identifying and evaluating the tolerability of each symptom. Levine .1, Schooler N R, SAFTEE: A technique for the systematic assessment: of side effects in clinical trials. Psychopharmacoi Bull. 1986; 22(2);343-381 ,

The Clinical Global Impression (CGI) scale assesses treatment response in psychiatric patients. The administration time is 2 minutes. This scale consists of three items: Severity of Illness (item 1 ); Global Improvement (item 2); and Efficacy Tndex (item 3). Item 1 is rated on a seven-point scale (l=normal, 7=among the most extremely ill patients) as is item 2 (l=very much improved, 7-very much worse). Each includes an additional response of "not assessed." Item 3 is rated on a four-point scale (from "none" to "outweighs therapeutic effect"),

The Impact of Events Scale (1ES) is one of the most widely used self-report measures of stress reactions to traumatic events. Horowitz et al.. Impact of Event Scale: a measure of subjective stress. Psychosom Med. 1979 May; 41(3):209-2I8. See also, Weiss et a!., The Impact of Event Scale— Revised In: Wilson J, Keane T M. eds, Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD. New York: Guilford; 1996:399-411. It measures both intrusion and avoidance. Sundin et al.. Impact of Event Scale: psychometric properties. Br J Psychiatry. 2002 March; 180:205-209. Joseph S. Psychometric evaluation of Horowitz's Impact of Event Scale: a review. J Trauma Stress. 2000 January; 13(1): 101-1 13. The total score can range from 0 to 75.

The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist (PCL-5) is a ! 7-item self-report measure reflecting DSM-5 symptoms of PTSD. Tire PCL-5 measures symptoms in response to stressful situations (Weathers, E, et al. (1993). The PTSD checklist (PCL): Reliability, vaiidity, and diagnostic utility. Annual Convention of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, San Antonio, Tex,).

The Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology, Self Report (QIDS-SR) is a 16- item self-rated instrument designed to assess the severity of depressive symptoms present in the past seven days. Rush A J, Trivedi M H, Ibrahim II M et al. The 16-ltem quick inventory of depressive symptomatology (QIDS), clinician rating (Q1DS-C), and self-report (QIDS- SR): a psychometric evaluation in patients with chronic major depression. Biol. Psychiatry. 2003; 54(5):573-583. The 16 items cover the nine sy mptom domains of major depression, and are rated on a scale of 0-3. Total score ranges from 0 to 27, with ranges of 0-5 (normal), 6-10 (mild), 1 1 - 15 (moderate), 16-20 (moderate to severe), and 21 + (severe).

The Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) is a 28-item self-report instrument that assesses childhood trauma in the following areas: physical, sexual and emotional abuse and physical and emotional neglect. Bernstein D P, Stein J A, Newconib M D et ai. Development and validation of a brief screening version of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. Child Abuse Negl. 2003 February: 27(2): 169-190. Each item is rated on a scale of 1 (never true) to 5 (very often true). The 5 subseales are then totaled, with scores ranging from 5-25 for each traumatic category.

Visual Analogue Scales (VAS) are used to assess subjecti ve state changes. Bond A, Lader M. The use of analogue scales in rating subjective feelings. Br J Med Psychol. 1974; 47(3):211.-218. The are 100-min horizontal lines marked proportionately to the perceived intensity of the subjective experience (0=not at all, to 10=extremely) for the following states; anxious, depressed, drowsy, high, hungry, and nauseous.

The Sheehan Disability Scale (SDS) is a self-report disability measure. It has demonstrated sensitivity to impairment and changes as a result of treatment across a wide range of psychiatric disorders. The SDS asks only about current levels of impairment, providing no indication of whether the person has done better or worse in the past, thus making it a reasonable short-term outcome measure that is un-confounded by historical impressions. The dependent variable is the total score, which is based on the sum of three 10- point items (work, social life, and family life), with higher scores reflecting greater disability. Sheehan D. The Anxiety Disease. New York, N.Y.: Scribner; 1 83,

The Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of intelligence 2 -Subtest ( W ASI-2) is a reliable brief measure of IQ for 6 to 89 year-olds that includes Vocabulary {an estimate of verbal fluid abilities) and Matri Reasoning (an estimate of nonverbal fluid abilities). Wechsler D.

Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of intelligence San Antonio, Tex.: Psychological Corporation; 1 99. It is extensively used in clinical, educational, and research settings. Average reliability coefficient is 0.96 and test-retest reliability is 0.88.

The Hopkins Verbal Learning Test (ITVLT) is a repeaiable tes of memory acquisition and delayed recall of words. Subjects are presented with the same 12-item list for 3 learning trials and asked each time to repeat the items on each list. Delayed recall and recognition conditions are administered later. Dependent variables used in this stud include total learning over the 3 trials (for the acquisition variable) and total delayed recall score (for the recall component), Brandt J, Benedict R. Hopkins Verbal Learning Test, Revised. Odessa, Ha.: Psychological Assessment Resources; 1 97.

The Profile of Mood States-Bipolar (POMS-Bi) scale measures moods and feelings primarily in clinical rather than nonclinical settings. It can help to determine an individual ^' s psychiatric status for therapy, or be used to compare mood profiles associated with various personality disorders. It is also a useful instrument in identifying the effects of drag

treatments.

The Post-Traumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI) is a 33-item scale, which is rated on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 7 (totally agree). Scale scores are formed for the three subscaies, which show a high degree of intereorrelation (rs=0.57-0.75).

The New Cognitions scale is a 6-item pilot scale, which is rated on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 4 (a lot). The scale is based on the Post Traumatic Growth Inventory (PTG1) from which items have been directly selected (new items were added to the scale as well), and on the Brief -COPE (see Carver, C. S. (1997) "You want to measure coping but your protocol's too long: Consider the brief COPE." International Journal of Behavioral Medicine 4; 92-100).

The Medical Outcomes Study ( OS) Social Support Survey is a 19-item sell-report measure designed to assess levels of functional social support. The MOS-SS has two subscaies (emotional and instrumental social support) to identify potential social support deficits (Sherbourne, C. D. & Stewart, A. L. ( 1991). "The MOS Social Support Survey." Soc Sci Med 32(6): 705-714).

The Purpose in Life test-Short Form (PTL-SF) is a brief, 4-item form of the 20-ttem Purpose in Life test. This scale asks respondents to report to what extent they have achieved their goats in life, and to what extent they perceive their life to be meaningful or purposeful. (Schulenberg et al 2010; Psychotherapy (Chic). 2008 December; 45(4);447-63).

Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGl)-Short Version is a 1 -item shortened version of the PTGI self-report questionnaire (ref). It asks respondents to rate the extent to which they have changed as the result of experiencing a highly stressful life event. Items span positive changes in five domains: relating to others, new possibilities, personal strength, spiritual change, and appreciation of life (Caim, A„ et al. (2010). A short form of the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 23, 127- 1 7).

The Quality of Life Enjoyment and Satisfaction Questionnaire (Q-LES-Q) is a self- report scale measuring the degree of enjoyment and. satisfaction experienced by subjects in various areas of daily functioning. The summary scores are reliable and valid measures of these dimensions in a group of depressed subjects (Endicott J, et al. Quality of Life

Enjoyment and Satisfaction Questionnaire: A New Measure, Psychopharmacology Bulletin; 1993; 29:321-326). In certain embodiments, self -evaluation of the subject being treated is conducted.

Pharmaceutical Compositions

While it is possible that the present a compound, as well as salts, solvates and physiological functional derivatives thereof, may be administered as the raw chemical, it is possible to present the active ingredient as a pharmaceutical composition. Accordingly, the invention -further provides a pharmaceutical composition, which comprises the present compound and/or salts, solvates and physiological functional derivatives thereof, and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, diluents, or excipienls. The carrierfs), diluent(s) or excipient(s) mast be acceptable in the sense of being compatible with the other ingredients of the formulation and not deleterious to the recipient thereof. In accordance with another aspect of the invention there is also provided a process for the preparation of a. pharmaceutical composition including admixing the present compound, or salts, solvates and physiological functional derivatives thereof, with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, diluents or excipients.

The term "composition", as in pharmaceutical composition, is intended to encompass a product comprising the active ingredients), and the inert ingredient(s) (pharmaceutically acceptable excipients) that make up the carrier, as well as any product which results, directly or indirectly, from combination, complexation or aggregation of any two or more of the ingredients, or from dissociation of one or more of the ingredients, or from other types of reactions or interactions of one or more of the ingredients. Accordingly, the pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention encompass any composition made by admixing compound 20, and pharmaceutically acceptable excipients.

Acceptable excipients, diluents, and carriers for therapeutic use are well known in the pharmaceutical art, and are described, for example, in Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins (A. R. Gennaro edit. 2005). The choice of pharmaceutical excipient, diluent, and carrier can be selected with regard to the intended route of administration and standard pharmaceutical practice.

As used herein, the phrase "pharmaceutically acceptable" refers to molecular entities and compositions that are "generally regarded as safe", e.g., that are physiologically tolerable and do not typically produce an allergic or similar untoward reaction, such as gastric upset, dizziness and the like, when administered to a human. Preferably, as used herein, the term "pharmaceutically acceptable" mean approved by a regulatory agency of the Federal or a state government or listed in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia or other generally recognized pharmacopeias for use in animals, and more particularly in humans. Pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention may be presented in unit dose forms containing a predetermined amount of active ingredient per unit dose. Such a unit may contain, for example, 5 ,ug to 1 g, preferably 1 mg to 700 mg, more preferably 5 nig to 100 mg of the present compound, depending on the condition being treated, the route of administration and the age, weight and condition of the patient. Such unit doses may therefore b administered more than once a day. Preferred unit dosage compositions are those containing a daily dose or sub-dose (for administration more than once a day), as herein above recited, or an appropriate fraction thereof, of an active ingredient. Furthermore, such pharmaceutical compositions may be prepared by any of the methods well known in the pharmacy art.

Pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention may be adapted for administration by any appropriate route, for example by the oral (including buccal or sublingual), inhaled, nasal, ocular, or parenteral (including intravenous and intramuscular) route. The present composition may be injected. Such compositions may be prepared by any method known in the ait of pharmacy, for example by bringing into association the active ingredient with the carrier(s) or excipient(s).

In a further embodiment, the present invention provides a pharmaceutical composition adapted for administration by the oral route, the treatment, of stress-induced affective disorder.

Pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention which are adapted for oral administration may be presented as discrete units such as capsules or tablets; powder's or granules; solutions or suspensions in aqueous or non-aqueous liquids; edible foams or whips; or oil-in- water liquid emulsions or water-in-oii liquid emulsions.

For instance, for oral administration in the form of a tablet or capsule, the active drug component can be combined with an oral, non-toxic pharmaceutically acceptable i ert carrier such as ethanol, glycerol, water and the like. Powders are prepared by comminuting the compound to a suitable fine size and mixing with a similarly comminuted pharmaceutical carrier such as an edible carbohydrate, as, for example, starch or mannitol. Flavoring, preservative, dispersing and coloring agent can also be present

Capsules are made by preparing a powder mixture, as described above, and filling formed gelatin sheaths. Glidants and lubricants such as colloidal silica, talc, magnesium stearate. calcium stearate or solid polyethylene glycol can be added to the powder mixture before the filling operation. A disintegrating or solubilmng agent such as agar-agar, calcium carbonate or sodium carbonate can also be added to improve the availability of the medicament when the capsule is ingested.

Moreover, when desired or necessary, suitable binders, lubricants, disintegrating agents and coloring agents can also be incorporated into the mixture. Suitable binders include starch, gelatin, natural sugars such as glucose or beta-lactose, com sweeteners, natural and synthetic gums such as acacia, tragacanth or sodium alginate, carboxymethykei ose, polyethylene glycol, waxes and the like. Lubricants used in these dosage forms include sodium oleate, sodium stearate. magnesium stearate, sodium benzoate, sodium acetate, sodium chloride and the- like. Disintegrators include, without limitation, starch, methyl cellulose, agar, bentonite, xanthan gum and the like. Tablets are formulated, for example, by preparing a powder mixture, granulating or slugging, adding a lubricant and disintegrant and pressing into tablets. A powder mixture is prepared by mixing the compound, suitably comminuted, with a diluent or base as described above, and optionally, with a binder such as carboxymethyleellulose, an aliginate, gelatin, or polyvinyl p rrolidone, a solution retardant such as paraffin, a resorption accelerator such as a quaternary salt and/or an absorption agent such as bentonite, kaolin or dicalcium phosphate. The powder mixture can be granulated by wetting with a binder such as syrup, starch paste, acadia mucilage or solutions of celiulosic or polymeric materials and forcing through a screen. As an alternative to granulating, the powder mixture can be run through the tablet machine and the result is imperfectly formed slugs broken into granules. The granules can be lubricated to prevent sticking to the tablet forming dies by means of the addition of stearic acid, a stearate salt, talc or mineral oil. The lubricated mixture is then compressed into tablets. The compounds of the present invention can also be combined with a free flowing inert earner and compressed into tablets directly without going through the granulating or slugging steps. A clear or opaque protective- coating consisting of a sealing coat of shellac, a coating of sugar or polymeric material and a polish coating of wax can be provided. Dyestuffs can be added to these coatings to distinguish different unit dosages.

