GOVERNMENT SUPPORT This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. ROl DK38874 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part of prior Serial No. 08/622,738 filed March 27, 1996, the teachings of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

It is well recognized that a stagnation or decline in production of edible seafood, in particular, fish, by the marine fishing industry has occurred on a world wide basis. Since the world's population increases by approximately 100 million each year, maintenance of the present caloric content of the average diet will require production of an additional 19 million metric tons of seafood per year (United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture, Rome, Italy (1995)) . In addition, fish products are becoming increasingly utilized in ways other than just food, for example, production of shells and pearls. To achieve this level of production, aquaculture (the cultivation of marine species) will have to double its production in the next 15 years, and wild populations of marine species must be restored.

Aquatic species includes marine teleost and elasmobranch fishes, fresh water teleost fish, euryhaline

fish crustations, mous s and echinoderras. Marine teleost fish live in sea water with a high os olality of about 1,000 mOsm. Freshwater teleost fish normally live in water of less than 50 mOsm. Euryhaline fish have the ability to acclimate to either of these environments. Ionic composition and osmolality of fish body fluids are maintained in these vastly different environments through gill, kidney and gastrointestinal tract epithelial cell function. A major problem in aquaculture is development of methodology to rear marine teleost fish, such as cod, flounder and halibut, under freshwater hatchery conditions. To date, factors critical to the acclimation and survival of marine species to fresh water environments, and the control of these factors, have not been fully elucidated. Attempts to develop such methodologies have also been complicated by problems with feeding the maturing larval forms of these fish. Development of cod, halibut or flounder species that could be reared in fresh water would be of great potential benefit in this regard. Under controlled fresh water conditions, developing forms of these fish could be raised in the absence of bacterial contamination normally present in seawater, and utilize new fresh water food sources that would potentially improve their survival.

The aquaculture industry utilizes the ability of young fish, e.g., salmon, (also called par) to be raised initially in fresh water and subsequently to be transferred for "growth out" in salt water pens as a means to produce large numbers of adult fish (young salmon tolerant to seawater are called smolt) . Improvements in both the survival and health of fish undergoing the par-smolt transition would be very valuable for aquaculture growers.

Moreover, salmon that are kept in coastal marine "grow-out" pens during the winter are constantly at risk, since both winter storms, as well as exposure to extremely cold seawater, causes fish to freeze and die. These risks are further complicated by the fact that when adult salmon are adapted to salt water they do not readily readapt back to fresh water environment. Hence, lack of understanding of the means to readapt adult salmon from salt to fresh water results in the loss of salmon. It is apparent, therefore, that there is an immediate need to develop methods of augmenting the survival of fish in fresh water and sea water, both in a natural environment and an aquacultural environment.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the identification and characterization of a polyvalent cation-sensing receptor protein (also referred to herein as the Aquatic polyvalent cation-sensing receptor, or Aquatic PVCR) which is present in various tissues of marine species. As defined herein, aquatic species includes fish (elasmobranch fish, such as sharks, skates; teleost fish, such as flounder, salmon, cod, halibut, lumpfish and trout) , crustaceans (e.g., lobster, crab and shrimp) and mollusks (e.g., clams, mussels and oysters) .

As described herein, for the first time, a polyvalent cation-sensing receptor protein has been identified in aquatic species, located on the plasma membranes of cells in the gastro-intestinal tract, kidney, ovary, lung, brain and heart, and in fish brain, gill, heart, intestines, urinary bladder, rectal gland and kidney tubules. The widespread distribution of Aquatic PVCR protein on the plasma membranes of epithelial cells, as well as in the brain, indicates the involvement of Aquatic PVCR in

modulation of epithelial ion and water transport and endocrine function. Data presented herein demonstrate that the Aquatic PVCR plays a critical role in the acclimation of fish to environments of various salinities. The Aquatic polyvalent cation-sensing receptor allows the successful adaptation of fish, εuch as flounder, to marine and fresh water environments.

One embodiment of the present invention encompasses Aquatic PVCR proteins expressed in tissues of marine species. Aquatic PVCR proteins have been identified as being present in selected epithelial cells in marine, fresh water and euryhaline fish kidney, intestine, gill, urinary bladder, and brain. More specifically, the Aquatic PVCR protein has been identified on the plasma membranes of epithelial cells of fish kidney tubules, especially in the collecting duct (CD) and late distal tubule (LDT) . The present invention is intended to encompass these Aquatic PVCR proteins, their amino acid sequences, and nucleic acid sequences, (DNA or RNA) that encode these Aquatic PVCR proteins.

In another embodiment of the present invention, methods for regulating salinity tolerance in fish are encompassed. Data presented herein indicate that the Aquatic PVCR is a "master switch" for both endocrine and kidney regulation of adult fish kidney and intestinal ion and water transport, as well as key developmental processes within the fish embryo. Modulating the expression of the Aquatic polyvalent cation-sensing receptor will activate or inhibit Aquatic PVCR mediated ion transport and endocrine changes that permit fish to adapt to fresh or salt water. For example, methods are provided to increase the salinity tolerance of fish adapted to fresh water environment by activation of the Aquatic PVCR in selected epithelial cells. Methods are also provided to decrease

the salinity tolerance of fish adapted to a salt water environment by inhibiting the activity of the Aquatic PVCR in selected epithelial cells.

In another embodiment of the present invention, methods are provided to identify a substance capable of regulating ionic composition of fish fluids, (e.g., salinity tolerance in fish) , and endocrine function, by determining the effect that the substance has on the activation or inhibition of the Aquatic CaR. As described herein, the nucleic acid sequence encoding an Aquatic PVCR has been determined and recombinant PVCR proteins can be expressed in e.g., oocytes of the frog, Xenopus laevis. The oocyte assay system permits the screening of a large library of compounds that will either activate or inhibit Aquatic PVCR function. Candidate compounds can be further screened in e.g., an in vitro assay system using isolated flounder bladder preparations to measure transepithelial transport of ions important for salinity adaption.

As a result of the work described herein, Aquatic PVCR proteins have been identified and their role in maintaining osmoregulation has been characterized. As a further result of the work described herein, methods are now available to modulate the activation of the Aquatic CaR, resulting in methods to regulate salinity tolerance in marine and fresh water species of fish and thus, facilitate aquaculture of marine fish. Methods of regulating salinity tolerance also provides the means to develop new species of marine fish that are easily adaptable to fresh water aquaculture. Successful development of new species of marine fish would permit these species to be raised initially in protected fresh water hatcheries and later transferred to marine conditions.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Figures 1A-F are photographs of immunocytochemistry results showing the distribution of PVCR protein in various tissues of elas obranch fish, including dogfish shark (Squalus acanthias) and little skate (Raja crinacca) .

