DESCRIPTION

Field of invention

The present invention refers in general to sensor devices intended for monitoring one or more electrical quantities of a fluid, and to electrical devices equipped with a sensor of the type indicated. The invention has been developed with particular attention being paid to the monitoring of the dielectric strength of a dielectric fluid, preferably a fluid present in a casing of an electrical device, such as a fluid for the thermal conditioning of a battery. The described sensor device is however also suitable for use in other areas, or in combination with electrical devices other than a battery.

Background art

In recent times, the need of temperature conditioning of batteries in a more and more efficient manner, for example batteries that equip vehicles, is emerging. The technical solution adopted in some cases is to directly cool the battery cells by immersing them in a dielectric fluid, in order to maximize the heat exchange efficiency. The disadvantage of this solution is that, if the fluid used in contact with the battery cells does not guarantee a sufficient insulation, currents can be established inside the battery pack with significant loss of efficiency, up to potentially very dangerous outcomes.

In order to keep under control the electrical insulation characteristics of the cooling fluid in which the battery cells are directly immersed, solutions based on the measurement of electrical parameters, such as measurements of dielectric constant, impedance, conductivity, have been proposed. However, these measurements have only an indirect correlation with the quantity of actual interest represented by the dielectric strength, i.e. the limit value of the electric field beyond which a conduction of electricity is produced through the fluid in question.

In general, a fluid used for the thermal conditioning of a battery should ensure a minimum dielectric strength of not less than values of the order of 3kV/mm. According to the current state of the art, the direct measurement of these dielectric strength values would require detection elements of macroscopic dimensions and based on the use of voltages being very high and expensive to generate, and which potentially behave as sources of electromagnetic noise and are dangerous for the possible triggering of avalanche phenomena on relatively large regions of space. On the other hand, the measurement of the electrical conductivity of the fluid alone does not always allow to accurately discriminate potentially dangerous situations.

For these reasons, the approach generally followed is therefore to proceed with measurements of several different electrical quantities, such as the aforementioned dielectric constant, impedance and conductivity, correlating them with each other, with results that are not always satisfactory.

Similar problems are also found in applications other than the exemplified one, wherein a dielectric fluid is used in combination with a generic electrical device, for example for its thermal conditioning.

Aim and summary of the invention

The present invention is based on the consideration of the fact that, particularly when the safety of an electrical device, such as a battery, is at stake, it would be desirable to have a sensor device that does not rely only on indirect measurements, or on complex correlations of indirect parameters and based on case systems that are hardly exhaustive.

In this context, an aim of the present invention is essentially to obtain a sensor device capable of monitoring the degree of electrical insulation guaranteed by a fluid, in particular a thermal conditioning fluid of an electrical device, such as a battery.

Another aim of the invention is to obtain a sensor device operating at a low voltage, but able to monitor also a high electrical resistance and/or a high electrical insulation of a fluid.

Another aim of the invention is to obtain a sensor device capable of monitoring the electrical insulation of fluid, being of compact construction.

An auxiliary aim of the invention is to obtain a sensor device that can be conveniently used even in cases where it is necessary to measure the degree of electrical insulation of substances with very low conductivity.

One or more of the above aims, and other aims that will become clearer later, are achieved according to the present invention by a sensor device as described below. The aims of the invention are also achieved by an electrical device comprising such a sensor device. Preferential embodiments of the invention are indicated in the attached claims. The claims form an integral part of the technical teaching provided herein in relation to the invention.

According to the invention, a sensor device is proposed for the direct monitoring of the dielectric strength, having a miniaturized sensitive part for detection, or in any case obtained in such a way as to include at least one pair of detection electrodes arranged at micrometric or sub-micrometric or nanometric distances, to generate high electric fields even starting from low voltages, where in particular the electrodes are on one and same support, in fixed positions. In general, the sensitive part of a sensor device according to the invention includes at least two electrodes, preferably microelectrodes, placed at a distance comprised between 100 nanometers and 20 micrometers, in order to define therebetween a measurement discontinuity or gap suitable for generating electric fields of several kV/m at low voltages, approximately comprised between 1 and 30 V, preferably between 3 and 10 V.

The detection can be carried out using direct voltages, alternating voltages with various frequencies, pulsed or of various shapes.