Oral fluids such as solution, syrups and elixirs can be prepared in dosage unit form so that a given quantity contains a predetermined amount of the compound. Syrups can be prepared by dissolving the compound in a suitably flavored aqueous solution, while elixirs are prepared through the use of a non-toxic alcoholic vehicle. Suspensions can be formulaied by dispersing the compound in a non-toxic vehicle. Solubilizers and emulsifiers such as ethoxylated isostearyl alcohols and polyoxy ethylene sorbitol ethers, preservatives, flavor additive such as peppermint oil or natural sweeteners or saccharin or other artificial sweeteners, and the like can also be added.

It should be understood that, in addition to the ingredients particularly mentioned above, the compositions may include other agents conventional in the art having regard to the type of formulation in question, for example those suitable for oral administration may include flavoring agents.

A therapeutically effective amount of a compound of the present invention will depend upon a number of factors including, for example, the age and weight of the subject, the precise condition requiring treatment and its severity, the nature of the formulation, and the route of administration, and will ultimately be at the discretion of the attendant physician or veterinarian.

Kits

Also provided are kits for use in the present methods of prophylactieally treating a stress-i nduced affective disorder.

The kits can include a compound or composition provided herein, and instructions providing information to a health care provider regarding usage in accordance with the present methods. The kit may optionally contain a second agent or composition. Instructions may be provided in printed form or in the form of an electronic medium such as a. floppy disc, CD, or DVD, or in the form of a website address where such instructions may be obtained. A unit dose of a compound or composition provided herein, or a second agent or composition, can i nclude a dosage such that when administered to a subject, a therapeutically or prophylactieally effective plasma level of the compound or composition can be maintained in the subject for at least 1 days. In some embodiments, a compound or composition can be included as a sterile aqueous pharmaceutical composition or dry powder (e.g. , lyophilized) composition. In some embodiments, suitable packaging is provided. As used herein,

"packaging" includes a solid matrix or material customarily used in a system and capable of holding within fixed limits a compound provided herein and/or a second agent suitable for administration to a subject. Such materials include glass and plastic (e.g., polyethylene, polypropylene, and polycarbonate) bottles, vials, paper, plastic, and plastic-foil laminated envelopes and the like.

The kits described herein contain one or more containers, which contain compounds, signaling entities, biomo!ecules and/or particles as described. The kits also contain instructions for mixing, diluting, and/or adm nistrating the compounds. The kits also include other containers with one or more solvents, surfactants, preservative and/or diluents (e.g.. saline (0.9% NaCl). or 5 dextrose) as well as containers for mixing, diluting or

administering the components to the sample or to the patient in need of such treatment.

The compositions of the kit may be provided as any suitable form, for example, as liquid solutions or as dried powders. When the composition provided is a dry powder, the powder may be reconstituted by the addition of a suitable solvent, which may also be provided. In embodiments where liquid forms of the composition are used, the liquid form may be concentrated or ready to use. The solvent will depend on the compound and the mode of use or administration. Suitable solvents for drug compositions are well known and are available in the literature. The solvent will depend on the compound and the mode of use or administration.

The kits comprise a carrier being compartmentalized to receive in close confinement one or more container such as vials, tubes, and the like, each of the container comprising one of the separate elements to be used in the method. For example, one of the container may comprise a positive control in an assay. Additionally, the kit may include containers for other components, for example, buffers useful in the assay.

This invention will be better understood from the Examples, which follow. However, one skilled in the art will readily appreciate that the specific methods and results discussed are merely illustrative of the invention as described more fully n the claims that follow thereafter.

EXAMPLES

Example 1 Ketamine as a Prophylactic Against Stress-Induced Depressive-Like

Behavior

Stress exposure is one of the greatest risk factors for psychiatric illnesses like major depressive disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. However, not all individuals exposed to stress develop affective disorders. Stress resilience, the ability to experience stress without developing persistent psychopathology, varies from individual to individual. Enhancing stress resilience in at-risk populations could potentially protect against stress-induced psychiatric disorders. Despite this fact, no resilience-enhancing pharmaceuticals have been identified.

Using a chronic social defeat (SD) stress model, learned helplessness (LH), and a chronic corticosterone (CORT) model in mice, we tested if ketamine could protect against depressive-like behavior. Mice were administered a single dose of saline or ketamine and then 1 week later were subjected to 2 weeks of SD, LH traini ng, or 3 weeks of CORT.

SD robustly and reliably induced depressive-like behavior in control mice. Mice treated with prophylactic ketamine were protected against the deleterious effects of SD in the forced swim test and in the dominant interaction test. We confinned these effects in LH and the CORT model, in the LH model, latenc to escape was increased following training, and this effect was prevented by ketamine. In the CORT model, a single dose of ketamine blocked stress-induced behavior in the forced swim test, novelty suppressed feeding

paradigm, and the sucrose splash test.

These data show that ketamine can induce persistent stress resilience and, therefore, may be useful in protecting against stress-induced disorders.

We first utilized social defeat (SD) to examine whether ketamine could increase stress resilience and, thereby protect against de novo induction of psychopathology. We hypothesized that ketamine would confer stress resiliency to mice if administered before stress. We chose to perform SD in 129S6/SvEvTac mice, which robustly and reliably develop a depressive-like phenotype following SD (26), Mice were administered either saline or a single subanesrtietic injection of ketamine, and I week later, S D was administered to half of the mice. We found that a single injection of ketamine induced robust stress resilience that persisted for at least 3 weeks post-injection. Moreover, we confirmed our effects in two additional models in which depressive/anxious behavior is induced by chronic elevation of glucocorticoids in C57BL/6NTac mice (27) or by repeated, unescapable shocks (learned helplessness [LH]) (28-30). Again, a single subanesthette dose of ketamine, administered 4 weeks before ^' behavioral assessment, decreased immobility in (he forced swim test (FST) and protected against depressive-like behavior in the novelty suppressed feeding (NSF) paradigm and the sucrose splash test (ST). In the LI-I model, the latency to escape a shock increases with LH training and this effect was prevented by prophylactic ketamine. These findings demonstrate that the protective effect of ketamine extends at least 4 weeks post- injection. To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine the potential of

psychopharmaceuticals to provide long-term prophylactic protection against the induction of stress-related disorders.

Ketamine Metabolite Administration is also Prophylactic

Prophylactic metabolites of ketamine administration decrease behavioral despair. Fig. Ί5Α shows the experimental design. Fig. 15B is a graph showing that prophylactic K-injected mice expressed significantly less immobility in day 2 of the FST when compared with Sal- injected mice. Moreover, prophylactic metabolites of ketamine are efficacious as prophylactics at 10 and 30 mg/kg. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001 . METHODS AND MATERIALS

Mice

Male ί 29S6/S EvTac mice were purchased from Taconic (Hudson, New York), CD-I mice were purchased from Charles River Laboratories (Wilmington, Massachusetts) at 8 to 10 weeks of age and housed individually until the start of SD. The procedures described herein were conducted in accordance with the National Institutes of Health regulations and approved by the institutional Animal Care and Use Committees of Columbia University and the New York. State Psychiatric Institute.

Mate C57BL/6NTac mice were purchased from Taconic Farms (Lille Skensved, Denmark) at 8 weeks of age and were housed five per cage before the start of corticosterone (CORT) treatment. All testing was conducted in compliance with the laboratory animal care guidelines and with protocols approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. All mice were housed in a 12-hour (600-1800) light -dark colony room at 221C. Food and water were provided ad libitum. Behavioral testing was performed during the light phase. Drugs

Experiment I (Pre-ketamine in social defeat (SD)): At 8 weeks of age, a single injection of saline (0.9% NaCl) or ketamine (K) (10, 30, or 90 mg kg ^"1 ) (Ketaset 111,

etamine MCI, Fort Dodge Animal Health, Forth Dodge, IA) was administered. Ketamine was prepared in physiological saline and all injections were administered intraperitoneally (up.) in volumes of 0.1 cc per 10 mg body weight. A dose of 30 mg kg ^" ' of ketamine was chosen for the 129S6/SvEv experiments, as pilot studies indicated that this dose did not. affect immobility 2h after administration. At 9 weeks of age, 1 week following this injection, SD was started.

Experiment 2 (Post-keiamine in SD): At 9 weeks of age. SD was administered for 2 weeks,

24h after the last bout of SD, a single injection of saline or ketamine (30 mg kg ^"1 ) was administered (mice were 1 1 weeks old). The forced swim test (FST) was admini tered 2h following the injection.

Experiment 3 (Pre -fluoxetine in SB): At 6 weeks of age, fluoxetine hydrochloride (Fix) (BioTrend Chemicals AG, BG197) was administered in the drinking water (18 mg kg ^" '/day) for 3 weeks before the start of SD. Starting at 9 weeks of age, SD was then administered for 2 weeks without vehicle or Fix in the drinking water.

Experiment 4 (Pre-ketamine in learned helplessness (EH)): At 8 weeks of age, a single injection of saline or ketamine (30 mg kg ^"1 ) was administered. One week following (his injection, LH training (inescapable shock) was administered. Two weeks later, mice were administered LH testing (shock escape).

Experiment 5 {Pre -ketami e and pre-flwxetm ^' e in corticosterone (CORT)}:

C57BL/6NTac mice were injected with ketamine ( 10, 30, 90 mg kg ^{" 1} , i.p.) 1 week before the start of CORT, or administered fluoxetine (18 rng kg ^" * per day) in the drinking water for 3 weeks before the start of CORT. Ketamine was purchased from Merial (100 mg ml stock solution). Fluoxetine hydrochloride { 160 ^tg/mL, equivalent to 18 trig kg ^"1 per da in the drinking water) was purchased from Anawa Trading (Zurich, Switzerland) and dissolved in 0.45% hydroxypropyi- -cyciodextrin (β-CD) (Sigma-Aldrich, Saint-Quentin Fallavier,

France) solution. Following ketamine or fluoxetine treatment, CORT was administered for 3 weeks in the drinking water. CORT (4-pregnen-l lb-DIOL-3 20-DIONE 21 -hemisuccinate) (35 pg/ml) from Sigma Aldrich (Saint-Quentin Fallavier, France) was dissolved in vehicle (0.45% β-CD). Control animals received vehicle (0.45% β-CD) throughout the duration of the experiment.

Experiment 6 (Post-ketamine and post-fluoxetine in CORT): In C57BL/6 Tac mice, vehicle or CORT was administered for 4 weeks in the drinking water. While administration with 0,45% β-CD or CORT continued, mice were injected with saline or ketamine (10 mg kg ^" '), or were administered vehicle or chronic fluoxetine ( 18 mg kg ^"1 per day in the drinking water).

Social Defeat

Adult aggressor CD- ! male mice were single-housed in Macrolon® polycarbonate resin cages (1.5.25 in x 7.8 in x 9.5 in) (Animal Care Systems, Inc., Centennial, CO). Male 129S6/SvEvTac mice (9 weeks of age) were subsequently placed into the resident CD- I mouse's cage. Three antagonistic encounters were allowed between the CD- I mouse and the intmder. Each of these encounters typically fasted less than 5 min. Following the encounters, mice were separated by a polished stainless steel cage divider (Animal Care Systems, Inc., Centennial CO, P/N C7 171 ), which allowed for olfactory and auditory communication, but limited visual or tactile contact. The partition was removed daily for 2 weeks and 3 antagonistic encounters were allowed between the mice each day. This procedure consistently yielded a submissive phenotype in the experimental intruder mice. Control (Ctrl) mice were group housed 4 to 5 per cage in Macrolon® polycarbonate resin cages without dividers. Corticosterone Model

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (ΉΡΑ) axis is often dysregulated in clinical depression. In this model, glucocorticoid levels are exogenously increased. This chronic CORT elevation results in dysregulatioa of the HPA axis. For example, there is a blunting of the HPA axis response to stress in CORT-treated mice, as shown by marked attenuation of stress-induced CORT levels (A1 , A2), This model reliably induces anxious and depressive- like behavior in mice,

The dose and duration of CORT treatment was selected based on previous studies

(Al , A2, A3). CORT (35 pg/mi, equivalent to approximately 5 mg/kg/d) or vehicle (0.45 % β-CB) was available ad libitum in the drinking water in opaque bottles to protect it from light. CORT-treated water was changed every 3 days to prevent any possible degradation. Learned Helplessness

The LH paradigm was used to induce depressive-like behavior (A4j. In this paradigm, mice are exposed to unpredictable and uncontrollable stress (shocks) and then develop coping deficits to deal with the inescapable shocks. We modified a previously published paradigm (A5). Briefly, the procedure was conducted in a two-chamber shuttle box (model BNV

010MD; Med Associates, St. Albans, VT) located within a sound-attenuated cubicle. The grid floor was made of stainless steel and connected to a shock generator. The scrambled shock generator (model ENV 414S, Med Associates) created varying electrical potential differences between bars preventing an animal from avoiding shock.