Figures 2A-F are photographs of immunocytochemistry results showing the distribution of PVCR protein in various tissues of teleost fish including flounder

(Pseudopleuronectes americanus) , trout (Onchorhychus nerka) and killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus) .

Figures 3A-B are audioradiograms showing RNA blotting analyses.

Figures 4A-G depict the nucleotide sequence of Shark Kidney Calcium Receptor Related Protein (SKCaR-RP) (SEQ ID NO: 1) with the ORF starting at nt 439 and ending at 3516.

Figures 5A-B depict the deduced amino acids sequence of the Shark Kidney Calcium Receptor Related Protein (SKCaR-RP) (SEQ ID NO: 2).

Figure 6 is an autoradiogram showing the results of Northern blot analyses of A+ RNA from various shark tissues.

Figures 7A-B are autoradiogra s showing the results of RT-PCR amplifications of poly A+RNA from various aquatic species. Figure 8 is a photograph of immunocytochemistry results showing PVCR expression in selected tissues of Fundulus after 18 days of exposure to either sea or fresh water as determined by RNA blotting analysis.

Figures 9A-D are photographs showing the results of immunocytochemistry analysis of PVCR expression in the kidney tubules of Fundulus fish either chronically (18 days) or acutely (7 days) adapted to either salt or fresh water.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Described herein, for the first time, is a cell surface receptor, called the polyvalent cation-sensing receptor protein, which is present in selected epithelial cells in aquatic species tissue and organs, such as fish kidney, intestine, bladder, rectal gland, gill and brain. This Aquatic receptor protein is also referred to herein as the Aquatic PVCR. Evidence is also presented herein that the expression of Aquatic PVCR is modulated in fish transferred from fresh to salt water. The combination of these data and knowledge of osmoregulation in fish, and other marine species, outlined briefly below, strongly suggest that Aquatic PVCR is the "master switch" for both endocrine and kidney regulation of marine species kidney, intestine ion and water transport. In addition, Aquatic PVCR function may control or strongly influence maturation and developmental stages in marine species.

In mammals, calcium/polyvalent cation-sensing receptor proteins, or terrestial CaR proteins (also refereed to herein as mammalian CaR, have been identified in various tissues in humans and rat. A mammalian CaR protein has been isolated and shown to be the cell surface receptor enabling mammalian parathyroid and calcitonin cells to respond to changes in extracellular Ca ²⁺ . (Brown, E.M. et al . , New Enσ. J. Med.. 333:243, (1995)) . Mammalian CaR is a membrane protein that is a member of the G-protein- coupled receptor family. When activated by external Ca ²⁺ , PVCR modulates various intracellular signal transduction pathways and alters certain functions in selected cells including secretion of various hormones (PTH, calcitonin, ACTH and prolactin) by endocrine/brain cells and ion transport by epithelial cells.

Subsequent work has revealed that abundant CaR is present in epithelial cells of the thick ascending limb

(TAL) and distal convoluted tubules (DCT) of the mammalian kidney where it modulates transepithelial salt transport (Riccardi, D.J. et al . , Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci USA, 92:131- 135 (1995)). Recent research demonstrated that CaR is present on the apical surface of epithelial cells of the mammalian kidney medullary collecting duct where it senses urinary Ca ²⁺ and adjusts vasopressin-mediated water reabsorption by the kidney (Sands, J.M. et al . , Nature (Medicine) (1995)). Lastly, CaR is also present in various regions of the brain where it is involved in regulation of thirst and associated behavior (Brown, E.M. et al . , New England J. of Med.. 333:234-240 (1995)).

Another protein important for osmoregulation in mammals is the NaCl cotransporter. The NaCl cotransporter is present in the DCT of human kidney where it absorbs NaCl and facilitates reabsorption of Ca ²⁺ . A NaCl cotransporter protein has also been isolated from flounder urinary bladder (Ga ba, G. et al . , Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. (USA) . 90- 2749-2753 (1993)). Recently, it has been demonstrated that NaCl reabsorption mediated by this NaCl transporter in the DCT of humans is modulated by mammalian PVCR (Plotkin, M. et al. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol.. 6:349A (1995)).

As described herein a polycation-sensing receptor protein (referred to herein as Aquatic PVCR) has also been identified in specific epithelial cells in tissues critical for ionic homeostasis in marine species. (This protein is also referred to herein as CaR-related protein.) It is reasonable to believe that the Aquatic PVCR plays similar critical roles in biological functions in marine species, as the mammalian PVCR in mammals.

Specifically, Aquatic PVCR proteins have been found in species of elasmobranchs and species of teleosts. Elasmobranchs are cartilaginous fish, such as sharks, rays and skates, and are predominately marine; teleosts, such as

flounder, cod, trout, killifish and salmon, can be freshwater, marine or euryhaline.

Marine teleost fish live in seawater possessing a high osmolality (1,000 mOsm) that normally contains 10 millimolar (mM) Ca ²⁺ , 50 mM Mg ²⁺ and 450 mM NaCl (Evans, D.H. Osmotic and Ionic Regulation, Chapter 11 in The Physiology of Fishes. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL (1993)) . Since their body fluids are 300-400 mOsm, these fish are obligated to drink sea water, absorb salts through their intestine and secrete large quantities of NaCl through their gills and Mg ²⁺ and Ca ²⁺ through their kidneys. Their kidneys produce only small amounts of isotonic urine.

In contrast, fresh water teleost fish possess body fluids of 300 mOsm and normally live in water of less than 50 mOsm containing 5-20 mM NaCl and less than 1 mM Ca ²⁺ and Mg ²⁺ . These fish drink little, but absorb large amounts of water from their dilute environment. As a result, their kidneys produce copious dilute urine to maintain water balance. Freshwater fish gill tissue has a low permeability to ions and gill epithelial cells extract NaCl from water (Evans, D.H. , "Osmotic and Ionic Regulation", Chapter 11 in The Physiology of Fishes, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL (1993)) .

Euryhaline fish acclimate to various salinities by switching back and forth between these two basic patterns of ion and water transport. For example, when fresh water adapted teleost fish are challenged with high salinities, their gill epithelia rapidly alter net NaCl flux such that NaCl is secreted rather than reabsorbed (Zadunaisky, J.A. et al . , Bull. MDI Biol. Lab. , 32:152-156 (1992)) .

