CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/353,413, filed June 17, 2022, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

[0002] This invention was made with government support under grant 1844920 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE

[0003] Access to clean water has been a continuous demand for public health for thousands of years in human society, and civil engineered water treatment plants have been constructed worldwide for water purification. However, the need for disinfected water is still critical in areas such as remote places, extreme environments, locations with severe poverty, and outer space stations. In these places, iodine (l ₂ ) is an effective broad-spectrum antimicrobial reagent used for water disinfection. For example, the United States Environmental Protection Agency recommends iodine as the emergency biocide for drinking water. The International Space Station employs iodine (in the form of I ₂ /KI) in the portable water dispenser (PWD) system for disinfection. The residual iodine in water (5-16 mg/L or ppm) after the treatment needs to be removed due to its negative metabolic effects and its astringent taste. These iodine residues are currently removed by a composite column packed with active charcoal/ion-exchange resin. However, the narrow working temperature of these columns (e.g., below 50 °C for the resin used for I" exchange) and the limited iodine/iodide breakthrough capacity stipulates the development of porous materials with wide working temperature (up to 90 °C), good iodine removal efficiency at low concentrations (~5 ppm), and high breakthrough capacities.

[0004] Iodine is widely used as an antimicrobial reagent for water disinfection in the wilderness and outer space, but residual iodine and iodide need to be removed for health reasons. Currently, it is challenging to remove low concentrations of iodine and iodide in water (~5 ppm). Furthermore, the remediation of iodine and iodide across a broad temperature range (up to 90 °C) has not previously been investigated.

[0005] Recently, a series of porous materials such as metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), covalent organic frameworks (COFs), and porous organic polymers (POPs) have been developed for iodine removal. In most cases, these porous materials demonstrated high capacitive iodine adsorptions at high iodine concentrations in the vapor phase, and limited progress had been achieved for low iodine residues. High capacitive iodine removal in the aqueous environment using hydrogen-bonded crosslinked organic frameworks, COFs, and POPs at ambient conditions has been previously shown. In these investigations, I- is introduced to stabilize I ₂ in water via the I ₂ + I- ⇌ I ₃ - equilibrium, but porous organic materials remove iodine (I ₂ ) only at high concentrations (>> 100 ppm) from water. These concentrations are much higher than the iodine residual levels (5-16 ppm) in treated drinking water. SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE [0006] The present disclosure provides a nitrate dimer-directed synthesis of a single- crystalline ionic hydrogen-bonded crosslinked organic framework (H _C OF-7). H _C OF-7 removes iodine and iodide species in water efficiently through halogen bonding and anion exchange, reducing the total iodine concentration to 0.22 ppm at room temperature. Packed H _C OF-7 columns were employed for iodine/iodide breakthrough experiments between 23 and 90 °C, and large breakthrough volumes were recorded (≥18.3 L/g). The high iodine/iodide removal benchmarks recorded under practical conditions make H _C OF-7 a promising adsorbent for water treatment. [0007] The present disclosure also uses melaminium moieties to construct an ionic H _C OF-7 for simultaneous iodine and iodide removal. H _C OF-7 adsorbs iodine through halogen bonding interactions and iodide via anion exchange. First, molecular precursor 1 possessing four allyl-melamine arms was synthesized and co-crystallized with nitric acid to form 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ -. Then, these melaminium-based single crystals were converted to single- crystalline ionic H _C OF-7 (Figure 1) through a photo-irradiated thiol-ene single-crystal to single-crystal (SCSC) transformation. The porous architecture was stabilized after thiol-ene crosslinking. The crystal structure of H _C OF-7 revealed that it is the first porous organic network connected through nitrate dimers. These nitrate dimers are hydrogen-bonded with melaminium moieties in H _C OF-7. H _C OF-7 removes I ₂ and/or I- species in aqueous solutions, and the NO ₃ -/I- anion exchange is more effective when I ₂ ●H _C OF-7 is used. At a 5 ppm dosing concentration of I ₂ /I-, H _C OF-7 reduced the residual I ₂ /I- concentrations to 0.22 ppm at 23 °C and 0.45 ppm at 90 °C, demonstrating excellent iodine/iodide removal efficiencies at a wide range of temperatures. H _C OF-7 columns showed high breakthrough volumes when iodinated water (5ppm of I ₂ /I-) was passed through, recorded as 20.0 L/g at 23 °C and 18.3 L/g at 90 °C. These benchmarks are significantly higher than any reported porous framework materials or porous polymers, demonstrating H _C OF-7’s promising potential for practical considerations. [0008] Also provided is an ionic hydrogen-bonded crosslinked organic framework H _C OF-7 through anion dimer-directed assembly followed by thiol-ene single-crystal to single-crystal transformation. H _C OF-7 shows significantly enhanced chemical stability compared to its molecular precursor crystal, which is attributed to the added ethanedithioether crosslinks. This ionic H _C OF-7 possesses 1D porous channels, strong iodine- binding melaminium moieties, and nitrate dimers for anion exchange. As a result, H _C OF-7 uptakes iodine and iodide collectively in the aqueous environment under a wide range of working temperatures (23–90 ºC). H _C OF-7 demonstrates excellent total iodine residue removal capability at low concentrations of iodine and iodide—the total residual iodine concentration was measured as low as 0.22 ppm from an intake of 5 ppm iodine/iodide solution. Packed H _C OF-7 columns showed large breakthrough volumes (18.3 to 20.3 L/g) in the dynamic adsorption experiments at different temperatures. The benchmarks for iodine and iodide removal were set using porous organic framework materials at different temperatures. This feature is particularly important for potential uses in extreme environments like the wild field or space stations. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES [0009] For a fuller understanding of the nature and objects of the disclosure, reference should be made to the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying figures. [0010] Figure 1. Schematic representation of a synergistic I ₂ /I- removal in water using an ionic H _C OF-7. [0011] Figure 2. (a) The chemical structure of 1, (b) its solid-state structure, and (c) super-structure. (d) The chemical structure of 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ -, (e) its solid-state structure, and (f) super-structure. (g) The nitrate dimer-directed hydrogen-bonding joint formed between two repulsive nitrate anions and four melaminium arms. (h) The flu topology of 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - _crystal . (i) Highlighted void space of 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - _crystal . [0012] Figure 3. (a) Synthesis of H _C OF-7 via an SCSC thiol-ene crosslinking. (b) Stacked FT-IR spectra of 1, 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - _crystal , and H _C OF-7. (c) Stacked Raman spectra of 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - _crystal and H _C OF-7. (d) Stacked ¹³ C solution NMR spectrum of 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - in DMSO-d ₆ (bottom, 150 MHz, 298 K) and solid-state ¹³ C cross-polarization magic angle spinning NMR spectrum of H _C OF-7 (100 MHz, 298 K). (e) Simulated and experimental PXRD profiles of 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - _crystal and H _C OF-7, respectively. [0013] Figure 4. (a) Crystal structure of H _C OF-7 with dithioether crosslinkages and nitrate dimer highlighted in ball-stick model. (b) Overlaid structures of 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - _crystal and H _C OF-7. Hydrogen atoms are omitted for clarity. (c) Covalent connections in H _C OF-7. Nitrate anions and hydrogens are omitted for clarity. (d) Highlighted void spaces of H _C OF-7. [0014] Figure 5. (a) Time-dependent iodine/triiodide adsorption of H _C OF-7 measured at different temperatures (23, 40, 50, 90 °C) using UV-Vis spectroscopy by monitoring the absorption band at 292 nm. Inset: fitted reaction rate versus the inverse temperature. (b) The weight-increased amounts of H _C OF-7, CHOP-7, and activated carbon after total uptake measured at different temperatures. (c) The I- exchange efficiency measured using H _C OF-7 and I ₂ •H _C OF-7 samples (0.1–0.3 g/g of I ₂ per H _C OF-7). The confidence coefficient p was obtained using Tukey's honest significance test. (d) Measured concentrations of total residual iodine (input: I ₂ + KI, 3.5 + 1.5 ppm) before and after adsorption using H _C OF-7 (6 mg) in deionized (DI) water in the presence of NO ₃ - (5 ppm), H ₂ PO ₄ - (5 ppm), SO ₄ ^2- (20 ppm), Cl- (80 ppm), HCO ₃ - (60 ppm), and their mixture. (e) Experimental setup of the temperature- controlled iodine/iodide breakthrough analysis. Iodinated DI or tap water (I ₂ + KI, 3.5 + 1.5 ppm) was pumped into a customized steel pre-column (d: 50 × l: 220 mm) and heated to the desired temperatures under continuous flow (5 mL/min). After passing through the H _C OF-7 column (d: 4.5 × l: 27 mm), the deiodinated water was collected by a fraction collector. (f) The total residual iodine (I ₂ + I-) concentrations measured in the breakthrough experiments. Each column was packed with 240 mg of H _C OF-7, activated carbon, or mixed-bed activated carbon/anion exchange resin. [0015] Figure 6. (a-c) The pcu topology of 1 _crystal crystal along the a-, b-, and c- axis, respectively. Monomer 1 monomer is defined as a six-connected node for constructing the hydrogen-bonded network. [0016] Figure 7. (a) Molecular structure of 1 _crystal (b) The head-to-head and side-to- side hydrogen-bonding interactions of DAT functional groups with chemical formula diagram. (c) The hydrogen-bonding connection between 1 (d) The 2×2×2 packing of 1 _crystal viewed along the a-axis (void space: 10.8 %). [0017] Figure 8. ¹ H NMR spectra (500 MHz, DMSO-d ₆ , 298 K) of 1 and 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal . [0018] Figure 9. TGA profiles of 1, 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal , and H _C OF-7 (heating rate: 10 ºC /min) under an N2 atmosphere. [0019] Figure 10. PXRD profiles of the simulated 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal and the experimental data of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal after being immersed in different solvents for 24 h and dried in the open air for 12 h. [0020] Figure 11. (a) Overlaid molecular structures and (b) the 1×1×1 packing of 1 _crystal and 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal . [0021] Figure 12. (a) Asymmetric unit and (b) the molecular structure of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal (c-f) The allyl groups with the distance between 4 to 10 Å in 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal , which could possibly be crosslinked by