The gap between pronunciation and the writing system is a. pro blem common to all languages, especially to Chinese and Engli Chinese characters are not phonetic by origin. English, thoug using a basically phonetic alphabet, is nevertheless incapabl

-5 αf showing pronunciation accurately. To learn writing systems αf such languages, phonetic transcriptions are indispensable. Transcriptions can only be applied in dictionaries, they are practical far readers of any kind. For example, some Chinese tεxt-bααks have transcriptions interlined, thus causing a lot

10 αf inconvenience in the proce.ss of printing and reading. By th end of the 19th century, .a number of Chinese scholars had al¬ ready made initial efforts towards the reform αf the tradition al Chinese writing system and the popularization αf new ones. During the last 30 years αr so, the reform has been firmly sup

15 ported throughout by the government. However, even now, it can not progress substantially. The distinguished British writer, Bernard Shaw, advocated energetically the replacement of the existing English writing system by a new alphabet and new ways αf spelling. He even dedicated part αf his legacy to the Eπg?-

20 lish writing-system reform. But so far, very little progress, if any, has been made. The experience αf all the writing-sys¬ tem reforms carried out whether in China , or in other coun¬ tries, shows that it is almost impassible far big, culturally- devεlαppεd countries to adopt a new writing system by wholly

25 abolishing the traditional one, because such a change would inevitably impose a change on the habits of millions αf people farmed through long years. This dαεs not mean, however, that πα change at all is admitted. There are two forms αf letters, the handwritten and the priπt-

-50 εd. It is quite passible ta make appropriate alterations in the printed farm. Lots af diffεrεπt priπtεd farms have been in . vented, but they werε madε for aesthetic reasons αnly. Ours serve a different purpose. They arε iπtεπdεd tα show pronunci¬ ation, and are πamεd "prαnuπciatiαπ-shαwiπg typε faces".

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I« ENGLISH PRONONCIATION-SHOliJING TYPE FACES

Draft I The Method of Showing Pronunciation with Classifying Diacritics

1. This invented system of diacritics allows a self- prαnuπciatiαn for all the English words by using a minimum number αf marks. Our principal method consists αf the following steps: / dividing a ward iπta vowel segment and consonant seg¬ ment;

/ classifying the pronunciations αf all vowel segments, each category is provided with one diacritic. A diacritic is_employed tα represent, instead αf an iπ- dividual sound, a category αf sounds. Only when it is placed above a particular letter can a particular sound be demonstrated. Therefore, the present set of diacrit- . ics is. dεsigπatεd classifying diacritic.

Definition αf a vαwel segment: in a ward, several vowel le ters connected to each other form a vαwεl segrneπt(e.g.iπ th wards "look", "triangle", "bawl", "out' and "are", the con necting vowel letters "αo", "ia", "αw", "αu" and "are" are all vowel segments.) A single vαwεl lεttεr can alsα farm a vσwεl segment, (e.g. in the weirds "a", "but", "bεd" and "pig", thε single vσwεls "a", "u", "ε", "i" arε cαπsidεrεd to bε vαwel segmεπts as well.) All the six vαwel letters "a", "ε", "i", "y", "o", "u", and thε two nαπ-indεpeπdεπt vαwel ^* lettεrs "w" and "r" ("y", "w" and "r" fuπct-iαπ as consonants, too. _. ), are passible raεmbεrs af a vαwεl sεgmεπt.

A vαwεl ssgment αf only one lεttεr is called, a single- vowel lεttεr; a vαwεl segmεπt αf twα or mαrε lεttεrs is callεd vαwεl lεttεr-cσmbiπatiαπ.

2. The pronunciations of siπglε-vαwεl lεttεrs arε di¬ vided iπtα seven categαriεs. As fo r thε pronunciaitons αfvαwel lεttεr-cαmbiπatiαπs, there are the following three cases:

1/ a lεttεr-cαmbinatiαπ sαundεd by a single vowel, e.g. "or" is a letter combination sαundεd by thε single vowel to:].

2/ a letter ^* combination sounded by a complex vowel, whi is the-pronunciation of only one αf its constituent mεm- bers, e.g. "αa", sounded by cam, [5U is the pronunciatio of the single letter "α",αne αf thε cαnstituεπt mεmbεrs α thε combination "oa", the other membεr "a" coπsideded si- lεnt.

3/ a lεttεr-cαmbiπatiαπ sαundεd by a complex -vowel, which is thε joint pronunciation αf all the constituent members αf the combination, e.g. "αi" sounded by [ ^• }_], CD13 -is the joint pronunciation αf "α" and "i", "o" considered to be read ill and "i" [ 1 ] .

