CRANE BARRY COLIN (GB)
SCILOGICA LTD (GB)
US20050090014A1 | 2005-04-28 | |||
US20080188722A1 | 2008-08-07 |
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CLAIMS 1. A polymer matrix for optical sensing of CO2, comprising a fluorophore, a positively charged counter-ion moiety and a polymeric support, wherein either the fluorophore or the counter-ion moiety is covalently bound to the polymeric support by a polymer linking moiety. 2. The polymer matrix according to claim 1 wherein the molar ratio of counter-ion to fluorophore is 2:1 or greater. 3. The polymer matrix according to claim 1 or 2 wherein the fluorophore comprises a negatively-charged moiety, preferably an –O- group or a –COO- group, at near-neutral pH. 4. The polymer matrix according to any preceding claim, wherein whichever of the fluorophore or the counter-ion moiety is not covalently bound to the polymeric support by a polymer linking moiety is suspended in the polymeric support. 5. The polymer matrix according to any preceding claim, wherein the fluorophore has a pH-dependent fluorescent emission spectrum. 6. The polymer matrix according to any preceding claim wherein the fluorophore can undergo fluorescence emission at a first wavelength λ1 with an intensity I1, and can undergo fluorescence emission at a second wavelength λ2 with an intensity I2, and the ratio of I1 to I2 varies dependent upon pH. 7. The polymer matrix according to any preceding claim wherein the fluorophore comprises a species of formula (Fl-A): wherein each R group is independently selected from H, halogen, cyano, nitro, hydroxy, C1-10 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, C4-10 cycloalkenyl, aryl, alkylaryl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, C2-10 alkenyl, C2-10 alkynyl, -SRa, -ORa, -SO2Ra, -SO3-, -SORa, - SO2NRa, -S(O)(NRa)Ra, -NRa2, -NRaCORa, -NRaCO2Ra, -CORa, -CO2Ra, -CONRa2, or a covalent bond attaching the fluorophore to the polymer linking moiety; or two neighbouring R groups are joined together to form a carbocyclic or heterocyclic ring; each Ra group being independently selected from H, C1-10 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, C4-10 cycloalkenyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, C2-10 alkenyl, and C2-10 alkynyl; and any R group capable of substitution may be optionally substituted by one or more substituents independently selected from halogen, oxo, cyano, nitro, hydroxy, C1-10 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, C4-10 cycloalkenyl, C2-10 alkenyl, C2-10 alkynyl, -ORb, - NRb2, -CORb, -CO2Rb, and -CONRb2, wherein Rb is selected from H, C1-6 alkyl, C3-6 cycloalkyl, C4-6 cycloalkenyl, and C2-6 alkenyl. 8. The polymer matrix according to any preceding claim wherein the fluorophore comprises a species of formula (Fl-B) wherein each R1 group is independently selected from halogen, cyano, nitro, hydroxy, -ORa, -SO2Ra, -SO3-, -SORa, -SO2NRa, -S(O)(NRa)Ra, -NRa2, -NRaCORa, - NRaCO2Ra, -CORa, -CO2Ra, -CONRa2 and a covalent bond to the polymer linking moiety; each R2 group is independently selected from H, C1-10 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, C4-10 cycloalkenyl, aryl, alkylaryl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, C2-10 alkenyl, C2-10 alkynyl, and a covalent bond to the polymer linking moiety; any R1 or R2 group which is capable of substitution may be optionally substituted by one or more substituents independently selected from halogen, oxo, cyano, nitro, hydroxy, C1-10 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, C4-10 cycloalkenyl, C2-10 alkenyl, C2-10 alkynyl, -ORb, -NRb2, -CORb, -CO2Rb, and -CONRb2; and Ra and Rb are as defined in claim 7. 9. The polymer matrix according to any preceding claim wherein the fluorophore is pyranine, or a derivative thereof. 10. The polymer matrix according to any preceding claim wherein the counter-ion moiety comprises a quaternary ammonium ion. 11. The polymer matrix according to any preceding claim wherein the counter-ion moiety comprises a quaternary ammonium cation of formula (CI-A): wherein each R4 group is independently selected from H; or C1-30 alkyl, C3-12 cycloalkyl, C4-12 cycloalkenyl, aryl, alkylaryl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, C2-30 alkenyl, C2-30 alkynyl, and a covalent bond to the polymer linking moiety; or two R4 groups may be joined together to form a C3-16 heterocycloalkyl or a C4-16 heterocycloalkenyl group; and any R4 group capable of substitution may be optionally substituted by one or more substituents independently selected from halogen, oxo, cyano, nitro, hydroxy, C1-10 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, C4-10 cycloalkenyl, C2-10 alkenyl, C2-10 alkynyl, -ORb, - NRb 2, -CORb, and -CO2Rb, wherein Rb is as defined in claim 7. 12. The polymer matrix according to any preceding claim wherein the counter-ion moiety is a hexadecyltrimethylammonium ion or a derivative thereof. 13. The polymer matrix according to any preceding claim wherein the polymeric support is gas-permeable. 14. The polymer matrix according to any preceding claim wherein the polymeric support comprises a hydrophilic polymer, preferably wherein the polymeric support comprises one or more of a hydrogel, a cellulose derivative, ethyl cellulose, a sol-gel, or a hydrophilic silicone-based polymer; preferably a hydrogel selected from polyacrylamide or polyhydroxyethyl methacrylate. 15. The polymer matrix according to any one of claims 1 to 13 wherein the polymeric support comprises a hydrophobic polymer. 16. The polymer matrix according to claim 15 wherein the polymeric support comprises one or more of polystyrene, a hydrophobic silicone-based polymer, a hydrophobic cellulose derivative, or plasticised ethyl cellulose. 17. The polymer matrix according to claim 15 or 16 wherein the polymeric support is hydrophobic. 18. The polymer matrix according to any preceding claim wherein the polymer linking moiety comprises one or more of a covalent bond, -O-, -S-, -SO2-, -SO-, an optionally substituted alkylene, an optionally substituted alkenylene, an optionally substituted alkynylene, and –NR5; R5 is selected from H, C1-10 alkyl, C3-10 cycloalkyl, C4-10 cycloalkenyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, C2-10 alkenyl, C2-10 alkynyl, -CORa, -CO2Ra, and - CONRa 2; and Ra is as defined in claim 7. 19. The polymer matrix according to any preceding claim wherein the polymer matrix also comprises water. 20. An optical sensor for optical sensing of CO2, comprising: − a sensing region comprising a polymer matrix as defined in any one of claims 1- 19; and − an optical waveguide arranged to direct light onto the sensing region. 21. The optical sensor according to claim 20 which is a sensor for detecting the CO2 content of blood. 22. The optical sensor according to claim 20 or claim 21 wherein the sensing region further comprises a hydrophobic membrane, and the sensor is configured to allow an analyte to enter the sensing region through the hydrophobic membrane. 23. The optical sensor according to any of claims 20 to 22, wherein the polymeric support comprises a hydrophilic polymer; the sensing region further comprises a gas- permeable hydrophobic membrane which is impermeable to liquids and hydrogen ions; and the sensor is configured to allow CO2 to enter the sensing region through the hydrophobic membrane. 24. The optical sensor according to any one of claims 20 to 22 wherein the polymeric support comprises a hydrophobic polymer; the sensing region further comprises a gas- permeable hydrophobic membrane which is impermeable to liquids and hydrogen ions; and the sensor is configured to allow CO2 to enter the sensing region through the hydrophobic membrane. 25. A method of producing a polymer matrix for optical sensing of CO2, the method comprising: (i) providing a polymeric support, wherein either a fluorophore or a counter-ion moiety is covalently bound to the polymeric support by a polymer linking moiety; and (ii) suspending either a fluorophore or a counter-ion moiety, whichever is not covalently bound to the polymeric support via the polymer linking moiety, in the polymeric support. 26. The method according to claim 25 wherein the polymer matrix for optical sensing is as defined in any one of claims 1 to 19. 27. A method of producing an optical sensor for optical sensing of CO2, the method comprising: (i) providing an optical waveguide; (ii) disposing a polymer matrix as defined in any one of claims 1 to 19 on the optical waveguide; and (iii) optionally disposing a membrane on the polymer matrix. 28. The method according to claim 27 wherein the optical sensor is as defined in any one of claims 20-24. 29. A method of measuring the CO2 content of a sample, the method comprising: (i) contacting an optical sensor as defined in any one of claims 20-24 with the sample; (ii) providing excitation light to the sensing region through the optical waveguide; and (iii) detecting the intensity I1 of light emitted from the fluorophore at a first wavelength λ1 through the optical waveguide. 30. The method according to claim 29 wherein the method further comprises (iv) detecting the intensity I2 of light emitted from the fluorophore at a second wavelength λ2 through the optical waveguide; and (v) optionally comparing I2 to I1. 31. The method according to claim 29 or claim 30 which is a method of continuously measuring the CO2 content of the sample, wherein: − the optical sensor is continuously contacted with the sample for an exposure period of at least ten minutes; − excitation light is provided to the sensing region continuously or intermittently throughout the exposure period through the optical waveguide; and − the intensity I1 of emission of the fluorophore at a first wavelength λ1, and optionally the intensity I2 of emission of the fluorophore at a second wavelength λ2, is/are detected continuously or intermittently throughout the exposure period through the optical waveguide. |