EDT. [0022] Figure 13. (a) Molecular structure of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal (b) The 2×2×2 packing of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal viewed along the a-axis with crosslinking active sites highlighted as red balls. (Void space: 35.6%) (c) The nitrate dimer connecting four 1 ·4H ⁺ monomers with nitrate dimer highlighted. (d) The mode of interactions between nitrate dimer with melaminium functional groups. (e) The nitrate dimer connecting a 2D chain in 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal . [0023] Figure 14. (a-c) The flu topology of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal along the a-, b-, and c- axis, respectively. The nitrate dimer is defined as a four-connected linker and 1•4H ⁺ as a six- connected node for constructing the hydrogen-bonded network. [0024] Figure 15. ¹ H NMR spectra (500 MHz, DMSO-d ₆ , 298 K) of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal after solvent exchange by THF and cyclohexane. [0025] Figure 16. ¹ H NMR spectra (500 MHz, DMSO-d ₆ , 298 K) of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal after EDT diffusion. The ratio of [1 ·4H ⁺ ]:[EDT]:[consumed allyl]:[unreacted allyl] is measured as 1:2.2:3:5. [0026] Figure 17. ¹ H NMR spectrum of H _C OF-7 soluble residue after crosslinking. Single crystals of H _C OF-7 (~5 mg) were added to 0.5 mL boiling DMSO-d ₆ to extract any unreacted species. Only trace organic residues were noticed in the ¹ H NMR spectrum. [0027] Figure 18. PXRD profiles of H _C OF-7 after being immersed in various solvents for 24 h, followed by vacuuming (8.0 Pa) for 24 h. [0028] Figure 19. (a) The asymmetric unit of H _C OF-7 containing half of the 1-like moiety, two nitrate anions, one and half of cyclohexane, and dithioether linkages. Three of the four alkylthioether chains are disordered over two positions, and the disordered components are labelled. (b) Distances of a partially assigned thioether linkage (one S and one C atoms) to the nearby alkyl carbon atoms in the H _C OF-7 crystal structure. The C-C distance between the C34A-C19 is 6.65Å. Since these carbon atoms are located on the pore surface, they are disordered over several positions. Although there was no discovery of discrete electron densities to bridge the partially assigned thioether linkage, the short distance between C34A and C49 (3.75 Å) suggests a disordered linkage connecting C19 and C34A. [0029] Figure 20. Different crosslinking connections in H _C OF-7. (a) A fraction of the EDT is intramolecularly connected. (b) Intermolecular connections in H _C OF-7, where one arm extends the network along the 100 axis (blue colored) and another extends along the 001 axis (cyan colored). (c) The packing structure of H _C OF-7 viewed along the 100 axis. EDT is shown in the ball-and-stick model, and other atoms are shown in capped stick model. Hydrogen atoms, solvent molecules, and anions are omitted for clarity. [0030] Figure 21. (a-c) The (4 ⁴ .8 ¹⁶ .12 ⁸ )(4) ₄ topology of H _C OF-7 along the a-, b-, and c- axis, respectively. The protonated pentaphenyl core and the dithioether moieties are defined as an eight-connected node and two-connected linkers, respectively. [0031] Figure 22. FT-IR spectra of compound 1, 1-EDT polymer, CHOP-7, and H _C OF-7. [0032] Figure 23. (a) TGA profiles of 1 and 1-EDT polymer (heating rate: 10 ºC /min) under an N2 atmosphere. (b) TGA profiles of CHOP-7 and H _C OF-7 (heating rate: 10 ºC /min) under an N ₂ atmosphere. [0033] Figure 24. CO ₂ sorption isotherm of H _C OF-7 recorded at 298 K. [0034] Figure 25. MeOH sorption isotherm of H _C OF-7 recorded at 298 K. [0035] Figure 26. (a) UV/Vis spectra of the standard iodide solution after 10 min reaction time with Leuco-crystal violet and N-chlorosuccinimide. (b) The linear fit of absorbance at 592 nm of standard iodide solution after 10 min of reaction time with Leuco- crystal violet and N-Chlorosuccinimide. [0036] Figure 27. UV/Vis spectra of the 0.07 mM KI solution, 0.07 mM KNO ₃ solution, and the mixture of (0.07 mM KI + 0.07 mM KNO ₃ ). [0037] Figure 28. The UV/Vis spectra of an I ₂ solution (0.59 mM, H ₂ O/MeOH = 99:1) in the presence of 0-12 equivalents of KI. [0038] Figure 29. The UV/Vis absorbances of I ₂ (0.59 mM) with 0-12 equivalent of KI measured at 292 nm and 354 nm. The equilibrium constant calculated as 816 M ^-1 and 782 M ^-1 at 292 nm and 354 nm, respectively. The averaged equilibrium constant is 792 ± 20 M ^-1 _. [0039] Figure 30. The time-dependent UV/Vis absorbance at 292 nm of I ₂ /I- aqueous solution (0.12 mM I ₂ , 0.5 mM KI, 292 nm) in the presence of 10 mg H _C OF-7 under different temperatures. [0040] Figure 31. (a) Time-dependent UV/Vis spectra of I ₂ /KI solution (I ₂ : 0.12 mM, KI: 0.50 mM, 15 mL) in presence of H _C OF-7 (10 mg) under 23 ºC. (b) Pseudo-first-order fitting of total iodine adsorption at 23 ºC by monitoring the absorption band at 292 nm, k = (2.59 ± 0.01) × 10 ^-4 s ^-1 . [0041] Figure 32. (a) Time-dependent UV/Vis spectra of I ₂ /KI solution (I ₂ : 0.12 mM, KI: 0.50 mM, 15 mL) in presence of H _C OF-7 (10 mg) under 40 ºC. (b) Pseudo-first-order fitting of total iodine adsorption at 40 ºC by monitoring the absorption band at 292 nm, k = (9.06 ± 0.14) × 10 ^-4 s ^-1 . [0042] Figure 33. (a) Time-dependent UV/Vis spectra of I ₂ /KI solution (I ₂ : 0.12 mM, KI: 0.50 mM, 15 mL) in presence of H _C OF-7 (10 mg) under 50 ºC. (b) Pseudo-first-order fitting of total iodine adsorption at 50 ºC by monitoring the absorption band at 292 nm, k = (1.34± 0.03) × 10 ^-3 s ^-1 . [0043] Figure 34. (a) Time-dependent UV/Vis spectra of I ₂ /KI solution (I ₂ : 0.12 mM, KI: 0.50 mM, 15 mL) in presence of H _C OF-7 (10 mg) under 90 ºC. (b) Pseudo-first-order fitting of total iodine adsorption at 90 ºC by monitoring the absorption band at 292 nm, k = (3.94± 0.10) × 10 ^-3 s ^-1 . [0044] Figure 35. Arrhenius-equation fitted data of total iodine adsorption (Ea = 35.3 ± 6.0 kJ/mol). [0045] Figure 36. (a) time-dependent UV/Vis spectra of an I ₂ aqueous solution (0.59 mM) in presence of H _C OF-7 (10 mg). (b) Fitted pseudo-first-order plot for I ₂ adsorption monitored at 460 nm, k = (6.65 ± 0.30) × 10 ^-4 s ^-1 . [0046] Figure 37. (a) Time-dependent UV/Vis spectra of I ₂ /KI aqueous solution (0.59 mM I ₂ + 0.59 mM KI) in presence of H _C OF-7 (10 mg). (b) Fitted pseudo-first-order plot for iodine (I ₂ and I ₃ -) adsorption monitored at 460 nm, k = (6.11 ± 0.23) × 10 ^-4 s ^-1 . (c) Fitted pseudo-first-order plot for iodine (I ₂ and I ₃ -) monitored at 400 nm, k = (6.20 ± 0.12) × 10 ^-4 s ^-1 . [0047] Figure 38. (a) Time-dependent UV/Vis spectra of I ₂ /KI aqueous solution (0.59 mM I ₂ + 1.18 mM KI) in presence of H _C OF-7 (10 mg). (b) Fitted pseudo-first-order plot for iodine (I ₂ and I ₃ -) adsorption monitored at 460 nm, k = (5.93 ± 0.21) × 10 ^-4 s ^-1 . (c) Fitted pseudo-first-order plot for iodine (I ₂ and I ₃ -) monitored at 400 nm, k = (6.30 ± 0.05) × 10 ^-4 s ^-1 . [0048] Figure 39. (a) Time-dependent UV/Vis spectra of I ₂ /KI aqueous solution (0.59 mM I ₂ + 7.08 mM KI) in presence of H _C OF-7 (10 mg). (b) Fitted pseudo-first-order plot for iodine (I ₂ and I ₃ -) adsorption monitored at 460 nm, k = (2.97 ± 0.06) × 10 ^-4 s ^-1 . (c) Fitted pseudo-first-order plot for iodine (I ₂ and I ₃ -) adsorption monitored at 400 nm, k = (2.93 ± 0.06) × 10 ^-4 s ^-1 . [0049] Figure 40. (a) UV/Vis spectra of I ₂ aqueous solution (0.79 mM) before and after H _C OF-7 (5 mg) addition using a 1 cm cuvette. (b-d) UV/Vis spectra of I ₂ /KI aqueous solution (0.79 mM I ₂ , b: 1.58 mM KI, c: 3.95 mM KI, d: 9.48 mM KI) before and after H _C OF-7 (5 mg) addition using a 0.1 cm cuvette. [0050] Figure 41. UV/Vis spectra of 3.5 mM KI solutions before and after I- exchange in the presence of H _C OF-7 (5 mg). The solutions were diluted 50 times before the measurements. [0051] Figure 42. I- exchange amount for H _C OF-7 (5 mg) in 3.5 mM KI solutions at 23 ºC, 50 ºC, and 90 ºC. [0052] Figure 43. FT-IR spectra of (a) H _C OF-7, (b) H _C OF-7 after I ₂ /KI adsorption, (c) H _C OF-7 after I ₂ /KI removal and deprotonation, and (d) H _C OF-7 after HNO ₃ re- protonation. [0053] Figure 44. PXRD profiles of (a) H _C OF-7, (b) H _C OF-7 after I ₂ /KI adsorption, and (c) H _C OF-7 after I ₂ /KI removal and HNO ₃ re-protonation. [0054] Figure 45. UV/Vis spectra of 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 g/L of I ₂ solution (5 mL) before and after H _C OF-7 (5mg) adsorption. [0055] Figure 46. UV/Vis spectra of the 3.5 mM KI solution before and after adsorbing by H _C OF-7, I ₂ ●H _C OF-7 (0.1 g/g), I ₂ ●H _C OF-7 (0.2 g/g), I ₂ ●H _C OF-7 (0.3 g/g) at 23 ºC. The samples were diluted 50 times before the measurement. [0056] Figure 47. Raman spectra of (a) H _C OF-7, (b) H _C OF-7 after soaking in I ₂ /KI solution (I ₂ : 0.87 M, KI: 1.02 M, 3 mL) for 72 h, and (c) H _C OF-7 after exposed to I ₂ vapor (45 ºC) for 72 h. [0057] Figure 48. PXRD profiles of as-synthesized H _C OF, H _C OF-7 after ball milling, and H _C OF-7 after the (3.5 ppm I ₂ + 1.5 ppm I-) breakthrough experiment and after I- (3.5 mM) exchange. [0058] Figure 49. Red: the total residual iodine [I ₂ + I-] concentrations after the adsorption of H _C OF-7 (6 mg) from a mixture of I ₂ /KI aqueous solutions (3.5 mg/L I ₂ + 1.5 mg/L I-) at different temperatures. Blue: the total residual iodine [I ₂ + I-] concentrations after the adsorption of H _C OF-7 (6 mg) from KI aqueous solutions (1.5 mg/L I-) at different temperatures. Black: the total residual iodine [I ₂ + I-] concentrations after adsorption of CHOP-7 (10 mg) from a mixture of I ₂ /KI aqueous solutions (3.5 mg/L I ₂ + 1.5 mg/L I-) at different temperatures. [0059] Figure 50. ¹ H NMR spectra (500 MHz, DMSO-d ₆ ) of compound 2 (17.2 mM, 0.5 mL DMSO-d ₆ ) titrated with a DMSO-d ₆ solution of iodine (0.858 M). From bottom to top: 2 only, 2 + 14.0 equivalents of iodine. [0060] Figure 51. ¹ H NMR spectra (500 MHz, CD ₃ CN /DMSO-d ₆ 4:1) of compound 2 (8.6 mM, 0.4 mL CD ₃ CN + 0.1 mL DMSO-d ₆ ) compound 2·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - (8.6 mM, 0.4 mL CD ₃ CN + 0.1 mL DMSO-d ₆ ). [0061] Figure 52. ¹ H NMR spectra (500 MHz, CD ₃ CN/DMSO-d ₆ 4:1) of compound 2 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - (8.6 mM, 0.4 mL CD ₃ CN + 0.1 mL DMSO-d ₆ ) titrated with a DMSO-d ₆ solution of iodine (0.429 M). From bottom to top: 2 only, 2 + 18.0 equivalents of iodine. [0062] Figure 53. Measured concentrations of total residual iodine (input: 5 ppm of I ₂ + I-) before and after static adsorption using H _C OF-7 (6 mg) in deionized (DI) water in the presence of NO ₃ - (5 ppm), H ₂ PO ₄ - (5 ppm), SO ₄ ^2- (20 ppm), Cl- (80 ppm), HCO ₃ - (60 ppm), and their mixture. [0063] Figure 54. Image of iodine solution (35 mg/L I ₂ + 15 mg/L I-) before and after through H _C OF-7 column. [0064] Figure 55. Images of H _C OF-7 column before and after the iodine residue removal breakthrough experiment. [0065] Figure 56. The total residual iodine (I ₂ + I-) concentration of a used I ₂ /I- ·H _C OF-7 column upon 1L of tap water passing through at 23 ºC. flow speed: 5 mL/min. [0066] Figure 57. ¹ H NMR spectrum of S1 in DMSO-d ₆ (500 MHz) recorded at 298 K. [0067] Figure 58. ¹³ C NMR spectrum of S1 in DMSO-d ₆ (150 MHz) recorded at 298 K. [0068] Figure 59. ¹ H NMR spectrum of S2 in DMSO-d ₆ (500 MHz) recorded at 298 K. [0069] Figure 60. ¹³ C NMR spectrum of S2 in DMSO-d ₆ (150 MHz) recorded at 298 K. [0070] Figure 61. ESI-HRMS spectrum of S2. [0071] Figure 62. ¹ H NMR spectrum of S3 in