Inescapable shock (training): At approximately 9 weeks of age, mice were trained in the LH paradigm. For each shuttle box, 2 animals were administered the protocol at the same time; the central door was closed, with one animal in the chamber on each side. Alter a 3 min habituation period, the shock deliveries began. The training protocoi consisted of 7 shocks, each with a 3 s average duration, at 0.5 raA, and with an inter-trial interval (ΓΤΤ.) of approximately 15 s. This protocol was the same as the "Med Protocol" published by Muller et al, (201 !) (A5), with the exception of the intensity (0.5 mA versus 0.6 niA).

Shock escape (testing): Mice were tested in the same shuttle box used in the

inescapable shock training. The box consisted of two identical chambers (37 L x 20 W x 17 H), separated by an automated door that opened vertically. The shuttle box was equipped with 8 infrared beams (4 on each side) for detecting position and activity of the animal (Med Associates, St. Albans, VT). Each mouse was placed into the right chamber with the door raised and was allowed to freely explore both chambers for 3 min. Then the door closed automatically.

At the beginning of each trial, the door was raised and 5 s later a foot shock (0.5 mA) was delivered. The subject's exit from the shocked side ended the trial. If the mouse did not exit after 15 s, the shock was turned off and the trial ended. The door was lowered at the end of the trial. A session consisted of 30 trials, each separated by a 30 s ITi. Escape latencies were computed as the time from shock onset to the end of trial, if the subject failed to make a transition the maximum 15 s was used for the escape latency score.

Forced Swim Test

The FST is typically used in rodents to screen for potential human antidepressants

(A6-A7 ). In fact, many papers examining ketamine in mouse models only observe effects in the FST (A 8- A 10). In die FST, time spent immobile, as opposed to swimming, is used as a measure of depressive behavior.

The FST was administered as previously described (Al l). Briefly, mice were placed into clear plastic buckets 20 cm in diameter and 23 cm deep filled 2/3 of the wa with 22°C water. Mice were videotaped from the side for 6 min and were exposed to the swim test on 2 consecutive days. For the SD experiments, scoring was performed using an automated

Viewpoint Videotrack software package (http://www.viewpoint.fr/en/a anxiety-and- depresston). For the CORT experiments, automated scoring was done using the automated X'PERT FST software suite (Bioseb, Vitrolies, France). The dependent variable was immobility.

Tail Suspension Test (TST)

The TST was administered as previously described (A2 . Briefly, animals were suspended for 6 min and immobility during this period was assessed using an automated TST apparatus (Bioseb, Vitrolles, France). A specific strain gauge linked to a computer quantifies the time spent by each mouse trying to escape.

Dominant Interaction

Dominant interaction was performed as previously described (A12). Briefly, mice were placed into a large open field containing 2 upside-down wire mesh pencil cups. One pencil cup served as a novel object or empty container. The other pencil cu contained the

CD- I aggressor mouse. Mice were placed in the middle of the open field arena and allowed to explore for 10 min. Sessions were videotaped and the first 5 min were later analyzed using behavioral tracking software (TopScan. CleverSys, Reston, VA).

Social Interaction

Mice were placed into a large open field containing 2 upside-down wire mesh pencil cups. One pencil cup served as a novel object or empty container. The other pencil cup contained a novel i 29S6/SvEv male mouse. Mice were placed in the middle of the open field arena and allowed to explore for 10 min. Sessions were videotaped and the first 5 min were later analyzed using behavioral tracking software (TopScan, CleverSys, Reston, VA). Novelty Suppressed Feeding (NSF)

Testing was performed as previously described (A13). Briefly, the testing apparatus consisted of a plastic box (50 x 50 x 20 cm). The floor was co vered with approximately 2 cm of wooden bedding and the arena was brightly lit (1100-1200 lux). For 129S6/SvEv

experiments, mice were food restricted for 12 h. For the C57BL/6N experiments, mice were food restricted for 24 h. All food was removed from the home cage. At die time of testing, a single pellet of food (regular chow) was placed on a white paper platform positioned in the center of the box. Each animal was placed in a corner of the box, and a stopwatch was immediately started. The latency of the mice to begin eating was recorded. Immediately after the latency was recorded, the food pellet was removed from the arena. The mice were then placed into a cage and the amount of food consumed in 5 min was measured (home cage consumption), followed by an assessment of post-restriction weight. We used the Kaplan- Meier survival analysis due to the lack of normal distribution of data. The Mantel-Cox log- rank test was used to evaluate differences between the experimental groups.

Elevated Phis Maze (EPM)

Testing was performed as previously described (A14). Briefly, the maze is a plus- cross-shaped apparatus consisting of four arms, two open and two enclosed by walls, linked by a central platform at a height of 50 cm from the floor. Mice were individually placed in the center of the maze facing an open arm and were allowed to explore the maze for 5 min. The time spent in and the number of entries into the open arms was used as an anxiety index. For the 129S6/SvEv experiments, videos were scored using behavioral tracking software (TopScan, CleverSys, Reston, VA). For the C57BL/6Ntac experiments, all parameters were measured using a video!racker (EPM3C, Bioseb, VitroHes, France).

Contextual Fear Conditioning (CFC)

The 1 -shock CFC procedure was performed as previously published (A 15), Briefly, mice were placed into context A and administered a 2-s shock (0.75 mA) 180 s later. Mice were removed from the context 15 s following the termination of shock (at 197 s). For context retrieval, mice were placed back into context A for 180 s. For alternate contexts, mice were placed into the contexts for 180 s.

Splash Test

This test consisted of squirting 200 μΐ of a 10% sucrose solution on the mouse's snout. The grooming duration was quantified using Stopwatch+ (Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Georgia State University), Open Field (OF)

The open field protocol was administered as previously described (Al 1 ), with the exception thai 1 quadrant was scented with female urine. Total distance traveled in each quadrant was quantified in 1-min bins.

Methods for Assessment of the (R)~ and (S)- enanliomers, metabolites, and other ketarnme-iike compounds.

Mice: Male and female 129S6/SvEv (Taconic) mice will be purchased from Taconic at 7 weeks of age.

Drug and compound administration: All drugs and experimental compounds will be injected at 8 weeks of age. Each group will consist of 16 mice. Mice will be scored for any abnormalities after administration in the home cage. Initial results in Figs. 15A-B show results for (2&6ff)-HNK.

A) Saline (0,9% NaCI), (2&6$-HNK (synthesized by OCCC), (2ff,6ff)-HNK (synthesized by OCCC), i¾-norketamine (AstaTech), S-norketamine

(AstaTech), (£}-ketamine (Sigma), (/i)-ketamine (Sigma), and (/?,5)-ketamine (Ketaset 11, Ketamine HQ injection, Fort Dodge Animal Health, Forth Dodge, TA) will be administered in a single dose. All metabolites and

enantiomers will be administered at 3, 10, 30, and 75 mg kg of body weight, B) Saline (0.9% NaCI), 2-fluorodeschloroketamine (synthesized by OCCC), tiletamine (Putney Veterinary), and (¾5)-ketamine (Ketaset III, Ketamine ITCl injection. Fort Dodge Animal Health, Forth Dodge, TA) will be administered in a single dose. All drug and compounds will be administered at between 3- 30 mg/kg of body weight.

C) Saline (0.9%· NaCI), Ro 25-6981 (Tocris), CP-101,606 (Sigma), GLYX-13

(Allergan), CX546 (Tocris), and (ff.S)-ketamine (Ketaset III, Ketamine HC1 injection, Fort Dodge Animal Health, Fort Dodge, ]A) will be administered in a single dose. Ro 25-6981 will he administered at 10 mg/kg of body weight. CP- 101, 06 will be administered at 10, 30, or 75 mg/kg (Poieszak. E, el. al. (2 1 ), Metlab Brain Dis 31 : 803-14. GLY X- .13 will be administered at 10, 30, and 75 mg kg of body weight. CX546 will be administered at 10 mg/kg of body weight.

Corticosterone Enzyme Immunoassay (EIA) Mice were exposed lo a minor stressor for 10 min and then returned to their home cages. Blood was collected from awake mice 70 min after the start of the stressor from the retro-orbital sinus using hematocrit tubes. Blood was then transferred to Eppendorf tubes pre- coated with 5 μΐ 0,5 M EDTA, placed on ice, and immediately spun down to obtain plasma for subsequent EIA. Plasma was stored at -80°C until analysis. EIA was performed using a DeteetX Corticosterone EIA Kit (#K0!4-H1, Arbor Assays).

Immuiiohistocheinistry

Mice were deeply anesthetized with ketamine (100 mg kg ^"1 ) and transcardiaily perfused with IX phosphate buffer saline (PBS), followed by chilled 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA i/lX PBS (A 15). Brains were post-fixed overnight in 4% PFA at 4°C, then

cryoprotected in 30% sucrose/ IX PBS, and stored at 4°C. Serial coronal sections (35 ι ^η ) were cut through the entire hippocampus on a cryoslai and stored in IX PBS with 0.1% aN _. v Doublecortin (DCX) immunohistochemistry was performed as previously described (A 15). For DCX immunohistochemistry. sections were washed in IX PBS containing 0.5% Triton and then quenched in 0.3% H202 in IX PBS/CH30H (1 :1) for 15 min at room temperature. Sections were blocked in 10% normal donkey serum in IX PBS with 0.5% Triton X-100 for 2 h at room temperature. Incubation with primary antibody was performed at 4°C overnight (goat antt-DCX, :500, Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, C A, #SC 8,066) in IX PBS with 0.5% Triton X-100. Sections were then incubated with a biotinylated secondary antibody (donkey anti-goat; 1 :250, Jackson ImmunoResearch, West Grove, PA) for 2h at room temperature. Sections were treated with avidtn-biotin-peroxidase complex (ABC Elite Kit, Vector Labs, Burlingame, CA) followed by 3.3 ^' diaminobenzidine as a substrate for staining (Vector, Burlingame, CA).

Ki67 immunohistochemistry was performed as previously described (A16). For i67 immunohistochemistry, sections were washed in IX PBS containing 0.5% Triton, and then blocked in 10% normal donkey serum in IX PBS with 0.5% Triton X- 100 for 2 h at room temperature. Incubation with primary antibody was performed at 4°C overnight (rabbit anti- Ki67, 1 : 100, Vector Laboratories. Burlingame, CA, #VP-RM04) in tX PBS with 0.5% Triton X-100. Sections were then incubated with a biotinylated secondary antibody (donkey anti- rabbit; 1 :250, Jackson ImmunoResearch, West Grove, PA) for 2 h a room temperature. Sections were treated with avidin-biotin-peroxidase complex (ABC Elite Kit, Vector Labs, Burlingame, CA) followed by 3,3' diaminobenzidine as a substrate for staining (Vector, Burlingame, CA),

Cell Quantification An investigator blind to treatment used a Zeiss Axiopiaii-2 upright microscope (Oberkochen, Germany) to count cells bilaterally in the granule cell layer of the dentate gyrus throughout the entire rostro-caudal axis of the hippocampus (HPC). Every sixth section throughout the entire extent of the HPC was included in the analysis. Cells were counted bilaterally using a 20X objective. The average cells per section are presented throughout the text.

Statistical Analysis

Results from data analyses are expressed as means ± SEM. Alpha was set to 0.05 for all analyses. Data were analyzed using Stat View 5.0 software fSAS Institute, Cary, NC) for the SD experiments and were analyzed using GraphPad Prism v6.0f for the CORT experiments. For all experiments, one-way or one-way ANOVAs with repeated- measures were applied to the data as appropri e. Significant main effects and/or interactions were followed by Fisher's protected least significant difference post-hoc analysis or unpaired t- tests. All main effects and interactions are noted throughout the text.