Thus, in some embodiments the fluorophore comprises a species of formula (Fl-A): Each R group is independently selected from H, halogen, cyano, nitro, hydroxy, C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-10 cycloalkyl, C 4-10 cycloalkenyl, aryl, alkylaryl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, C 2-10 alkenyl, C 2-10 alkynyl, -SR a , -OR a , -SO 2 R a , -SO 3 -, -SOR a , -SO 2 NR a , -S(O)(NR a )R a , -NR a 2 , - NR a COR a , -NR a CO 2 R a , -COR a , -CO 2 R a , -CONR a 2 , or a covalent bond attaching the fluorophore to the polymer linking moiety; or two neighbouring R groups are joined together to form a carbocyclic or heterocyclic ring. In some embodiments, each R group is independently selected from H, halogen, cyano, nitro, hydroxy, C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-10 cycloalkyl, C 4-10 cycloalkenyl, C 2-10 alkenyl, C 2-10 alkynyl, -SR a , -OR a , -SO 2 R a , -SO 3 -, -SOR a , -SO 2 NR a , -S(O)(NR a )R a , -NR a 2 , -NR a COR a , - NR a CO 2 R a , -COR a , -CO 2 R a , and -CONR a 2 . For example, each R may be preferably be independently selected from H, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkyl, C 2-6 alkenyl, -OR a , -SO 3 -, -COR a , and - CO 2 R a . Particularly preferably, each R is independently selected from H, C 1-4 alkyl, and – SO 3 -. Each R a group is independently selected from H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-10 cycloalkyl, C 4-10 cycloalkenyl, aryl, alkylaryl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, C 2-10 alkenyl, and C 2-10 alkynyl. Preferably, each R a is independently selected from H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl, C 4-6 cycloalkenyl, and C 2-10 alkenyl. Particularly preferably, each R a is independently selected from H and C 1-4 alkyl. Any R group capable of substitution may be optionally substituted by one or more substituents. The one or more substituents may be present at any suitable position on the R group, including (where present) on an R a group. The one or more substituents are typically selected from halogen, oxo, cyano, nitro, hydroxy, C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-10 cycloalkyl, C 4-10 cycloalkenyl, C 2-10 alkenyl, C 2-10 alkynyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , -CO 2 R b , and -CONR b 2 . Each R is usually substituted by 0, 1, 2 or 3 substituents, preferably by 0 or 1 substituents. Preferred substituents include halogen, oxo, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl, C 2-6 alkenyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , and -CO 2 R b . Particularly preferred substituents include halogen, hydroxy, C 1-4 alkyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , and -CO 2 R b . R b is selected from H, C 1-6 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl, C 4-6 cycloalkenyl, and C 2-6 alkenyl. Preferably, R b is selected from H, C 1-6 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl, and C 2-6 alkenyl. More preferably, R b is selected from H and C 1-4 alkyl. In a preferred embodiment, therefore, each R group is independently selected from H, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkyl, C 2-6 alkenyl, -OR a , -SO 3 -, -COR a , and -CO 2 R a and each R a is independently selected from H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl, C 4-6 cycloalkenyl, and C 2-10 alkenyl. In this embodiment, each R may be unsubstituted or substituted by one substituent independently selected from halogen, hydroxy, C 1-4 alkyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , and -CO 2 R b wherein R b is selected from H and C 1-4 alkyl. Where an R group, or a substituent thereon, comprises a hydroxy group or a –COOH group, reference to “hydroxy” or “-COOH” (that is, -CO 2 R a where R a is H) includes the deprotonated forms of those groups, i.e. –O- and –COO- respectively. In a preferred embodiment, the species of formula (Fl-A) has electron-withdrawing groups at certain positions on the heterocyclic skeleton and not at other positions. In a preferred embodiment, therefore, the fluorophore comprises a species of formula (Fl-B)
Each R 1 group is independently selected from halogen, cyano, nitro, hydroxy, -OR a , - SO 2 R a , -SO 3 -, -SOR a , -SO 2 NR a , -S(O)(NR a )R a , -NR a 2 , -NR a COR a , -NR a CO 2 R a , -COR a , - CO 2 R a , -CONR a 2 and a covalent bond to the polymer linking moiety. Usually each R 1 group is independently selected from halogen, cyano, nitro, hydroxy, -OR a , -SO 2 R a , -SO 3 -, -SOR a , - SO 2 NR a , -S(O)(NR a )R a , -NR a 2 , -NR a COR a , -NR a CO 2 R a , -COR a , -CO 2 R a , and -CONR a 2 . Preferably each R 1 group is independently selected from hydroxy, -OR a , -SO 2 R a , -SO 3 -, - SOR a , -COR a , -CO 2 R a , and -CONR a 2 . Particularly preferred examples of R 1 are -OR a , and - SO 3 -. Each R 2 group is independently selected from H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-10 cycloalkyl, C 4-10 cycloalkenyl, aryl, alkylaryl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, C 2-10 alkenyl, C 2-10 alkynyl, and a covalent bond to the polymer linking moiety. Usually, each R 2 group is independently selected from H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl, C 4-6 cycloalkenyl, and C 2-10 alkenyl. Preferably, each R 2 group is independently selected from H and C 1-6 alkyl. Most preferably each R 2 group is H. Any R 1 or R 2 group capable of substitution may be optionally substituted by one or more substituents. The one or more substituents may be present at any suitable position on the R 1 or R 2 group, including (where present) on an R a group. The one or more substituents are typically selected from halogen, oxo, cyano, nitro, hydroxy, C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-10 cycloalkyl, C 4-10 cycloalkenyl, C 2-10 alkenyl, C 2-10 alkynyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , -CO 2 R b , and -CONR b 2 . Each R 1 or R 2 is usually substituted by 0, 1, 2 or 3 substituents, preferably by 0 or 1 substituents. Preferred substituents include halogen, oxo, hydroxy, C1-6 alkyl, C3-6 cycloalkyl, C 2-6 alkenyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , and -CO 2 R b . Particularly preferred substituents include halogen, hydroxy, C 1-4 alkyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , and -CO 2 R b . Where an R 1 or R 2 group, or a substituent thereon, comprises a hydroxy group or a – COOH group, reference to “hydroxy” or “-COOH” includes the deprotonated forms of those groups, i.e. –O- and –COO- respectively. R a and R b are as described above. In a preferred embodiment, each R 1 is independently selected from hydroxy, -OR a , - SO 2 R a , -SO 3 -, -SOR a , -COR a , -CO 2 R a , and -CONR a 2 ; and each R 2 is independently selected from H and C 1-6 alkyl. R a is independently selected from H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl, C 4-6 cycloalkenyl, and C 2-10 alkenyl. In this embodiment, each R 1 and R 2 group may be unsubstituted or substituted by one substituent independently selected from halogen, hydroxy, C 1-4 alkyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , and -CO 2 R b wherein R b is selected from H and C 1-4 alkyl. In some embodiments, the fluorophore is fluorescein or a derivative thereof. Fluorescein is a compound having the following structure: However, structural variations on fluorescein are known to act as fluorophores. Thus, where the fluorophore is a derivative of fluorescein or is based on fluorescein, the fluorophore may for instance comprise a species of formula (Fl-C) Wherein R is as defined above and may be optionally substituted as described above. For instance, the fluorophore may comprise a species of formula (Fl-D) R 2 is as defined above. R 3 is selected from cyano, nitro, hydroxy, -OR a , -SO 2 R a , -SO 3 -, -SOR a , -SO 2 NR a , - S(O)(NR a )R a , -NR a 2 , -NR a COR a , -NR a CO 2 R a , -COR a , -CO 2 R a , -CONR a 2 and a covalent bond to the polymer linking moiety. Usually, R 3 is selected from hydroxy, -NR a 2 , -NR a COR a , and -COOH. Preferably, R 3 is selected from hydroxy, -NR a 2 , and -CO 2 R a ; especially hydroxy. Any R 2 or R 3 group which is capable of substitution may be optionally substituted by one or more substituents. The one or more substituents may be present at any suitable position on the R 2 or R 3 group, including (where present) on an R a group. The one or more substituents are typically selected from