Reduction of extracellular Ca ⁺ from 10 mM to 100 μM profoundly inhibits this transport process (Zadunaisky, J.A. et al . , Bull. MDI Biol. Lab.. 32:152-156 (1992)) . In flounder species, transfer to seawater activates a series

of changes in the kidney allowing for secretion of large quantities of Ca ²⁺ and Mg ²⁺ by renal epithelia and recovery of water via a thiazide sensitive NaCl cotransporter in the urinary bladder (Gamba, G. et al . , Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. (USA) . 90-2749-2753 (1993)).

In a similar fashion, adaption of marine euryhaline fish to fresh water is possible because of a net reversal of epithelial ionic gradients such that NaCl is actively reabsorbed and divalent metal ion secretion ceases (Zadunaisky, J.A. et al . , Bull. MDI Biol. Lab. , 32:152-156 (1992)) . These changes are mediated by alterations in hormones, especially prolactin, cortisol and arginine vasotocin (Norris, D.O. , "Endocrine Regulation of Iono- Osmotic Balance in Teleosts", Chapter 16 in Vertebrate Endocrinology, Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, PA (1985)) . These alterations in a cluster of critical hormones and functional changes in epithelial transport in gill, intestine, bladder and kidney are vital not only to rapid euryhaline adaption but also throughout development of fish embryos, larvae and during metamorphosis.

As described in detail in Example 1, Aquatic PVCR protein has been localized on the plasma membrane of selected epithelial cells in marine species. Specifically, Aquatic PVCR has been located on the apical membrane of epithelial cells of the collecting duct and late distal tubule of the elasmobranch kidney. Aquatic PVCR protein has also been found on the apical membranes of epithelial cells in kidney tubules, gill, urinary bladder and intestine of teleosts. As used herein, the term "apical membrane" or "apical side" refers to the "outside" of the epithelial cell exposed to e.g., urine, rather than the basal side of the cell exposed e.g., to the blood. The apical membrane is also referred to herein as facing the lumen, or interior of e.g., the kidney tubule or intestine.

Aquatic PVCR was also found in specific regions of teleost brain.

Aquatic PVCR protein described herein can be isolated and characterized as to its physical characteristics (e.g., molecular weight, isoelectric point) using laboratory techniques common to protein purification, for example, salting out, immunoprecipation, column chromatography, high pressure liquid chromatography or electrophoresis. Aquatic PVCR proteins referred to herein as "isolated" are Aquatic PVCR proteins separated away from other proteins and cellular material of their source of origin. These isolated Aquatic PVCR proteins include essentially pure protein, proteins produced by chemical synthesis, by combinations of biological and chemical synthesis and by recombinant methods.

Aquatic PVCR proteins can be further characterized as to its DNA and encoded amino acid sequences as follows: A complementary DNA (cDNA) encoding a highly conserved region of the mammalian CaR, as described in Brown, E.G. et al . , Nature, 366:575-580 (1993) or Riccardi, D.J. et al . , Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci USA. 92:131-135 (1995) , the teachings of which are incorporated by reference, can be used as a probe to screen a cDNA library prepared from e.g. , flounder urinary bladder cells to identify homologous receptor proteins. Techniques for the preparation of a cDNA library are well-known to those of skill in the art. For example, techniques such as those described in Riccardi, D.J. et al . , Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci USA, 92:131-135 (1995) , the teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference, can be used. Positive clones can be isolated, subcloned and their sequences determined. Using the sequences of either a full length or several partial cDNAs, the complete nucleotide sequence of the flounder PVCR can be obtained and the encoded amino acid sequence deduced. The sequences

of the Aquatic PVCR can be compared to mammalian CaRs to determine differences and similarities. Similar techniques can be used to identify homologous Aquatic PVCR in other marine species. Recombinant Aquatic PVCR proteins can be expressed according to methods well-known to those of skill in the art. For example, PVCR can be expanded in oocytes of the frog, Xenopus laevis, both to prove identity of the cDNA clone and to determine the profile of activation of Aquatic PVCR proteins as compared to mammalian CaR proteins.

Exemplary techniques are described in (Brown, E.G. et al . , Nature. 366:575-580 (1993) ; Riccardi, D.J. et al . , Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci USA. 92:131-135 (1995)), the teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference. As described in Example 2, a 4.4 kb homolog of the mammalian CaR has been found in flounder urinary bladder together with abundant 3.8 kb thiazide-sensitive NaCl cotransporter transcript. Using a homology cloning strategy, a cDNA library from dogfish shark kidney was prepared and screened to obtain multiple cDNA clones with partial homology to mammalian CaRs as described in Example 3. One clone called Shark Kidney Calcium Receptor Related Protein (SKCaR-RP) was isolated and characterized. SKCaR- RP (also referred to herein as Shark Aquatic PVCR) is 4,131 nucleotides in size (SEQ ID NO: 1) . As shown in Figure 4, the complete nucleotide sequence of SKCaR-RP reveals that the clone is composed of 438 nts of 5' untranslated region or UTR followed by a single open reading frame (ORF) of 3,082 nts followed by 610 nts of 3' UTR containing regions of poly A+ RNA.

Figure 5 shows the ORF of the SKCaR-RP in single letter amino acid designations (SEQ ID NO: 2) . The deduced amino acid sequence of SKCaR-RP predicts a protein of approximately 110,00 daltons that is 74% homologous to both

the rat kidney PVCR protein as well as bovine parathyroid PVCR protein. Analysis of the amino acid sequence reveals that SKCaR-RP possesses general features that are homologous to PVCR proteins including a large extracellular domain, 7 transmembrane domains and cytoplasmic carboxyl terminal domain. In this regard, many amino acids demonstrated to be critical to PVCR function are identical in SKCaR-RP as compared to mammalian PVCR proteins including specific regions of the extracellular domain and the 7 transmembrane domains. In contrast, other regions are highly divergent, including the amino acids number 351-395 in the extracellular domain as well as the most of the carboxyl terminal region (e.g., amino acids 870- 1027) . Importantly, the region of amino acids present in mammalian CaRs that was used to generate anti-CaR antiserum is also present in SKCaR-RP.

As shown in Figure 6, Northern blot analysis of mRNA from various shark tissues reveals the highest degree of SKCaR-RP in gill followed by kidney and then rectal gland. These data are highly significant since these tissues have been demonstrated to be involved with ion and water transport and body homeostasis and possess epithelial cells that stain with anti-CaR antiserum. There appears to be at least 3 distinct mRNA species of approximately 7 kb, 4.2 kb and 2.6 kb that hybridize to SKCaR-RP. The 4.2 kb likely corresponds to the SKCaR-RP clone described above.