DMSO-d ₆ (500 MHz) recorded at 298 K. [0072] Figure 63. ¹³ C NMR spectrum of S3 in DMSO-d ₆ (150 MHz) recorded at 298 K. [0073] Figure 64. ESI-HRMS spectrum of S3. [0074] Figure 65. ¹ H NMR spectrum of 1 in DMSO-d ₆ (500 MHz) recorded at 298 K. [0075] Figure 66. ¹³ C NMR spectrum of 1 in DMSO-d ₆ (150 MHz) recorded at 298 K. [0076] Figure 67. ESI-HRMS spectrum of 1. [0077] Figure 68. ¹ H NMR spectrum of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal in DMSO-d ₆ (500 MHz) recorded at 298 K. [0078] Figure 69. ¹³ C NMR spectrum of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal in DMSO-d ₆ (150 MHz) recorded at 298 K. [0079] Figure 70. ¹ H NMR spectrum of 2 in DMSO-d ₆ (500 MHz) recorded at 298 K. [0080] Figure 71. ¹ H- ¹³ C HSQC NMR spectrum (500 MHz, DMSO-d ₆ ) of 1 recorded at 298 K. [0081] Figure 72. A schematic representation of iodine disinfection and residual iodine removal using ionic H _C OF-7. [0082] Figure 73. Iodine uptake amount for H _C OF-7, activated carbon and H _C OP-7 at different temperatures. H _C OP-7 is also referred to as “CHOP-7” herein. [0083] Figure 74. The residual concentration of [I ₂ + I-] after H _C OF-7 adsorption from a mixture of (3.5 mg/L I ₂ + 1.5 mg/L I-) solution and 1.5 mg/L I- aqueous solution at different temperatures. [0084] Figure 75. The residual concentration of [I ₂ + I-] after H _C OF-7 and H _C OP-7 adsorption from a mixture of (3.5 mg/L I ₂ + 1.5 mg/L I-) solution at different temperatures. [0085] Figure 76. I- uptake amount for H _C OF-7 at different temperatures. [0086] Figure 77. Iodine adsorption for H _C OF-7 at different initial concentrations. [0087] Figure 78. Langmuir model fitting of iodine adsorption for H _C OF-7 (q _max = 722.2 mg/g, K = 4.19 × 10 ^-3 L/mg). [0088] Figure 79. Raman spectrum of H _C OF-7 after I ₂ and I- uptake. [0089] Figure 80. The residual concentrations of total iodine (I ₂ + I-) in water after passing through the H _C OF-7, activated carbon, and the mixture-bed columns measured using the Leuco-crystal violet method. Iodinated water (I ₂ + KI, 3.5 + 1.5 ppm) was pumped into a customized steel precolumn (d: 50 × l: 220 mm) and heated to the desired temperatures under continuous flow (5 mL/min). DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DISCLOSURE [0090] Although claimed subject matter will be described in terms of certain embodiments, other embodiments, including embodiments that do not provide all of the benefits and features set forth herein, are also within the scope of this disclosure. Various structural, logical, and process step changes may be made without departing from the scope of the disclosure. [0091] Ranges of values are disclosed herein. The ranges set out a lower limit value and an upper limit value. Unless otherwise stated, the ranges include all values to the magnitude of the smallest value (either lower limit value or upper limit value) and ranges between the values of the stated range. [0092] As used herein, unless otherwise stated, the term “group” refers to a chemical entity that is monovalent (i.e., has one terminus that can be covalently bonded to other chemical species), divalent, or polyvalent (i.e., has two or more termini that can be covalently bonded to other chemical species). The term “group” also includes radicals (e.g., monovalent and multivalent, such as, for example, divalent radicals, trivalent radicals, and the like). Illustrative examples of groups include: [0093] As used herein, unless otherwise indicated, the term “aliphatic groups” refers to branched or unbranched hydrocarbon groups that, optionally, contain one or more degrees of unsaturation. Degrees of unsaturation include, but are not limited to, alkenyl groups, alkynyl groups, and aliphatic cyclic groups. Aliphatic groups may be a C ₁ to C ₂₀ aliphatic group, including all integer numbers of carbons and ranges of numbers of carbons therebetween (e.g., C ₁ , C ₂ , C ₃ , C ₄ , C ₅ , C ₆ , C ₇ , C ₈ , C ₉ , C ₁₀ , C ₁₁ , C ₁₂ , C ₁₃ , C ₁₄ , C ₁₅ , C ₁₆ , C ₁₇ , C ₁₈ , C ₁₉ , and C ₂₀ ). Aliphatic groups may be unsubstituted or substituted with one or more substituents. Examples of substituents include, but are not limited to, heteroatoms (e.g., -O, - S, -N, -P), halogens (-F, -Cl, -Br, and -I), aliphatic groups (e.g., alkyl groups, alkenyl groups, alkynyl groups, and the like), halogenated aliphatic groups (e.g., trifluoromethyl group and the like), aryl groups, halogenated aryl groups, alkoxide groups, amine groups, nitro groups, carboxylate groups, carboxylic acids, ether groups, thioether or sulfide groups, alcohol groups, alkyne groups (e.g., acetylenyl groups and the like), and the like, and combinations thereof. Aliphatic groups may be alkyl groups, alkenyl groups, alkynyl groups, or carbocyclic groups, and the like. [0094] As used herein, unless otherwise indicated, the term “alkyl group” refers to branched or unbranched saturated hydrocarbon groups. Examples of alkyl groups include, but are not limited to, methyl groups, ethyl groups, propyl groups, butyl groups, isopropyl groups, tert-butyl groups, and the like. For example, the alkyl group is C ₁ to C ₂₀ , including all integer numbers of carbons and ranges of numbers of carbons therebetween (e.g., C ₁ , C ₂ , C ₃ , C ₄ , C ₅ , C ₆ , C ₇ , C ₈ , C ₉ , C ₁₀ , C ₁₁ , C _12, C ₁₃ , C ₁₄ , C ₁₅ , C ₁₆ , C ₁₇ , C ₁₈ , C ₁₉ , and C ₂₀ ). The alkyl group may be unsubstituted or substituted with one or more substituents. Examples of substituents include, but are not limited to, various substituents such as, for example, halogens (-F, -Cl, - Br, and -I), aliphatic groups (e.g., alkyl groups, alkenyl groups, alkynyl groups, and the like), aryl groups, alkoxide groups, carboxylate groups, carboxylic acids, ether groups, amine groups, and the like, and combinations thereof. [0095] The present disclosure provides organic frameworks. The organic frameworks comprise, consistent essentially of, or consist of a plurality of linked monomers. The monomers may be linked covalently and/or ionically. Also disclosed are articles comprising the organic frameworks, methods of making the organic frameworks, and methods of using the organic frameworks. The organic frameworks may be used to remove I ₂ and I- from a medium (e.g., water). [0096] Iodine is widely used as an antimicrobial reagent for water disinfection in extreme environments (e.g., wild fields and outer space), but the residual iodine needs to be removed for health reasons. However, it is challenging to remove these residues due to the low concentration of iodine and iodides (~ 5 ppm), especially across a broad temperature range (up to 90 °C). This work provided the development of a single-crystalline ionic hydrogen-bonded crosslinked organic framework (H _C OF-7), which was synthesized through a nitrate dimer-templated crystallization, followed by single-crystal to single-crystal crosslinking. H _C OF-7 removes iodine and iodide species in water through halogen bonding interactions and anion exchange. Furthermore, the adsorbed iodine in H _C OF-7 promotes the anion exchange, effectively reducing the total iodine residues from 5 to 0.22 ppm at room temperature. The packed H _C OF-7 columns were employed for iodine breakthrough experiments between 23-90 °C, and large breakthrough volumes were recorded (20.3-18.3- L/g), respectively. These results provide design principles for a collective removal of neutral and anionic iodine residues in the aqueous environment at low concentrations. This work also sets up benchmarks using porous framework materials for drinking water disinfection and iodine removal for practical uses. [0097] In an aspect, the present disclosure provides organic frameworks. The organic frameworks may be crystalline and be a plurality of single crystals. The organic frameworks have a hydrogen-bonded network that may help define the dimensions of the apertures defined by the monomeric units of the organic frameworks. [0098] The organic frameworks may be made from various components/monomers. For example, a monomer may comprise a plurality of the following group: , which may be referred to as “A groups,” where R’ is –NH– or –O–. One or more A groups may be covalently attached to: , which may be referred to as “B groups,” where each R may individually be chosen from hydrogen, methoxy groups, ethoxy groups, alkoxy groups, alkylamino groups, alkyl ester groups, and alkyl groups. For example, the B groups may have the following structure: . The A groups may further be covalently attached to one or more other A groups (which are attached to other B groups) via a crosslinking group and/or ionically bound via a counterion (e.g., NO ₃ -). The crosslinking group may have the following structure: , wherein n is 2 to 8 and m is 1 to 8. In various embodiments, the crosslinking groups have the following structure: .  Other non-limiting examples of crosslinking groups include: Each A group may be attached by one or two crosslinking groups to other A groups. The counterions may be exchanged with other counterions after covalent crosslinking. [0099] In various embodiments, the A groups may be crosslinked by various ions. For example, the monomers are ionically crosslinked prior to covalent crosslinking. The ions may be anions. For example, the ions are NO ₃ - groups. Other examples of anions include, but are not limited to, SO ₄ ^2- , CO ₃ ^2- , HSO ₄ -, HCO ₃ -, H ₂ PO ₄ ^-- , HPO ₄ ^2- , PO ₄ ^3- , Cl-, F-, and Br-. These ions may be replaced or exchanged following covalent crosslinking. For example, ions (e.g., nitrate ions) may be replaced with I ₂ and/or I- following covalent crosslinking. [0100] The orientation of the monomers in the organic framework defines one or more apertures. The apertures may have various dimensions (e.g., a longest linear dimension, such as, for example, a diameter). The apertures may or may not be uniformly shaped. For example, each aperture may have a longest linear dimension may be 3–15 Å, including all 0.1 Å values and ranges therebetween (e.g., 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, or 15 Å). In various embodiments, one or more of the apertures have are about 6 Å x 12 Å. Ions may be in the void of the aperture. The size of the aperture may be controlled during crystallization of the monomers. For example, crystallization with different solvents will result in different sized apertures. Different ions may affect the size of the aperture. [0101] The organic framework may be crystalline. The crystals may be single crystals. The crystal system may be a triclinic crystal system. It may have a P-1 space group. In other embodiments, the crystal system may be a monoclinic crystal system and have a P2 ₁ /cspace group. The crystal system and space group is determined by the solvent used during crystallization. In various embodiments, the organic frameworks of the present disclosure do not comprise amorphous domains. In various embodiments, the organic frameworks are at least 90% (e.g., 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% and 99%). In various embodiments, the organic frameworks are greater than 99% crystalline. In other embodiments, such as, for example, CHOP-7 embodiments, the organic frameworks may be up to 100% amorphous, or they may be 100% amorphous. [0102] In an aspect, the present disclosure provides methods of making organic frameworks of the present disclosure. The methods for making the organic frameworks are described herein. [0103] In various embodiments, a method for making an organic framework comprises reacting with to form The reaction may be performed under basic conditions (e.g., a reaction mixture comprising K ₂ CO ₃ in THF at 0 ºC). R may be individually chosen from hydrogen, methoxy groups, ethoxy groups, alkoxy groups, alkylamino groups, alkyl ester groups, and alkyl groups. Each R’ may independently be –NH– or –O–. Each R” may independently be –NH ₂ and –OH. The method further comprises reacting