halogen, oxo, cyano, nitro, hydroxy, C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-10 cycloalkyl, C 4-10 cycloalkenyl, C 2-10 alkenyl, C 2-10 alkynyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , -CO 2 R b , and -CONR b 2 . Each R 2 or R 3 is usually substituted by 0, 1, 2 or 3 substituents, preferably by 0 or 1 substituents. Preferred substituents include halogen, oxo, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl, C 2-6 alkenyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , and -CO 2 R b . Particularly preferred substituents include halogen, hydroxy, C1-4 alkyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , and -CO 2 R b . R a and R b are as described above. In a preferred embodiment, each R 2 is independently selected from H and C 1-6 alkyl, R 3 is selected from hydroxy, -NR a 2 , and -CO 2 R a , and each R a is independently selected from H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl, C 4-6 cycloalkenyl, and C 2-10 alkenyl. In this embodiment, each R 2 and R 3 group may be unsubstituted or substituted by one substituent independently selected from halogen, hydroxy, C 1-4 alkyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , and -CO 2 R b wherein R b is selected from H and C 1-4 alkyl. As with R 1 and R 2 , where an R 3 group, or a substituent thereon, comprises a hydroxy group or a –COOH group, reference to “hydroxy” or “-COOH” (that is, -CO 2 R a where R a is H) includes the deprotonated forms of those groups, i.e. –O- and –COO- respectively. Counter-ion moiety A key function of the counter-ion moiety is to form an ion pair with the deprotonated form of the fluorophore present at near-neutral pH. Thus, the counter-ion moiety carries a positive charge at near-neutral pH. Of course, the counter-ion moiety may be negatively charged at more extreme pH values. In addition to carrying a positive charge at near-neutral pH, the counter-ion moiety is in general stable in aqueous solution. Many suitable water-stable positively-charged cations are known to the skilled person. The counter-ion moiety may be suspended in the polymer matrix of the invention or may be covalently bound to the polymeric support by a polymer linking moiety. It is in general preferred that the counter-ion moiety is covalently bound to the polymeric support. This conveniently allows a large amount of the counter-ion moiety to be present, meaning that an excess can be provided compared to the quantity of fluorophore present, with no limitation due to the solubility of the counter-ion. A covalent bond from the polymeric support to the counter-ion moiety is easily formed where the counter-ion moiety comprises an organic moiety. Thus, in a preferred embodiment, the counter-ion moiety comprises an organic moiety. Suitable organic cations include quaternary ammonium ions. Thus, in a preferred embodiment, the counter-ion moiety comprises a quaternary ammonium ion. For example, the counter-ion moiety may comprise a quaternary ammonium cation of formula (CI-A): Each R 4 group is independently selected from H; or C 1-30 alkyl, C 3-12 cycloalkyl, C 4-12 cycloalkenyl, aryl, alkylaryl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, C 2-30 alkenyl, C 2-30 alkynyl, and a covalent bond to the polymer linking moiety; or two R 4 groups may be joined together to form a C 3-16 heterocycloalkyl or a C 4-16 heterocycloalkenyl group. Preferably, each R 4 group is independently selected from H, C 1-20 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl, C 2-20 alkenyl, and a covalent bond to the polymer linking moiety. Particular examples of R 4 are H, C 1-20 alkyl, C 2-20 alkenyl and a covalent bond to the polymer linking moiety. In a typical embodiment, one R 4 group is a covalent bond to the polymer linking moiety and the remaining three R 4 groups are each independently selected from H, C 1-20 alkyl, C 3-10 cycloalkyl, C 4-12 cycloalkenyl, aryl, alkylaryl heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, C 2-20 alkenyl, C 2-20 alkynyl. Preferably, one R 4 group is a covalent bond to the polymer linking moiety and the remaining three R 4 groups are each independently selected from H, C 1-20 alkyl, and C 2-20 alkenyl. Any R 4 group capable of substitution may be optionally substituted by one or more substituents. The one or more substituents are typically selected from halogen, oxo, cyano, nitro, hydroxy, C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-10 cycloalkyl, C 4-10 cycloalkenyl, C 2-10 alkenyl, C 2-10 alkynyl, - OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , and -CO 2 R b . Each R 4 is usually substituted by 0, 1, 2 or 3 substituents, preferably by 0 or 1 substituents. Preferred substituents include halogen, oxo, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl, C 2-6 alkenyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , and -CO 2 R b . Particularly preferred substituents include halogen, hydroxy, C 1-4 alkyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , and -CO 2 R b . R b is as defined above. In a preferred embodiment, one R 4 group is a covalent bond to the polymer linking moiety and the remaining three R 4 groups are each independently selected from H, C 1-20 alkyl, and C 2-20 alkenyl. Each R 4 group capable of substitution is unsubstituted or substituted by one substituent independently selected from halogen, hydroxy, C 1-4 alkyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , - COR b , and -CO 2 R b wherein R b is selected from H and C 1-4 alkyl. In some embodiments, the counter-ion moiety comprises a hexadecyltrimethylammonium ion or a derivative thereof. For instance, the counter-ion moiety may comprise (C 16 H 33 )(CH 3 ) 3 N + ; or (C 16 H 33 )(CH 3 ) 2 R 4 N + , wherein R 4 is a covalent bond to the polymer linking moiety. The counter-ion moiety may be associated with one or more negatively-charged ions other than the negatively-charged fluorophore. These negatively-charged ions are not covalently bound to the counter-ion moiety or the polymer matrix. Such ions are dissociated from the counter-ion moiety when the counter-ion moiety and associated ion(s) are contacted with water. Suitable negative ions include halide ions or hydroxide ions; preferably hydroxide ions. The associated ion may typically be present where the positively-charged counter-ion moiety is introduced to the polymer matrix by suspending a dissolved salt containing the counter-ion moiety and one or more associated negative ions in the polymer matrix. Polymer linking moiety The polymer matrix comprises a polymer linking moiety which forms a covalent attachment between the polymeric support and either the fluorophore or the counter-ion moiety. In some embodiments, the polymer linking moiety is a covalent bond directly joining the polymeric support to the fluorophore or counter-ion moiety. In other embodiments, the polymer linking moiety may comprise one or more intervening atoms. Preferably, the linker is stable to hydrolysis during storage. For instance, it is preferred that the linker is stable with respect to hydrolysis during storage for a period of up to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 months. By “stable to hydrolysis” is mean that at least 90%, preferably at least 95%, of the linker does not hydrolyse. The nature of the polymer linking moiety is not particularly limited. The polymer linking moiety may include one or more of a covalent bond, O, S, N, and C. Typically, the polymer linking moiety comprises one or more of a covalent bond, -O-, -S-, -SO 2 -, -SO-, an optionally substituted alkylene, an optionally substituted alkenylene, an optionally substituted alkynylene, and –NR 5 -. For example, the polymer linking moiety may comprise one or more of a covalent bond, -O-, -NR 5 -, -S-, -SO 2 -, -SO-, an optionally substituted C 1-10 alkylene, and an optionally substituted C 2-10 alkenylene. Where the polymer linking moiety comprises more than one of the aforementioned divalent species, the polymer linking moiety typically comprises two or three moieties independently selected from -O-, -NR 5 -, -S-, -SO 2 -, -SO-, an optionally substituted C 1-10 alkylene, and an optionally substituted C 2-10 alkenylene. At least two of the moieties differ. Preferably, the polymer linking moiety comprises one or more moieties independently selected from a covalent bond, -O-, -NR 5 -, and an optionally substituted C1-6 alkylene. Examples of a polymer linking moiety include a covalent bond, -O-, -NH-, -NR 5 -, and C 1-4 alkylene. R 5 is typically selected from H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-10 cycloalkyl, C 4-10 cycloalkenyl, aryl, arylalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, C 2-10 alkenyl, C 2-10 alkynyl, -COR a , -CO 2 R a , and - CONR a 2 . Preferably, R 5 is selected from H, C 1-6 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl, and C 2-10 alkenyl. Particularly preferably, R 5 is selected from H and C 1-4 alkyl. Examples of R 5 include hydrogen, methyl and ethyl groups. The polymer linking moiety may optionally be substituted by one or more substituents. The one or more substituents may be present at any suitable position on the polymer linking moiety, including (where present) on an R a group. In particular, an alkylene, alkenylene