RT-PCR a plications were performed as described in Example 3 after isolation of poly A+ RNA from various aquatic species. Primers that permit selective amplification of a region of CaRs (nts 597-981 of RaKCaR cDNA) that is 100% conserved in all mammalian CaRs were utilized to obtain the sequences of similar CaRs in aquatic species. These primers amplify a sequence of 384 nt that is present in the extracellular domain of CaRs and

presumably is involved in binding divalent metal ions. The resulting amplified 384 bp cDNA was ligated into a cloning vector and transformed into E. coli cells for growth, purification and sequencing. As shown in Figures 7A and B, partial cDNA clones have been obtained from: dogfish shark kidney (lane 2) , flounder urinary bladder (lane 3) , lumpfish liver (lane 5) , lobster muscle (lane 8) , clam gill (lane 9) and sea cucumber respiratory tissue (lane 10) using these identical primers. Some tissues (flounder brain-lane 7) did not yield a corresponding 384 nt cDNA despite careful controls. Similarly, no 384 nt cDNA was obtained when only water and not RT reaction mixture was added. These data suggest these 384 nt cDNAs are specific and not expressed in all tissues of aquatic organisms. Each of these 384 nt cDNAs was sequenced and found to contain a conserved nucleotide sequence identical to that present in mammalian CaRs. These data suggest the presence of CaR related proteins in classes of aquatic organisms that are widely divergent in evolution. These include teleost fish (flounder, lumpfish) , elaεmobranch fish (dogfish shark) , crustaceans (lobster), ollusks (clam) and echinoderms (sea cucumber).

It is important to note that Aquatic PVCR sequence obtained from these clones shared complete identity of the 384 nt segment of mammalian CaRs. However, the Aquatic

PVCR sequence obtained from the shark kidney clone did not. These data suggest that at least two different classes of aquatic polyvalent cation-sensing receptors exist.

The present invention is intended to encompass Aquatic PVCR proteins, and proteins and polypeptides having amino acid sequences analogous to the amino acid sequences of Aquatic PVCR proteins. Such polypeptides are defined herein as Aquatic PVCR analogs (e.g., homologues) , or derivatives. Analogous amino acid sequences are defined

herein to mean amino acid sequences with sufficient identity of Aquatic PVCR amino acid sequence to possess the biological activity of an Aquatic PVCR. For example, an analog polypeptide can be produced with "silent" changes in the amino acid sequence wherein one, or more, amino acid residues differ from the amino acid residues of the Aquatic PVCR protein, yet still possesses the biological activity of Aquatic PVCR. Examples of such differences include additions, deletions or substitutions of residues of the amino acid sequence of Aquatic PVCR. Also encompassed by the present invention are analogous polypeptides that exhibit greater, or lesser, biological activity of the Aquatic PVCR proteins of the present invention.

The "biological activity" of Aguatic PVCR proteins is defined herein to mean the osmoregulatory activity of Aquatic PVCR mammalian PVCR proteins have been shown to mediate physiological responses to changes in body osmolality and salt content in kidney, parathyroid, calcitonin and brain cells. (Brown, E.M. et al . , New Eng. J. Med. , 333:243, (1995) ; Riccardi, D.J. et al . , Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci USA, 92:131-135 (1995) ; Sands, J.M. et al . , Nature (Medicine) (1995) ; Brown, E.M. et al . , New England J. of Med.. 333:234-240 (1995)). It is reasonable to believe that Aquatic PVCR proteins will possess identical, or similar osmoregulatory activities as these previously identified mammalian CaR proteins in fish kidney, gill, bladder, intestine, rectal gland and brain cells. Assay techniques to evaluate the biological activity of Aquatic PVCR proteins and their analogs are described in Brown, E.M. et al . , New Eng. J. Med. , 333:243, (1995) ; Riccardi, D.J. et al . , Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci USA, 92:131-135 (1995); Sands, J.M. et al . , Nature (Medicine) (1995); Brown, E.M. et al . , New England J. of Med.. 333:234-240 (1995) , the teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference.

Additional assays to evaluate biological activity of PVCR proteins are described in U.S. Serial No. 60/003,697, the teachings of which are also incorporated herein, in its entirety, by reference. The "biological activity" of Aquatic PVCR is also defined herein to mean the ability of the Aquatic PVCR to modulate signal transduction pathways in specific marine species cells. In mammals, studies in normal tissues, in oocytes using recombinantly expressed CaR, and cultured cells have demonstrated that mammalian CaR protein is capable of complexing with at least two distinct types of GTP-binding (G) proteins that transmit the activation of CaR by an increase in extracellular calcium to various intracellular signal transduction pathways. One pathway consists of mammalian CaR coupling with an inhibitory Gi protein that, in turn, couples with adenylate cyclase to reduce intracellular cAMP concentrations. A second distinct pathway consists of CaR coupling to stimulatory Gq/Gαll G protein that couples with phospholipase C to generate inositol 1,4,5 triphosphosphate that, in turn, stimulates both protein kinase C activity and increases intracellular Ca ²⁺ concentrations. Thus, depending on the distribution and nature of various signal transduction pathway proteins that are expressed in cells, biologically active mammalian CaRs modulate cellular functions in either an inhibitory or stimulatory manner. It is reasonable to believe that biologically active Aquatic PVCR possesses similar signal transduction activity.

The present invention also encompasses biologically active polypeptide fragments of the Aquatic PVCR proteins described herein. Such fragments can include only a part of the full-length amino acid sequence of an Aquatic PVCR yet possess osmoregulatory activity. For example, polypeptide fragments comprising deletion mutants of the

Aquatic PVCR proteins can be designed and expressed by well-known laboratory methods. Such polypeptide fragments can be evaluated for biological activity as described herein. Antibodies can be raised to the Aquatic PVCR proteins and analogs, using techniques known to those of skill in the art. These antibodies polyclonal, monoclonal, chimeric, or fragments thereof, can be used to iπununoaffinity purify or identify Aquatic PVCR proteins contained in a mixture of proteins, using techniques well- known to those of skill in the art. These antibodies, or antibody fragments, can also be used to detect the presence of Aquatic PVCR proteins and homologs in other tissues using standard i munochemistry methods. The present invention also encompasses isolated nucleic acid sequences encoding the Aquatic PVCR proteins described herein, and fragments of nucleic acid sequences encoding biologically active PVCR proteins. Fragments of the nucleic acid sequences described herein as useful as probes to detect the presence of marine species CaR.