The pronunciations of letter-combinations in the first and sεcαπd casεs are classified in thε same way as thαse αf siπglε-vαwεl lεttεrs, and so they ars groupεd into the sam tablεs as given below:

Tablε 1— ( 1 )

O PI v4 WIPO

- 6 -

Explanatory Mates ta Table 1:

(1) Thε pronunciation αf a vαωel segment may be either a str.oπg vαωεl or a ωeak voωεl. Ldεak voωels are general¬ ly not indicated by any diacritic except a feu special απεs. (2) "~r": including letter-combinations sounded by fs-i , such as "er ^{1 ■} ar ^{1 ■} ir- 'QΓ ¹ "UΓ", Our", etc

They are classified παt in Table 1, but.in ^* .. Table 6 together with thε lεttεr-cαmbfnatiαπs pronounced as ωεak complex voωels. 3. Voωel letters, uhen in a very small number αf ωords, having such an unusual pronunciation that they cannot be classified in Table 1 are crouinεd by a special diacritic: □ . (Instead of indicating any particular sound, this diacritic is employed to call attention to thε fact that the_ so narked letter has_aπ irregular pronunciation.) Far example, acei aπyteni], manyfrneni- , saidCsεd] o LUJ ωάmaπCjumaπj , ωάlfCωσlfj

CU ωάmεπCωrmi π] one COJ A ΠJ uCe3 bury C. ^λ ber r 3 busy bi z I J

^. In a uord αf more than one syllable-, a vαωel letter carrying πα diacritic is pronounced as a ωεak vαωεl. As each letter has tωα passible ωeak vαωεls, in order to distinguish one from the other , relevant rules as gi¬ ven belαω are to bε employed: / the ωeak voωels.αf "a": L93, [T] The principal απε is [53, e.g. "alone" [ 3 ^Λ I aυn] . ci] exists only in t s suffix "-agε", ε.g. village Cvilidjl.

/ thε ωεak vαωels αf "e": _a], __-

With a strong vαωεl aftεr . it,"ε" is pronounced il l , e.g. decidεLdιsaι d] ; ωith a strong vαωel before it, "a" is prαπαuπcεd ι ~ z , e.g. studentcstju:dδ-πtJ ; existing bε- tωeεπ tωα strong vαωεls, "ε" is prαπαuπcεd eg], e.g. bέπefactαrcbεπ_ _/ f-_kt] .

/ the ωeak vαωels αf "i": ^' 1 , L 3 J

A ωεak "i" is gεπεrally prαπαuπcεd CI3 _> ε.g. discharge

OMPI

C.d_;s * jα:d3_ . "I" has _3_ as its ωeak vouel ωhen in the suffixes -ible and -ibly, ε.g. crέdiblε c'krεd_bl_ / thε ωεak vαωεls αf "y": _t3,[3,

The principal one is .13, e.g. systemic stste rkJ . In some ωords, it may be pronounced C31 as ωell, e.g. ^■ 5 methyl _ ^v me._l3 .

/ thε ωεak vαωεls αf "o": C9i,.C3rJ

I d → is its principal .ωεak vαωel, e.g. sεcoπdcs ^' εk3πd__. "o" has C3U3 as its ωsak vαωεl ωhεπ at the end αf a ωαrd or in thε suffix "-most", e.g. autαc.0:tarn , utmost

10 r_ ^v Λtma st2.

/ thε ωεak vαωεls αf "u": C33,[jUJ (and tu_—the variant αf Cju_). The ωeak vαωel αf "u" in most cases is 133 ^* , e.g; support csapo:t_. "u" is read tj v i ωhεπ found in an open syllable either ^' ust befαrε or after the strεss. For εx-

15 ample, αccupyrtk upa1 _. C"u" comes immediately after the strεss); regulation C rεgjulειj ³ π] ("u" gαεs just bεfαrε the strεss).If thε ωeak "u" pronounced tju. in the situation said above is prεcεdεd by such consonants as dtp, Ld}], αr Lr_ , this. Cju] ωill naturally bεcαmε cu_, ε.g. cαπ-

20 gratulation [k3πgrstj"trlειj3n: conjugal c' Dndjugal → , iπstrumεπt c _nstrumant_ .

In tεaching materials ωherε the abαve-said rεadiπg rules are παt emplαyεd, thε sscαπdary ωεak vαωεl αf a letter is demonstrated by a diacritic ωhile thε principal onε is 25 left unmarked.

^• $ 5. Characteristic pronunciations αf American English are illustrated in the fαllαωiπg table, (εxcεpt thε pronunci _¬ ations αf ^» ε" and "i", because all αf them are thε same as those in British English.) Table 2:

Explanatory Notes tα Table 2:

(1) A weak "u" is generally pronounced .31. When in an .open syllable just before or after thε stress, a ωeak

"u" has the pronunciation αf cj3J ; and this ι ~ l .is 5 sounded by C9] if preceded by such consonants as Q → , Ctj 3 i cdj3 t Cs_ .

(2) A weak "y" is generally pronounced u _. • Only when at thε end αf a word is it pronounced i i .

(3) "-τ",ωhen pronounced [3r3,may also be crowned with 10 thε diacritic ό so as tα achieve as much similarity as passible between the employment af diacritics far American pronunciation and that for British pronunci¬ ation. C ¹ * ) The diacritic mark α can be omitted and replaced

15 by □ whenever necessary.