In various preferential embodiments, a direct voltage is used, by means of suitable electrical or electronic circuit means, to charge a capacitor having a known or predefined capacitance, which is then discharged on the measurement gap, i.e., in order to generate an electric field between the two electrodes. The sensor device can eventually be prearranged with an electronic driving circuit that reverses the polarity between the electrodes at each measurement cycle, as will be described in detail below. A possible scheme of operation of a sensor device according to possible embodiments of the invention therefore provides that the capacitor of known capacitance is brought to a certain voltage, then disconnected from the power supply and then connected to the sensitive part of the sensor device: by monitoring the voltage at the ends of the capacitor, after connection thereof to the measurement gap of the sensitive part immersed in the fluid, it is possible to obtain representative information of the value of dielectric strength of the fluid itself, that is, of its degree of electrical insulation. A highly insulating fluid will cause a virtually infinite time constant, while the discharge of the capacitor will become quicker due to the conduction of the fluid. An insulating fluid, such as ultrapure water, will show good insulation at low electric fields, while it will become more conductive at high electric fields: it is precisely for these types of dielectric fluids that the sensor device according to the invention allows to discriminate situations which are not measurable via conductivity measurements only.

According to other embodiments of the invention, the sensor device is independent of the use of a capacitor and its operation is of a resistive type, or based on the measurement of an equivalent resistance.

The sensitive part of a sensor device according to the invention may possibly include several pairs of electrodes arranged at different micrometric or sub-micrometric or nanometric distances on one and the same support, for example with the respective electrodes at 2, 4, 8, 16 micrometers from each other, and supplied independently and sequentially, or simultaneously, with a low voltage, for example a voltage of 16 V. If the time constant stays above a certain threshold value for all the provided electrode pairs, it will be possible to conclude that the dielectric strength of the fluid is higher, for example, than 8 kV/mm; if, on the other hand, an electric discharge is detected, at the smallest measurement gap (2 micrometers, in the example cited), which is significantly faster than those that occur at the other measurement gaps, it will be possible to conclude that the dielectric strength of the fluid is included, for example, between 4 and 8 kV/mm, and so on.

Of course, the given exemplification applies in principle, and the sensor device according to the invention will have to be calibrated according to the type of fluid subject to measurement, also in relation to the shape of the used electrodes.

In various preferential embodiments, the electrodes of the sensitive part are obtained in the form of a thin film. The part at a shortest distance between the electrodes, which defines the measurement gap, may have relatively small radii of curvature, of the order of microns or less, for example comprised between 10 and 500 nm: such electrodes have a marked "tip effect", with consequent lowering of the voltage required to obtain a partial electric discharge or a breakdown voltage, which circumstance is advantageous for the purpose of reducing the electrical voltage used for the measurements. In the case of fluids, the term "breakdown voltage" has to be understood in a dynamical way, since - given that the volume of fluid involved in the discharge is very limited and subject to continuous mixing either for local thermal motions, convective or for possible macroscopic flows - if the measurement is repeated several times the result is in principle always the same, unlike a solid dielectric in which said mixing does not occur and the dielectric changes characteristics with each discharge.

The use of thin film techniques allows to achieve the precision necessary to obtain microelectrodes, or in any case of measurement gaps of micrometric or sub-micrometric or nanometric dimensions. In various embodiments the thickness of the metal films that form or compose the electrodes is comprised between 50 nanometers and 2 micrometers, preferably between 100 and 500 nanometers. Preferably, the electrodes are composed of at least two layers, such as a first layer being 20-80 nanometers thick, in titanium or chromium, with the function of adhesion promoter, and a second layer in platinum, copper, nickel or other conductor, typically being some hundred nanometers thick. In accordance with other embodiments, however, electrodes formed with a single metal, preferably chromium or titanium, can be used.

The electrodes are preferably deposited on one and the same electrically insulating support, for example made of ceramic (such as alumina or zirconia) or plastic material. In other embodiments, the electrodes can be deposited on one and the same substrate formed with silicon oxide obtained on a silicon wafer (preferably by oxidation), the substrate having preferably a thickness which is not less than the distance between the electrodes at the measurement gap (or the smaller measurement gap, in the case of several pairs of electrodes), but preferably greater than this distance, in order to avoid an electric discharge inside the silicon substrate.

Preferred techniques for obtaining the electrodes are thermal evaporation in high vacuum and sputtering. Other techniques can also be used, such as CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition) or ALD (Atomic Layer Deposition). In the event that it is necessary to obtain very small gaps, of the order of tens or hundreds of nanometers, without using expensive lithography techniques at nanoscale, it is possible to obtain the micrometric gaps using classical lithographic techniques and subsequently reduce them by isotropic galvanic growth. In general, regardless of the deposition technique used, the definition of the electrodes will be obtained by photolithographic techniques such as photoresist deposition, UV exposure, development and subsequent chemical attack of the metal or metals, removal of the photoresist.