RESULTS

Ketamine Administration Before SD Protects Against the Induction of Depressive-Like Behavior

Mice were administered a single injection of saline or ketamine (30 mg kg ^" ') (Figure 1 A). One week later, mice either remained group housed (Ctrl) or underwent SD. After 2 weeks of SD, mice were weighed, and behavior was assessed. Classically, immobility in the FST has been interpreted as an index of hopelessness or a negati ve mood (31 ). Rodents given acute or chronic antidepressants exhibit decreased immobility (32). Here, on day 2 of the FST, there was an overall effect of SD on immobility time. Ctrl-saline (Sal) and Ctrl- ketamine (K) mice displayed equal levels of immobility time (Figure IB), In SD mice, ketamine (SD-K) significantly decreased immobility time when compared with saline

(SDSal) (Figures 1C, ID). These data indicate that ketamine increases resilience to

behavioral despair as measured by the FST.

Dominant interaction is a robust way of testing the induction of depressive-like behavior by SD (.10) (Figure IE). As expected, SD-Sal mice spent significantly more time investigating an empty enclosure quadrant than Ctrl-Sal mice (Figure IF). Ctrl (Sal or K) mice spent an equivalent amount of time investigating the empty enclosure quadrant. SD-K mice exhibited significantly less time investigating the empty enclosure quadrant when compared with SD-Sal mice. Similarly, SD-K mice exhibited a significantly increased willingness to interact with the CD-I when compared with SD-Sal mice (Figure 1G). To determine if this exploration deficit extended to neutral environments, open field exploration was investigated in an arena scented with female urine. We did not detect any differences in the empty quadrant or the urine quadrant between Ctrl and SD mice.

Furthermore, to determine if social avoidance generalized to other mice, we also assessed social interaction with a novel mouse. We did not find an effect of SD or ketamine on social interaction. In summary, these data suggest that SD decreases exploration and willingness to interact with a CD-I aggressor and that prior ketamine administration protects against this deleterious effect of SD on social behavior.

An Injection of Ketamine Before SD Does Not Impact Anxiety-Like Behavior or

Contextual Fear Memory

We next examined the effects of ketamine on anxiety-like behavior and cognitive tests. In the NSF paradigm, we found no significant effect of SD or ketamine on the latency to feed, in fact, all groups showed similar latencies. This effect is confounded: despite having comparable body weights before and after SD, SD mice lost .significantly more weight during the 12-hour fast preceding NSF than Ctrl mice. Possibly as a result, SD mice ate more in a home cage following NSF when compared with Ctrl mice. These findings suggest that SD significantly alters metabolism in 129S6/SvEv mice.

We observed a significant effect of SD in an anxiety-related test, the elevated plus maze (EPM). SD mice spent more time in the closed arms than Ctrl mice. However, there was no significant effect of ketamine in either group. The absence of an effect of ketamine in the EPM is consistent with previous studies (33, 34), as it remains to be established if ketamine is as robust an anxiolytic as it is an antidepressant (35).

The Ketatnine-Induced Improvement Is Dose-Specific

We next examined a dose titration curve of ketamine. Mice were administered 0, 10, 30, or 90 mg kg ^'1 of ketamine before the start of SD. After 2 weeks of SD. mice underwent the FST and CORT levels were measured following a brief stressor. We replicated our previous SD effect, as SD-Sal mice displayed significantly more immobility time in the FST when compared with Ctrl-Sal (Figure 2A). However, SD-Sal and SD-K (10 mg kg ^" ') mice did not differ in immobility time (Figure 2B). SD-K (30 mg kg ^"1 ) mice again displayed significantly less immobility when compared with SD-Sal mice (Figure 2C). SD-Sal and SDK (90 mg kg ^{" 1} ) mice did not differ in immobility time (Figures 2D. 2E).

As the hypothalamic -pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is dysreg !ated in mice following SD (14), we also tested whether ketamine protected against the deleterious effect of SD on the stress response. Following a brief stressor, SD-Sal mice had significantly lower levels of CORT than Ctrl-Sal mice (Figure 2F), suggesting that SD blunts the response of the HPA axis. However, all ketamine-injected mice did not differ from Ctrl -Sal mice, suggesting that ketamine partially restores the HPA axis. To determine if adult hippocampal neurogenesis was modulating, as least in part, these effects, we measured maturation of newborn neurons and proliferation of newborn neurons by quantifying the levels of doubleeortin and i67, respectively. We did not observe an effect of ketamine on adult hippocampal neurogenesis.

These data suggest that the ketamine improvemen in depressi ve-like behavior may be mediated in part by changes in HPA functionality but not necessarily by adult hippocampal neurogenesis.

Prophylactic Ketamine Alters Fighting Behavior During SD Bouts

To determine if ketamine also affected behavior during SD, we analyzed individual fighting bouts. The total fighting bout length did not differ between groups (Figure 5A).

However, the average immobility during week 2 was significantly decreased in SD-K mice when compared with SD-Sal mice (Figure 5B). The percent of time vocalizing (Figure 5C) and number of approaches to the CD- I (Figure 5D) did not differ between the groups. These data suggest that mice administered ketamine may not be as fearful of (lie CD-I mice and, therefore, spend less time immobile.

We next analyzed the latency of the CD-I to attack the 129S6/SvEv mouse (Figure

5E-G). CD- I s comparably attacked SD-Sal and SD-K ( 10 or 90 mg kg21) mice. However, at the start of SD, CD- 1 s attacked SD-K (30 mg kg ^'1 } mice significantly later than SD-Sal mice.

These data suggest that perhaps the mice recei ving K (30 mg kg ^"1 ) have an advantageous ongoing response to SD when compared with Sal mice.

Fluoxetine Treatment Before SD Does Not Protect Against the Induction of Depressive- Like Behavior

We next determined if this protective effect of ketamine extended to other antidepressants. Mice were administered 3 weeks of fluoxetine (Fix) (18 mg kg ^"1 ) treatment before the start of SD. On day 2 of the FST, Ctrl-Vehicle (Veh) and Ctrl-Fix displayed equal levels of immobility time. In SD mice, fluoxetine did not improve immobility time induced by SD. These data indicate that .fluoxetine, unlike ketamine, is not capable of preventing stress-induced behavioral despair as measured by the FST.

We also assessed a number of other behaviors following fluoxetine treatment.

Fluoxetine treatment did not significantly alter anxiety or cognition but did affect metabolism. Interestingly, unlike SD-K (30 mg kg ^"1 ) mice, SD-Flx mice do not display differences during SD bouts when compared with SD-Veh mice. These data suggest that fluoxetine treatment cannot protect against depressive-like behavior as ketamine does,

Ketamine Administered After SD Does Not Improve Depressive-Like Behavior

To compare the robustness of prophylactic ketamine relative, to its typical use as an antidepressant, we next asked if ketamine could improve behavioral despair if administered after SD. Mice were administered 2 weeks of SD and then received one injection of saline or ketamine the day after the final SD session. On day 2 of the FST, Ctrl-Sal and Cir!-K mice did not display different immobility time. SD-Sal and SD-K mice had similar levels of immobility time. We averaged minutes 3 to 6 and found that SD increased immobility time, but ketamine given after SD did not decrease immobility time. These data indicate that ketamine more potently decreases behavioral despair in the FST when given as a prophylactic before SD than after SD.

We al so assessed a number of other behaviors following ketamine treatment (Figures 6A-6K). In Ctrl mice, ketamine decreased the latency to eat in the NSF when compared with saline (Figure 6A). This effect was abolished in the SD mice, most likely due to weight loss differences between Ctrl and SD mice (Figures 6B - 6C). interestingly, ketamine lessened the percentage of weight loss in the SD mice when compared with saline, possibly by protecting against stress-induced hypophagia. (Figure 6D). Ketamine also did not impact CFC learning (Figure 6G - 63). Most importantly, although we did not detect differences from prophylactic ketamine treatment, we did determine that ketamine administered after SD significantly increases the number of Ϊ671 cells in the dentate gyrus (Figure 6K),

Prophylactic Ketamine Protects Against Learned Helplessness

We hypothesized mat ketamine would protect against LH, a paradigm in which a mouse is exposed to inescapable shocks {28-30). Mice were injected with saline or ketamine and administered an inescapable shock stress protocol (LH training) 1 week later (Figure 3A), Two weeks later, mice were administered a shock escape protocol (LH testing) and the latency to escape the shock was measured. The activity in the habituation phase during testing did not differ between mice administered saline or ketamine (Figure 3B). However, mice injected with ketamine had a decreased latency to escape the shock when compared with mice injected with saline (Figures 3C, 3D). Moreover, the session length was significantly shorter in the ketamine mice than in the saline mice (Figure 3E). These data indicate that ketamine protection is not just limited to SD stress. Prophylactic Ketamme Protects Against the Depressive-Like Effects of Chronic

CorUcosterone Treatment

To address whether ketamine was protective in a third stress model, we utilized a mouse model of anxiety/depression based on elevation of glucocorticoids (3 weeks of chronic CORT administration in C57BL/6NTac mice) (27). We tested die protective effects of a chronic fluoxetine treatment ( 18 mg kg ^" ' for 3 weeks) or a single injection of ketamine (10, 30, or 90 mg kg ^{" 1} ) given before CORT administration (Figure 4A). We found that ketamine (90 mg kg ^"! ) and fluoxetine prevented the CORT-indoced increase in body weight.

Both ketamine (90 mg kg ^"1 ) and fluoxetine decreased immobility time on day 2 in the FST (Figures 4B, 4C). Chronic CORT induced depressive-like symptoms (e.g., increased grooming latency) in the ST (Figure 4D). Here, ketamine (90 mg kg ^"1 ), but not fluoxetine, prevented the chronic CORT-induced depressive-like phenotype (Figure 4D). These data indicate that the protective effect of ketamine extends to a third depression model.

In the NSF, ketamine (10 and 90 mg kg ^"1 ) prevented the chronic CORT-induced increase in latency to feed (Figure 4E). However, only ketamine (90 mg kg ') increased home cage food consumption (Figure 4F).

Finally, we assayed anxiety behavior using the EPM. CORT-Veh mice spent more time in the closed arms than Veh-Veh mice. Neither ketamine nor fluoxetine robustly protected against this anxiety-like phenotype. In summary, these data suggest that 90 mg kg ^"! of ketamine is the most effective dose in protecting against depressive-like behavior following chronic CORT treatment in C57BL/6NTac mice.

Ketamme Admimstered After Chrome CorUcosterone Does Not Improve Depressive-Like Behavior

Finally, as in the SD model, we measured the behavioral impact of ketamine when given after CORT. in this experimental design, mice were administered 4 weeks of CORT and then received either one injection of saline or ketamine, or vehicle or fluoxetine for 2 weeks. Here, we utilized the tail suspension test (TST) and the NSF t test the same behavior on multiple occasions.

Fluoxetine, but not ketamine, decreased immobility time in the TST at both time points tested following CORT. In the NSF, CORT treatment increased the latency to feed when compared with Veh treatment. Fluoxetine, but not ketamine, decreased the latency to feed 14 days, but not 7 days, after the start of treatment. In summary, as previously demonstrated in the SD model, these data further indicate that ketamine more potently improves depressive-like behavior when given as a prophylactic before CORT treatment rather than after CORT treatment.

DISCUSSION

Here, we have shown that a single injection of ketamine administered before SD protected mic against stress-induced increased immobility time in the FST. Additionally, ketamme protected mice against tress- induced social avoidance of an aggressor mouse. We found that mice administered ketamme before SD were protected against stress-induced depressive-like behavior, but consistent with the literature definition of stress resilience, their behavior in anxiety tests and levels of adult hippocampal neurogenesis were not significantly altered. Interestingly, in the SD paradigm, only a subanesthetic dose (30 mg kg ^" ') of ketamine was found to be effective.

The prophylactic effect of ketamine was recapitulated in two additional models, in LH, ketamine decreased depressive-like, helpless behavior. In the CORT model, ketamine was protective against depressive-like behaviors (FST, ST), an iety (NSF), and metabolic changes (body weight), albeit at a slightly higher dose (90 mg kg ^"1 ) than in SD or LH. The efficacy of the higher dose in the CORT model is perhaps attributable to mouse strain differences (C57BL/6NTac versus 129S6/SvEv). Nevertheless, the dose administered in the CORT model is in the anesthetic range, whereas the dose in the SD/LH model is

subanesthetic. If an equivalent anesthetic dose were required to obtain prophylactic efficacy in humans, acute side effects would need to be considered when developing treatment regimens.

Administration of the classic antidepressant fluoxetine before stress did not

consistently or robustly protect against stress-induced depressive-like behavior. In the SD model, fluoxetine did not improve immobility time in the FST, but in the CORT model, fluoxetine protected against immobility time in the FST and body weight alterations.