or alkynylene moiety of the polymer linking moiety may be optionally substituted. The one or more substituents are typically selected from halogen, oxo, cyano, nitro, hydroxy, C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-10 cycloalkyl, C 4-10 cycloalkenyl, C 2-10 alkenyl, C 2-10 alkynyl, - OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , -CO 2 R b , and -CONR b 2. The polymer linking moiety is usually substituted by 0, 1, 2 or 3 substituents, preferably by 0 or 1 substituents. Preferred substituents include halogen, oxo, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl, C 2-6 alkenyl, -OR b , - NR b 2 , -COR b , and -CO 2 R b . Particularly preferred substituents include halogen, hydroxy, C 1-4 alkyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , and -CO 2 R b . Preferably the polymer linking moiety is unsubstituted R a and R b are as described above. In a preferred embodiment, the polymer linking moiety comprises one, two or three moieties independently selected from a covalent bond, -O-, -NR 5 -, and an optionally substituted C 1-6 alkylene. R 5 is selected from H and C 1-4 alkyl. In this embodiment, the polymer linking moiety may be unsubstituted or substituted by one substituent independently selected from halogen, hydroxy, C 1-4 alkyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , and -CO 2 R b wherein R b is selected from H and C 1-4 alkyl. Particularly preferred examples of a polymer linking moiety include a covalent bond, -O- and –CH 2 -. For completeness, it is noted that where any of R or R 1 to R 3 is a covalent bond attaching the fluorophore to the polymer linking moiety and the polymer linking moiety is a covalent bond, the fluorophore is bound to the polymeric support by a covalent bond at the respective R or R 1 to R 3 position. Similarly, where R 4 is a covalent bond attaching the counter-ion to the polymer linking moiety and the polymer linking moiety is a covalent bond, the counter-ion moiety is bound to the polymeric support by a covalent bond at the relevant R 4 position. Polymeric support The polymer matrix comprises a polymeric support. A polymeric support is a polymer which may comprise structural units derived from one type of monomer or a plurality of different monomers. In general, at least the majority of the structural units present in the polymeric support are derived from one type of monomer. The polymeric support is generally gas-permeable. Where the polymer matrix is gas- permeable, a gas such as CO 2 may diffuse into the matrix and the polymer matrix may be used as a gas sensor. The polymeric support may further be permeable to liquid, such as water. In some embodiments, which are preferred, the polymeric support comprises a hydrophilic polymer. For instance, the polymeric support may comprise or consist of structural units derived from polymerisation of a hydrophilic monomer. Where the polymeric support comprises structural units derived from polymerisation of a hydrophilic monomer, the polymeric support is itself typically hydrophilic. Suitable examples of a hydrophilic polymer which may be comprised in the polymeric support include a hydrogel, a cellulose derivative, ethyl cellulose, a sol-gel, or a hydrophilic silicone-based polymer. Preferably, the polymeric support comprises a hydrogel. Suitable examples of a hydrogel include polyacrylamide or polyhydroxyethyl methacrylate. In some embodiments, the polymeric support comprises a hydrophobic polymer. For instance, the polymeric support may comprise or consist of structural units derived from polymerisation of a hydrophobic monomer. Where the polymeric support comprises structural units derived from polymerisation of a hydrophobic polymer, the polymeric support is itself typically hydrophobic. A polymeric support which is hydrophobic is particularly suited to CO 2 sensing as it has low permeability, or is impermeable, to aqueous solutions which may comprise acids or bases which may interfere with the sensing of CO 2 . For example, the polymeric support may comprise one or more of polystyrene, a hydrophobic silicone-based polymer, a hydrophobic cellulose derivative, or plasticised ethyl cellulose. Preferred among these is polystyrene. The polymeric support may comprise structural units which include either the fluorophore or the counter-ion moiety. In a preferred embodiment, the polymeric support comprises structural units which include the counter-ion moiety. Inclusion of such structural units in the polymer matrix may be achieved in various ways, as follows. (i) The polymeric support may be produced by co-polymerising (a) a monomer comprising the fluorophore covalently bound to a polymerisable moiety by a polymer linking moiety and (b) one or more other monomers. (ii) The polymeric support may be produced by co-polymerising (a) a monomer comprising the counter-ion moiety covalently bound to a polymerisable moiety by a polymer linking moiety and (b) one or more other monomers. (iii) The polymeric support may be produced by co-polymerising (a) a monomer comprising a polymer linking moiety precursor and a polymerisable moiety and (b) one or more other monomers. A “polymer linking moiety precursor” is a species which can be reacted with a fluorophore precursor or a counter-ion moiety precursor to form a fluorophore or a counter-ion moiety covalently bound to the polymeric support via the polymer linking moiety. The polymer linking moiety precursor is therefore reacted with a fluorophore precursor or a counter-ion moiety precursor to produce a fluorophore or a counter-ion moiety covalently bound to the polymeric support via the polymer linking moiety. Polymer matrix The polymer matrix comprises a fluorophore, a positively charged counter-ion moiety and a polymeric support. However, when the polymer matrix is used in optical sensing as described herein, the polymer matrix must comprise water to mediate the transfer of H + to and from the fluorophore. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the polymer matrix comprises water. Typically, the molar ratio of water (H 2 O) to fluorophore is 1:1 or greater. This ensures that enough H2O is present to interact with each ion pair. For example, the molar ratio of water (H 2 O) to fluorophore may be at least 2:1 or at least 5:1. Preferably, the polymer matrix comprises a known quantity of water, or at least a fixed quantity of water. This can particularly easily be achieved where a membrane is arranged to prevent liquids and hydrogen ions from entering the polymer matrix. The membrane is gas-permeable, and is preferably impermeable to liquids and further preferably impermeable to hydrogen ions. In such cases, the matrix and membrane may be exposed to an aqueous sample. The amount of water in the matrix may undergo slight variation as water vapour moves across the membrane while equilibrium is established. Once equilibrium is established, the amount of water in the sensor will remain fixed while the matrix is exposed to aqueous solutions during use as a sensor, which reduces signal fluctuation and improves accuracy. The molar quantity of water present is typically in excess compared to the molar quantity of fluorophore present. The molar quantity of water present may also be in excess compared to the molar quantity of counter-ion moiety. In some embodiments, the polymer matrix is saturated with water. Optical sensor The polymer matrix is useful in an optical sensor for optical sensing of CO 2 . An optical sensor generates an optical signal which varies with pH, in the presence of CO 2 . The optical signal can be generated by directing excitation light onto the polymer matrix while the polymer matrix contacts a sample (directly or indirectly). Accordingly, described herein is an optical sensor 1 for optical sensing of CO 2, comprising: − a sensing region comprising a polymer matrix 5 as described herein; and − an optical waveguide 3 arranged to direct light onto the sensing region. An optical waveguide is a physical structure having a first end and a second end, capable of guiding electromagnetic waves in the optical region of the spectrum between the first and second ends of the structure. The optical sensor 1 is suitable for detecting the CO 2 content of a sample 9. CO 2 present in a sample is referred to herein as an analyte. The sample 9 may be any fluid, the CO 2 content of which is of interest. Exemplary samples include buffers, and biological samples such as saliva or blood. In a preferred embodiment, the sample 9 is a blood sample, for instance a blood sample taken from a human patient. Thus, in a preferred embodiment, the optical is a sensor for detecting the CO 2 content of blood. Where the sample 9 is a biological sample, the sample 9 is typically an ex vivo sample; that is, the sample 9 is typically outside the human or animal body. The design of an optical sensor 1 comprising the polymer matrix 5 of the invention may be influenced by the nature of the polymeric support, and in particular whether the polymeric support is hydrophobic or hydrophilic. Where the polymeric support is hydrophobic in nature, the polymer matrix 5 may be used to construct a so-called “naked sensor”. Where the polymeric support is