Specifically provided for in the present invention are DNA/RNA sequences encoding Aquatic PVCR proteins, the fully complementary strands of these sequences, and allelic variations thereof. Also encompassed by the present invention are nucleic acid sequences, DNA or RNA, which are substantially complementary to the DNA sequences encoding Aquatic PVCR, and which specifically hybridize with the Aquatic PVCR DNA sequences under conditions of stringency known to those of skill in the art, those conditions being sufficient to identify DNA sequences with substantial nucleic acid identity. As defined herein, substantially complementary means that the sequence need not reflect the exact sequence of Aquatic PVCR DNA, but must be sufficiently similar in identity of sequence to hybridize

with Aquatic PVCR DNA under stringent conditions. Conditions of stringency are described in e.g., Ausebel, F.M. , et al . , Current Protocols in Molecular Biology. (Current Protocols, 1994) . For example, non-complementary bases can be interspersed in the sequence, or the sequences can be longer or shorter than Aquatic PVCR DNA, provided that the sequence has a sufficient number of bases complementary to Aquatic PVCR to hybridize therewith. Exemplary hybridization conditions are described herein and in Brown, E.M. , et al . Nature, 366:575 (1993) . For example, conditions such as IX SSC 0.1% SDS, 50°C, or 0.5X SSC, 0.1% SDS, 50°C can be used as described in Examples 2 and 3.

The Aquatic PVCR DNA sequence, or a fragment thereof, can be used as a probe to isolate additional Aquatic PVCR homologs. For example, a cDNA or genomic DNA library from the appropriate organism can be screened with labeled Aquatic PVCR DNA to identify homologous genes as described in e.g., Ausebel, F.M. , et al . , Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, (Current Protocols, 1994) .

Typically the nucleic acid probe comprises a nucleic acid sequence (e.g. SEQ ID NO: 1) and is of sufficient length and complementarity to specifically hybridize to nucleic acid sequences which encode Aquatic species PVCR. The requirements of sufficient length and complementarity can be easily determined by one of skill in the art.

As described in Example 4 , it is demonstrated that the Aquatic PVCR protein plays a critical role in the adaption of euryhaline fish to environments of various salinities. Adaption of the killifish, Fundulus heteroculitus , to seawater resulted in steady state expression of Aquatic PVCR mRNA in various tissues.

It is also demonstrated herein that PVCR protein undergoes rearrangement within epithelial cells of the

urinary bladder in flounder adapted to brackish water as compared to full strength sea water. This directly correlates with alterations the rate of NaCl transport by these cells. Winter flounder were adapted to live in 1/lOth seawater (100 mOsm/kg) by reduction in salinity from 450 mM NaCl to 45 mM NaCl over an interval of 8 hrs. After a 10 day interval where these fish were fed a normal diet, the distribution of the PVCR in their urinary bladder epithelial cells was examined using immunocytochemistry. PVCR immunostaining is reduced and localized primarily to the apical membrane of epithelial cells in the urinary bladder. In contrast, the distribution of PVCR in epithelial cells lining the urinary bladders of control flounders continuously exposed to full strength seawater is more abundant and present in both the apical membranes as well as in punctate regions throughout the cell. These data are consistent with previous Northern data since more PVCR protein is present in the urinary bladders of seawater fish vs fish adapted to brackish water. These data suggest that PVCR protein may be present in vesicles in epithelial cells of the urinary bladder and that in response to alterations in salinity, these vesicles move from the cell cytoplasm to the apical surface of these epithelial cells. Since these same epithelial cells possess abundant NaCl cotransporter protein that is responsible for water reabsorption in the urinary bladder, these data suggest that the PVCR protein modulates NaCl transport in the flounder urinary bladder by altering the proportion of NaCl cotransporter protein that is present in the apical membrane. As urinary Mg ²⁺ and Ca ²⁺ concentrations increase when fish are present in full strength sea water, activation of apical PVCR protein causes endocytosis and

removal of NaCl cotransporter from the apical membrane and thus reduction in urinary bladder water transport.

As a result of the work described herein, methods are now provided that facilitate euryhaline adaptation of fish to occur, and improve the adaption. More specifically, methods are now available to regulate salinity tolerance in fish by modulating (or alternating) the activity of the Aquatic PVCR protein present in epithelial cells involved in ion transport, as well as in endocrine and nervous tissue. For example, salinity tolerance of fish adapted (or acclimated) to fresh water can be increased by activating the Aquatic PVCR, for example, by increasing the expression of Aquatic PVCR in selected epithelial cells, resulting in the secretion of ions and seawater adaption. Specifically, this would involve regulatory events controlling the conversion of epithelial cells of the gill, intestine and kidney. In the kidney, PVCR activation will facilitate excretion of divalent metal ions including Ca ²⁺ and Mg ²⁺ by renal tubules. In the gill, PVCR activation will reduce reabsorption of ions by gill cells that occurs in fresh water and promote the net excretion of ions by gill epithelia that occurs in salt water. In the intestine, PVCR activation will permit reabsorption of water and ions across the G.I. tract after their ingestion by fish.

Alternatively, the salinity tolerance of fish adapted to seawater can be decreased by inhibiting the Aquatic PVCR, for example, by decreasing the expression of Aquatic PVCR in selected epithelial cells, resulting in alterations in the absorption of ions and freshwater adaption.

Selected epithelial cells include, e.g. , kidney, bladder, intestinal and gill cells.

The presence of Aquatic PVCR in brain reflects both its involvement in basic neurotransmitter release via

synaptic vesicles (Brown, E.M. et al . , New England J. of Med. , 333:234-240 (1995)), as well as its activity to trigger various hormonal and behavioral changes that are necessary for adaptation to either fresh water or marine environments. For example, increases in water ingestion by fish upon exposure to salt water is mediated by PVCR activation in a manner similar to that described for humans where PVCR activation by hypercalcemia in the subfornical organ of the brain cause an increase in water drinking behavior (Brown, E.M. et al . , New England J. of Med. ,

333:234-240 (1995)). In fish, processes involving both alterations in serum hormonal levels and behavioral changes are mediated by the brain. These include the reproductive and spawning of euryhaline fish in fresh water after their migration from salt water as well as detection of salinity of their environment for purposes of feeding, nesting, migration and spawning.

Data obtained recently from mammals now suggest that PVCR activation may play a pivotal role in coordinating these events. For example, alterations in plasma cortisol have been demonstrated to be critical for changes in ion transport necessary for adaptation of salmon smolts from fresh water to salt water (Veillette, P.A., et al . , Gen, and Comp. Phvsiol.. 97:250-258 (1995). As demonstrated recently in humans, plasma Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH) levels that regulate plasma cortisol levels are altered by PVCR activation.