Though preventing psychopathology has obvious advantages over noncurative medication regimens, we also wanted to assess the relative potencies of ketamine ^' ' s protective and antidepressant effects, interestingly, when ketamine was administered following stress, we did not observe a significant decrease in immobilit time in the FST or TST. In our SD model, we utilized a 30 mg kg ^"1 dose, but in the CORT model, we utilized a 10 mg kg ^"1 dose to compare with more recent studies using ketamine as an antidepressant in C57BL mice ( 12,33). This suggests that the beneficial effects of ketamine on stress-induced pathology maybe more robust when given before stress. In contrast, Donahue et al (12) recently found the converse when they administered ketamine either 1 hour after the final SD session or 24 hours before the first SD session. A high (20 mg kg ^"1 ) - but not low (2.5 mg kg ^"1 ) - dose of ketamine following the final SD session attenuated social avoidance but not anhedonia. Conversely, when ketamine (20 mg kg ^" ') was administered before SD, it did not attenuate social avoidance. The lack of effect in their experiments, however, does not mean that ketarnine's protective effect is not as robust as we suggest. The effect of ketamine is less likely effective, as a C57BL/6J strain is utilized in the Donahue et al. 0 2) study, but as we have shown in the CORT model, a higher dose is necessary for prophylactic efficacy in

C57BL mice. Ketamine dosing for prophylactic administration may or may not differ from antidepressant administration.

Ketamine-induced resilience is robust and long lasting - persisting at least 3 weeks post- inject ion in the SD model and 4 weeks post-injection in the CORT model, it is worth noting that as the half-life of ketamine is only a few hours in rodents (39), ketamine is not bioactive at any point during the SD fighting bouts, LH, or CORT administration. Thus, the process by which ketamine protects against depressi e-like behavior is necessarily self- maintaining. We have shown that ketamine can alter ongoing response to a chronic stressor. In the SD model, our data suggest mat ketamine alters the way in which mice react to the fighting bouts, which may contribute to the differences in developing depressive-like behavior at a later time point. Not only do the SD-K (30 mg kg ^" ' ) mice have a decreased immobility time during the fighting bouts, but also the CD-I mice attack the SD-K (30 mg kg ^" ') mice at greater latencies.

In summary, these experiments demonstrate that ketamine has a long-lasting

resilience-enhancing effect and protects against the deleterious effects of chronic stress on depressive-like behaviors. Because the protective effect of ketamine persists beyond its half-life of 2 to 2.5 hours, the prophylactic effect may be useful as a vaccine-like strategy in at-risk populations where high-stress conditions can be predicted. Active combat soldiers offer a good example of a predictably at-risk patient population. Administration of ketamine before deployment may mitigate the emergence of posttraumatic stress disorder or other stress-related disorders in this vulnerable population, in humans, ketamine may offer a novel, clinic-ready approach to protect and prevent at-risk, patients from developing stress-induced disorders.

EXAMPLE 2: Prophylactic ketamine reduces fear expression

Ketamine has been reported to be an efficacious antidepressant for major depressive disorder (MDD) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Most recently, ketamine has also been shown to be prophylactic against stress-induced depressive-like behavior in mice. It remains unknown, however, when ketamme should be administered relative to a stressor in order to maximize its antidepressant and/or prophylactic effects. Moreover, it is unknown if ketamine can be prophylactic against subsequent stressors.

We systematically administered ketamme- at different time points relative to a fear experience in order to determine when ketamine is most effective at reducing fear expression or preventing fear reactivation. Using a contextual fear conditioning (CFC) paradigm, mice were administered a single dose of saline or ketamine (30 mg kg ^{" 1} ) at varying rime points before- or after CFC.

Mice administered prophylactic ketamine 1 week, but not 1 month or 1 hour before CFC, exhibited reduced freezing behavior when compared with mice administered saline. In contrast, ketamine administration following CFC or during extinction did not alter subsequent fear expression. However, ketamine administered before reinstatement increased the number of rearing bouts in an open field, possibly suggesting an increase in vigilance.

These data indicate that ketamine can buffer a fear response when given a week before- as prophylactic, but not when given immediately before or alter a stress-inducing episode. Thus, ketamine may be most useful in the clinic if administered in a vaccine-like fashion in order to protect against heightened fear responses to aversive stimuli.

Example 1 describes our findings that ketamine administered as a prophylactic protects against the onset of stress-ind ced depressive-like behavior in three different mouse models of stress (Brachman et al., 2016, reviewed in Price, 2016). This work was replicated by an independent group who found similar effects of ketamine in rats (Amat et ah, 2016). In this study, in order to better understand when ketamine should be given relative to a stressful episode, we systematically administered ketamine at various time points during a CFC extinction paradigm. We hypothesized that at certain time points ketamine would be prophylactic against fear expression, while at other time points ketamine would be ineffective or increase fear expression. Mice administered prophylactic ketamine 1 week, but not 1 month, before CFC exhibited reduced freezing behavior when compared with mice administered saline. In contrast, ketamine administration following CFC or before extinction did not alter subsequent fear expression. Interestingly, ketamine administration following extinction, but before reinstatement, increased rearing in the open field, which may reflect increased vigilance. These data indicate that ketamine can buffer a fear response when given as a prophylactic, but not whe given immediately before or after a stress-inducing episode. METHODS AND MATERIALS

Mice 129S6/SvEvTae mice were purchased from Tacoiiic (Hudson. NY) at 8 weeks of age. Mice were housed 4-5 per cage in a 12-h (06:00- 1 :00) light-dark colony room at 22°C. Food and water were provided ad libitum. Behavioral testing was performed during the light phase. All experiments were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at Columbia University and the New York State Psychiatric Institute.

Drugs

A single injection of saline (0.9% NaCl) or ketamine (30 mg kg ^"1 ) (Ketaset III, Ketamine HC1 injection, Fort Dodge Animal Health, Forth Dodge, IA) was administered once during the course of each experiment. Ketamine was prepared in physiological saline and all injections were administered intraperitoneall (i.p.) in volumes of 0.1 cc per 10 mg body weight.

Contextual Fear Conditioning (CFC)

A 3-shock CFC paradigm was administered as previously described (Drew et al., 2010; Denny et ah, 2014). Mice were placed in the conditioning chamber and received 3 shocks 180, 240. and 300 s later (2 s, 0.75 mA) and were removed 15 s following the last shock. All sessions were scored for freezing using Freeze V iew2

(http://aetimetrics.eonT/down1oads/freezeframe/).

Extinction (E)

initially, two extinction protocols based off of Trouche et al. (2013 ) and Sananbenesi et al., (2007) were piloted in order to determine the best conditions for assessing the effectiveness of ketamine (Figure 14). The extinction procedure chosen was the most consistent and robust, and was based on the protocol from Trouche et al. (2013). Extinction began 4 days after the initial 3-shock CFC procedure, or 4 days after the reinstatement procedure. Each group of mice was subjected to 2 extinction trials per day. Each extinction trial lasted 30 min, with an intertrial interval of at least 2 h. For each extinction trial, mice were placed in the same box used for CFC without receiving foot shocks. All trials were scored for freezing. The freezing presented throisghout the text represents averaged freezing behavior for the first 3 min of each extinction trial

Reinstatement (R)

Reinstatement took place in the same Coulboum fear conditioning box, but with altered cues. A 1 -shock CFC paradigm was administered as previously described (Drew et al.. 2 10; Denny et al., 2012; Denny et al., 2014), with the exception of two experiments in which the mice were administered 3 shocks.

Forced Swim Test (EST) The FST was administered as previously described (Richardson- Jones et al., 2010; Brachman et al., 2016).

Open Field (OF)

OF protocol was administered as previously described (Richardson-Jones et al.. 2010).

Statistical Analysis

All data were analyzed using StalView 5.0 software (SAS Institute, Car , NC) or Prism 5,0a. Alpha was set to 0.05 for all analyses. In general, the effect of Drug or Context was analyzed using an analysis of variance (A OVA), using repealed measures where appropriate. Significant A NOV As were followed up with Fisher's protected least significant difference post-hoc analysis or unpaired /-tests where appropriate.

RESULTS

An Injection of Ketamme 1 Week Prior to CFC Decreases Fear Expression

First, to determine if our previously reported prophylactic effect of ketamine extended to CFC, mice were administered a single injection of saline or ketamine (30 mg kg ^" ) (Figure 7A). One week later, mice were trained using a 3-shock CFC protocol. Both groups of mice exhibited comparable levels of freezing during the 3-shock CFC training (Figure 7B).

Moreover, both groups of mice traveled comparably during each of the 3 shock presentations (Figure 7C).

Extinction training began four days later after the CFC. Durin the first extinction exposure, mice injected with prophylactic ketamine expressed significantly less freezing behavior when compared with mice injected with saline (Figure 71)), Both groups of mice expressed similar levels of freezing behavior during subsequent extinction trials, reinstatement, and secondary extinction trials. When the first trial of extinction and the first trial of re-extinction were compared (El vs. E9). ketamine-injected mice significantly decreased levels of fear than saline-injected mice (Figure 7E). These data indicate that ketamine is efficacious in buffering fear expression when administered as a prophylactic I week before. CFC.

An Injection of Ketamine I Month Prior to CFC Does Not Alter Fear Expression

In order to determine if administering ketamine at additional points before a fear- inducing stimul i might be beneficial, we varied the interval from I week to 1 month before CFC (Figure 8A). Prophylactic ketamine administration 1 month before CFC did not result in a decreased fear response during CFC training (Figure 8B), did not alter the shock response (Figure 8C), and did not alter freezing behavior during extinction (Figure 8D) compared to saline administration. These data indicate thai there is a defined interval at which ketamme may be administered prior to a stressor in order to buffer against feat- expression.

An Injection of Ketamine 1 Hour, But Not 24 Hours Prior to CFC Increases Freezing Behavior

We next varied the interval immediately before CFC training. We first administered ketamine 1 h before CFC (Figure 9A). Ketamine administration resulted in increased immobility prior to the shock presentation (Figure 9B). Ketamine-injected mice traveled less during each of the three shock presentations than saline-injected mice (Figure 9C). However, both groups of mice froze comparabl during extinction (Figure 91 ⁾ ).

Next, we administered ketamine 24 h before CFC (Figure 9E). Ketamine

administration did not alter immobility prior to the shock presentation, path length during the shocks, or freezing behavior during extinction (Figures 9F-9H). These data indicate that there is a defined windo at which ketamine may be administered prior io a stressor in order to buffer or decrease a fear expression.

An Injection of Ketamine Following CFC or Prior to Extinction Does Not Alter Fear Expression

To determine if an injection of ketamine could alter fear extinction behavior following the encoding of an initial stressor, we next tested administration following CFC at various time points. Mice were injected with ketamine 1 h following 3-sliock CFC training (Figure 10A). A single injection of ketamine following CFC did not alter fear expression during extinction (Figure 10B).

Mice were then injected with ketamine 1 week following CFC, but 1 week prior to extinction in order to mimic the 1 -week interval that we use as a prophylactic (Figure IOC), A single injection of ketamine prior to extinction did not alter fear expression during extinction training (Figure 10D).

Lastly, mice were injected with ketamine 1 h prior to extinction (Figure 10E). A single injection of ketamine prior to extinction did not alter fear expression during extinction training (Figure IGF). These data suggest that ketamine administration following the encoding of a stressor does not alter the subsequent fear response.

An Injection of Ketamine 1 Week Prior to Reinstatement Increases Vigilance, But Does Not Decrease Fear Expression

Since our data indicated that that a single injection of ketamine 1 week prior to 3- shock CFC reduces fear expression, we sought to determine whether ketamine administered prior to reinstatement would alter subsequent fear expression or alter behavior in other stressful paradigms (Figure H A).

A single injection of ketamine 1 week prior to 1 -shock reinstatement did not alter subsequent fear expression (Figure 11B). Saline- and ketainine-iirjected mice traveled comparably during the shock presentation given during reinstatement (Figure 11C). We next tested if ketamine could alter stress-related behavior, as measured by behavioral despair in the FST or locomotion in the OF, Both groups of mice displayed similar time immobile in the FST (Figure 1 ID), and had comparable locomotion during the OF (Figure HE). However, mice that recei ed ketamine had a higher number of rearing bouts during the OF (Figure 1 IF), These data indicate that an injection of ketamine prior to 1 -shock reinstatement of a stressor does not buffer against fear expression. However, a single injection of ketamine prior to reinstatement increases vigilance as measured by (he number of rearing bouts in an OF, We next wanted to determine if the strength of the reinstatement experience i nfluenced ketamine' s effects on vigilance described above. Here, ketamine was administered 1 week prior to a 3-shock reinstatement trial instead of a 1 -shock reinstatement trial (Figure 11G). A single injection of ketamine 1 week prior to 3-shock reinstatement did not alter fear expression (Figure 11H). Saline- and ketamine-injected mice traveled comparably during each of the 3 shock presentations (Figure 111). As with the ! -shock reinstatement

experiment, both groups of mice displayed similar time immobile in the FST (Figur 11 J) and basic movements during the OF (Figure 1 IK). In contrast to the i -shock reinstatement experiment, both groups had a comparable number of rearing bouts during the OF (Figure 11L) and tliese levels were similar to the saline-injected group described above (Figure 11F). These data indicate that an injection of ketamine prior to a strong reinstatement experience does not buffer against subsequent fear-inducing stimuli, or influence depressive-like or exploratory behavior in the FST and OF respectively.