hydrophobic, the polymer matrix 5 can be placed in direct contact with an aqueous solution (for instance a biological sample, such as blood), and the aqueous solution will not penetrate the polymer matrix 5, or will penetrate the polymer matrix 5 to a small extent. Further, where the polymeric support is hydrophobic, it will advantageously resist adsorption of hydrophilic proteins. In such cases, it is not necessary to provide an additional layer to prevent penetration of the aqueous solution or proteins into the polymer matrix 5. A naked sensor (which does not comprise a membrane arranged to prevent penetration of an aqueous sample into the polymer matrix 5) has various advantages. A membrane can slow the passage of analyte and can act as a reservoir for analyte; this increases the response time of the sensor. Naked sensors therefore have exceptionally rapid response times. There are also especial advantages to optical sensors constructed using a hydrophilic polymer matrix. In use as an optical sensor, the polymer matrix 5 must contain water (to enable the formation of carbonic acid during the detection of CO 2 , and the transport of H + in the detection of acid). If the water content is too low, not all CO 2 may be able to generate carbonic acid. Thus, not all CO 2 present is available to cause protonation of the fluorophore and hence to alter the absorption or emission characteristics of the polymer matrix 5. Thus, insufficient water content may lead to an optical sensor whose optical output does not accurately correspond to the CO 2 content of the sample 9 under test. Where a hydrophobic polymer matrix 5 is used, it is difficult to ensure that the polymer matrix 5 contains enough water to enable the sensing chemistry. It is therefore convenient to use a hydrophilic polymer matrix 5 in the optical sensor 1 as it can readily become saturated with water. Where a hydrophilic polymer matrix 5 is contacted with water, it will take up and hold onto a specific amount of water. A hydrophilic polymer matrix 5 (e.g. a hydrogel) may be saturated with water. If a hydrophilic polymer matrix 5 is placed into direct contact with an aqueous solution (for instance a biological sample, such as blood), the aqueous solution will penetrate the hydrophilic polymer matrix 5. Accordingly, where the optical sensor 1 comprises a hydrophilic polymer matrix 5, the optical sensor 1 typically also comprises a hydrophobic membrane 7 arranged such that the sample 9 contacts the polymer matrix 5 through the hydrophobic membrane 7. Thus, the optical sensor 1 comprising a hydrophilic polymer matrix 5 may comprise a hydrophobic membrane 7 arranged to allow analyte to enter the polymer matrix 5 through the hydrophobic membrane 7. Where an optical sensor comprises a hydrophilic polymer matrix 5 and a gas- permeable hydrophobic membrane 7, and the optical sensor is placed in contact with an aqueous solution, gaseous water (water vapour) may pass across the gas permeable hydrophobic membrane 7. However, equilibrium is maintained and so the quantity of water present in the polymer matrix 5 remains approximately constant. Accordingly, an optical sensor comprising a hydrophilic polymer matrix 5 is less sensitive to inaccuracies arising from the presence of insufficient water, or varying water content. In some embodiments, therefore, the optical sensor 1 comprises a membrane 7. Generally, the membrane 7 is gas-permeable. The membrane 7 may further be liquid- permeable. Typically, where the optical sensor 1 comprises a membrane 7, the optical sensor 1 is configured to allow an analyte to enter the sensing region through the membrane 7. In such embodiments the membrane 7 is typically hydrophobic and, preferably, the polymer matrix 5 is hydrophilic. In some embodiments, the polymer matrix 5 may penetrate the membrane 7. The membrane 7 may be disposed within or partially within the polymer matrix 5. Suitable membranes, particularly gas-permeable membranes, are known in the art. Such membranes include dialysis membranes and microporous membranes; dialysis membranes are preferred. The optical sensor 1 is configured specifically for the detection of CO 2 . Thus, in a particularly preferred embodiment, there is provided an optical sensor 1 for optical sensing of CO 2 , comprising: − a sensing region comprising a polymer matrix 5 as described herein, wherein the sensing region further comprises a hydrophobic membrane 7, and the sensor is configured to allow an analyte to enter the sensing region through the hydrophobic membrane 7; and − an optical waveguide 3 arranged to direct light onto the sensing region. The analyte is CO 2 . In an alternative particularly preferred embodiment, there is provided an optical sensor 1 for optical sensing of CO 2 , comprising: − a sensing region comprising a polymer matrix 5 as described herein, wherein the polymer matrix is a hydrophobic polymer matrix; − the sensing region optionally further comprises a hydrophobic membrane 7, and the sensor is configured to allow an analyte to enter the sensing region through the hydrophobic membrane 7; and an optical waveguide 3 arranged to direct light onto the sensing region In use, the hydrophobic membrane 7 is disposed between the sample 9 under test and the sensing region. The hydrophobic membrane 7 therefore acts as a barrier to liquids and can prevent liquids (particularly water) in the sample 9 under test from entering the sensing region. Preferably, therefore, the hydrophobic membrane 7 is impermeable to liquids. This prevents any acid in the sample 9 from entering the sensor. However, gaseous or dissolved CO 2 in the sample 9 under test can diffuse across the hydrophobic membrane 7 into the sensing region, as the hydrophobic membrane 7 is gas-permeable. Thus, where the sensor comprises a hydrophobic membrane 7, the optical sensor 1 specifically senses CO 2 . Moreover, the sensor does not suffer from interference from species contained in a liquid sample 9 such as acids or alkalis. Particularly preferably, the hydrophobic membrane 7 is impermeable to hydrogen ions. In this configuration, it is preferred that the polymer matrix 5 is hydrophilic, for the reasons explained above. The hydrophilic polymer matrix 5 can easily trap the water needed to enable the formation of carbonic acid and assist the functioning of the sensor. Thus, in a particularly preferred embodiment, the optical sensor 1 is an optical sensor 1 for optical sensing of CO 2 , comprising: − a sensing region comprising a polymer matrix 5 as described herein, wherein the polymeric support comprises a hydrophilic polymer; and the sensing region further comprises a gas-permeable hydrophobic membrane 7 which is impermeable to liquids and hydrogen ions; and the sensor is configured to allow CO 2 to enter the sensing region through the hydrophobic membrane 7; and - an optical waveguide 3 arranged to direct light onto the sensing region. Thus, in this embodiment, the polymer matrix 5 is preferably hydrophilic. Alternatively, however, in this embodiment, the polymer matrix 5 may comprise a hydrophobic polymer and may be hydrophobic. A diagram of an optical sensor 1 in use is shown in Figure 3; in the embodiment shown, the optical sensor 1 comprises a gas-permeable membrane 7 but this is not necessary. The optical waveguide 3 is arranged to direct excitation light onto a sensing region which includes the polymer matrix 5. In use, the sensing region contacts a sample 9. A gas- permeable membrane 7 is disposed on the polymer matrix 5 and configured such that an analyte (CO 2 ) present in the sample 9 may pass through the membrane 7 (if present) in order to contact the polymer matrix 5. The fluorophore will absorb the excitation light and may emit light; light emitted by the fluorophore passes through the optical waveguide 3. The absorption and emission spectra will depend on the pH of the sample 9, which determines the extent of protonation of the fluorophore. The waveguide may be any optically transmissive material. Typically, the waveguide comprises or consists of an optical fibre; alternatively, a transparent optical window may be used. Optical fibres use total internal reflection to prevent light being lost from the fibre. This means light can be efficiently carried to and from the fluorophore, improving the signal and providing for higher-quality and more reliable measurements. Optionally, the optical sensor 1 may comprise a reflector configured to reflect light emitted by the fluorophore into the optical waveguide 3. The reflector, where present, increases the proportion of light emitted by the fluorophore which can be collected by the waveguide and subsequently detected. The reflector may comprise a layer deposited over the polymer matrix 5, for instance over a membrane 7 disposed on the polymer matrix 5. Suitable materials which may be used as reflectors include polysulfones (PSU), polyethersulfones (PESU), and polyphenylsulfones (PPSU). Polysulfones are preferred. It would also be possible to use other reflecting compounds such as silicon containing titanium oxide, or barium sulfate. The optical sensor 1 comprising a sensing region and an optical waveguide 3, and optionally also comprising membrane 