The term "activation" as used herein means to make biologically functional, e.g., rendering a cell surface receptor capable of stimulating a second messenger which results in modulation of ion secretion. This could be in the form of either an inhibition of signal transduction pathways, e.g., via a Gi protein, or stimulation of other pathways via. e.g., a Gq/Gαll protein. As a result of

these alterations, ion transport by epithelial cells is reduced or stimulated.

For example, a compound, or substance, which acts as an agonist can interact with, or bind to, the Aquatic CaR, thereby activating the Aquatic CaR, resulting in an increase of ion secretion in selected epithelial cells. An agonist can be any substance, or compound, that interacts with, or binds to, the Aquatic PVCR resulting in activation of Aquatic CaR. Agonists encompassed by the present invention include inorganic ions, such as the polyvalent cations calcium, magnesium and gadolinium, and organic molecules such as neomycin. Other agonists, include inorganic compounds, nucleic acids or proteins can be determined using the techniques described herein. Agonists also encompassed by the present invention can include proteins or peptides or antibodies that bind to the Aquatic PVCR resulting in its activation. Activation of the Aquatic PVCR is typically direct activation. For example, an inorganic molecule or peptide binds directly to the receptor protein resulting in the activation of Aquatic CaR. However, activation of the Aquatic PVCR can also be indirect activation, such as would occur when e.g., an antibody is available to bind an Aquatic PVCR antagonist, thus permitting activation of the Aquatic PVCR The term "deactivation" or "inactivation" as used herein means to completely inhibit or decrease biological function. For example, deactivation is when a cell surface receptor is incapable of stimulating a second messenger. Specifically, as used herein, deactivation of the Aquatic PVCR occurs when the Aquatic PVCR is rendered incapable of coupling with, or stimulating, a second messenger, resulting in the absorption of ions in selected epithelial cellε. Deactivation can be direct or indirect. For example, an antagonist can interact with, or bind directly

to the Aquatic PVCR, thereby rendering the Aquatic PVCR incapable of stimulation of a messenger protein. Alternatively, deactivation can be indirect. For example, an antagonist can deactivate Aquatic PVCR by preventing, or inhibiting an agonist from interacting with the Aquatic CaR. For example, a chelator can bind calcium ions and, thus prevent the calcium ions from binding to the Aquatic PVCR.

Antagonists of the Aquatic PVCR can be any substance capable of directly interacting with, or binding to, the

Aquatic PVCR or interacting with, or binding to, an agonist of the Aquatic PVCR that results in deactivation of the Aquatic PVCR. Antagonists encompassed by the present invention can include, for example, inorganic molecules, organic molecules, proteins or peptides. Antagonists can also be nucleic acids, such as anti-sense DNA or RNA sequences that bind to the DNA encoding the Aquatic PVCR, thereby preventing or inhibiting transcription into mRNA. Antagonists can also be anti-sense RNA that binds to the PVCR transcript, thereby preventing, or inhibiting translation.

Candidate substances, (e.g., compounds, peptides or nucleic acids) to be evaluated for their ability to regulate Aquatic PVCR activity can be screened in assay systems to determine activity. For example, one assay system that can be used is the frog oocyte system expressing Aquatic PVCR described in Brown, E.G. et a 1 . , Nature, 366:575-580 (1993); Riccardi, D.J. et al . , Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci USA. 92:131-135 (1995). A functional assay to screen for compounds that alter PVCR mediated NaCl transport function in adult flounder urinary bladder can also be used to screen candidate compounds for their ability to modulate Aquatic PVCR. Transport of NaCl via the thiazide sensitive NaCl

cotransporter in the flounder urinary bladder is important in its adaptation to various salinities. NaCl transport is readily quantified using a isolated bladder preparation from adult flounder and measurement of transepithelial Ca ²⁺ sensitive short circuit current, as described in (Gamba, G. et al . , Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. (USA) . 90-2749-2753 (1993)) . Use of this isolated in vitro assay system can establish a direct effect of Aquatic PVCR function or transepithelial transport of ions important for salinity adaptation. Compounds identified using the frog oocyte assay and in vitro NaCl transport assay system can be further tested in whole animal adaptation experiments.

For example, to screen for PVCR reactive compounds (both agonists and antagonists) an assay previously used for study of ion and water transport in isolated flounder urinary bladders (Renfro, L.J. Am. J. Physiol. 228:52-61, 1975) has been used. As described herein (Example 5) , this assay has now been adapted to screen PVCR agonists and provided data showing that water reabsorption is >85% inhibited by application of thiazide (specific inhibitor of the thiazide sensitive NaCl cotransporter) ; water reabsorption is >90% inhibited by application of gadolinium (a PVCR specific agonist) ; water reabsorption is >50% inhibited by application of neomycin (a PVCR specific agonist) ; and exposure of the bladder to PVCR agonists is reversible upon removal of either gadolinium or neomycin.

As a further result of the work, methods are provided to test the function of PVCR in developing fish, and to specifically select for fish with altered PVCR functional and osmotic tolerance. The developmental expression of PVCR in developing embryo, larval and metamorphic forms of fish can be determined using antibodies that recognize Aquatic PVCR and/or mammalian CaR, or by using Aquatic and/or mammalian cDNA probes, or a combination of these

techniques. Initial screening of gametes, larval or metamorphic forms of fish can be tested using immunohistochemistry, such as described in Example 1, to determine at what stage of development the PVCR protein is expressed in developing fish.

Based on the immunochemistry studies of the Aquatic PVCR structure, function and developmental expression, specific selection assays can be designed to identify fish, e.g., flounder, halibut or cod, species with altered Aquatic PVCR function that can survive in fresh water, while those possessing normal PVCR function will die. These acute survival assays can evaluate the overall effect of PVCR agonists and antagonists identified by e.g., the frog oocyte expression assay. These assays will test the potency of various PVCR active compounds on improving or reducing survival of various fish or embryos. The ability to identify a single individual fish with alterations in PVCR function and osmoregulation from many wild type fish possessing normal characteristics will permit the propagation of specific strains of fish that exhibit specific salinity tolerance characteristics. Development of larval forms of cod, halibut or flounder that survive in fresh water can then be utilized in experiments to test whether new food sources could be used in their rearing. Successful development of these goals would then permit these species to be raised initially in protected fresh water hatcheries and later transferred to marine conditions similar to those presently utilized for aquaculture of salmon. Also encompassed by the present invention are methods of modulating the activation of the Aquatic PVCR by altering the DNA encoding the Aquatic PVCR, and thus, altering the subsequent expression of Aquatic PVCR protein in various tissues. For example, anti-sense nucleic acid

sequences (either DNA or RNA) can be introduced into e.g., epithelial cells in fish kidney, where the anti-sense sequence binds to the Aquatic PVCR gene and inhibits, or substantially decreases its transcription into mRNA. Alternatively, the anti-sense sequence can bind to the Aquatic PVCR mRNA and inhibit, or substantially decrease, its translation into amino acid sequence.