"a", whether pronounced no:] or to: , is crowned with thε same diacritic? a • "o" _ι sounded either by ιo:_ DΓ by co_ is marked thε same: δ • "a" or "6" can thus be read both z .i and co_.

20 The rules to distinguish between "a", "o"L ^' 3:_ and "a", "α"[03 are given belαw: a/ Ξinglε-vαwεl letters "a" and "α" are pronounced _o.', e.g. dog c dog ] , ωarcω.r] . But when followed by the cαπsαnant "1", whether sounded or silent, "a" has only

25 one passible pronunciation, that is CO:],e.g. salt cso:ltj _> talk C to:k ₃ . b/ The "a" or "ά" in a letter-combination terminated by "r" is pronounced . o ^"~ _. e.g.board c bord } . The "a" aτ "5" in a letter-cαmbiπation without an ending "r" is prα- . 30 πouncεd Lo:_, e.g. lau C l :] , bought I bo:tj .

S. A lettεr-cαmbinatiαπ sounded as more than one vowel,all the constituent members being prαπouππεd, is called a com pound vowel'i e.g. "oi"nι] , "ia-'cia. . In a small number αf compound vowels, instead αf all the letters, same, at 35 least twα, αf them are prαπαuπced, ε.g. prayerc'pr β 3_ ,the "y" is silent.

OMPI <

_*

7. Compound vowels may be divided into strong compound vowels and weak compound vowels, cia., tua. _> [jus: » t ^3u;ι laus] _. Ci i] _> C13UI are seven weak ones. A weak com¬ pound vowel is unmarked except for thε case αf [iι_ . A weak compound vαwel, when bearing word stress in some cases, may be regarded as a strong compound vowel, ε.g. "ia" prαπαuπcεd Lia. is generally a weak compound vαwεl, but in the ward ^!r pianist"c p ] , ^u ia"Ci3] is a . strαπg compound vαwel.

8. There are two types αf compound vowels: complex vowels and successive vowels. Each compound vowel con¬ sists αf two parts: the frαnt and thε back. A compound vαwεl with a wεak vαwεl as its back part is πarπεd com¬ plex vowel. A compound vowel with a strong vowel as its back part is called succεssivε vowεl. "δu" soundεd by cju is included in complex vowels as well. A complex vαwεl is generally indicated by a diacritic above the front part whilε a succεssivε vowel is shown by a diacritic abovε the back part.

fallowing arε diacritics to bε employed tα demonstrate compound vowels: ( m reprεsεnts ths two parts αf a com¬ pound vαwel.) ^" m indicates a diphthong (complex vαwel), ε.g. tour

CtU__ ; π ^~ l indicates a triphthong- (complex vowel), ε.g. gαεr c gsua_ι ; ^' l ^" TT indicates a loose complex, vαwεl ( i.e. a complεx vowεl with a long vowεl as its front part and. a wεak vαwεl as its back part), e.g. doer c ^v du-33. TΓΓ indicates a successive vαwel αf two sounds, e.g. piano C pi'ansu. . ππ indicates a "2-1" successive voweK i.ε. a suc¬ cessive vαwel of three sounds with a _. diphthong as the frαnt part and a single vowel as thε back part) ε.g. diameter _dai 3s.rruta l.

OMPI

T ^" T ^~ l indicates a "1-2" successive vαwel ( i.e. a succes¬ sive vowel αf three sounds with a single vowel as the front part and a diphthong as its back part) e.g.. init¬

9. The pronunciations of complex vowels and their dia¬ critics arε listed in the table below: Table 3:

OMPI

Λ

Explaπator-y IMotεs tα Table 3 :

Such lettεr-cαmbinatiαπs as "ere", "ear",and "eir" can be read in tωo ωays, either ζ. ϊ. αr ~~ι , e.g. mere LπuaJ , therεL Seal ; tear ctia: , tear tε3_i ; uieird [mis d], their ..3 e a _ . L\dl is cαnsidεrεd a regular pronunciation, shαωn by a diacritic above "ε", ωherεas tea], taken as a special farm, indicated by a diacritic above "r", ε.g. there [. e._, tear C esJ , their , .esi .

Table :

Explanatory Mates ta Table -, :

(1) "am" is. raπaunced either raoj or rau. . ^■■ αω"_au_, considered regular, is marked as am, thε diacritic being placed above "o" ωhile oucauj , taken as a spe- cial farm, has thε diacritic above "ω" :αώ.

Triphthongs are demonstrated likεωise. Take δωεr L _ V ' A far example, the diacritic is placed over "o". while "αωer-'csu- is croωnεd with the diacritic above "ω".

(2) "et-i" may be pronounced in tωo ωays: cju.J or C3u_. "eω" ju:] .is crαuπedwitfi a ^' lαan .mark: Q (the diacritic for the complex vαωel of single latter),ωith the diacri¬ tic above "ω" : e_j* ju:_l . As a triphthαung, "eωer" cju:s_ has "ω" cappedwii □ the mark for a lααse com¬ plex voωεl : eωεr_ju:3- . "eω" C3u_ is marked the same ωay as "α_j"-3U- : εώcauJ .