An injection of Ketamine Following Reinstatement Does Not Alter Subsequent Fear Expression

n order to determine whether administration of ketamine following reinstatement would influence subsequent fear expression, we next tested administration following the reinstatement experience at various time points. We first administered ketamine 1 h after a 1- shock reinstatement paradigm (Figure 12A). A single injection of ketamine 1 h following a 1 -shock reinstatement did not alter subsequent fear expression (Figure 12B).

Ketamine was then administered 1 h after a 3-shock reinstatement paradigm in order to determine whether the strength of the reinstatement experience would influence. differences in subsequent fear expression (Figure 12C). interestingly, a single injection of ketamine 1 h after a 3-shoek reinstatement buffered fear expression during the first re- exposure, and transiently decreased freezing throughout extinction (Figure 12D). We also tested ketamine administration at a 24 h time point following a 3-shock reinstatement. A single injection of ketamine 24 h following 3-shock reinstatement did not alter subsequent fear expression (Figure 12E).

DISCUSSION

Here, our results suggest that the timing of administering ketamine is critical for its effectiveness for buffering fear expression. We show that a single injection of ketamine administered 1 week before the start of CFC was most effective as a prophylactic in buffering against a heightened fear response. However, it does not facilitate extinction or alter subsequent behavior. Ketamine administered 1 month or 1 hour before the start of CFC does not buffer against a fear response or facilitate extinction. These data suggest that there is a limited time window for prophylactic protection. Additionally, ketamine administered following CFC does not alter subsequent freezing levels. Yet, interestingly, ketamine administered 1 hour after a strong reinstatement, protocol decreased fear expression, suggesting a potential window of efficacy. Lastly, ketamine administration following extinction but before reinstatement does not alter freezing levels, yet it increases rearing in the OF, a possible measure of vigilance. This increase in rearing in the OF is abolished following a strong reinstatement paradigm, indicating that the intensity of the stressor influences the effectiveness of ketamine on rearing.

The prophylactic effect that we have previously reported in three different models of stress was replicated here (Brachman et ai, 2016). We initially reported that ketamine administered I week before social defeat (SD), learned helplessness (LH) or chronic corticosterone (CORT) protected agai st depressive-like behavior. Here, we see a similar effect by using CFC as a stressor: prophylactic ketamine buffers the stress response when administered 1 week before CFC training. Notably, ketaraine ^' s prophylactic efficacy is dependent on when it is administered prior to a fear-inducing stimulus, as a protection was not observed with the 1 -month time point. Therefore, there is likely a defined window as to when ketamine may confer its most effective therapeutic potential.

It is interesting to note that ketamine administered immediately before CFC resulted in increased immobility and a blunted response to the shocks. This effect was seen only when ketamine was administered 1 h, but not 24 h before CFC. This increase in immobility is most likely due to altered pain sensitivity as it has been reported that following an i.p, injection of ketamine , animals have an increased reaction time to the hot plate test (Takahashi et al., 1986).

These data show that acute ketamine administration induces an analgesic effect, it is notable that the present study did not observe increased freezing or blunted response to the shocks when ketamine was administered 24 h before CFC. It is likely that the analgesic effects of the drug persist for i h, but not 24 h post-injection, as ketamine is known to have a half-life of approximatel 2.5 h (Wieber et al., 1975). Thus, administering ketamine immediately prior to a stressor may interfere with the perception of pain during a stressor.

To extend the earlier PTSD and ketamine studies in US service members (McGhee et al, 2008; McGhee et al., 2014) to rodent models, we administered ketamine 1 h after CFC, 1 week after CFC, or 1 h before extinction training. While the initial McGhee study (McGhee et al., 2008) found a reduction in the incidence of PTSD, the later study found a comparable incidence rate of PTSD in US military personnel treated with and without intraoperative ketamine {McGhee et al., 2014). Our findings are in agreement with the later study— we did not find post-exposure administration to be effective in reducing the fear response. These results align with our previous data (Brachman et al., 2016) in which ketamine administered following a stressor did not prevent against stress-induced depressive-like behaviors and with a previous rodent study in rats which found that immediate ketamine treatment following a psychogenic stressor did not prevent the onset of PTSD (Juven- Wetzler et al,, 2014). It is essential to consider, however, the variable histories of the patients treated in both McGhee studies. While our rodent, studies correlate with findings that suggest ketamine is not effecti ve in preventing the onset of PTSD when administered immediatel after the trauma, we believe that the history and indi vidual timing of the ketamine administration is critical in detennining the effectiveness of the treatment.

We found that ketamine 1 week prior to reinstatement did not alter fear expression, contrary to the effect of proph lactic ketamine 1 week before CFC. These data demonstrate that ketamine is most effective when admini tered as a prophylactic before an ini ial stressor rather than before relapse or reinstatement of the stressor, consistent with what is known about primary prophylaxis. Furthermore, it suggests that previous stressors inf luence subsequent stressor responses. While ketamine administration did not affect locomotion in the OF, it did increase the number of rearing bouts. It has been suggested that rodents' rearing on hind legs can be a measure of attention and vigilant behavior, as it demonstrates increased interest in the spatial environment, as well as a lower perceived threat (Lever et al, 2006). However, there is a scarcity of analysis on the significance of rearing in rodents for anxiolytic behaviors, though it is often interpreted as an exploratory response to novel stimuli (van Abeelen, 1975; van Abeelen, 1977; Crusio, 2001). More recently, the 5 -choice continuous performance test (5C-CPT) has been adapted from human studies to rodents in order to assess vigilance ( Young et al., 2009), Future studies utilizing the 5C-CBT may further validate whether ketamine increases vigilance when administered as a prophylactic.

There was similarly no effect on fear expression or on depres ive-like behavior in the forced swim test when ketamine was administered 1 week before a stronger reinstatement (3- shock CFC). Suiprisingly, however, an increase in rearing behavior was not observed in this experiment. These data suggest that the aversive value of the traumatic experience may play a critical role in effectiveness of therapy, it has been suggested that the intensity of the unconditioned stimulus has a direct correlation to the severity of PTSD symptomoiogy

(Buydens-Branchey et al., 1990; Yehuda et al, 1992; Norrholm et al., 2011). However, it is more difficult to define stressor severity in humans, given the wide range of criterion that may define a stressor (i.e., witnessing a trauma vs. experiencing one) (Long et al., 2008), as well as the subjective distress of the stressor experienced (Feinstein and Dolan, 1991; O'Hare et al, 2006). However, future work shoidd consider the severity of the stressor in relation to the effectiveness of treatments or preventions for PTSD.

Administering ketamine 1 h after reinstatement did not have effects on fear expression or extinction. This finding agrees with previous studies demonstrating that ketamine did not alleviate symptoms of PTSD when given shortly after a trauma ( cGhee et al., 2014; jfuven- Wetzler et al., 2013). Interestingly, several studies have speculated that ketamine

administered immediately alter a strong traumatic incident may enhance fear expression after a single dose (Schonenberg et al., 2005; Schonenberg et al., 2008) or multiple doses (Winter and We, 2004).

Overall, it is probable that administering ketamine after re-experiencing the trauma is directly acting on reconsolidation mechanisms. Notably, Schiller and colleagues have proposed that reconsolidation is a window of opportunity to rewrite emotional memories (Schiller et al., 2010).

interestingly, when ketamine was administered 1 h after a stronger reinstatement trial (3-shock CFC), ketamine decreased subsequent fear expression during extinction. In considering ketamine's effects on memory consolidation, ketamine may be having a similar' effect as propranolol, a beta-blocker. Previous data have shown that propranolol may be effective as a treatment for PTSD when administered during the reconsolidation window (La verdure et al, 1991; Taylor and Cahili, 2002; Pitman et al., 2002; Vaiva et al, 2003: Henry et ai., 2007; Soeter and Kindt, 2015; Villain et ai., 2016). Yet, it is intriguing that recent studies and meta-analyses suggest that the drug may not be reliably effective (McGhee et al., 2009; Muravieva and Alberini, 2010: Cohen et al, 201 1 ; Argolo et at, 2015; Steenan et al, 2016, in light of this field of investigation, however, our data suggest that ketamine may also disrupt consolidation of aversive memories in specific conditions, such as in conditions that robustly activate the fear system.

To our knowledge, this stud is the first demonstration of a critical time windo to administer ketamine for stress-induced psychiatric disease (Figures 13A-13C). We propose that ketamine may be most effective when administered in a vaccine-like fashion, but only within a particular time window before the stressor. Ketamine treatment could also enhance vigilance to one's surroundings as long as 2 weeks following administration. Yet, these data indicate that it would not be ideal to administer ketamine shortly after a traumatic experience. We propose these data as a guide for interpreting past and future studies on ketamine' effectiveness for mood disorders.

In certain conditions, ketamine. or suitable analog or metabolite dosing may encompass administration up to two weeks prior to exposure to a stressor; but preferred times include one week prior to exposure; and as a booster at time intervals preceding the expected stressor, but not more than two weeks prior to the expected stressor.

We have also begun to isolate the window within which a prophylactic must be administered. We have found that ketamine is prophylactic when administered 1 week, but not 1 month before a stressor. Crucially, ketamine's resilience-enhancing effect lasts far beyond its ½ life of a fe hours (Brachman et af, 201 ). A single injection of a sub- anesthetic dose induces robust resilience that lasts for at least four weeks, if not longer. The protection induced must therefore be self-maintaining, akin to the long-lasting protection provided by immunological vaccines. Thus, it is possible that the resilience-enhancing therapeutics proposed here may only require single or infrequent doses to be efficacious.

References:

1. Tanielian T, Jaycox LH, Schell TL, Marshall G , Burnam MA. Eibner C, et al. (2008): Invisible Wounds of War: Summary and Recommendations for Addressing Psychological and Cognitive Injuries. Santa Monica. CA: RAND Corporation.

2, Russo SJ, Murrough JW, Han Mil, Charney DS, Nestler EJ (2012): Neurobiology of resilience, Nat Neurosci 15: 1475-1484. 3. Walsh JJ, Friedman AK, Sun H, Heller EA, Ku SML Juarez B, et al (2014): Stress and CRF gale neural activation of BDNF in the mesolinibic reward pathway. Nat Neurosci 17:27-29.

4. Chaudhury D, Walsh J J, Friedman AK, Juarez B, Ku SM, Koo J W, et al. (2013): Rapid regulation of depression-related behaviours by control of midbrain dopamine neurons. Nature 493:532-536. 5. Krishnan V, Han MH, Graham DL, Berton 0, Renthal W, Russo SJ, et al. (2007):

Molecular adaptations underlying susceptibility and resistance to social defeat in brain reward regions. Cell 131 :391-404.

6, Levine S ( 1 57): Infantile experience and resistance to physiological stress. Science 126:405.

7. Lyons DM, Parker KJ ( 2007): Stress inoculation-induced indications of resilience in monkeys. J Trauma Stress 20:423-433. 8. Meredith LD (20 1 ): Promoting psychological resilience in the U.S. military. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation,

9. Scboenfeld TJ, Rada P, Pieruzzini PR, Hsueh B. Gould E (2013); Physical exercise prevents stress-induced activation of granule neurons and enhances local inhibitor}' mechanisms in the dentate gyrus. J Neurosci 33:7770-7777.

10. Schtoesser R.1, Lehmann M, Martinowich K, Manji HK, Herkenham M (2010):

Environmental enrichment requires adult neurogenesis to facilitate the recovery from psychosocial stress. Moi Psychiatry 15: 1152-1 163.

1 1. Lehmann ML, Herkenham M (201 1 ): Environmental enrichment confers stress resiliency to social defeat through an infra! imbic cortex-dependent neuroa.natomica.1 pathway. J Neurosci 31 :6159-6173. 12. Donahue RJ, Musehamp JW, Russo Si, Nestler EJ, Carlezon WA Jr (2014): Effects of striatal deltaFosB overexpression and ketamine on social defeat stress-induced anhedonsa in mice. Biol Psychiatry 76:5.50-558. 13. Lehmami ML, Mustafa T, Eiden AM, Herkenham M, Eiden LE (2013): PACAP-deficient mice show attenuated corticosterone secretion and fail to develop depressive behavior during chronic social defeat stress, PsychoneuroendocrinologY 38:702-715.