Alternatively, a mutated or chimeric Aquatic PVCR gene construct (e.g., a mutated or chimeric SEQ ID NO: 1) can be inserted into, e.g. fish eggs, to produce new marine strains with enhanced, or decreased. Aquatic PVCR protein activity. The anti-sense sequence or gene construct is introduced into the cells using techniques well-known to those of skill in the art. Such techniques are described in Hew, C.L., et al . , Mol. Aguatic Biol. Biotech.. 1:3807- 17 (1992) and Du, S.J., et al . , Biotechnology. 10:176-181 (1992) , the teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference.

Based on the work described herein, new methodologies that will regulate the adaptation of fish, particularly flounder, halibut and cod, to environments of varying salinities are now available. For example, methods are now available to adapt developing forms of flounder, halibut or cod to fresh water environments. Rearing of these species in fresh water will allow for new approaches to the problems of feeding and successful rearing of larval forms of these fish species. Methods are also now available for selection and propagation of new strains of fish (e.g. , flounder, halibut and cod) that will possess alterations in their salinity tolerance such that they can be raised in fresh water, then transferred to seawater. This approach has many advantages since it will both diversify the aquaculture industry and make use of existing hatcheries

and facilities to produce flounder, cod or halibut as well as salmon.

The present invention is illustrated by the following Examples, which are not intended to be limited in any way.

EXAMPLE 1: IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY OF THE PVCR PROTEIN PRESENT IN AQUATIC SPECIES EPITHELIAL CELLS

Tissues from fish were fixed by perfusion with 2% parafor aldehyde in appropriate Ringers solution corresponding to the osmolality of the fish after anesthesitizing the animal with MS-222. Samples of tissues were then obtained by dissection, fixed by immersion in 2% paraformaldehyde, washing in Ringers then frozen in an embedding compound, e.g., O.C.T.™ Miles, Inc. Elkahart, Indiana, using methylbutane cooled with liquid nitrogen. After cutting 4μM tissue sections with a cryostat, individual sections were subjected to various staining protocols. Briefly, sections mounted on glass slides were: 1) blocked with serum obtained from the species of fish, 2) incubated with rabbit anti-CaR antiserum and 3) washed and incubated with peroxidase conjugated affinity purified goat antirabbit antiserum. The locations of the bound peroxidase conjugated goat antirabbit antiserum was visualized by development of a rose colored aminoethylcarbazole reaction product. Individual sections were mounted, viewed and photographed by standard light microscopy techniques. The anti-CaR antiserum used to detect fish PVCR protein was raised in rabbits using a 23 mer peptide corresponding to amino acids numbers 214-237 localized in the extracellular domain of the RaKCaR protein.

In both species of elasmobranchs studied, (dogfish shark, Squatus Acanthias and little skate, Raja Erinacea ) , PVCR protein was localized to the apical membranes of

selected epithelial cells. The distribution of PVCR in elasmobranch tissue is shown in Figures 1A-F. Heavy black coloring is displayed where anti-CaR antibody binding is present consistently in areas of tissues designated by arrowheads. Figure IA: Kidney-PVCR expression is present on apical membranes of epithelial cells of late distal tubule (LDT) and collecting duct (CD) . Figure IB: Gill PVCR expression is localized to epithelial cells of gill arcades. Figure IC: Brain PVCR expression is localized to distinct groups of neurons in the brain. Figure ID: Rectal gland PVCR expression is localized to apical membranes of cells lining the ducts of the rectal gland. Figure IE: Intestine PVCR expression is localized to the apical membranes of epithelial cells lining the lumens of the intestine. Figure IF: Ovary PVCR expression is present in both oocytes and surrounding follicular cells.

Figures 2A-F show the distribution of PVCR in the flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus ) and in the fresh water trout (Onchorhynchus Nerka ) . Figures 2A-F display heavy black coloring where anti-CaR antibody binding is present consistently in areas of tissues designated by arrowheads. Figure 2A: Kidney-PVCR expression is present on apical membranes of epithelial cells of large tubules (LT) and collecting ducts (CD) . Figure 2B: Gill PVCR expression is localized to epithelial cells of gill arcades. Figure 2C: Bran PVCR expression is localized to distinct groups of neurons in the brain. Figure 2D: Urinary bladder PVCR expression is localized to apical membranes of cells lining the urinary bladder. Figure 2E: Intestine PVCR expression is localized to the apical membranes of epithelial cells lining the lumens of the intestine. Figure 2F: Ovary PVCR expression is present in both oocytes and surrounding follicular cells.

EXAMPLE 2: RNA BLOTTING ANALYSES OF WINTER FLOUNDER TISSUE

Five microgram samples of poly A+ RNA prepared from various winter flounder tissues including muscle (lane 1), heart (lane 2), testis (lane 3) and urinary bladder (lane 4) were subjected to RNA blotting analyses (Figures 3A and B) .

As shown in Figure 3A, a single filter was first hybridized using a ³² P-labeled ECO R1/XH0 1 5' fragment of rat kidney PVCR cDNA (Brown, E.M. , et al . , Nature, 366:575 (1993)), washed at reduced stringency (IX SSC, 0.1% SDS, 50° C.) and exposed for 10 days to autoradiography.

As shown in Figure 3B, the same filter shown in Figure 3A after stripping and hybridization with a ³² P-labeled full length 3.8 kb TSC cDNA that was washed at 0.5XSSC, 0.1% SDS at 65° C. and subjected to a 1 hour autoradiogram exposure. Data shown representative of a total of five separate experiments.

These data demonstrate the presence of a 4.4 kb homolog of the mammalian CaR present in poly A+ RNA from urinary bladder together with abundant 3.8 kb thiazide- sensitive NaCl contransporter transcript, and suggest no PVCR transcripts are present in other tissues including muscle, heart or testis.