"em"._, ju:_ changes into cu:. ωhεπ precedεd by such consonants as cr], Cll , CdjJ and ltj_ , for thε difficult uttεrancε αf sounds likε Lrju:] , clju:. , cdjjutl and [tjju.3 has inεvitably resulted in the lass of the caπsa- naπt cj _t . This"εω"Cu :. is thε variant of "eώ" [ ju:3 •

1 ^Q . liJe can ascertain thε pronunciation αf every complex vαωel by its diacritic and constituent lεttεrs. Thε pronunciations αf cαmplεx vαωεl are listed in thε fol¬ lowing table.

Table 5:

OMPI

diphthong trighthont)

Explanatory Nates to Table 5,:

C I I I represents the front part and the back part of a complex vαωel. I: I I :the dotted line indicates that its front part is further divided into a front part and a back part. For example, | H | represents such complex voωels as "αωer"civ.l , "αωe" Ciυa. , oωer r-UJ]

(2)The letter "r" can form thε back part αf a complex voωel singly αr ωith other voωel letters before or after it. In the second case, "r".is thε representative let¬ ter.

(3) Cju:j changes into Cu:] ωhen preceded by such conso¬ nants as tr] , i l l , ctjj and. id i . Lu:3 is the variant -

11. The pronunciations of successive voωels and their dia¬ critics are given beloω:

Table 6:

12. The determination of the pronunciation of a succes _¬ sive vαωel depends thus an the knaωlεdgε of the pronunci¬ ation ^' of every one αf its constituent letters. As is kπαωπ, every vαωel letter has a pair of pronunciations: a single voωel and a diphthong .

As is pointed. out, a single voωel, as the pronunciation o thε front part, must be in its ωeak farm ωhilε , as the pronunciation αf thε back part , must be in its strαng farm. So a single voωel has a pair of forms: ωεak and 10 strong.

Single voωels and their corresponding diphthongs , ωeak vαωels and their corresponding strong vαωεls are arrang¬ ed in pairs in the fσllαωiπg table:

Table 7 :

Explanatory /Vote tα Table 7 :

⁽ 1 ⁾ "e " has the long vαωel i : j in the place of a diph¬ thong .

Table 7 is the k ey to thε determination of thε prαnuncia-

tiαn of every letter in a successive voωel. For example: / exeunt: "eu" is a successive vαωel of tωα sounds, both "e" and "u" are sounded by a single vαωel. "e",as the front part, has the ωeak single vαωel cu as its pronun- 5 ciatiαπ; the back part "u" is sounded by the strong single vαωel C . "eu" is thus pronounced [iΛ- _f the ωhαle ωαrd is read εksiΛπt-l.

/ statuette: "ue" is .a successive vαωel αf tωα sounds, both "u" and "e" are pronounced by a single voωel. The Q front part "u" is read by the ωeak single vαωel tin ; and the back part ''e" by the strong single vαuel t e i . "ue" is thus read by [uej and the ωhαle ωαrd by [statj et- . / duet: "ue" is "2-1"successive voωel,its front part "u" is pronounced by thε diphthong __\u zi and thε back "e" by 5 the strong single vαωel [e] . "ue" is read rju:e] and the ωhαle ωαrd Ldju: ^l εt3 .

/ situation: "ua"is a "1-2" successive vαωel- its front part "u" is read by the single ωeak vαωel cu3 and its back part "a" by thε diphthong Lei3 . "ua" is sounded 0 cueij and thε ωhole ωαrd CsitJt/εijδnj .

13. Letter combinations may be sounded by the fαllαωing three different types αf ωeak . vαuels: ωeak siπglε vαωels; screak complex vαωels and ωεak successive vαωels. Weak 'siπglε vαωεls and ωeak complex vαωels are not indicated 5 by any diacritic, they are listed in the fαlloωiπg table.

Table 8—(1).:

- 23 -

Explanatory IMαtεs tα Table 8.

(1) "ie" is pronounced πa. or c3J ωhen followed by a consonant. "Is" has the sound αf tι_ if it terminates a ωαrd. For example, doggie dσgi ].

1-^. No diacritic is to be employed to indicate thε pro-- πuπciatiαns of lεtter-cαmbiπatiαπs listed in Table 8. They can be ascertained by Aβ ^" latters respective-spelling features. Thε essential ωay of diffεrεnciating these pronunciations is illustrated .as follαujs: - ., 1/ ϋJith " r" αr " ^• ••._:••••" as ths back part, the ujhole lεt- tεr-combination is sounded by c93.

2/ With "i" or "y" as its back part, thε ωhole letter- combination is read tn. 3/ Thε letter-cαmbinatiαns"αa" and "ou" are read ca3. f The letter-combination "αα" is pronounced _u_ _f "εe" is read _ι_.