14. Lehmann ML, Brachman RA, Martinowich K, Schloesser RJ, Herkenham M (2013): Glucocorticoids orchestrate divergent effects on mood through adult neurogenesis. J Neurosci 33:2961 -2972,

15. Brachman RA. Lehmann ML, Marie D, Herkenham M (2015): Lymphocytes from chronically stressed mice confer antidepressanl-like effects to naive mice. J Neurosci 35:1530-1538.

16. Modes GE, Pfau ML. Leboeuf M, Golden SA, Christoffel DJ, Bregman D, et al. (2014): Individual differences in the peripheral immune system promote resilience versus

susceptibility to social stress. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 11 1 : 16136— 16141.

17. Keller MB, Boland RJ { 1998): Implications of failing to achieve successful long-term maintenance treatment of recurrent unipolar major depression. Biol Psychiatry 44:348-360.

18. Montgomery SA, Dufour H, Brion S, Gaille lreau J. Laqueille X. Ferrey G, et al ( 1988): The prophylactic efficacy of fluoxetine in unipolar depression. Br J Psychiatry Suppl 3:69-

76.

19. Montgomery SA, Dunbar G (1 93 ): Paroxetine is better than placebo in relapse prevention and the prophylaxis of recurrent depression. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 8: 189-195.

20. Montgomery A, asmussen JG, Tanghoj P (1 93): A 24-week study of 20 mg

citaloprani, 40 mg eitalopram. and placebo in the prevention of relapse of major depression. Int. Clin Psychopharmacol 8: 181-188. 21. Doogan DP, Caillard V (1992): Sertraline in the prevention of depression. Br J Psychiatry 160:217-222.

22. Frank E, Prien RF, Jarretl RB, Keller MB, Kupfer DJ. Lavori PW, et ai. (1991):

Conceptualization and rationale for consensus definitions of terms in major depressive disorder. Remission, recovery, relapse, and recurrence. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48:851-855.

23. Zarate CA Jr. Singh JB, Carlson PJ. Brutsche NE, Amelia R, Luckenbaugh DA, et al. (2006): A randomized trial of an N-methyl-Daspartate antagonist in treatment-resistant major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63:856-864.

24. Murrotigh JW, Perez AM, Pillemer S, Stem J, Parities MK, aan het Rot M, et ai. (2013):

Rapid and longer-term antidepressant effects of repeated keiamine infusions in treatment- resistant major depression. Biol Psychiatr 74:250-256.

25. Idvaii J, Ahlgren 1, Aronsen KR, Stenberg P (1979): Ketamine infusions:

Pharmacokinetics and clinical effects. Br J Anaesth 51:1 167-1 173.

26. Denny CA, Kheirbek MA, Alba EL, Tanaka KF, Brachman RA, Laughman KB, el al. (2014): .Hippocampai memory traces are differentially modulated by experience, time, and adult neurogenesis. Neuron 83: 189-201 ,

27. David DJ, Samuels BA, Rainer Q,Wang JW, MarsteUer D, Mendez 1, et al. (2009): Neurogenesis-dependent and -independent effects of fluoxetine in an animal model of anxiety/depression. Neuron 62:479-493.

28. Hammack SE, Cooper MA, Lezak KR (2012): Overlapping neurobiology of learned helplessness and conditioned defeat: implications for PTSD and mood disorders.

Neuropharmacology 62:565-575.

29. Maier SF, Seligman MEP (1976): Learned helplessness: Theory and evidence. J Exp

Psychol 1 5:3-46. 30. Mulier JM, Morelli E, Ansorge M, Gingrich JA (2011); Serotonin transporter deficient- mice are vulnerable to escape deficits following inescapable shocks. Genes Brain Behav 10: 166-175. 31. Porsolt RD, Le Pichon M, Jalfre M (1977): Depression: A new animal model sensititve to antidepressant treatments. Nature 266:730-732.

32. Duiawa SC, Holick KA, Gimdersen B, Hen R (2004): Effects of chronic fluoxetine in animal models of anxiety and depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 29: 1321-1330.

33. Autry AE, Adacht M, Nosyreva E, Na ES, Los MF, Cheng PF, et al (201 1): NMDA receptor blockade at rest triggers rapid behavioural antidepressant responses. Nature 475:91 - 95. 34. da Silva FC, do Carmo de Oliveira Cito M. da Silva MA, Moura B , de Aquino Neto MR, Feitosa ML, el al. (2010): Behavioral alterations and pro-oxidant effect of a single ketamme administration to mice. Brain Res Bull 83:9-15.

35. Caddy C, Giaroli G, White TP, Shergili SS, Tracy DK (2014): Ketamine as the prototype glutamatergic antidepressant: Pharmacodynamic actions, and a systematic review and metaanalysis of efficacy. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol 4:75-99.

36. Denny CA, Burghardt NS, Schachter DM, Hen R, Drew MR (2012): 4- to 6-week-old adult-born hippocampal neurons influence novelty-evoked exploration and contextual fear conditioning. Hippocampus 22: 1 188-1201.

37. Drew MR. Denny CA, Hen R (2010): Arrest of adult hippocampal neurogenesis in mice impairs single- but not multiple-trial contextual fear conditioning. Behav Neurosci, 124, 446- 454.

38. Yu T, Guo M, Garza J, Rendon S, Sun XL, Zhang W, Lu XY (2011): Cognitive and neural correlates of depression-like behaviour in socially defeated mice; An animal mode! of depression with cognitive dysfunction. Int J Neuropsychophannacol 14:303—317. 39. Williams ML, Mager DE, Parenteau H, Gudi G. Tracy TS, Mulheran M. Wainer IW {2004}: Effects of protein calorie malnutrition on the pharmacokinetics of ketamine in rats. Drug Metab Dispos 32: 786-793. 40. Vialo V, Bagot RC, Cahill ME, Ferguson D, Robison AJ, Dietz DM, et al. (2014): Prefrontal cortical circuit for depression- and anxiety-related behaviors mediated by cholecystokimn: Role of DeltaFosB. J Neurosci 34:3878-3887,

41. Vialou V, Robison AJ, Laplant QC, Covington HE 3rd, Dietz DM, Ohnishi YN, et al. (2010): DeltaFosB in brain reward circuits mediates resilience to stress and antidepressant responses. Nat Neorosci 13: 745-752.

42. Vialou V. Maze I, Renthal W, LaPiant QC, Watts EL, Mouzon E, et at. (2010): Serum response factor promotes resilience to chronic social stress through the induction of DeltaFosB. J Neurosci 30: 14585-14592,

43. Cao JL, Covington HE 3rd, Friedman A . Wilkinson MB, Walsh JJ, Cooper DC, et al. (2010): Mesoiimbie dopamine neurons in the brai reward circuit mediate susceptibility to social defeat and antidepressant action. J Meurosci 30:16453-16458.

44. Covington HE 3rd, Lobo MK, Maze 1, Vialou V, I-lyman JM, Zaman S, et al. (2010): Antidepressant effect of optogenetic stimulation of the medial prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci 30:16082-16090. 45. Li N, Lee B, Liu RJ, Banasr M, Dwyer JM, iwata M, et al. (2010): mTOR-dependent synapse formauon underlies the rapid antidepressant effects of NMDA antagonists. Science 329: 959-964.

"A" References:

Al , D vid DJ, Samuels B A, Rainer Q, Wang JW, Marsteiier D, Mendez I, Drew M, Craig DA, Guiard BP, Guilloux JP, Artyrayshyn RP, Gardier AM, Gerald C, Antonijevic lA, Leonardo ED, Hen R (2009): Neitrogenesis-dependent and -independent effects of fluoxetine in an animal model of anxiety/depression. Neuron 62(4):479~493. A2. Mendez -David 1 David DJ, Darcet F, Wo MV, erdine-Romer S, Gardier AM et l.

{2014}: Rapid anxiolytic effects of a 5-HT(4) receptor agonist are mediated by a

neurogenesis-independent mechanism. Neuropsychopharmacology 39(6): 1366-1378. A3, Raiiier Q, Xia L, Guiiloux JP, Gabriel C, Mocaer E, Hen R, et al. (2011): Beneficial behavioural and neurogenic effects of agomelatine in a model of depression/anxiety, hit J Neuropsychopharmacoi 15(3.):321-335.

A4. Chourbaji S, Zacher C, Sanchis-Segura C. Dormann C, Volimayr B, Gass P. (2005): Learned helplessness: validly arid reliability of depressive-like states in mice. Brain Research Protocols 16:70-78.

A5, Muiler JM, Morelli E, Ansorge M, Gingrich JA. (201 1 ): Serotonin transporter deficient mice are vulnerable to escape deficits following inescapable shocks. Gene Brain Behav 10(2): 166-175.

A6. Holmes PV (2003 ): Rodent models of depression: reexamining validity without anthropomorphic inference. Crit Rev Neurobi l 15(2): 143- 174. A7. Petit-Demouliere B, Chenu F, Bourin M (2005): Forced swimming test in mice: a review of antidepressant activity. Psychopharmacology (Bed) 177(3): 245-255.

A8. Lindholm JS, Autio H, Vesa L, Antila H, Lindemann L, Hoener MC, et al (2012): The antidepressant-like effects of glutamatergic drugs ketamine and AMPA receptor potentiator LY 451 46 are preserved in bdnf(+)/(-) heterozygous mill mice. Neuropharmacology 62(1 ):

391 -397.

A9. Ghasemi M, Raza M, Dehpour AR (2010): MDA receptor antagonists augment antidepressant-like effects of lithium in the mouse forced swimming test. J Psychophannacol 24(4): 585-594.

A 10. Liu RJ, Lee FS, Li XY, Bambico F, Duman RS, Aghajanian G (2 12): Brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met allele impairs basal and ketamine- stimulated synaptogenesis in prefrontal cortex. Biological Psychiatry 71(11): 996-1005. AI L Richardson-Jones JW, Craige CP, Guiard BP, Stephen A, Metzger L, Kurtg HF, et al. (2010): 5-HT1 A Autoreceptor Levels Determine Vulnerability to Stress and Response to Antidepressants. Neuron 65f 1): 40-52.

A 12. Schloesser RJ, Le mann M, Martinowich K, anji UK, Herkenbam M (2010):

Environmental enrichment requires adult, neurogenesis to facilitate the recovery from psychosocial stress. Mot Psychiatry. 15(12); 1 52-1163. A 13. Da id DJ, Klemenhagen KC, Holick KA, Saxe MD, Mendez L Santarelli L, et al (2007):

Efficacy of the MCHR1 antagonist N-(3-(l-{(4-(3,4-difiuorophenoxy)phenyl)me(hyl}(4- pjperidyl))-4-methylphenyl)-2~m ethyl propanamide (SNAP 94847) in mouse models of anxiety and depression following acute and chronic administration is independent of hippocampal neurogenesis. J Pharmacology Exp Ther 321(1): 237-248.

AM. Saxe MD, Battaglia F, Wang J-W, Malleret G, David DJ, Monckton JE, et at. (2006): Ablation of hippocampal neurogenesis impairs contextual fear conditioning and synaptic plasticity in the dentate gyrus. Pro Natl Acad Set USA 103(46): 17501 -17506.

A15. Denny CA, Borghardt NS, Schachter DM, Hen R, Drew MR (2012): 4- to 6- week-old adult born hippocampal neurons influence novelty-evoked exploration and contextual fear coiidi tionin . Hippocampus 22(5} ; 1188-1201. A 16. Scobie KN, Hail BJ, Wiike SA, Klemenhagen KC, Fujii-Kuriyama Y, Ghosh A, et al. (2009) Kruppel-like factor 9 is necessary for late-phase neuronal maturation in the developing dentate gyrus and during adult hippocampal neurogenesis, JNeurosci 29(31 ):

9875-9887. Amat J, Dolzani SD, Tilden S, Chrisdanson JP, Kubala KH. Bartholomay K, et al. (201 );

Previous ketamine produces an enduring blockage of neurochemical and behavioral effects of uncontrollable stress. ./ Neurosci 36: 153- 161. Annetta MG, lemma D. Garisto C, Tafani C. Proietti R (2006): eiamine; New indications for an old drug. Curr Drug Targets 6:789-794.

Argolo PC, Cavalcanii-Ribeiro P. Netto LR, Quarantini LC (2015); Prevention of

posttraumatic stress disorder with propranolol: A meta-analytic review. J Psychosom Res 79:89-93.

Berman RM, Cappiello A. Anand A, Oren DA, Heninger GR. Charney DS, Krystal JH

(2000): Antidepressant effects of ketamme in depressed patients. Biol Psychiatry 47:351 -354.