Brief description of the drawings

Further aims, characteristics and advantages of the invention will be clear from the detailed description which follows, made with reference to the attached schematic drawings, provided purely by way of non-limiting example, wherein:

- Figures 1 and 2 are schematic perspective views from different angles of an electrical device equipped with a sensor device according to possible embodiments;

- Figures 3 and 4 are a sectioned perspective view and a corresponding enlarged detail, respectively, of the electrical device of Figures 1-2;

- Figures 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are schematic views, respectively in perspective, in plan from above, in side elevation, in rear elevation and in front elevation, of a sensor device according to possible embodiments of the invention;

- Figures 10 and 11 are schematic views sectioned according to axes X-X and XI- XI of Figures 6 and 7, respectively;

- Figure 12 is a schematic exploded view of a sensor device according to possible embodiments; - Figures 13 and 14 are schematic perspective views, from different angles, of a sensitive part of a sensor device in accordance with possible embodiments;

- Figures 15 and 16 are a schematic representation and a corresponding enlarged detail, respectively, of a pair of electrodes of a sensitive part of a sensor device according to possible embodiments;

- Figures 17 and 18 are schematic perspective views, from different angles, of a sensitive part of a sensor device in accordance with other possible embodiments;

- Figures 19-20, 21-22, 23-24 are schematic representations similar to those of Figures 15-16, respectively, of possible alternative embodiments of electrode pairs;

- Figure 25 is a simplified electrical circuit intended to exemplify a possible principle of operation with a capacitive driving of a sensor device according to possible embodiments;

- Figure 26 is a graph showing examples of measurements carried out on some types of fluids by means of a sensor device in accordance with the invention;

- Figures 27 and 28 exemplify possible circuits of as many sensor devices according to possible embodiments, based on a capacitive -type driving principle of the sensitive part;

- Figure 29 exemplifies a possible circuit of a sensor device according to possible forms of actuation, based on a resistive-type driving principle of the sensitive part;

- Figures 30 and 31 exemplify circuits equivalent to those of Figure 29, in the case of unipolar or bipolar driving, respectively;

- Figures 32 and 33 exemplify possible circuits of as many sensor devices according to possible embodiments, also integrating a temperature detection function based - respectively - on a capacitive-type and a resistive -type driving principle of the sensitive part;

- Figure 34 is a schematic view from above of a sensitive part of a sensor device according to possible embodiments;

- Figure 35 is a schematic section according to line XXXV-XXXV of Figure 34;

- Figure 36 is an enlarged view of the detail XXXVI of Figure 34;

- Figure 37 is an enlarged view of the detail XXXVII of Figure 35; and

- Figure 38 exemplifies a possible circuit of a sensor device in accordance with other possible embodiments.

Description of preferred embodiments

Reference to an embodiment within this description indicates that a particular configuration, structure, or characteristic described in relation to the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment. Thus, phrases such as "in one embodiment", "in various embodiments" and the like, possibly present in different places of this description, are not necessarily referred to one and the same embodiment. In addition, particular conformations, structures or characteristics defined within this description may be combined in any appropriate way in one or more embodiments, even different from those depicted. The numerical and spatial references (such as "upper", "lower", "top", "bottom", etc.) as used herein are for convenience only and therefore do not define the scope of protection or the scope of the embodiments. The same reference numbers are used in the figures to indicate similar or technically equivalent elements.

In Figures 1-4 a generic electrical device is represented in a schematic form, in combination with which a dielectric fluid is used, for example for thermal conditioning purposes, and equipped with a sensor device according to possible embodiments of the invention. In the example the device shown is a battery, having a battery pack cooled by a dielectric liquid: as mentioned, however, the scope of the invention is not limited to this specific technical field.

The device or battery, indicated as a whole with 1, has a casing 2 that defines a containment volume 3, inside which an electrical part is arranged, here represented a battery pack 4, comprising a plurality of batteries or electrolytic cells 4a, connected in series or in parallel. The volume 3 is suitable for receiving a dielectric fluid 5 for the thermal conditioning of the battery pack 4, in particular a coolant. In the following, let us assume that the fluid 5 is a hydrofluoroether (HFE), for example a fluid belonging to the NOVEC™ family, produced by 3M Company, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA, or else 1, 1,1, 2, 2,3,3- Fleptafluoro-3-methoxypropane (formula: C4F13F70 - CAS Registry Number: 375-03-1).

The practical realization of a possible fluidic circuit and/or of other components of a cooling system for fluid 5 is independent of the purposes of this description.

One of the walls of the casing 2, in particular a side wall thereof, is equipped with a through opening 2a, at which a sensor device in accordance with the invention is installed, indicated as a whole with 10, and later also identified as a "sensor", for brevity. The opening 2a is preferably located at a height corresponding to a condition of immersion of at least a sensitive end of the sensor into the fluid, in particular in a condition of at least partial immersion of the pack 4 in the fluid 5: in this perspective, device 10 could possibly also be used as a sensor of minimum level, as mentioned below, in the case of fluids having an electrical insulation distinguishable from that of the air. As can also be seen in the detail of Figure 4, the sensor 10 is mounted in a watertight way at the aforementioned opening 2a and is configured in such a way that the fluid 5 can come into contact with a sensitive part of the sensor itself, as explained below. More generally, the sensor has a sensor body configured for mounting on the electrical device or battery so that a sensitive part thereof is in contact or immersed in the fluid subject to monitoring. Of course, the mounting position of the sensor 10 shown in the drawings must be understood as a mere example, as the same sensor could be installed in another position, provided that its sensitive part is able to be reached by the fluid 5 (for example along a circuit for the supply and/or the recirculation of the fluid 5 in the volume 3).