5/ The front part being "e" or "i", the ωhαle lεttεr- combiπatiαπ is sounded by Ci93,and by CΘJ ωhεπ precεded by a ujεak consonant. 6/ The front part being "u", the ωhαle lεtter-cαmbiπa- tiαπ is read cjuaj. Precεded by a ωεak consonant, this

__>. l/U3. ωill changε into CU.].

7/ iith "ω" αr "u" as the back part, the ωhαlε letter- cαmbiπatiαπ is pronounced [am.

15. A _ωεak -succsssivs. αωεl is indicated by a double diacritic for Weak Vαωεl I : I I I. In the follo ¬ ing table are listed _. all the ωεak successive voωεls.

Table 9:

pronunciation lεttεr example la f όliage. 'fsulu d ^* )j ie fiftiέthl'f ift ι i -A

[I U έi athέism L ^s ε r θ n z ³ m] έέ eleemosynary [ _/ εl I t mtjs iπ.ri]

- 2k -

16. Hαω ωord strεss is dεmαπstratεd:

Thε diacritic for ωαrd strεss is a dot. In printed form, thε dot is coππεctεd tα thε vαωεl diacritic and the ωholε thing is represented in a heavier type face . vαωel diacritic ^ ! I v

Vαωεl diacritic printed _v plus strsss diacritic hand j 1 ωrittεn — ; \ v\ yv i

Weak vαωels are usually uπmarkεd, εxcεpt ωheπ thεy func¬ tion as a stress. For εxarhplε, prettyc ^v pπtι_J, English L'inglip. Thε diacritic D indicates hoω the vαωεl- is prαπαuncεd and ωhεrε the stress falls as ωell. That is ωhy a ωεak voωεl ωhich occupies the position αf strεss needs only the ωeak vαωεl diacritic, rεquiring πα dia¬ critic far ωard strεss.

A monosyllabic ωαrd πεeds πα strεss diacritic εither, because thε single syllable naturally takes the stress. A ωord αf more than αnε syllablε containing only one strαπg vαωεl rεquirεs πα more than one diacritic— a vαωel diacritic , ωhich shαωs both thε pronunciation αf thε vαωεl and thε position αf ωαrd strεss. For ex¬ ample, cαnsεfvatism c karis3 :vat _z*m_

Thε strεss diacritic is emplαyεd ωheπ a pαly-strαπg-vαωel ωord (i.ε. a ωαrd ωith tωα or morε strαπg voωεls) is iπ- vαlved, ε.g. miπutε .raa^πju:tα .

17. In casε of .a rεgularly-strsssεd pαly-strαng-vαωεl ωαrd, strεss diacritic can bε αmittεd.The follαωiπg _. arε rulεs gαvεrπiπg ωαrd strεss in pαly-strαng-voωεl ωαrds: Among thε sεvεral strong vαωels in ths same ωαrd,

/ the strαπg vαωel that exists in thε sεcond-syllabls from thε επd takes the stress;

/ thε strong vαωel that exists in thε third syllablε from thε επd takes the stress; / the strsss falls on thε last but απε syllablε, if thε

_ O PI

- 25 - second syllablε from thε end and thε third syllable from the and bath contain a strαπg vαωel;

/ if the second syllabls from thε εrid and thε fourth syl¬ lablε from the end bath contain a strαπg vαωel, the strεss falls gεπεrally on the sεcαπd syllablε from the επd ; but if the last syllable is a"--r-- ^π lεtter-cαmbuπa- tiαπ sαundεd as a ωεak vσωεl, thε strεss falls on the fourth syllable from the end ;

/ such suffixes that are listed bεlαω must be strεsssd:

10 -εe.i:- , -εεπ[i:πj, -tεεn [ti:n_ ,-eεr tis_|, -oon[u:nj. In . casε αf a vαωεl ωαrd that cannot be classified in any < ^• ,. ype, of ωords mεπtioπed above, the diacritic for strεss ^* canrzot bε αmittεd.

15 18. Diacritics for consonants:

/ variation diacritics: sαπαrizatiαπ diacritic — π ωsakeπiπg diacritic — □ / παπ-variatiαπ diacritic: □ In teaching matεrials for studεπts in their primary

20 stages ωhεrε "relevant reading rules ars not applied, consonant variation is iπdicatsd by a variation diacri¬ tic. For example, mύsicc ^κ mju:zιk_. :"s"rεad tzj. is croωπed

In teaching matεrials for advaπcεd studεnts ωhεrε rεle- 25 vant rulεs arε appliεd, consonant variation is lεft uπ¬ markεd;ωhεπ a consonant retains its αrigiπalCi.s. the most rεgular ) pronunciation under conditions that per¬ mit a variation, the παπ-variatiαπ diacritic is tα bε εm- ployεd.CBut such a consonant variation that happεns under 30 conditions ωhich allαω πα variation at all rεquirεs a variation diacritic .)