7 and/or a reflector may be referred to as a sensor probe. The optical sensor 1 may further comprise a light source configured to provide excitation light to the fluorophore. The light source may be any light source capable of emitting light at the wavelengths and intensities required to excite the fluorophore. For example, the light source may comprise a laser diode. The optical sensor 1 may further comprise a detector configured to detect light emitted by the fluorophore through the optical waveguide 3. The detector may be any device capable of producing a signal in response to receiving light at the wavelengths emitted by the fluorophore. For example, the detector may comprise a charge-coupled device, an active- pixel sensor, a photodiode, or photoresistor. Some or all of the optical sensor 1 may be disposable. This is convenient in clinical contexts, where optical sensor 1 may be contacted with a biological sample inside or taken from a patient. In such cases, the part of the optical sensor 1 which contacts the biological sample should be sterile and cannot be reused between patients. For example, the sensor probe may be disposable and not the detector or light source if present. In such a case, the optical sensor 1 may further comprise a connector interface configured to connect the optical waveguide 3 to the light source and the detector. The optical sensor 1 may form part of an optical sensing system which further comprises a control system. The control system may be configured to cause the light source to emit light, and optionally to activate the detector if necessary. The optical sensing system may further comprise an analysis system. The analysis system may be configured to determine whether carbonic acid is present in the sample 9 under test. In particular, the analysis system may be configured to determine the CO 2 concentration of the sample 9 under test. The optical sensor 1 and optical sensing system described herein can be used to provide rapid, real-time measurements of the CO 2 content of a sample 9. This is particularly desirable in blood gas sensing. It is important to monitor the CO 2 content of a patient’s blood during procedures such as dialysis or surgery, particularly heart bypass surgery, as CO 2 content can vary rapidly with dangerous consequences for the patient. Accordingly, the optical sensing system may be an in-line blood gas sensing system comprising an optical sensor 1 as described herein, wherein the in-line blood gas sensing system is configured to direct blood from the body of the patient outside the body and into contact with the sensing region of the optical sensor 1. Usually, the in-line blood gas sensing system is further configured to return the blood back into the body of the patient. Generally, the in-line blood gas sensing system additionally comprises an optical sensor 1 as described herein, a blood line, and a pump, wherein the blood line is configured to direct blood from the body of the patient outside the body and into contact with the sensing region of the optical sensor 1; and to return the blood into the body of the patient. The pump is configured to pump blood along the blood line. In one example, the invention provides a dialysis system comprising an in-line blood gas sensing system as described herein. In another example, the invention provides a cardiac bypass system comprising an in-line blood gas sensing system as described herein. Method for producing a polymer matrix The polymer matrix of the invention may be produced by any suitable method. For instance, it would be possible to generate a polymer matrix wherein the fluorophore or the counter-ion moiety is suspended within the polymer matrix already, by performing a polymerisation reaction to produce a polymeric support in the presence of the fluorophore or counter-ion moiety. However, it is convenient to first generate the polymeric support having a fluorophore or counter-ion moiety covalently bound thereto, and then to provide the fluorophore or counter-ion moiety (whichever is not bound to the polymeric support) within the matrix. This method allows any waste products or leftover starting materials from the generation of the polymeric support to be washed away. Thus, provided herein is a method of producing a polymer matrix for optical sensing, the method comprising: (i) providing a polymeric support, wherein either a fluorophore or a counter- ion moiety is covalently bound to the polymeric support by a polymer linking moiety; and (ii) suspending either a fluorophore or a counter-ion moiety, whichever is not covalently bound to the polymeric support via the polymer linking moiety, in the polymeric support. Generally, the polymer matrix for optical sensing produced by the method of the invention is a polymer matrix as described herein. Step (i) may comprise covalently attaching a fluorophore or a counter-ion moiety to a polymeric support. For instance, step (i) may comprise: - generating a polymeric support by polymerising a monomer; and - reacting the polymeric support with a fluorophore precursor comprising a fluorophore, or with a counter-ion precursor comprising a counter-ion moiety, to generate a fluorophore or a counter-ion moiety covalently bound to the polymeric support by a polymer linking moiety. A suitable monomer is any polymerisable moiety, typically a hydrophobic polymerisable moiety or a hydrophilic polymerisable moiety. Examples include styrene or hydrogel monomers. In another example, step (i) may comprise: - functionalising a polymeric support; and - reacting the functionalised polymeric support with a fluorophore precursor comprising a fluorophore, or with a counter-ion precursor comprising a counter- ion moiety, to generate a fluorophore or a counter-ion moiety covalently bound to the polymeric support by a polymer linking moiety. This method may be useful where an existing polymer is desired as the polymeric support, for example cellulose or a derivative thereof. Conveniently, the polymeric support may be directly produced incorporating the fluorophore or counter-ion moiety. In such an embodiment, step (i) comprises co- polymerising a fluorophore monomer or a counter-ion monomer with one or more other monomers. Preferably, step (i) comprising co-polymerising a counter-ion monomer with one or more other monomers. By a “fluorophore monomer” is meant a polymerisable monomer comprising the fluorophore. A suitable “fluorophore monomer” is a fluorophore as described herein wherein the covalent bond attaching the fluorophore to a polymer linking moiety is replaced by a polymerisable moiety, typically an alkenyl or alkynyl group. By a “counter-ion monomer” is meant a polymerisable monomer comprising the counter-ion moiety. A suitable “counter-ion monomer” is a counter-ion moiety as described herein wherein the covalent bond attaching the counter-ion moiety to a polymer linking moiety is replaced by a polymerisable moiety, typically an alkenyl or alkynyl group. An exemplary counter-ion monomer is a quaternary ammonium cation of formula (CI-AM): PL is a polymerisable moiety. Preferably, PL is an alkenyl or alkynyl group. For instance, PL may be a C 2-10 alkenyl group or a C 2-10 alkynyl group. Particularly preferably, PL is a C 2-6 alkenyl group. Each R 6 group is independently selected from H; or C 1-30 alkyl, C 3-12 cycloalkyl, C 4-12 cycloalkenyl, aryl, alkylaryl, heteroaryl, heterocycloalkyl, C 2-30 alkenyl, and C 2-30 alkynyl; or two R 8 groups may be joined together to form a C 3-16 heterocycloalkyl or a C 4-16 heterocycloalkenyl group. Preferably, each R 6 group may be independently selected from H, C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl, and C 2-10 alkenyl. The most preferred examples of R 6 are H and C 1-6 alkyl. PL and/or any R 6 group capable of substitution may be optionally substituted by one or more substituents. The one or more substituents may be present at any position capable of substitution. The one or more substituents are typically selected from halogen, oxo, cyano, nitro, hydroxy, C 1-10 alkyl, C 3-10 cycloalkyl, C 4-10 cycloalkenyl, C 2-10 alkenyl, C 2-10 alkynyl, - OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , -CO 2 R b , and -CONR b 2 . PL and R 6 are usually substituted by 0, 1, 2 or 3 substituents, preferably by 0 or 1 substituents. Preferred substituents include halogen, oxo, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl, C 2-6 alkenyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , and -CO 2 R b . Particularly preferred substituents include halogen, hydroxy, C 1-4 alkyl, -OR b , -NR b 2 , -COR b , and -CO 2 R b . Most preferably Pl and R 6 are unsubstituted. R b is as described above. In a preferred embodiment, PL is a C 2-6 alkenyl group and each R 6 group is independently selected from H and C 1-6 alkyl. PL and R 6 are each unsubstituted or substituted by one substituent independently selected from halogen, hydroxy, C 1-4 alkyl, - OR b , -NR b 2, -COR b , and -CO 2 R b wherein R b is selected from H and C 1-4 alkyl. Intermediate steps may be performed between step (i) and step (ii). For instance, the polymeric support having a fluorophore or a counter-ion moiety covalently bound thereto may