Bemai'dini F, Attademo L, Geary SD, Luter C. Shim RS, Q artesan R, Comptom MT (2016): Risk prediction models in psychiatry: Toward a new frontier for the prevention of mental illnesses. J Clin Psychiatry In press. Brachman, RA, McGowan JC, Perusini JN, Lim SC, Plam TH, Faye C, et al. (2016):

Keiamine as a prophylactic against stress-induced depressive-iike behavior. Biol Psychiatry 79:776-786.

Brady KT, Killeen TK, Brewerton T, Lucerini S (2000): Comorbidity of psychiatric disorders and posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 61 : 22-32.

Bnydens-Branchey L, Noumair D, Branchey M (1990): Duration and intensity of combat exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. J Nerv Merit Dis 178:582-

587. Chambers RA, Bremner JD, Moghaddam B, Southwick SM, Charney DS, Krystal JH (1 99): Glutamate and post-traumatic stress disorder: Toward a psychobiology of dissociation. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry 4:274-281.

Charney DS, Deutc-h AY, Krystal JH, Southwick SM, Davis M (1993): Psychobiologic mechanisms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 50:295-305.

Cohen Kaplan Z, Koresh O, Matar MA, Geva AB, Zohar J (201 1 ): Early post-stressor intervention with propranolol is ineffective in preventing posttraumatic stress responses in animal model for PTSD, Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 21:230-240. Crusio WE {2001 }: Genetic dissection of mouse exploratory behavior. Be Brain Res 125: 127-132. Denny CA. Burghardt NS, Schacht r DM, Hen R, Drew MR (2012): 4- to 6-week-oid adult- born hippocampai neurons influence novelty- evoked exploration and contextual fear conditioning. Hippocampus 22: 1 188- 1201.

Denny CA, Kheirbek MA, Alba EL, Tanaka KF, Brachman RA, Laughman KB, et al (2014): Hippocampai memor traces are differentially modulated by experience, time, and adult neurogenesis. Neuron 83:189-201.

Drew MR, Denny CA. Hen R (2010): Arrest of adult hippocampai neurogenesis in mice impairs single- but not multiple-trial contextual fear conditioning, Behav Ne rosci 124:446- 454,

Feder A, Parides MK, Murrough JW, Perez AM, Morgan JE, Sazena S, et al. (2014):

Efficacy of intravenous ketamine for treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. JAMA Psychiatry 71:681-688.

Feinstein A, Dolan R ( 1991 ): Predictors of post-traumatic stress disorder following physical trauma: an examination of the stressor criterion. Psychol Med 21 :85-91.

Golub Y, Mauch CP, Dahlhoff M, Wotjac CT (2009): Consequences of extinction training on associative and non-associative fear in a mouse model of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Behav Brain Res 205:544-549.

Henry M, Fis man JR. Youngner SJ (2007): Propranolol and the prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder: is it wrong to erase the "sting" of bad memories? Am J Bioeth 7: 12-20.

Hofmann SG, Sawyer AT, Witt AA, Oh D (2010): The effect of miiidfuhiess-based therapy on anxiety and depression: A meta-analytic review. ./ Consult Clin Psychol 78: 169-83.

Horn SR, Charney DS, Feder A (2016): Understanding resilience: New approaches for pre enting and treating PTSD. Exp Neurol in press. Juven-Wetzler A, Cohen H, Kaplan Z, Kohen A, Porat O, Zohar J (2014): immediate ketamine treatment does not prevent posttraumatic stress responses in an animal model for PTSD. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 24:469-479,

Klein DF (2000): Flawed meta-analyses comparing psychotherapy with pharmacotherapy. Am J Psychiatry 157: 1204-121 1 .

Lav rdure B, Boulenger JP ( 1 91 ): Beta-blocking drugs and anxiety: a proven therapeutic value, Encephak 17:481-492,

Lever C, Burton S, O'Keefe J (2006): Rearing on Hind Legs, Environmental Novelty, and the Hippocampal Function. Reviews in the Neurosciences 17: 1 i 1-133. Long ME, Elhai JD, Schweinle A. Gray MJ. Grubaugh AL, Frueh BC (2008): Differences in posttraumatic stress disorder diagnostic rates and symptom severity between Criterion Al and non-Criterion A l stressors. J Anxiety Disord 22: 1255-1263.

Lubin H, Loris M, Burt J, Johnson DR (1998): Efficacy of psychoedocational group therapy in reducing symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder among multiply traumatized women. Am J Psychiatry 155: 1 172-1 177.

McGhee LL Maani CV, Garza TH, Gavlord KM, Black IH (2008): The correlation between ketamine and posttraumatic stress disorder in burned service members. Trauma 64:S 1 5- 198.

McGhee LL, Maani CV, Garza TH, DeSocio PA, Gavlord KM, Black ΪΗ (2009): The effect of propranolol on posttraumatic stress disorder in burned service members. J Burn Care Res 30:92-97. McGhee LL, Maani CV, Garza TH, Slater TM, Petz LN, Fowler M (2014): The

intraoperative administration of ketamine to burned U.S. service members does not increase the incidence of post-traumatic stress disorder. Mil Med 179:41 -46,

Moghaddam B, Adams B, Verma A, Daly D (1997): Activation of glutamatergic neurotransmission by ketamine: A novel step in the pathway from NMD A receptor blockade to dopaminergic and cognitive disruptions associated with the prefrontal cortex, J Neurosci 17:2921-2927. Muravieva EV, Alberini CM (2010): Limited efficac of propranolol on the reconsolidation of fear memories. Learn Mem 17:306- 13.

National Center for PTSD (2015): How common is PTSD? U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, National Center for PTSD.

Norrholm SD, Jovanovic T, Olio 1W, Sands LAKarapanou I, Bradley B, Ressler J (201 1): Fear exinction in traumatized civilians with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 15:556-563.

O'Hare T. Sherrer MV, Shen C (2006): Subjective distress from stressful events and high- risk behaviors as predictors of PTSD symptom severity in clients with severe mental illness. ./ Traum Stress 19:375-386.

Pick CG, Cheng J, Paul D, Pasternak GW (1 91): Genetic influences in opioid analgesic sensitivity in mice. Brain Res 566:295-298,

Pietersen CY, Bosker FJ, Postema F, Fokkema SD, Korf J _; den Boer J A (2006): Ketami e admin stration disturbs behavioural and distributed neural correlates of fear conditioning in the rat. Prog Neuropsychophannacol Biol Psychiatry- 30: 1209-1218. Pitman RK, Sanders KM, Zusman RM, Healy AR, Cheema F, Lasko NB, et al (2002): Pilot study of secondary prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder with propranolol. Biol

Psychiatry 51 : 189-1 2.

Ponder CA, Kliethermes CL, Drew MR. Muller J, Das K, Risbrough VB, el al. (2007):

Selection for contextual fear conditioning affects anxiety-like behaviors and gene expression. Genes Brain Behav 6:736-749. Pradhan B, D'Amico JK, Makani R, Parikh T (2016): Nonconvemional interventions for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder: Ketamine, repetitive trans-cranial magnetic stimulation (Runs), and alternative approaches. J Trauma Dissociation 17:35-54. Price RB (2016): From mice to men: Can ketamine enhance resilience to stress? Biol Psychiatry 79:e57-59.

Richardson-Jones JW, Craige CP, Guiard BP, Stephen A, Metzger KL. Kuiig HF, et al (2010): 5-HT1.A Autoreeeptor Levels Determine Vulnerability to Stress and Response to Antidepressants. Neuron 65:40-52.

Rosenbaum S, Vancampfort D, Steel Z, New by J, Ward PB, Slubbs B (2015): Physical activity in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and metaanalysis. Psychiatry Res 2:130- 136.

Sanabenesi F, Fischer A, Wang X, Schrick C, Neve R, Radulovic J, Tsai LH (2007): A hippocampa! Cdk5 pathway regulates extinction of contextual fear. Nat Neurosci 10:1012- 1019. Sassano-i'iiggins S, Baron D, Juarez G, Esmaili N, Gold M (2016): A review of ketamine abuse and diversion. Depress Anxiety in press,

Schiller D, Monfiis MH, Raio CM, Johnson DC, LeDoux JE, Phelps EA (2010): Preventing the return of fear in humans using {^consolidation update mechanisms. Nature 463:49-53.

Schonenberg M, Reichwakl U, Domes G, Badke A, Hautzinger M (2005): Effects of peritraumatic ketamine medication on early and sustained posttraumatic stress symptoms in moderately injured accident victims. Psychopharmacol 182:420-425. Schonenberg M, Reichwald U, Domes G, Badke A, Uautzinger M (2008): Ketamine aggravates symptoms of acute stress disorder in a naturalistic sample of accident victims. J

Psychopharm 22:493-497.

Shapiro F, Solomon RM (2010): Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology 1-3,

Skeffington PM, Rees CS, Mazzucchelli TG, Kane RT (2016): The primary prevention of PTSD in firefighters: Preliminary results of an RCT with 12-month follow-up. PLoS One in press.

Soeter M, Kindt M (2015): An abrupt transformation of phobic behavior after a post-retrieval amnesic agent. Biol Psychiatry 78:880-886, Steenan SA, van Wijk AJ, van der Heijden GJMG, van Westrhenen R, de Lange J, de Jongh A (2016): Propranolol for the treatment of anxiety disorders: Systematic review and metaanalysis. Psychopharm 30: 128-139.

Stein DJ, Ipser JC, Seedat S (2006): Pharmacotherapy for post traumatic stress disorder i ^' PTSD). Cochrane Dauihase syst Rev

Takahashi RN, Morato GS, Rae GA (1986): Effects of ketamine on nociception and gastrointestinal motility in mice are unaffected by naloxone. Gen Pharmacol 18:201 -3. Taylor F, Cahiil L (2002): Propranolol for reemergent posttraumatic stress disorder following an event of retraumatization: A case study, ./ Trauma Stress 433-437.

Tronson NC, Schrick C, Fischer A, Sananbenesi F, Pages G, Pouyssegur J, Radulovic J (2008): Regulatory mechanisms of fear extinction and depression-like behavior.

Neuropsyeftop armacology 33: 1570- 1.583.

Trouch S, Sasaki JM Tu T, Reijmers LG (2013): Fear extinction causes target-specific remodeling of perisomatic inhibitory synapses. Neuron 80: 1 54- 1065. Vaiva G, Ducrocq F, Jezequel , Averland B, Lestavel P, Brunei A, Marmar CR (2003):

Immediate treatment with propranolol decreases posttraumatic stress disorder two months after trauma. Biol Psychiatry 54:947-949. Van Abeelen JHF (1975): Genetic analysis of behavioural responses to novelty in mice. Nature 254:239-241.

Van Abeelen JHF (1977): Rearing responses and locomotor activity in mice: Single-locus control. Beh Biol 19 :401 -404.

Villain H, Benkahoul A, Drougard A, Lafragette M, Muzotte E, Pech S, et i (2016): Effects of propranolol, a β-noradrenergie antagonist, on memory consolidation and reconsolidation in mice. Front Behav Neurosci In press.

Wald l, Fruchter E, Ginat K, Stoliii E, Dagan D, Bliese PD, et al. (2016): Selective prevention of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder using attention bias modification training: A randomized controlled trial. Psychol Med In press. Wieber J, Gugler R, Hengstmann JG, Dengler HJ (1 75): Pharmacokinetics of ketamine in man. An esthesist 24:260-263.

Winter H, Me E (2004): Hippocampal volume in adult bum patients with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Am Psychiatry- 161 :2194-2200.

Yehuda R, South wick SM, Gtller EL ( 1992): Exposure to atrocities and severity of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam combat veterans. Am J Psychiatry 149:333-336.

Young JW, Light GA, Marstoa HM, Shar R, Geyer MA (2009): The 5-choice continuous performance test: Evidence for a translational test of vigilance for mice. PL S One 4:e4227.

Zarate CA, Singh JB, Carlson PJ, Brutsche NE, Ameli R. Luckenbaugh DA, et al. (2006): A randomized trial of an iV-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist in treatment-resistant major

depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63:856-864.

The present invention i not to be limited in scope by the specific embodiments described herein. Indeed, variou modifications of the invention in addition to those described herein will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the foregoing description and the accompanying figures. Such modifications are intended to fall within the scope of the appended claims.

Patents, patent applications, and publications are cited throughout this application, the disclosures of which, particularly, including all disclosed chemical structures, are incorporated herein by reference. Citation of the above publications or documents is not intended as an admission that any of the foregoing is pertinent prior art, nor does it constitute any admission as to the contents or date of these publications or documents. All references cited herein are incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent application, or patent, was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

The foregoing written specification is considered to be sufficient to enable one skilled in the art to practice the invention. Various modifications of the invention in addition to those shown and described herein will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the foregoing description and fail within the scope of the appended claims.