with to form R” may independently be –NH ₂ or –OH, and each X is an aliphatic group. For example, X may be chosen from where n is 1, 2, or 3. The reaction may be performed under basic conditions (e.g., a reaction mixture comprising DIPEA at 120 ºC). The method further comprises contacting with a solvent to generate complexation of ions and/or solvent groups to the monomers. For example, the monomer is contacted with an acid (e.g., nitric acid) such that the resulting conjugate base ions (e.g., nitrate ions) are complexed to the monomers. The monomers may then be ionically crosslinked. Following by this, the ionically crosslinked monomers are covalently crosslinked by contacting with a linking group, such as, for example, [0104] In some embodiments, for example, the method for making an organic framework comprises reacting to form

. The reaction may be performed under basic conditions (e.g., a reaction mixture comprising K2CO ₃ in THF at 0 ºC). R may be individually chosen from hydrogen, methoxy groups, ethoxy groups, alkoxy groups, alkylamino groups, alkyl ester groups, and alkyl groups. The method further comprises reacting to form

. The reaction may be performed under basic conditions (e.g., a reaction mixture comprising DIPEA at 120 ºC). The method further comprises contacting with a solvent to generate complexation of ions and/or solvent groups to the monomers. For example, the monomer is contacted with an acid (e.g., nitric acid) such that the resulting conjugate base ions (e.g., nitrate ions) are complexed to the monomers. The monomers may then be ionically crosslinked. Following by this, the ionically crosslinked monomers are covalently crosslinked by contacting with a linking group, such as, for example, The resulting organic framework is depicted in Figure 3a and 6. [0105] Various acids may be used in a method of preparing an organic framework of the present disclosure. Examples of acids include, but are not limited to, H ₂ SO ₄ , H ₂ CO ₃ , H ₂ SO ₄ , H ₃ PO ₄ , HNO ₃ , HCl, HF, and HBr. [0106] Various crosslinkers may be used in a method of making an organic framework of the present disclosure. Examples of crosslinkers include, but are not limited to, propane dithiol, butanedithiol, [0107] In an aspect, the present disclosure provides articles of manufacture. The article of manufacture comprises one or more organic frameworks of the present disclosure. The article of manufacture may be referred to as an article. The article may be a filtration funnel, a centrifuge tube, a chromatography column, a vessel, a reaction vessel, a filtration cartridge, a filtration membrane, a fritted funnel, a syringe, or the like. [0108] In an aspect, the present disclosure provides a method for removing iodine (e.g., I ₂ , I-, and/or I ₃ -) from an aqueous medium, such as, for example, from water. [0109] The method may comprise contacting water with an organic framework of the present disclosure. The organic framework may be a plurality of single crystals. The water may be contacted with an article comprising the organic framework. The organic framework may be disposed on a surface of the organic framework. The contacting may be done at a temperature greater than room temperature (e.g., 40 ºC or greater, 50 ºC or greater, 60 ºC or greater, 70 ºC or greater, 80 ºC or greater, 85 ºC or greater, or at least 90 ºC). Following contact with the organic frameworks of the present disclosure, the potability of the contacted water is expected to increase. [0110] In various embodiments, the organic frameworks of the present disclosure may be used to capture or exchange radioactive iodine. For example, radioactive iodine may be released into water and/or soil as I ₂ or I-. The contaminated matter (e.g., soil, water, and/or the like) may be contacted with an organic framework or article of the present disclosure. [0111] The steps of the method described in the various embodiments and examples disclosed herein are sufficient to carry out the methods of the present invention. Thus, in an embodiment, the method consists essentially of a combination of the steps of the methods disclosed herein. In another embodiment, the method consists of such steps. [0112] The following Statements provide various embodiments of the present disclosure. Statement 1. An organic framework comprising a plurality of linked monomers comprising one or more (“A group”) and the organic framework is at least 95% (e.g., 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) crystalline. Statement 2. An organic framework according to Statement 1, wherein the monomers further comprise: (“B group”), wherein each R is individually chosen from hydrogen, methoxy groups, ethoxy groups, alkoxy groups, alkylamino groups, alkyl ester groups, and alkyl groups; and each B group is covalently bonded to one or more A group. Statement 3. An organic framework according to Statements 1 or 2, wherein the B group has the following structure: . Statement 4. An organic framework according to Statement 3, comprising (e.g., wherein the monomer has the following structure): Statement 5. An organic framework according to Statement 4, comprising (e.g., wherein the monomer has the following structure):

Statement 6. An organic framework according to Statement 5, wherein one or more C groups are connected to other C groups via a crosslinking group.

Statement 7. An organic framework according to Statement 5, comprising (e.g., wherein monomer has the following structure):

wherein each X is independently chosen from and n is 1, 2, or 3. Statement 8. An organic framework according to Statement 7, wherein the monomers are crosslinked via NO ₃ - ions. Statement 9. An organic framework according to Statement 6, wherein the crosslinked C groups have NO ₃ - bound thereto. Statement 10. An organic framework according to Statement 6, wherein the crosslinked C groups have I ₂ and/or I- and/or I ₃ - bound thereto. Statement 11. An organic framework according to Statement 6, wherein the crosslinking group has the following structure: wherein n is 2 to 8 and m is 1 to 8. Statement 12. An organic framework according to Statement 11, wherein the crosslinking group has the following structure: . Statement 13. An organic framework according to any one of the preceding Statements, wherein the organic framework defines one or more apertures. Statement 14. An organic framework according to Statement 13, wherein the aperture has a longest linear dimension of 3–15 Å, including all 0.1 Å values and ranges therebetween (e.g., 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, or 15 Å). Statement 15. An organic framework according to Statement 13, wherein the aperture is about or is 6 Å x 12 Å. Statement 16. An organic framework made by a process comprising: reacting to form wherein R is hydrogen, methoxy groups, ethoxy groups, alkoxy groups, alkylamino groups, alkyl ester groups, or alkyl groups, and R” is –NH ₂ or –OH;

reacting wherein X is chosen from and n is 1, 2, or 3, to form wherein R’ is –NH– or –O–, X is chosen from and n is 1, 2, or 3;

contacting with an acid (e.g., nitric acid), such that conjugate base ions of the acid (e.g., nitrate ions) complex to reacting the ion-complexed with a crosslinker (e.g., ), wherein a crosslinked organic framework is formed. Statement 17. An organic framework according to Statement 16, wherein the acid is H ₂ SO ₄ , H ₂ CO ₃ , H ₂ SO ₄ , H ₃ PO ₄ , HNO ₃ , HCl, HF, or HBr. Statement 18. An organic framework according to Statement 16 or Statement 17, wherein R is a methoxy group. Statement 19. An article of manufacture comprising an organic framework according to any one of the preceding Statements. Statement 20. An article of manufacture according to Statement 19, wherein the article is a vessel, a column, a centrifuge tube, a filter, a fritted funnel, a syringe, or a filtration membrane. Statement 21. A method for removing I ₂ and/or I- comprising contacting a medium comprising I ₂ and/or I- with an organic framework according to any one of Statements 1–18. Statement 22. A method according to Statement 21, wherein the medium is water. Statement 23. A method according to Statement 21 or Statement 22, wherein the organic framework is a plurality of single crystals. Statement 24. A method according to any one of Statements 21–23, wherein an article comprises or has disposed on a surface thereof the organic framework. Statement 25. A method according to any one of Statements 21–2, wherein the contacting is performed at a temperature greater than room temperature. Statement 26. A method according to any one of Statements 21–25, wherein the temperature is 40 ºC or greater. Statement 27. A method according to any one of Statements 21–26, wherein the temperature is 50 ºC or greater. Statement 28. The method according to any one of Statements 21–27, wherein the temperature is 85 ºC or greater. Statement 29. A method according to any one of Statements 21–28, wherein the temperature is at least 90 ºC. [0113] The following example is presented to illustrate the present disclosure. It is not intended to be limiting in any matter. EXAMPLE 1 [0114] This example provides a description of organic frameworks of the present disclosure and methods of making and using same. [0115] Monomer 1 was designed with a 1,2,4,5-tetraphenylbenzene core to increase the steric barrier for the four surrounding phenyl groups, forcing them to rotate perpendicularly to the center dimethoxy-benzene moiety to prevent π-π stacking in the solid- state (Figure 2a). Monomer 1 was synthesized in four steps in a high yield without column chromatography purification (Scheme 1). Single crystals of 1 were obtained by diffusing methanol into the DMSO solution of 1 at room temperature for 5 days. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction (SCXRD) analysis (Figure 2b-c) showed that 1 crystallized in a monoclinic P21/n space group (a = 15.0148, b = 14.7706, c = 16.4854 Å, α = γ = 90°, β = 103.120°). The dihedral angles between the four phenyl rings and the center dimethoxy-benzene moiety are measured between 53º and 63º (Figure 2b), which are larger than those in the tetraphenylethylene core of prior H _C OFs. In the solid state, each monomer forms 16 intermolecular hydrogen bonds (N•••NH distances: 2.99–3.09 Å) with the neighboring monomers, affording a hydrogen-bonded network (Figure 2c) of pcu topology (Figure 6). 1 _crystal possesses 11% isolated voids occupied by disordered solvents (Figure 7). [0116] Protonation of the melamine groups of 1 using nitric acid afforded 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ -, and the proton resonance of the melaminium NH was found at 10.3 ppm in the ¹ H NMR spectrum (Figure 8). Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) showed a mass loss of 17% at around 160 °C, attributed to nitrate loss in 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - (Figure 9). Single crystals of 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - were obtained by crystallizing 1 in the presence of nitric acid (Figure 2d). 