be washed before step (ii) is performed. Step (ii) involves suspending a fluorophore or a counter-ion moiety in the polymer matrix. For example, step (ii) may involve dissolving the fluorophore (e.g. a salt form of the fluorophore) in a coating solution such as water or an aqueous solution, and contacting the polymeric support produced in step (i) with the coating solution comprising the dissolved fluorophore. Alternatively, step (ii) may involve dissolving the counter-ion moiety (e.g. a salt comprising the counter-ion moiety, typically a hydroxide salt of the counter-ion moiety) in a coating solution such as water or an aqueous solution, and contacting the polymeric support produced in step (i) with the coating solution comprising the dissolved counter-ion moiety. Further steps may be performed after step (ii). For instance, the method of producing a polymer matrix may further comprise drying the polymer matrix to remove excess water. Method of producing an optical sensor The polymer matrix may be used to provide an optical sensor. Thus, described herein is a method of producing an optical sensor, the method comprising: (i) providing an optical waveguide; (ii) disposing a polymer matrix as described herein on the optical waveguide; and (iii)optionally disposing a membrane on the polymer matrix. Generally, the optical sensor produced by this method is an optical sensor 1 as described herein. For example, the membrane is typically a gas-permeable membrane and preferably also hydrophobic. Disposing a polymer matrix onto the optical waveguide does not always require the polymer matrix to be in direct contact with the optical waveguide. There may, for instance, be an intervening coating present on the optical waveguide. Step (ii) may in some cases include providing a polymer matrix as described herein, comprising both a fluorophore and a counter-ion moiety (one of which is covalently attached to the polymeric support) and then disposing that polymer matrix on the optical waveguide. The method of providing the polymer matrix may be as described herein. For instance, the method of producing an optical sensor may comprise: (i) providing an optical waveguide; (ii) providing a polymeric support, wherein either a fluorophore or a counter-ion moiety is covalently bound to the polymeric support by a polymer linking moiety, and suspending either a fluorophore or a counter-ion moiety, whichever is not covalently bound to the polymeric support via the polymer linking moiety, in the polymeric support, to produce a polymer matrix as described herein; and disposing the polymer matrix on the optical waveguide. Alternatively, step (ii) may involve generating a polymer matrix as described herein in situ, on the optical waveguide. The method of generating the polymer matrix may be as described herein. For instance, the method of producing an optical sensor may comprise: (i) providing an optical waveguide; (ii) (a) disposing a polymeric support on the optical waveguide, wherein either a fluorophore or a counter-ion moiety is covalently bound to the polymeric support by a polymer linking moiety; and (b) suspending either a fluorophore or a counter-ion moiety, whichever is not covalently bound to the polymeric support via the polymer linking moiety, in the polymeric support. In a typical example, the method of producing an optical sensor may comprise: (i) providing an optical waveguide; (ii) (a) contacting the optical waveguide with a solution comprising a fluorophore monomer or a counter-ion monomer with one or more other monomers and initiating polymerisation, to produce a polymeric support disposed on the optical waveguide wherein either a fluorophore or a counter-ion moiety is covalently bound to the polymeric support by a polymer linking moiety; and (b) suspending either a fluorophore or a counter-ion moiety, whichever is not covalently bound to the polymeric support via the polymer linking moiety, in the polymeric support, to produce a polymer matrix as described herein. A washing step may be performed between (ii)(a) and (ii)(b), to remove unreacted monomers and/or waste products. It may be desirable to incorporate a membrane into the optical sensor during its production. This can be done after the polymer matrix of the invention is generated and is disposed on the sensor. For instance, the method of producing an optical sensor may comprise: (i) providing an optical waveguide; (ii) disposing a polymer matrix as described herein on the optical waveguide; and (iii) subsequently disposing a membrane on the polymer matrix. In other embodiments, the membrane may be incorporated at an earlier point in the procedure, for instance before the polymer matrix is generated. For example, in some embodiments the method of producing an optical sensor may comprise: (i) providing an optical waveguide; (ii) (a) contacting the optical waveguide and a membrane with a solution comprising a fluorophore monomer or a counter-ion monomer with one or more other monomers, and initiating polymerisation, to produce a polymeric support disposed on the optical waveguide wherein either a fluorophore or a counter-ion moiety is covalently bound to the polymeric support by a polymer linking moiety; and (b) suspending either a fluorophore or a counter-ion moiety, whichever is not covalently bound to the polymeric support via the polymer linking moiety, in the polymeric support. The solution comprising a fluorophore monomer or a counter-ion monomer with one or more other monomers may penetrate the membrane. For instance, the membrane may be soaked with said solution. The method of producing an optical sensor may comprise one or more additional steps after (i) and (ii), as follows. These additional steps may be performed in any order. The method of producing an optical sensor may further comprise a step of contacting the optical sensor with water (in the form of water vapour and/or more preferably liquid water). This allows the water content within the sensor to equilibrate with the external water. This ensures that, when the sensor is contacted with a sample comprising water (for instance an aqueous sample such as an aqueous solution, blood or saliva) the uptake or loss of water by the optical sensor is minimised. The method of producing an optical sensor may further comprise a step of disposing a reflector on the optical sensor. For instance, the method of producing an optical sensor may comprise a step of disposing a layer comprising one or more of polysulfone (PSU), polyethersulfone (PESU), and polyphenylsulfone (PPSU) on the polymer matrix. Where a gas-permeable membrane is disposed on the polymer matrix, the method of producing an optical sensor may comprise a step of disposing a layer comprising one or more of polysulfone (PSU), polyethersulfone (PESU), and polyphenylsulfone (PPSU) on the gas- permeable membrane. Polysulfones are preferred. The method of producing an optical sensor may further comprise incorporating a light source and/or a detector. The method may also comprise incorporating a control system and/or an analysis system. Method of measurement The sensor described herein can be used to detect CO 2 in a sample. The optical sensor can further be used to determine the amount of CO 2 in a sample. This can be accomplished by a simple intensity measurement. For instance, the optical output of the optical sensor (usually the light emitted by the fluorophore) may be calibrated using one or more solutions of known CO 2 content. Thus, the intensity I 1 of fluorescent emission at a wavelength λ1 can be determined as a function of CO 2 content. Alternatively or additionally, the absorbance A 1 at a wavelength λ 1’ can be determined as a function of CO 2 content. λ 1 and λ 1’ are the wavelengths at which the protonated form of the fluorophore emits/absorbs light, respectively; a calibration may also be performed for the deprotonated form. The emission (at λ 1 ) or absorbance (at λ 1’ ) occurring when excitation light is provided to the optical sensor contacting a sample is measured, and can then be used to determine the CO 2 content of the sample. Although the sensor may be operated in absorption or emission modes, it is preferred to use the sensor to detect fluorescent emission. This is because the path length of light through the sensing region of the optical sensor is generally too small to allow strong absorbance. The invention therefore provides a method of measuring the CO 2 content of a sample, the method comprising: (i) contacting an optical sensor as described herein with the sample; (ii) providing excitation light to the sensing region through the optical waveguide; and (iii) detecting the intensity I 1 of light emitted from the fluorophore at a first wavelength λ 1 through the optical waveguide. Contacting the sensor with a sample typically involves flowing the sample over the sensing region of the sensor or dipping the sensing region of the sensor into the sample. Alternatively, the invention provides a method of measuring the CO 2 content of a sample using absorption methodology, the method comprising: (i) contacting an optical sensor as described herein with the sample; (ii) providing excitation light to the sensing