According to thε rulε that a "s" ωhich exists bεtωεεπ tωα voωεls becomεs sαπorizεd, thε "s" pronounced cz._{ in "music", bεiπg regular, πεεds no diacritic; ωhile the "s" in " ₀ ba-

35. sin" [ ^l bεrsi,nJ rεquirεs thε πoπ-variatiαπ diacritic? D. Examplεs tα illustratε thε ε plαymεπt of the above threε diacritics are given bεlαω:

19. A. αωεl lεttεr, ωhεn sounded by a semi-vαωεl, is crαωnεd by a diacritic like this: Q ε.g. sύitε[sωitj ; αnioπϋVπ _

Thε "u" in "qu" bεars no diacritic ωhεπ prαnouπcεd

2D. thε diacritic for silent lεttεrs: π This diacritic is employed to demonstratε both silent vαωεls and silεπt consonants, ε.g. Lϋedπesdaytωεπzdt3.. Rεgular silsπt letters are, uπmarkεd. Thε said diacritic can also be usεd to indicatε thε variation αf some di¬ graphs ; for example,

/ "ch" indicates that this diagraph is pronounced _k} e.g. chordckDrdJ; / "uih" indicates that this digraph is pronounced _h], ε.g. iiihόle tisulπ ;

/ "th" iπdicatεs that this digraph is pronounced [t_ , ε.g.tharLtα:..

21. Thε ωeak forms αf ωσrds that appear in a ssπtεπcε arε lεft unmarked. Far example, I am a student. and "a 9]" have no diacritics placed above them.

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Draft II. Thε Method αf Shoωiπg Pronunciation-, ωith Hεavier Strokes

Instead of .the employment of diacritics, thε method αf mark¬ ing letter strokes hεavier allαωs a. self-pronunciation for a English -uαrds. The present draft consists of the fαlloωing meth-αds: 1. A vαωel lεttεr, if prεsεπtεd ωhαlly in hεaviεr strokεs, has thε same pronunciation as it gets in tire alphabεt: acei_- e_i:_, l an, ycaπ, ocaui, u[ju: .

A consonant lettεr, if prεsεπtεd ωhαlly in hεaviεr strαkεs, has its most regular pronuπciatiαπ:bCbι , ctk,s3, did], f[f_, gig], h[h], jc jJ, k[k], ltl3, mLππ, tun], p.p. , qιk_ , rCr_, Sis], tltJ, v ~vl _t ω[ω], χ[ks], y[j3, 2LZJ.Digraphs: ChLtjj, thtθJ _. Shtf], p-Uf] , gh[f3.

-2. A letter ^* ωhαlly prεsεntεd in thinner strokes indicates si- lεπcε, ε.g. ma ecmetki. As tα a lεttεr-combination, if its pronunciation can be indicatεd by only one of its constitu¬ ent members ωhich is ωholly αr partially presented in heavi- εr strokεs, thε other, though not silent, is rεπdered in thinner strαkεs. For εxamplε, γQQt crtr-m],

3. Hoω lεttεrs partially prεsεntεd in heavier strokes iπdi- cate. their pronunciations is illustrated in the folloωiπg tables: "

Table 1: Single Vαωel Lεttεrs Partially Presented in Hsaviεr

Strokεs Tablε 2. Uoωεl Lεttεr-Co biπatiαns Partially Prεsεπtεd in Hεaviεr Ξtrokεs

Tablε 3: Consonant L-ettεrs Partially Prεssπtεd in Hεavier Strokes

Thε design αf thε proπuπciatioπ-shoωiπg heavier strokes is made on thε principle that the outlines αf the designed hεaviεr strαkεs bεar as much resemblance as possible tα thε international phonetic symbols so as to offer a facility tα students far memorizing them.

Thε variation in thε pronunciation of digraphs is illus¬ trated as fallows: chck__ ch , hch.-, tti _ _^

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II CHINESE PRONUNCIATION-SHOWING TYPE FACES

1. Every character retains its conventional strαkεs and struc¬ ture. Out of each character, three strokes are chosen tα repre¬ sent its initial consonant, "yuπmu" and tone.

The pronunciation of a Chinese character,i.e. a Chinese- syllabl may bε divided into tωα parts: "shεπg-mu" and "yuπmu". The farme is an initial consonant; the latter a single αr compound vαwεl, sometimes ωith thε terminal consonant [n] or [ϊ]] in addition.Nat ^• εvery Chinεsε syllabls has an initial consonant. A syllable without the initial consonant- is called zεro-coπsαπant syllable Evεry Chiπεse syllablε,i.e. εvεry Chinese character,has ^" its own tone.

2. In genεral, the initial consonant is represented by a ver¬ tical stroke and thε "yuπmu" by a horizontal one. Lϋhεπ there is no suitable vertical αr horizontal stroke to bε chαsεπ , a slanting strαks,(a point strαkε is dεεmed in thε present sys¬ tem to bε a slanting strαkε as tiiεll,) may bε thε. substitute . A horizontal stroke can not rεprεsεπt the initial consonant, nor can a vertical stroke indicate thε "yuπmu". If a slanting strαkε is selected to rεprεsεπt thε initial consonant, thε aπ- gig betiεεn this slanting stroks and thε horizontal strαkε must bε aver 5 dεgrεεs.If a slanting stroke is selected to repre¬ sent the "yuπmu", thε angle between this slanting strαkε and the horizontal stroke must be under 5 degrees. Thε tone is represented by a stroke at the lower part on the right.