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - _crystal crystallized in a triclinic space group (Figure 2e-i, a = 10.3457, b = 15.3155, c = 16.9364 Å, α = 77.121°, β = 77.174°, γ = 81.156°). Each melaminium moiety of 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - acts as a hydrogen-bonding donor, which binds two anionic nitrates with O•••HN hydrogen bonds ranging between 2.78 to 2.94 Å. The nitrate anion dimer is only 3.27 Å apart (N•••N distance, Figure 2g), which measures the shortest nitrate-to-nitrate distance in solid-state assemblies, thus suggesting a large Coulombic repulsion between the two nitrates. The donor-donor-donor (DDD) and acceptor-acceptor-acceptor (AAA) arrays formed between melaminiums and nitrate dimer are non-planar with an angle of 111.3º. One nitrate is further stabilized by two additional side-on Ph‒NH‒melaminium and NH-allyl hydrogen bonds (Figure 2g, yellow and green colored moieties), forming a third DD-AA array. This observation, in conjunction with other reported nitrate dimer assemblies, suggests that the nitrate-melamine assembly is sensitive to the molecular geometry of the melamine-containing molecule and its solid structure. Compared to HCO ₃ -, H ₂ PO ₄ - or HSO ₄ - anion dimers/clusters, the lack of hydrogen bonds between the two nitrates makes them less stable and directional in organizing the hydrogen-bonded networks. Consequently, the nitrate dimers should be more active in anion exchange to reduce their Coulombic repulsion.1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - _crystal has limited stability since it lost crystallinity when exposed to diethylether, ethylacetate, or open-air (Figure 10). It also dissolves in dichloromethane, acetone, acetonitrile, and methanol. [0117] The nitrate dimer may be a four-connected linker and 1•4H ⁺ may be a six- connected node for the construction of the hydrogen-bonded network. The topology of 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - _crystal is assigned as a 3D network {4 ¹² .6 ¹² .8 ⁴ } ₂ of flu topology (Figure 2h). The void space of 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - _crystal is calculated as 35% (Figure 2i), filled by 1,4-dioxanes. There are interconnected 1D channels along the a-, b-, and c-axis, and their aperture sizes are measured as 3.9 × 19.4, 6.8 × 7.6, and 4.6 × 5.9 Å, respectively. The olefin groups of the diallyl-melaminium moieties are decorated on the accessible pore surface with various distances between 5 to 9 Å (Figure 12 and Table 2), which are suitable for crosslinking using 1,2-ethanedithiol (EDT). [0118] It was discovered that EDT could not replace the 1,4-dioxanes in the voids of 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - _crystal . Hence, the 1,4-dioxane molecules in 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - _crystal were first replaced by THF (Figure 15) without diminishing the crystallinity. The THF-filled single crystals of 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - were immersed in a cyclohexane solution of EDT (133.2 μL/mL) for 3 d in the dark (Figure 16). After UV irradiation, the crosslinked samples were subjected to ¹ H NMR and elemental analyses (Figure 17 and Table 3). Gradually increasing the concentration of EDT from 33.3 to 133.2 μL/mL, a close-to-stoichiometrically crosslinked H _C OF-7 was obtained (1•4H ⁺ •[NO ₃ -] _4.0 •[EDT] _3.95 ). In the FT-IR spectra (Figure 3b), the olefin bending band at 915 cm ^-1 disappeared after crosslinking. Only trace thiol stretching band was found at 2600 cm ^-1 in the Raman spectrum (Figure 3c). In the solid-state ¹³ C NMR spectrum (Figure 3d), new carbon resonances at 30.1 ppm attributed to the dithioether were observed, and resonances attributed to the olefins (115 and 131 ppm) disappeared after crosslinking, indicating the complete allyl-to-thioether conversion. H _C OF-7 showed a nearly identical powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) profile compared to that of 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - _crystal (Figure 3e). In contrast to 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - _crystal , H _C OF-7 remained highly crystalline when exposed to water, dichloromethane, acetonitrile, acetone, open-air, and vacuum (Figure 18). The greatly improved chemical stability of H _C OF-7 comes from the covalent thioether linkages. [0119] H _C OF-7 is suitable for SCXRD analysis (Figure 4a), and its cell volume expanded by 7.3 % compared to that of 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - _crystal . The hydrogen-bonded network of H _C OF-7 remained largely identical to 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - _crystal . Analysis of the overlaid structure (Figure 4b) of 1•4H ⁺ •4NO ₃ - _crystal and H _C OF-7 showed that the O•••NH hydrogen bonding distances between melaminium and nitrate dimers increased from 2.78 to 2.88 Å after crosslinking. The distance between the nitrates in the anion dimer increased from 3.27 to 3.48 Å. The larger hydrogen bond lengths and nitrate-nitrate distances suggest weaker hydrogen bonding interactions between the melaminiums and nitrate dimers in H _C OF-7, thus making anion exchange more favorable. [0120] In the refined solid-state structure of H _C OF-7 (Figure 4c), each 1•4H ⁺ moiety is connected to four neighboring moieties via dithioether crosslinks. Electron densities attributed to the dithioether crosslinkages indicate the co-existence of several crosslinking paths (Figure 20). The dithioether may be considered a two-connected linker and 1•4H ⁺ moiety may be considered an eight-connected node of the covalently crosslinked network. The topology of H _C OF-7 is assigned as a 2-nodal 2D network with a point symbol of (4 ⁴ .8 ¹⁶ .12 ⁸ )(4) ₄ (Figures 20-21). H _C OF-7 exhibits 1D channels along the b-axis with a pore aperture of 5.9 × 7.2 Å and void space of 20% (Figure 4d), which are large enough for the adsorption of guest molecules such as I ₂ (r~ 2.0 Å) and I- (r~ 2.1 Å). [0121] In the aqueous environment, I ₂ is stabilized by an excess of KI via the triiodide equilibrium (I ₂ + I-⇌ I ₃ -) with an equilibrium constant of 723 M ^-1 . A UV/Vis titration in a solution of H ₂ O/MeOH = 99:1 was performed and the equilibrium constant Ka was measured as 792 M ^-1 at 23 °C (Figures 28-29). When H _C OF-7 (10 mg) was added to an I ₂ /KI solution (0.12 mM I ₂ + 0.5 mM KI, 15 mL), the absorption bands attributed to I ₂ and I ₃ - diminished completely, and the adsorption band of I- decreased moderately in the UV-Vis spectra (Figures 31-34). The adsorption of iodine/triiodide (I ₂ /I ₃ -) is accelerated (Figure 5a) at higher temperatures. Compared to the removal of >99 % of iodine/triiodide in 6 h at 23 °C, this process only takes 15 min at 90 °C. The accelerated iodine/triiodide adsorption at higher temperatures is attributed to easier disruption of the hydrogen-bonded network and faster mass transport within the porous material. The adsorption of iodine/triiodide fits with the pseudo-first-order kinetics, and the activation energy barrier of iodine/triiodide adsorption is calculated as 35.3 ± 6.0 kJ/mol (Figure 5a, inset). [0122] When H _C OF-7 was immersed in a concentrated I ₂ /KI solution (0.87 M I ₂ + 1.02 M KI), the weight-increased amount resulting from the total iodine uptake (I ₂ /I ₃ -/I-) was measured as 1.39 ± 0.07 g/g at 23 °C by gravimetric analysis (Figure 5b). At higher temperatures, the weight-increased amounts of H _C OF-7 gradually reduced to 1.20 ± 0.06 g/g, and 0.97 ± 0.11 g/g, at 50 and 90 °C, respectively. In comparison, the total iodine adsorptions of active charcoal measured under the same conditions are much lower, at 0.29 ± 0.02 g/g at 23 °C and 0.16 ± 0.02 g/g at 90 °C, respectively (Figure 5b). To reveal the contribution of the crystalline framework of H _C OF-7 for total iodine removal, an amorphous analog of H _C OF-7 was also synthesized, namely crosslinked hydrogen-bonded organic polymer (CHOP-7, Scheme 3), by crosslinking 1 with EDT followed by HNO ₃ protonation. Despite the nearly identical chemical composition to H _C OF-7, the total iodine uptakes of CHOP-7 at different temperatures were lower. The weight-increased amounts of CHOP-7 after the uptake of various iodine species were measured as 0.93 ± 0.08 g/g at 23 °C and 0.67 ± 0.03 at 90 °C (Figure 5b). These results highlight the importance of the nitrate dimer containing crystalline framework in promoting total iodine removal. [0123] In principle, H _C OF-7 may remove various iodine species through the direct adsorption of I ₃ -, or the co-adsorption of I ₂ and I-. To understand the adsorption process, the rates of iodine removal were measured in an H ₂ O/MeOH = 99:1 solution in the presence of different equivalents of KI (Table 6 and Figures 36-39). In the absence of KI, the rate of I ₂ removal was measured as 6.65 ± 0.30 × 10 ^-4 s ^-1 at 23 °C. When I ₂ was mixed with 12 equiv. of KI to increase the population of I ₃ - to 84% at the initial equilibrium, the iodine removal rate (accounting for I ₂ and I ₃ -) decreased to 2.97 ± 0.06 × 10 ^-4 s ^-1 . Furthermore, the iodine removal efficiency of H _C OF-7 was reduced from 83% in the absence of KI to 48% in the presence of 12 equiv. of KI (Table 7 and Figure 40). The reduced iodine adsorption rates and efficiencies in the presence of KI indicated that the co-adsorption of I ₂ and I- is the major adsorption path, where H _C OF-7 adsorbs I ₂ in solution via halogen bonding interactions between the I ₂ and melaminium moieties, shifting the equilibrium away from the formation of I ₃ -. [0124] H _C OF-7 likely removes I- through a nitrate-to-iodide (NO ₃ -/I-) exchange. When H _C OF-7 (5 mg) was immersed in a KI aqueous solution (3.5 mM, NO ₃ -: I- ratio= 1:1), 27 ± 1% of NO ₃ - in H _C OF-7 was exchanged to I- at 23 °C (70.7± 1.8 mg/g, Figure 5c). After the anion exchange, the N‒O stretching band at 1322 cm ^-1 attributed to the NO ₃ - decreased significantly in the FT-IR spectra (Figure 43). Despite a moderate NO ₃ -/I- exchange efficiency at equal moles of NO ₃ - and I-, it was noticed that the adsorbed I ₂ in H _C OF-7 (I ₂ ●H _C OF-7) promotes anion exchange (Figure 5c). I ₂ ●H _C OF-7 samples were prepared by immersing H _C OF-7 in the methanolic solutions of I ₂ (Figure 45). When samples of I ₂ ●H _C OF- 7 (0–0.3 g/g) were employed for the NO ₃ -/I- exchange at 23 °C, the anion exchange efficiency increased from 27 ± 1% to 37 ± 2% (Figure 5c). These results indicate that despite iodine adsorption and NO ₃ -/I- exchange taking place separately, the formation of polyiodide (I ₃ - and I ₅ -, Figure 47) inside H _C OF-7 promotes the anion exchange efficiency. After the I ₂ adsorption and NO ₃ -/I- exchange, H _C OF-7 lost crystallinity due to the disruption of the hydrogen-bonded network (Figure 44). [0125] To mimic the iodine/iodide removal in water disinfection, an I ₂ /KI solution was prepared at 5 ppm (I ₂ : 3.5 ppm, I-: 1.5 ppm) and a KI solution at 1.5 ppm before iodine/iodide removal. At this concentration, the population of triiodide is negligible (Table 4). The total residual iodine (I ₂ + I-) was measured using the Leuco-crystal violet method (Scheme 4). H _C OF-7 showed excellent total iodine removal capabilities for the I ₂ /KI solutions, and the total residual iodine concentrations were measured as 0.22 ± 0.02 (23 °C), 0.25 ± 0.02 (40 °C), 0.32 ± 0.01 (50 °C), 0.40 ± 0.01 (70 °C), and 0.45 ± 0.03 ppm (90 °C) (Figures 5d and 49). In contrast, the total residual iodine concentrations of H _C OF-7 for the KI solutions were measured as 0.38 ± 0.02 (23 °C), 0.48 ± 0.03 (40 °C), 0.53 ± 0.03 (50 °C), 0.64 ± 0.01 (70 °C), and 0.88 ± 0.02 ppm (90 °C) (Figure 49). These results further support a cooperative iodine/iodide adsorption in H _C OF-7. Furthermore, the total residual iodine concentrations of CHOP-7 for the I ₂ /KI solutions were measured between 1.06 ± 0.02 (23 °C) and 2.03 ± 0.03 ppm (90 °C), which are much higher than those of H _C OF-7 (Figure 49). This comparison demonstrated the benefit of introducing crystalline framework architectures for collective iodine/iodide removal. [0126] In natural water, anions such as NO ₃ -, H ₂ PO ₄ -, SO ₄ -, Cl-, and HCO ₃ - may impact the total iodine removal efficiency of H _C OF-7. Therefore, to simulate co-existing anions in natural water, NO ₃ - (5 ppm), H ₂ PO ₄ - (5 ppm), SO ₄ - (20 ppm), Cl- (80 ppm), HCO ₃ - (60 ppm) were added to the I ₂ /I- solutions (I ₂ : 3.5 ppm, KI: 1.5 ppm) individually and as a mixture. H _C OF-7 crystals (6 mg) were added to these solutions (3 mL). After 72 h, the total residual iodine concentrations (Figure 5d) were measured as 0.30 ± 0.02, 0.27 ± 0.01, 0.32 ± 0.02, 0.38 ± 0.03, 0.43 ± 0.03, 0.46 ± 0.02 ppm, respectively. The results confirmed that the total iodine removal efficiency of H _C OF-7 remained high in the presence of various competing anions. [0127] To quantitatively analyze the dynamic iodine removal capability of H _C OF-7 at different temperatures, H _C OF-7 columns were prepared for chromatographic breakthrough investigations (Figure 5e). Ball-milled H _C OF-7 crystals (240 mg) were packed into a polypropylene plastic column and loaded onto an automatic column chromatography instrument (Figures 54-55). The intake I ₂ /KI solution (5 ppm) was pre-heated to the desired temperatures in a customized pre-column (Figure 5e) before passing through the H _C OF-7 column. Iodinated DI water was injected into the H _C OF-7 column continuously with a flow rate of 5 mL/min, and the total residual iodine concentrations were measured at different volume intervals. At 23 °C, the total residual iodine concentrations gradually increased from 0.30 ppm to 0.40 ppm in the first 1.2 L and remained constant for the subsequent 4.8 L until the breakthrough. When the temperature was increased to 50 ºC, the total residual iodine concentrations increased from 0.58 ppm to 0.8 ppm for 4.8 L of iodinated water until breakthrough. At 90 °C, the column quickly reached equilibrium in the first 0.72 L intake of iodinated water. The total residual iodine concentration was measured at 0.8 ppm for 4.4 L intake before breakthrough. The faster equilibrated dynamic adsorption at higher temperatures is consistent with the accelerated iodine adsorption rates measured in the temperature-dependent adsorption experiments (Figure 5a). The decreased breakthrough volumes of H _C OF-7 columns at higher temperatures are also consistent with their reduced iodine adsorption capacities (Figure 5b). It is worth noting that the breakthrough volumes of H _C OF-7 columns are much larger than the activated carbon and activated carbon/anion exchange resin mixed-bed columns (Figure 5f). Furthermore, the high-temperature breakthrough results of H _C OF-7 columns are vital for the design of the next-generation iodine filter used in outer space, as the current design in the International Space Station requires pre- chilling of the hot water generated in the reactor before passing through the PWD and reheating water for hot beverages. [0128] The breakthrough experiment was performed using iodinated tap water (I ₂ : 3.5 ppm, I-: 1.5 ppm) at 23 °C (Figure 5f). The total residual iodine concentrations increased from 0.47 to 0.51 ppm for 3.7 L intake before breakthrough. Compared to iodinated DI water, the total iodine removal efficiency was maintained at ~90% (from 5 ppm of total iodine), and the breakthrough volume decreased moderately by 23%. After the breakthrough experiment, the adsorbed iodine and iodide species were well-retained in H _C OF-7. Possible Iodine leaching was tested by passing 1L tap water through the iodine-containing H _C OF-7 column. No significant residual iodine was detected (≤ 0.1 ppm, Figure 56), suggesting that the used amorphous H _C OF-7 columns after the iodine and iodide remediation could be recycled for long-term storage of iodine/iodide. [0129] General information [0130] All chemical reagents and solvents were purchased from commercial suppliers, including Fisher Scientific, Sigma Aldrich, and VWR, and were used as received. ¹ H NMR spectra were recorded on either a Bruker AVIII 500 MHz spectrometer or a Bruker AVIII 600 MHz Spectrometer and referenced to residual solvent peaks. Single crystal diffraction data were collected on an XtaLAB Synergy four-circle diffractometer (Dualflex HyPix detector). Elemental analysis was performed by Intertek Pharmaceutical Services (Whitehouse, NJ). UV/Vis spectroscopy was carried out on a Shimadzu UV-1800 UV/Vis spectrometer. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra were recorded on a Jasco 6200 spectrometer. Powder X-ray Diffraction (PXRD) data were collected on the Rigaku MiniFlex powder X-ray diffractometer. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed on a TA instrument discovery 55 with samples held in a platinum pan under a nitrogen atmosphere. Data were collected between room temperature and 1000 °C with a ramp rate of 10 °C/min under a nitrogen atmosphere. Supercritical CO ₂ activation was performed with a Samdri 795 Critical Point Dryer. Vapor sorption measurements were performed on a Micromeritics FLEX 3.0 surface area analyzer at 297 K. [0131] Synthesis of monomers [0132] Scheme 1. Synthesis of compound 1. 

  [0133] Synthesis of S1. 2,3,5,6-Tetrabromobenzene-1,4-diol (0.85g, 2.0 mmol) was dissolved in MeOH (15 mL) in a 50 mL round bottom flask. Potassium tert-butoxide (0.45 g, 4.0 mmol) and iodomethane (1.2 g, 8.5 mmol) were added to the reaction. The mixture was heated to 50 ºC under an N ₂ atmosphere. After 12 h, the formed white crystalline solid was collected by filtration and washed with distilled water (50 mL) to yield the product (0.44 g, yield: 49 %). ¹ H NMR (DMSO-d ₆ , 500 MHz, 298K) δ (ppm): 3.80 (s, 6H). ¹³ C NMR (DMSO-d ₆ , 150 MHz, 298K) δ (ppm): 153.34, 121.89, 61.36.   [0134] Synthesis of S2. Compound S1 (0.91 g, 2.0 mmol), 4-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl- 1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)aniline (1.86 g, 8.5 mmol) and potassium carbonate (1.2 g, 8.7 mmol) were added to a mixture of DMSO (80 mL) and distilled water (20 mL) in a 250 mL round bottom flask at room temperature. The mixture was degassed for 15 min before palladium tetrakis(triphenylphosphine) (35 mg, 0.03 mmol) was added. The reaction was degassed again through three cycles of freeze-pump-thaw before heating to 120 ºC under an N ₂ atmosphere. After 48 h, the reaction was cooled down to room temperature the solid residues were filtered off. Distilled water (200 mL) was added to the filtrate, and the crude product precipitated. This crude product was collected through filtration, washed with Et ₂ O (50 mL), and dried under vacuum to yield the product as a grey-colored solid (0.91 g, yield: 91 %). ¹ H NMR (DMSO-d ₆ , 500 MHz, 298K) δ (ppm): 6.74 (d, J = 6.5 Hz, 8H), 6.36 (d, J = 6.5 Hz, 8H), 4.84 (s, 8H), 2,79 (s, 6H). ¹³ C NMR (DMSO-d ₆ , 150 MHz, 298K) δ (ppm): 152.46, 147.19, 135.78, 132.10, 125.59, 113.93, 59.77. HR-ESI-MS: calculated for [M + H] ⁺ m/z = 503.2402, found m/z = 503.2448.  [0135] Synthesis of S3. Cyanuric chloride (0.83 g, 4.5 mmol) and potassium carbonate (2.4 g, 17 mmol) were added to anhydrous THF (40 mL) in a 250 mL round bottom flask at 0 ºC. Compound S2 (1.0 g, 2.0 mmol) dissolved in THF (60 mL) was added to the reaction using a dropping funnel slowly over 15 min. The reaction was stirred for 12 h, and the temperature was allowed to warm to room temperature. After then, the solid residue was filtered off. The filtrate was collected, and the organic solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The solid residue was washed thoroughly with distilled water (250 mL) to afford the product as yellow solid (1.8 g, yield: 82%). ¹ H NMR (DMSO-d ₆ , 500 MHz, 298 K) δ (ppm): 11.11 (s, 4H), 7.52 (d, J = 7.0 Hz, 8H), 7.22 (d, J = 7.0 Hz, 8H), 2,87 (s, 6H). ¹³ C NMR (DMSO-d ₆ , 150 MHz, 298K) δ (ppm): 154.35, 151.82, 135.94, 135.45, 132.62, 131.53, 120.10, 60.24. HR-ESI-MS: calculated for [M + H] ⁺ m/z = 1094.9947, found m/z = 1094.9928.  [0136] Synthesis of 1. Compound S3 (1.1 g, 1.0 mmol), allylamine (0.91g, 16.0 mmol), and N,N-diisopropylethylamine (1.0 g, 8 mmol) were dissolved in dioxane (100 mL) in a 250 mL round bottom flask. The reaction was heated to 105 ºC under an N2 atmosphere. The reaction was cooled down to room temperature after 12 h, and distilled water (200 mL) was added to the reaction mixture to generate a light-yellow precipitate. The product was collected through filtration, washed with Et ₂ O (30 mL), and dried in the open air (1.1 g, yield: 87%). ¹ H NMR (DMSO-d ₆ , 500 MHz, 298 K) δ (ppm): 8.83 (m, 4H), 7.65 (s, 8H), 6.98 (d, J = 8.0 Hz, 8H), 6.89 (m, 8H), 5.87 (m, 8H), 5.12 (d, J =17.0 Hz, 8H), 5.02 (d, J = 10.5 Hz, 8H), 3.87 (t, J = 5.5 Hz, 16H), 2.83 (s, 6H). ¹³ C NMR (DMSO-d ₆ , 150 MHz, 298K) δ (ppm): 165.96, 164.44, 151.99, 139.37, 136.77, 135.44, 131.01, 129.78, 118.40, 115.05, 59.80, 42.92. HR-ESI-MS: calculated for [M + H] ⁺ m/z = 1259.6500, found m/z = 1259.6460.  [0137] Scheme 2. Synthesis of compound 2. [0138] Synthesis of 2. Compound S3 (150 mg, 0.12 mmol) and ethyl amine THF solution (2M, 1 mg, 2 mmol), and N,N-diisopropylethylamine (250 mg, 2 mmol) were dissolved into 1,4-dioxane (30 mL) in a Schlenk tube. The Schlenk tube was sealed and heated to 100 ºC for 12h. Then the solvents are removed under reduced pressure. The crude product was washed with Et ₂ O (30 mL) and distilled water (50 mL) to yield a light-yellow product (72.5 mg, yield: 52%). ¹ H NMR (DMSO-d ₆ , 500 MHz, 298 K) δ (ppm): 8.78 (m, 4H), 7.65 (d, J = 8.0 Hz, 8H), 6.98 (d, J = 8.0 Hz, 8H), 6.78 (m, 8H), 3.25 (s, 16H), 2.82 (s, 6H), 1.07 (m, 24H). [0139] Scheme 3. Synthesis of CHOP-7. [0140] Synthesis of CHOP-7. Compound 1 (200.0 mg, 0.16 mmol) was dissolved in the NMP (3 mL, anhydrous) in a Schlenk tube. EDT (63.1 mg, 0.67 mmol, 4.2 equiv.) and azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN, 5.0 mg, 0.03 mmol) were added to the solution. The mixture was degassed and filled with N2, irradiated under the UV light for 48 h, and heated at 85 ºC for 12h. After that, the formed precipitate was collected by filtration and washed with DMSO (10 mL × 3) and THF (10 mL × 3). After freeze drying, the 1-EDT polymer was obtained (236.4 mg, 91%). The polymer was active by supercritical CO ₂ three times and characterized by IR, TGA, and elemental analysis. Elemental analysis: 1 ·[EDT] _3.7 ·[CO ₂ ] _1.9 , calculated: C 54.89%, H 5.73%, N 19.87%, S 14.02%; found: C 56.72%, H 5.66%, N 18.02%, S 12.17%. [0141] The obtained polymer and fuming HNO ₃ (90%, 1.5 g, 21.4 mmol) were mixed in DMSO (10 mL). After 12 h, the solid was collected by filtration and washed with THF (10 mL × 3) to yield the CHOP-7 as a yellow solid (311.0 mg, 99%). [0142] Preparation of precursor crystals [0143] X-ray diffraction data of crystals were collected from XtaLAB Synergy Dualflex single-crystal X-ray diffractometer at 100 K with Cu Ka radiation (λ= 1.54184Å). Multi-scan absorption corrections were applied in each case. The structures were solved by SHELXT and refined with SHELXL using the program Olex2. All non-hydrogen atoms of the monomers were refined anisotropically. The hydrogen atoms were modeled at geometrically constrained positions and refined using the riding model. Details of each crystal structure will be discussed in the section below. CCDC contains supplementary crystallographic data, which can be accessed through the Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre at https://www.ccdc.cam.ac.uk/. The topology of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal is solved by Topospro software. The nitrate dimer was simplified as one node to connect different 1 ·4H ⁺ monomers. The 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal is crystallized in flu (fluorite) topology. Each 1 ·4H ⁺ is connected with eight nitrate dimers, while each nitrate dimer is connected with four 1 ·4H ⁺ . [0144] Crystallization of 1 _crystal . Compound 1 (50.0 mg, 0.04 mmol) was dissolved in the DMSO (5 mL) in a 20 mL vial. The vial was placed in a 100 mL vial with MeOH for solvent diffusion at room temperature. Transparent block crystals of 1 _crystal were obtained after 5 d. [0145] Table 1. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction data of 1 _crystal , 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal , and H _C OF-7. [0146] Crystallization of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal . Monomer 1 (50.0 mg, 0.13 mmol) was dissolved in the mixture of 1,4-dioxane (5 mL) and fuming nitric acid (0.1 mL). The solution was filtered to remove any insoluble residues and then added to a 20 mL vial. This vial was placed in a 100 mL vial with Et ₂ O for solvent diffusion at room temperature. Yellow block crystals of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal were obtained after 3 d. [0147] PXRD investigation of the stability of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal. The single crystals of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - (5 mg) were added to 3 mL 1,4-dioxane, cyclohexane, THF, Et ₂ O, and EtOAc for 24 hours. PXRD profiles of each sample were collected. The crystallinity of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal decreased significantly in Et ₂ O and EtOAc. In addition, the crystallinity of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal significantly reduced in the open air. [0148] Table 2. Distances of the nearby alkene carbon atoms in the lattice of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal . [0149] SCSC synthesis of H _C OF-7. [0150] Solvent exchange of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal . In order to remove the dioxanes, single crystals of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - (10 mg) were immersed in THF and cyclohexane (10 mL×3) separately. After 12 h, the crystals were filtered off and dried in the open air for 2 h. The obtained crystals were dissolved in DMSO-d ₆ for ¹ H NMR analysis. The result shows dioxane could be effectively replaced by THF, while cyclohexane cannot replace it. After THF exchange, 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal was immersed in cyclohexane (10 mL×3) for 12 h. ¹ H NMR shows THF remained. [0151] Crosslinker diffusion. Single crystals of 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal were washed with THF (10 mL × 3) for 12h to allow an extensive solvent exchange. A cyclohexane solution (3 mL) of 1,2-ethanedithiol (EDT, 300 μL) was added to the samples in a vial (~40 mg). After 72h, the crystals were filtered off and dried in the open air for 6 h. The crystals were dissolved in DMSO-d ₆ and characterized by ¹ H NMR. [0152] Optimization of the synthesis of single-crystalline H _C OF-7. In order to remove the dioxanes in 1 ·4H ⁺ ·4NO ₃ - _crystal , single crystals were washed with THF three times (10 mL × 3) to allow an extensive solvent exchange. A cyclohexane solution (3 mL) of 1,2- ethanedithiol (EDT) was added to the samples in a vial (~40 mg). The synthesis of H _C OF-7 was performed at various concentrations of EDT in cyclohexane solutions (33.3, 50, 58.3, 100, and 133.3 μL/mL) for the extensive crosslinking. The EDT-diffused crystal samples were kept in the dark for 72 h to allow for extensive EDT diffusion. Next, the vials were irradiated under UV light (medium-pressure 175-watt Hg lamp) for 48 h with forced air cooling. The crystal samples were collected and washed with an excess of THF and hexanes to remove the unreacted EDT. The H _C OF-7 crystals were further characterized by PXRD, IR spectrum, Raman spectrum, TGA, and solid-state ¹³ C NMR, δ (ppm): 162.10, 155.40, 181.86, 132.59, 121.19, 119.12, 110.69, 60.19, 40.57, 30.07. [0153] Table 3. Summary of the elemental analyses of H _C OF-7 synthesized at various EDT concentrations. [0154] Porosity analysis. [0155] H _C OF-7 crystals (~45 mg) were immersed in a 20 mL vial with THF (15 mL). Then THF was piped out and refilled every 8 hours three times. After solvents exchanging, the H _C OF-7 crystals were activated under vacuum at 90 ºC for 24 h. Gas/vapor sorption measurements were performed on a Micromeritics FLEX 3.0 surface area analyzer. The CO ₂ sorption and other vapor sorption isotherms were measured at room temperature. [0156] Iodine and iodide sorption investigations. The residue of iodine and iodide is determined by the Leuco-crystal violet method. The solution preparation and measurement procedures are described below. [0157] Scheme 4. Mechanism of Leuco-crystal violet method for I ₂ / I- residue determination. [0158] Preparation of the standard iodide solution. A 15 ppm I- the stock solution was prepared by dissolving 19.6 mg of potassium iodide (dried at 105 °C for 1 h) in 1 L of deionized water. Then the solution was diluted to 0.1 to 0.5 ppm for the standard curve calibration. [0159] Preparation of the buffer solution. A pH 4.0 buffer solution was prepared in a 50 mL volumetric flask by dissolving 1.70 grams of potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH ₂ PO ₄ ) in distilled water (30 mL). Phosphoric acid (85 %, 1 mL) was added to the solution. Then the solution was diluted to exactly 50 mL. [0160] Preparation of the Leuco-crystal violet solution. Phosphoric acid (85%, 0.25 mL), Leuco-crystal violet, 4,4/,4"-methylidynetris (25 mg, 0.067 mmol) were added to a 100 mL volumetric flask with distilled water (30 mL) and shaken until the solid completely dissolved. The solution was then diluted to exact 100 mL. [0161] Preparation of the N-Chlorosuccinimide-Succinimide solution. N- chlorosuccinimide (100 mg, 0.75 mmol) and succinimide (1.0 g, 10.1 mmol) were dissolved in 75 mL distilled water in a 100 mL volumetric flask. Then the solution was diluted to 100 mL with distilled water. [0162] Residual concentration of [I ₂ + I-] measurement. Distilled water (2 mL) and iodinated water (1 mL) were mixed in a 4 mL vial. Then the phosphate buffer solution (0.1 mL) and N-chlorosuccinimide-succinimide reagent solution (0.1 mL) were added to the vial. The solution was shaken after adding the Leuco-crystal violet solution (0.1 mL). The UV/Vis absorbance was measured at 592 nm at 25 ºC exactly 10 min after Leuco-crystal violet was added. The residue of [I ₂ + I-] could be calculated based on the calibration curve. [0163] Dual-wavelength UV/Vis spectrometry is a simpler method to measure I- concentration in the presence of NO ₃ - interference. When I- or NO ₃ - is directly determined by UV/Vis spectrometry, the two anions interfere due to the absorption band overlap. Therefore, a dual-wavelength method with primary wavelength (220 nm) and secondary wavelength (231 nm) was used to determine NO ₃ - and I- in solution. Based on the UV/Vis spectra of standard KI (0.07 mmol/L) solution, standard KNO ₃ (0.07 mmol/L) solution and KI (0.07 mmol/L) + KNO ₃ (0.07 mmol/L) mixture (Figure 27), the linear equations were calculated as A _220nm - A _231nm = 2.960 c(NO ₃ -), A _220nm (NO ₃ -) = 3.667 c(NO ₃ -), and A _220nm (I-)= A _220nm - A _220nm (NO ₃ -) = 10.666 c(I-). The result is in good agreement with the previously reported data. [0164] Study of KI ₃ formation equilibrium constant in an H ₂ O/MeOH (99:1) solution [0165] To increase the solubility of iodine in the aqueous environment, an H ₂ O/ MeOH (99:1) solution of I ₂ was prepared. The equilibrium constant of KI ₃ formation was measured by UV/Vis titration. I ₂ (150 mg, 0.59 mmol) was dissolved in MeOH (10 mL), and 990 mL of H ₂ O was added to the solution. Different amounts of KI (0 to 12 equiv.) were added to the solution, and the UV/Vis spectra were recorded using a 0.1 cm cuvette (Figure 28-29). The peaks attributed to I ₃₃ - at 292 and 354 nm were fitted with the 1:1 binding model. The equilibrium constant K in H ₂ O/ MeOH (99:1) solution is calculated as 792 ± 20 M ^-1 . [0166] Different I ₂ /I- solutions were prepared for the investigation of iodine/iodide uptake capacities, temperature-dependent adsorption rate determinations, and low- concentration total iodine removal. The concentrations of the I ₂ , I-, and I ₃ - at equilibrium were calculated based on the equilibrium constant and listed in Table 4. [0167] Table 4. Summary of the concentrations of I ₂ , I and I ₃ species at equilibrium. [0168] Kinetic study of iodine adsorption. I ₂ /KI solution (0.12 mM I ₂ + 0.50 mM KI, 15 mL) was prepared and added to a 20 mL sealed vial with string. The concentration of I ₂ , I-, and KI ₃ is calculated as 0.089, 0.470, and 0.030 mM, respectively. The sealed vials were heated to 23, 40, 50, 70, and 90 ºC in the oil bath. When the temperature stabilized, 10 mg H _C OF-7 was added to the vials, and the timer was started. Periodically, 3 mL of the solution was piped out for concentration measurement by UV/Vis spectroscopy at 292 nm. The solution was added back into the vial after the measurement. A pseudo-first-order equation was used to fit the adsorption results at different temperatures (Figure 31-34). k: rate constant; [c]: concentration; c0: initial concentration. The obtained rate constant was further fitted by the Arrhenius equation (Figure 35): E _a : activation energy; k: rate constant; A: pre-exponential factor. The activation energy is calculated as 35.3 ± 6.0 kJ/ mol. [0169] Iodine uptake amount measurements. To study the total iodine uptake of different absorbents at different temperatures in an aqueous environment, H _C O7-7 crystals (10 mg), activated carbon (15 mg), and CHOP-7 (10 mg) powder were soaked in a 3 mL I ₂ /KI concentrated aqueous solution (0.51 g KI and 0.66 g I ₂ ) in a 4 mL vial at 23, 40, 50, 70 and 90 ºC for 48 h. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with excess water until the filtrate became colorless, and dried in the open air before weighing. The [I ₂ + I-] uptake amount was measured by the gravimetric method. The experiment was repeated three times. After adsorption at 23, 40, 50, 70 and 90 ºC, the H _C OF-7@[I ₂ + I-] were weighted as 23.9 ± 0.7, 23.0 ± 0.3, 22.1 ± 0.6, 22.0 ± 0.2, and 19.7 ± 0.7 mg, , respectively. The CHOP-7@[I ₂ + I-] obtained at 23, 40, 50, 70 and 90 ºC were weighted as 19.3 ± 0.8, 18.6 ± 0.6, 18.0 ± 0.3, 17.3 ± 0.3, and 16.7 ± 0.3 mg, respectively. The activated carbon@I ₂ obtained at 23, 40, 50, 70 and 90 ºC were weighed as 19.4 ± 0.3, 18.8 ± 0.3, 18.4 ± 0.5, 17.9 ± 0.3, and 17.4 ± 0.3 mg, respectively. [0170] Scheme 5. (a) The halogen bond interaction between I ₂ and the triazine rings of H _C OF-7. (b) I ₃ - or I- exchange process with H _C OF-7. [0171] Table 5. List of porous materials and their iodine species uptake capacities from aqueous solution.