EXAMPLE 3: MOLECULAR CLONING OF SHARK KIDNEY CALCIUM RECEPTOR RELATED PROTEIN (SKCaR-RP)

A shark λZAP cDNA library was manufactured using standard commercially available reagents with cDNA synthesized from poly A ⁺ RNA isolated from shark kidney tissue as described and published in Siner et. al Am. J . Physiol . 270:C372-C381, 1996. The shark cDNA library was plated and resulting phage plaques screened using a ³² P- labeled full length rat kidney CaR (RaKCaR) cDNA probe under intermediate stringency conditions (0.5X SSC, 0.1%

SDS, 50°C). Individual positive plaques were identified by autoradiography, isolated and rescued using phagemid infections to transfer cDNA to KS Bluescript vector. The complete nucleotide sequence. Figure 4, (SEQ ID NO: 1) of the 4.1 kb shark kidney PVCR related protein (SKCaR-RP) clone was obtained using commercially available automated sequencing service that performs nucleotide sequencing using the dideoxy chain termination technique. The deduced amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 2) is shown in Figure 5. Northern analyses were performed as described in Siner et. al. Am. J. Physiol. 270:C372-C381, 1996. The SKCaR-RP nucleotide sequence was compared to others CaRs using commercially available nucleotide and protein database services including GENBANK and SWISS PIR. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of selected cDNA sequences synthesized by reverse transcriptase (RT) were performed using a commercially available RT-PCR kit from Promega Biotech, Madison, WI. Selective amplification of a conserved region of CaRs (nts 597-981 of RaKCaR cDNA) results in 384 nt cDNA, as shown in Figure 7. This amplified 384 bp was then ligated into the TA cloning vector (Promega Biotech, Madison, WI) that was then transformed into competent DH5α E. coli cells using standard techniques. After purification of plasmid DNA using standard techniques the 384 nt cDNA was sequenced as described above.

EXAMPLE 4: PVCR EXPRESSION IN TISSUES OF FUNDULUS HETEROCLITUS To determine if PVCR expression was modulated by adaptation of Fundulus to either fresh or salt water, killifish collected in an estuary were first fresh or salt water adapted for an interval of 18 days (chronic adaptation) . Selected individuals from each group were then

adapted to the corresponding salinity (fresh to salt; salt to fresh) for an interval of 7 days (acute adaptation) .

Results are shown in Figure 8. A blot containing RNA (40 ug/lane) prepared from control Xenopus kidney (lane 1) or Fundulus heart (containing ultimobranchial tissue)

(lanes 2, 5), kidney (lanes 3, 6) and gill (lanes 4, 7) was probed with a ³² p-labeled Xenopus PVCR cDNA, washed ( .01 x SSC, 65°C) and autoradiographed. As shown in Figure 8, as compared to control mRNA, (lane 1) steady state levels of PVCR mRNA are larger in tissues from seawater adapted fish (lanes 5-7) versus those in fresh water (lanes 2-4) .

Fundulus fish were either chronically (Figures 9A and 9B) or acutely (Figures 9C and 9D) adapted to salt water (Figures 9A and 9C) or fresh water (Figures 9B and 9D) . The presence of PVCR in kidney tubules was determined by immunocytochemistry. Chronic adaptation to salt water (9A) resulted in increased PVCR expression in kidney tubules as compared to that present in fresh (9B) . Kidney tubule PVCR expression in salt water fish was diminished by acute adaptation to fresh water (9C) . In contrast, kidney tubule PVCR expression in fresh water fish was increased after acute adaptation to salt water (9D) .

EXAMPLE 5: ASSAY FOR PVCR AGONISTS AND ANTAGONISTS USING THE FLOUNDER URINARY BLADDER

To provide further evidence linking Aquatic PVCRs to fish osmoregulation, isolated urinary bladder of winter founder was used to investigate whether PVCRs modulate epithelial cell ion transport. Previous work has demonstrated that the flounder urinary bladder is important in osmoregulation since it allows recovery of both NaCl and water via a thiazide-sensitive NaCl contransport process that has been first generated by the kidney proximal tubule. Water reabsorption from the urine stored in

urinary bladder allows for the concentrations of both Mg ²⁺ and Ca ²⁺ to increase to values as high as 84 mM and 7 mM respectively in marine founders (Elger, E.B. , et al . , J. Comp. Physiol.. B157:21 (1987)). Net apical to basolateral water flux (Jv) was measured gravimetrically in 10 minute intervals using individual urinary bladder excised from winter flounder. Briefly, isolated bladders were suspended in a liquid solution (typically a physiologically compatible solution) as described in (Renfro, L.J. Am. J. Physiol. 228:52-61, 1975) the teachings of which are hereby incorporated by reference. The weight of the bladder was measured before and after the experimental period, wherein the experimental period comprised the period of time that the isolated bladder was exposed to test compound. The compound to be tested (e.g., test compound) was added to both serosal and mucosal solutions. The bladders were dried and weighted as described in Renfro et al . The difference in bladder weight prior to and after exposure to test compound is an indication of water reabsorption by the bladder.

Quantification of water reabsorption (Jv) by isolated bladders using the method of Renfro et al . showed that Jv was significantly (p<0.05) inhibited by addition of 100 μM hydrochlorothiazide (86±2%) consistent with the role of the thiazide sensitive NaCl contransporter in this process.

Urinary bladder Jv was also significantly inhibited by PVCR agonists including 100 μM Gd ³⁺ (75±5%) and 200 μM neomycin (52±4%) . (Control Jv values (130±28 μl/gm/hr.) were obtained from animals in September-October and are approximately 21% of the Jv reported by Renfro et al . These differences likely reflect seasonal variations in urinary bladder transport.) The half maximal inhibitory concentration for urinary bladder Jv (IC ₅₀ ) for Gd ³⁺ (15 μM) was similar to that reported for mammalian CaRs, while

the IC ₅₀ for neomycin (150 μM) was approximately 3 times larger as compared to mammalian CaRs (50 μM) . This inhibitory effect of PVCR agonists on Jv was fully reversible. Activation of apical PVCRS by high concentrations of MG ²⁺ and Ca ²⁺ resulting from NaCl- mediated water reabsorption from bladder urine would provide for optimal recovery of water by the urinary bladder. This mechanism would permit water reabsorption to proceed until divalent cation concentrations approach levels that promote crystal formation. This overall process is similar to that described for mammalian CaRs in the rat and human IMCD. Additional aspects of these mammalian and teleost renal epithelia may also share other similarities since teleost urinary bladder is both an anatomical and functional homolog of the mammalian mesonephric kidney.

EQUIVALENTS

Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to specific embodiments of the invention described specifically herein. Such equivalents are intended to be encompassed in the scope of the following claims.