Thε strαkεs that represent the initial consonant, the "yunmu" ^' and thε tone are named "stroke lεttεrs".

3. The Invented Stroke Letters

(1) strαkε letters indicating initial consonants

National Chiπese S Sttrrtoke Reason far Design

Phαnεti-C Phαnεtic Lεt1

Alphabεt Alphabet b similar tα "b"

P similar to "p" π similar tα thε first half αf "M ^»

C f "f" with the horizontal stroke missing

<n d similar to "d".

^■ t similar tα " "

3 π " " is transformed tα " f "

» 1 similar to "L"

« g similar tα "G"

7 k ' ⁿ is takεn off "k" and put bεπεath a vertical strαkε r ii a little differεπt from "h" q j "j" with the dot missing

( q similar tα "q"

T . X thε first half αf "x" with a downward vertical stroke

F z c "c ^π with an upward vertical stroke s ϊ zh

^• f ch sh ø r similar to " IIr-r- II

Nate: lϋhεπ put in _\ snort stroke, ^' jCx") may bε written as " ^* ) " and ,1 ("c") as "c". ")" and "<" arε the short farms af f and I

(2) "Yunmu" a/ Single "Yuπmu"

OMPI WIPO

National Chiπεsε Strαkε

Phonetic Phαnεtic Lεttεr

Alphabet Alphabεt

Y a

* _ τ e,α

1 i —-.

X u ——

L-J ϋ .

;L εr . .

■ b/ Cα pαuπd "Yuπmu"

National Chinese Stroke ^* Reason for Design Phonetic Pheπεtic Letter Alphabet ALphabet

G:rαup One

1 Y - ia Thε hεavy horizontal liπε iπdicatεs "i".

Hfc ie Thε sεmi-dαt απ thε line iπdicatεs "a", i £ iau the sεmi-dαt beneath thε liπε iπdicatεs (iao) •B" (αr ^» o").

] * i(o)u

Thε arc ( αr _' -* ) prαpεr iπdicatεs "u". Its position απ the line indicates ^* "a" , thε απε beneath thε line indicatεs "α" Thεrefαre, the arc απ the line indicatε "au". thε αnε beπεath tha liπε iπdicatε

Group Tωα

7? f ) iaπ —→ Thε hεavy horizontal liπε iπdicatεs "i"

1 *7 i(e)n . —T The inward angle indicates "π". ^" The σut I ΛI. iaπg ^' -— ward angle indicates ^π πg".The inward ] ι_ i(ε)ng —__ _< aπglε απ thε liπε iπdicatεs "an", thε α beneath the ^* linε iπdicatεs "en ^lτ - ^" Thε ou ward angle an thε line iπdicatεs "angV ^* . the απe bεπεath thε liπε iπdicatεs "eπg".

(lilhεπ precεdεd by "i", "επ" and "επg" are prαπαuπcεd respectively "in" and "iπg", ωith "e" missing).

Grαup Thrεε

# ai •— Thε heavy horizontal line indicates "i" ei •— Thε sεmi-dαt απ the line indicates "a". X _. 5 uai ^■* '—— Thε sεmi-dot bεπeath the line iπdicates"ε" x. _ uei J— At the beginning of a heavy horizontal liπ thε arc prαpεr iπdicatεs "u", thε hεad αf "yuπmu", ( in other cases, "u" indicated by an arc is the tail of. "yunmu"); its positio απ the liπε indicatεs "a" , ths one bεπεath thε linε iπdicatεs "s".

Group Four

5 an A fine horizontal line with a sign at . .it h επ bεgiππiπg dαεs not indicate. ^* any sound. t ang Thε inward aπglε prαpεr iπdicatεs "n", its

L επg position απ thε line indicates "a" _f the one

Ϊ4 au beneath the line indicates "e" And sα thε

X ou ^■ inward angle indicatεs "an" whεn bεiπg- απ t liπε and iπdicatεs "sπ" whεπ bεiπg beneath thε liπε.

Thε outward aπglε prαpεr iadicatεs "πg", th outward angle απ the line iπdicatεs "ang ¹ ^ one beneath the liπε iπdicatεs "επg". lilheπ at thε bεgiππiπg αf a fine horizont line , thε arc proper iπdicatεs "u", thε ar on thε line iπdicatεs "au", the one beneath thε line indicates "ou".

Group Five

*9 uaπ A f ins liπε ωith a sign at its end iπdicatε

X u(ε)π "u".

* t uaπg The iπωard angle prαpεr iπdicatεs "π",

X L uεng the outωard aπglε prαpεr iπdicatεs "πg"; th

(ong) position απ the line indicates "a" the on

XY ua —• bεπεath the line indicates II oil

XΞ uα Thε sεmi-dαt απ _. thε liπε iπdicatεs "a", thε απε bεnεath the line indicates "α".