[0172] Kinetic study of I ₂ adsorptions in the presence of the different amounts of KI. There are two possible paths for collective iodine and iodide adsorption in H _C OF-7: (1) simultaneous adsorption of I ₂ through halogen bonding interaction and nitrate-to-iodide anion exchange, and (2) nitrate-to-triiodide anion exchange in addition to I ₂ adsorption. To reveal the adsorption path, I ₂ aqueous solutions (1% MeOH) with different amounts of KI (0 to 12 equiv.) were prepared. The initial concentrations of [I ₂ ], [I-], and [I ₃ -] are summarized in Table 6. [0173] Specifically, I ₂ (150 mg, 0.59 mmol) was dissolved in MeOH (10 mL), and 990 mL H ₂ O was added to dilute the solution. Stock solutions of 0.59 mM I ₂ with 0, 0.59, 1.18, and 7.08 mM (0 to 12 equiv.) of KI were prepared by adding 0, 98.0, 196.0 and 1176.5 mg KI to the I ₂ solution. H _C OF-7 (10 mg) was added to each solution (15 mL) in a vial with stirring.3 mL solution was periodically withdrawn for UV/Vis measurement (Figure 36-39). The solution was added back to the vial after each measurement. The 460 and 400 nm absorbance were used to fit the pseudo-first-order kinetics (Figure 36-39), and the results were summarized in Table 6. [0174] Table 6. The rate constants of total iodine (I ₂ and I ₃ -) removal using H _C OF-7. ^a The rate constant is calculated using the absorbance at 460 nm. ^b The rate constant is calculated using the absorbance at 400 nm. [0175] The static removal efficiency of I ₂ in the presence of different amounts of KI. The static removal efficiency of I ₂ in the presence of different amounts of KI (0 to 12 equiv.) was also investigated. In this investigation, the I ₂ is more than the H _C OF-7 adsorption capacity. [0176] Specifically, I ₂ (200 mg, 0.79 mmol) was dissolved in MeOH (10 mL), and 990 mL of H ₂ O was added to dilute the mixture. Stock solutions of 0.79 mM I ₂ with 0, 1.57, 3.94, and 9.45 mM of KI were prepared by adding 0, 260.6, 654.0, and 1568.7 mg KI to the I ₂ solution. To 50 mL of each solution in the vials, H _C OF-7 (5 mg) was added. After shaking for 72 h, the removal efficiency was calculated by measuring the UV/Vis absorbance before and after adding H _C OF-7 (Figure 40). The results are summarized in Table 7. The I ₂ removal efficiency continuously decreased from 83% to 48% in the presence of KI, suggesting H _C OF- 7 adsorb I ₂ and I- collectively rather than removing I ₃ - from the aqueous solution. [0177] Table 7. Iodine (I ₂ and I ₃ -) removal efficiency of H _C OF-7 [0178] Investigation of NO ₃ - to I- anion exchange in H _C OF-7. Activated H _C OF-7 (5 mg) crystals were added to 3 mL of 3.5 mM KI solution in a 4 mL vial. The amount of I- in solution and NO ₃ - in H _C OF-7 is kept at a 1:1 molar ratio. The samples were kept at room temperature (23 ºC) or heated to desired temperatures (50 and 90 ºC) in an oil bath. After 72 h, the residue iodine concentrations of the solutions and the amounts of I- uptake were measured using the dual-wavelength UV/Vis spectroscopy method. The experiments were repeated four times. [0179] Regeneration of H _C OF-7. To remove the guests, I ₂ /I- ●H _C OF-7 was deprotonated by NaOH (0.5 M) in DMSO/MeOH solution (V _(DMSO) : V _(MeOH) = 1:1) until the color of the crystals changed to light yellow. Then, H _C OF-7 was re-protonated by a DMSO solution of HNO ₃ (0.5 M, 10 mL). The re-protonated H _C OF-7 was washed with dioxane (10 mL × 3) and THF (10 mL × 3). The successful re-protonation was confirmed by FT-IR spectroscopy. [0180] The regenerated amorphous H _C OF-7 was subjected to an iodine/iodide adsorption capacity study and a low concentration iodine/iodide removal investigation. The I ₂ /I- uptake of the regenerated H _C OF-7 from I ₂ /KI solution (I ₂ : 0.87 M, KI: 1.02 M) was measured as 0.88 ± 0.03 g/g, which is lower than that of as-synthesized H _C OF-7 (1.39 ± 0.07 g/g). The residual iodine concentration (I ₂ + I-) reached 1.3 ± 0.06 ppm after soaking the regenerated amorphous H _C OF-7 (6 mg) in 5 ppm I ₂ /KI (I ₂ : 3.5 ppm, I-: 1.5 ppm) solution at 23 ºC for 72 h. For comparison, the residual iodine concentration (I ₂ + I-) of as-synthesized H _C OF-7 reached 0.22 ± 0.02 ppm. [0181] I ₂ ●H _C OF-7 promoted NO ₃ - to I- anion exchange. Preparation of I ₂ ●H _C OF-7. Different amounts of I ₂ (0.5, 1, and 1.5 mg) were dissolved in solvent mixtures consisting of MeOH/H ₂ O (2.5/2.5 mL) at room temperature before the addition of H _C OF-7 (5 mg). After 72 h, these solutions turned colorless, and the UV/Vis spectroscopy confirmed that iodine was completely adsorbed (Figure 45). Next, I ₂ ●H _C OF-7 samples were washed with MeOH/H ₂ O (5/5 mL × 3) to remove any iodine stuck on the crystal surface. The I ₂ uptake amounts of I ₂ ●H _C OF-7 were calculated as 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 g/g, respectively. [0182] Different amounts of KI solution (3 mL, 3.5 mM) were added to these samples, and the molar ratio of NO ₃ -:I- was kept at 1:1. After 72 h, the amounts of the exchanged I- were measured using the dual-wavelength UV/Vis spectroscopy method (Figure 46). These experiments were repeated four times. Tukey’s test confirmed the honest significant differences. The results indicate that the confidence level of the differences between each iodide exchange group is 99% or higher (Figure 5c). The NO ₃ - to I- exchange ratios of H _C OF-7, I ₂ ●H _C OF-7 (0.1 g/g), I ₂ ●H _C OF-7 (0.2 g/g), I ₂ ●H _C OF-7 (0.3 g/g) are measured as 27 ± 1 %, 33 ± 2 %, 37 ± 2 %, and 39 ± 1%, respectively. [0183] Investigation of low concentration I ₂ /I- removal in aqueous solutions. Static adsorption: The stock solution of the I ₂ /I- mixture (3.5 mg/L I ₂ + 1.5 mg/L I-) was prepared by dissolving I ₂ (3.5 mg) and KI (1.96 mg) in 1L of DI water. Based on the equilibrium constant, the concentrations of I ₂ , I ^-, and I ₃ - were calculated as 3.48, 1.49, and 0.04 ppm, respectively. Since the concentration of I ₃ - is two orders of magnitude less than the concentration of I ₂ , the contribution of I ₃ - is negligible. [0184] Activated H _C OF-7 (6 mg) crystals were added to 3 mL of I ₂ /I- solution (3.5 mg/L I ₂ + 1.5 mg/L I-) or I- solution (1.5 mg/L) in a 4-mL vial. The samples were kept at room temperature (23 ºC) or heated to desired temperatures (40, 50, 70, and 90 ºC) in an oil bath. After 72 h, the total iodine residues (I ₂ + I-) of the solution were determined by the Leuco-crystal violet method. As a reference, CHOP-7 (10 mg) was subject to similar measurements in the I ₂ /I- solution (3.5 mg/L I ₂ + 1.5 mg/L I-) at 23, 40, 50, 70 and 90 ºC, respectively. The experiments were repeated three times. [0185] I ₂ /I- removal in the presence of competing anions. To investigate the I ₂ /I- sorption in the presence of potential competing anions that simulates the natural water, NO ₃ - (5 ppm), H ₂ PO ₄ - (5 ppm), SO ₄ - (20 ppm), Cl- (80 ppm), HCO ₃ - (60 ppm) were added to I ₂ /I- solution (I ₂ : 3.5 ppm, I-: 1.5 ppm) separately. H _C OF-7 crystals (6 mg) were added to these solutions (3 mL) that possess NO ₃ -, H ₂ PO ₄ -, SO ₄ -, Cl-, and HCO ₃ -, respectively. In addition, a mixture of NO ₃ -, H ₂ PO ₄ -, SO ₄ -, Cl-, and HCO ₃ - iodinated solution (3 mL) with the same concentrations mentioned above was prepared for iodine removal. After 72 h, the total iodine residue concentrations were measured as 0.30 ± 0.02, 0.27 ± 0.01, 0.32 ± 0.02, 0.38 ± 0.03, 0.43 ± 0.03, 0.46 ± 0.02 ppm, respectively by the Leuco-crystal violet method. [0186] Breakthrough experiments. [0187] H _C OF-7 column preparation. H _C OF-7 crystals (240 mg) were exchanged by THF (5 × 30 mL) and hexanes (5 × 30 mL) for 24 h, respectively. Then H _C OF-7 crystals and hexanes (10 mL) were distributed evenly into a ball-milling steel container with 3 ZrO ₂ balls. After grinding by ball-milling at 50 Hz for 3 minutes, the crystals were filled into a plastic syringe (length: 27 mm, inner diameter: 4.5 mm). Both ends of the syringe are blocked with cotton. Before the iodine adsorption experiment, THF (30 mL) was passed through into the column to make the adsorbents close-packed. [0188] Activated carbon and [activated carbon + resin] mixed-bed column preparation. Activated carbon (240 mg, Millipore Sigma) was ball-milled and activated at 120 ºC for 24 h before use. Then, it was filled into a column (d: 4.5 × l: 26 mm), with both ends capped by cotton. Before the breakthrough experiment, distilled water (50 mL) was passed through the column. [0189] The anion exchange resin (130 mg, Dowex 1X2, 50-100 mesh) is immersed in the distilled water for 6 h before use. Then, the resin and activated carbon (130 mg) was packed into a column (d: 4.5 × l: 30 mm), with both ends capped by cotton. Before the breakthrough experiment, distilled water (50 mL) was passed through the column. [0190] Temperature-controlled breakthrough experiment. The breakthrough experiment setup is shown in Figure 5. Iodine solution (I ₂ : 3.5 mg/L and I-: 1.5 mg/L) was prepared in a plastic bottle (4 L). A steel cartridge (300 mL) with the heating tape covered was connected to the entrance of the column. The flow rate was controlled at 5 mL/min. The temperature was adjusted by controlling the voltage of the heating tape. After the temperature was stabilized, the H _C OF-7 column was installed. The iodine solution passed through the H _C OF-7 column and was collected into the test tubes. The residual concentration of [I ₂ + I-] of the collected solution after the column was determined by the Leuco-crystal violet method (Figure 5e). [0191] Although the present disclosure has been described with respect to one or more particular embodiments and/or examples, it will be understood that other embodiments and/or examples of the present disclosure may be made without departing from the scope of the present disclosure.