region through the optical waveguide; (iii) detecting light returning from the sensing region through the optical waveguide; and (iv) determining the absorbance A 1 of the fluorophore at a first wavelength λ 1’ . The method may comprise an initial step of calibrating the sensor. The method may comprise a subsequent calculation step, involving comparing the detected emission intensity I 1 or absorbance A 1 to a calibration curve in order to determine the CO 2 content of the sample. A single intensity measurement is advantageously simple. The accuracy of the result may be improved by taking one or more further measurements. Thus, in some embodiments, the method of measuring the CO 2 content of a sample comprises: (i) contacting an optical sensor as described herein with the sample; (ii) providing excitation light to the sensing region through the optical waveguide; (iii) detecting the intensity I 1 of light emitted by the fluorophore at a first wavelength λ 1 through the optical waveguide; and (iv) detecting the intensity I 2 of light emitted by the fluorophore at a second wavelength λ 2 through the optical waveguide. This method may further comprise, for instance, determining CO 2 content based on each of I 1 and I 2 and then taking an average (for instance a mean) of the two values in order to arrive at a mean value for the CO 2 content of the sample. Intensity measurements relying on absolute intensity are subject to inaccuracies occurring when fluorophore moieties are photobleached. Where a fluorophore moiety is photobleached, the total intensity of fluorescence emission decreases, inaccurately suggesting a change in concentration of the analyte. Thus, it is particularly preferred to use a ratiometric measurement to measure the CO 2 content of a sample. A ratiometric measurement method reduces or avoids errors occurring due to photobleaching of the optical sensor between the calibration process and the measurement. A ratiometric method can be used where the protonated and deprotonated forms of the fluorophore each undergo fluorescent emission at differing wavelengths, and/or where the protonated and deprotonated forms of the fluorophore absorb light at differing wavelengths. The ratiometric method involves comparing the intensity of emission (or absorbance) of the protonated and deprotonated forms, and using the ratio of those two emission intensities (or absorbances) to determine the relative quantities of protonated and deprotonated fluorophore. Thus, the CO 2 content of the sample may be determined. Determination of the CO 2 content of a sample can be performed either by calibrating the optical sensor (i.e. by determining the output of the sensor when contacted with one or more samples of known CO 2 content). Alternatively, the CO 2 content of a sample can be determined based on a mathematical model of the system. As with a simple intensity measurement, a ratiometric measurement can be performed in absorption or emission mode. However, it is preferred to perform the measurement in emission mode as the path length of light through the sensing region of the optical sensor is generally too short in practice to allow significant absorption. Accordingly, the invention provides a method of measuring the CO 2 content of a sample, the method comprising: (i) contacting an optical sensor as described herein with the sample; (ii) providing excitation light to the sensing region through the optical waveguide; (iii)detecting the intensity I 1 of light emitted by the fluorophore at a first wavelength λ 1 through the optical waveguide; (iv) detecting the intensity I 2 of light emitted by the fluorophore at a second wavelength λ 2 through the optical waveguide; and (v) comparing I 2 to I 1 . The method may comprise an initial step of calibrating the sensor. The method may comprise a subsequent calculation step, involving comparing the detected emission intensity ration I 1 :I 2 to a calibration curve in order to determine the CO 2 content of the sample. Each optical measurement is performed rapidly, typically taking less than a second. Moreover, the sample volume of the sensing region of the sensor is very small, and typically does not act as a reservoir for the sample. Consequently, the sensor has a very rapid response time. Further, the optical sensor does not substantially degrade or deplete the sample as it does not affect the sample save to remove a very small amount of the analyte therefrom. Accordingly, the sensor may be placed in contact with a biological sample (such as saliva or blood) which is inside the body or a patient or more usually is removed from and returned to the body of a patient. All these factors mean that the sensor is extremely well-suited to perform continuous measurements on a sample, particularly a biological sample, for long periods of time. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the method of measuring the CO 2 content of a sample is a method of continuously measuring the CO 2 content of the sample, wherein: − the optical sensor is continuously exposed to the sample for an exposure period of at least ten minutes; − excitation light is provided to the sensing region continuously or intermittently throughout the exposure period through the optical waveguide; and − the intensity I 1 of emission of the fluorophore at a first wavelength λ 1 , and optionally the intensity I 2 of emission of the fluorophore at a second wavelength λ 2 , is/are detected continuously or intermittently throughout the exposure period through the optical waveguide. The exposure period is preferably at least 1 hour. For instance, the exposure period may be at least 100 hours, typically up to 144 hours (7 days). The measurement method may therefore be used where it is important to monitor a biological sample (such as blood) for long periods, for instance during dialysis or open-heart surgery. Example A positively-charged counter-ion moiety covalently bound to a polymeric support was produced as follows. Step (a) Styrene (1.0 mass eq) and vinylbenzyl chloride (0.052 mass eq) were dissolved in toluene (55.7 vol). The solution was stirred and nitrogen bubbled through the solution for 30 minutes using a nitrogen dip tube. The nitrogen dip tube was then removed and the initiator AIBN (0.002 mass eq) was added; the solution was then heated to 60 °C for 18 hours. The resulting polymer, poly(styrene-co-vinylbenzyl chloride) was then precipitated out of solution by addition of methanol to give crude material which was twice dissolved in chloroform and precipitated with methanol. The resultant precipitate was then dried under high vacuum. Step (b) The poly(styrene-co-vinyl benzyl chloride) (1.0 eq), a polymeric support, was dissolved in anhydrous DMF (20 vol) and stirred under nitrogen until fully dissolved. 45% aqueous trimethylamine (4.4 vol), a counter-ion moiety precursor, was added and the resulting mixture stirred at RT overnight. After stirring for 20 hr, an IPC was taken which was consistent with the formation of a new product. Solvents were removed under vacuum at 60°C. The resultant product was poly(styrene-co-(vinylbenzyl)trimethylammonium hydroxide), containing 5wt% vinylbenzyl)trimethylammonium hydroxide).
Step (c)
The poly(styrene-co-(vinylbenzyl)trimethylammonium hydroxide) (500 mg) was dissolved in DCM (50 ml) and washed 3 times with NaOH (0.1 M, 50 ml). The solvent was then removed under vacuum
A reaction scheme involving steps (a) to (c) is shown below.
A polymer matrix further comprising a fluorophore moiety was then prepared by dissolving Poly(styrene-co-(vinylbenzyl)trimethylammonium hydroxide) (5wt% vinyl benzyl)trimethylammonium hydroxide) (30 mg) in dichloromethane (600 μl). The fluorophore moiety HTPS (2 μl, 10 mg.ml -1 in water) was added and the mixture was shaken resulting in the HTPS being extracted in the organic phase.
A sensor was then prepared by dipping the tip of an optical waveguide (specifically an optical fibre) into this solution and allowing the solution to dry, forming a polymer matrix on the tip of the optical fibre. The sensor was tested by being placed in an environment containing CO 2 .
Binding curves and performance data from these fibres can be seen in Figures 4 and 5. Figure 4 is a binding curve showing the binding of CO 2 to a polymer matrix in a sensor of the invention as a function of pCO 2 . The proportion of CO 2 which binds to the matrix matches very closely to the predicted values, showing that the sensor efficaciously detects CO 2 . Figure 5 shows the actual pCO 2 values and pCO 2 values measured by a sensor according to the invention over a period of five hours. Also shown in this figure is the temperature, which was unchanged between 35 and 40 °C over the test period. It is evident that the actual pCO 2 value (partial pressure of CO 2 in the sample under test), shown by a dotted line, matches closely with the value detected using the sensor of the invention (shown with a solid line). The accuracy of the sensor according to the invention is excellent. It was found that the sensor could detect pCO 2 values over the tested range (0.0 to 349.3 mmHg, 0-50%) with an accuracy of within 3.67%.
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