- J-, -

G rαup Six

" 3 ϋaπ — Thε fiπε line with a dot at its beginnin

-J •? u ( e )π - indicates "0".

.__ -. £1 ε πg — Thε inward aπglε prαpεr iπdicatεs "π", t

(i . ε. iαπg ) outward aπglε prαpεr indicates "πg"; u tf Qε — the inward angle an thε liπε iπdicatεs "an",, thε απε bεπεath the liπε indicate "en"; the outward angle bεπεath thε linε iπdi¬ catεs "επg". The sεmi-dαt bεnεath thε liπε iπdicatε

"ε" liJheπ having _ , q _f x as the initial con¬ sonants, thε "yunmu" in thε prεsεπt group arε indicated by —»• —r —< —- , the stroke lεttεrs originally εmpαyεd tα iπdicatε "uaπ", u(e)π, ueπg(i.e.αng) _r uo As j, q, x can never be thε initial con¬ sonants αf a "yuπmu" beginning with "u", ωhat thε four stroks lεtters iπdicatε hεrε can only bε Clan, ϋ(e)π, ϋεπgCi.ε. iαπg), ϋ^.

Nαtε:

Thε fallowing thrεε signs: thε arc, the iπωard angle and thε outward aπglε,illustratε simultaπεαusly twα different sounds each: indicating rεspεctivεly "u", "π", "πg" by thε sign pro- pεr and "a" αr "ε,α" by thε position. ^h ~ tωα differεπt sounds shoωπ by any αf ths above signs exist in the same "yuπmu" in ^" a fixεd ^' order as follows: "u", "n "πg", bεiπg thε tail αf "yunmu", appear invariably aftεr thε principal ^* vαwel "a", "ε", or "α", such as "au", "ou", "an", "sπ", "aπg", "εng". But there is an εxcεptioπ: whεπ a hεavy hori¬ zontal liπε εxtεπds aftεr an arc, thε "u" iπdicatεd by thε arc can not bε thε tail αf "yuπmu", but thε hεad αf "yunmu", because ωhat thε hεavy horizontal liπε illustratεs is alrεady the tail αf "yuπmu" -— ui".

-_ ΕE

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(3) How thε toπε αf a Chiπεsε charactεr is shown by strαkε lεttεrs. Chiπεse characters are proπαuπcεd in thε fallowing taπεs: Taπε 1, high lεvεl ; Taπe 2, rising; Tone 3,. falling-rising; Tons h i falling. And thεrε is a light tαπε in addition. Tαπε 1 is uπmarkεd.

Tαnε 4 is shown by marking hεaviεr thε εnd αf thε strαkε in the lower- part an the right. Far εxamplε, ^~ ~_ _^_ ^Q LJ j_ l Toπε 3 is shown as follows: if thsrε is an aπglε strokε αr an angle composed αf two strαkεs in thε lαwεr part on the right, thε aπglε is markεd. heavier; if there is no. such an angle stroke- or an angle cαmpαsεd αf twα strαkss, tωα sεgmεπts αf αf thε strokε at thε sa ε place as above are markέd heavier. Far example, /^ ^* I ' Tone 2 is shown by marking hεavier the beginning or the middle of the strαkε in the lower part on thε right, thε επd bεiπg left uπmarkεd. For εxample, _T_ *] ^' . j^ -f-j"

Thε light tαnε is shown by sεmi-dαttiπg the επd αf thε strokε in thε lowεr part απ thε right. Far εxamplε, . ^* ;_ -de . If in thε lowεr part on thε right thεrε stands a littls point strαkε, thε tone may be indicated as follows: Tαπε 4 is shown by j an upward wεdgε-shapεd strαkε ; Tone 2 by V , a downward ωεdgε-shaped stroke; Tαnε 3 by v . » a hαok-ended point strokε; thε Light Tαnε by ^• * , a sεrπi-dot; Tαπε 1 is lεft unmarked. For εxample,Tone 4: ;s Tαnε 3: 3 Toπε 2: ^~~~ ~ Light Tone: n ^* T

Thε grammatically rεgular light tαπε is uπmarksd.Fαr example, thε suffix αf a παuπ: -~- _ /L _ ^- -, EL j auxiliary ωαrds: J *lε, ^' -zh ^' ε, ! , _ -de, _. & .de, fjj- -de, ^' BOJ , →f , _^ , _f_J etc. 4. Hαω thε strαkε lεttεrs arε fixed in the conventional stroke αf a Chinεsε character.

(1) In a zεrα-iπitial-cαnsonaπt syllable, only thε "yuπmu" and thε tone ars shαωn. Far εxamplε,

ft lriX er

(2) In thε fαllαωiπg syllablεs, thε "yuπmu" may bε lεft uπ¬ markεd, but the initial cαnsαπaπt and thε tαnε arε iπdicatεd.

Thεy are: bo pα mo fo dε tε πε lε gε ke he ji qi x zi ci si zhi chi shi ri. Far example,

- u i ;

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