A sensor 10 according to possible embodiments is shown with different views in Figures 5-12.

Referring initially to Figures 5-7, the sensor 10 has a first body part 11, formed for example with an electrically insulating plastic material. In various embodiments, body part 11 extends longitudinally and has a box-like portion 12, provided with a cover 12a, and preferably a first tubular portion 13, which obtains an electrical connector body. In various embodiments, the body 11 defines an intermediate flange 14, radially protruding, provided with holes 14a (Figure 8) for receiving suitable fixing elements, such as screws. Alternatively, the sensor 10 could be equipped with another type of fixing and/or positioning means, such as means for quick coupling, possibly complementary to respective coupling and/or positioning means provided on the casing 2 of the electrical device or battery 1.

Sensor 10 preferably comprises a second body part 15, also formed for example in with an electrically insulating plastic material. Body part 15 defines a hollow portion 16, substantially cup-shaped, and - preferably - a respective radially protruding end flange 17, also provided with holes 17a (Figure 9) for fixing means. When both present, flanges 14 and 17 can have approximately the same profile and the same arrangement of the corresponding holes 14a and 17a, such that, in the assembled condition, the holes 14a are in a position substantially coinciding with that of the holes 17a: in the assembled condition, the two flanges 14 and 17 can therefore abuts against each other, to form the body of the sensor 10. The flanges 14 and 17 can be joined together, for example by welding or gluing, or else the reciprocal fastening can be achieved by using the same fixing elements , such as the aforementioned screws, used to fix the sensor 10 in place.

In various embodiments, the sensor 10 may comprise elements to uniquely define the assembly position between the body parts 11 and 15, such as for example a positioning element on part 11 and a corresponding positioning counter-element on part 15. In the example shown, these element and counter-element are at the facing sides of the two flanges 14 and 17 (see in particular the element indicated with 17b in Figure 12, protruding axially from the flange 17, to which there corresponds a respective seat or recess on the flange 14a, not visible).

In various preferred embodiments, the peripheral wall of the hollow portion 16 of the body part 15, preferably a substantially cylindrical wall, is externally provided with a seat - designated by 16a in Figure 12 - for the mounting of a sealing element 18, such as an OR type gasket. Such gasket 18 is provided for example when at least part of the sensor

10, or at least a portion of its body part 15, is inserted into an opening, in order to achieve a radial seal: see for reference Figure 4, wherein the body part 15 is inserted in the opening 2a of the casing 2 of the electrical device or battery 1.

In various preferential embodiments, a wall of the hollow portion 16 of the body part 15, in particular the end or bottom wall 16a thereof, is provided with one or more through openings, designated by 19 (see for example Figures 5 and 9) for passage of the fluid subject to detection; in the non-limiting example shown, there are four openings 19, including a central hole and three slot-shaped openings, in a peripheral position with respect to the aforementioned central hole. At its inner side, the wall 16a can be provided with a recess or indentation , designated by 19a only in Figure 11, at which the inner ends of the openings 19 are located.

Referring also to Figures 8-12, the sensor 10 is preferably provided with first connection terminals, designated by 20, which extend through a wall (designated by 12b only in Figure 11) that separates from each other the portions 12 and 13 of the body part

11. The first terminals 20 have a distal end portion, designated by 20a, which extends inside the first tubular portion 13, to form therewith an electrical connector, for the connection of the sensor 10 to an external system. The proximal end portion 20b of the first terminals 20 extends instead within a cavity 12c (Figures 10 and 12) defined by the box-like portion 12 of the body part 11.

In various embodiments, body part 11 also has second connection terminals 21, which pass through a wall, preferably a massive part 22 (Figures 10-11), which in the non limiting example depicted extends axially starting from the end of the box-like portion 12 opposite the tubular portion 13. The second terminals 21 have a proximal end portion, designated by 21a, which extends within the aforementioned cavity 12c defined by the box- like portion 12, in a position generally opposite to the proximal end portions 20b of the first terminals 20. The distal end portion 21b of the second ter inals 21 protrudes axially beyond the wall or massive part 22 of the body part 11.

In various embodiments the proximal end portions 20b and 21a of the terminals 20 and 21, respectively, are coupled to respective connecting elements of a circuit support 23, which is housed within the cavity 12c and on which at least part of the control electronics of the sensor 10 is implemented, in particular at least part of the electronic components required for monitoring the dielectric strength of the fluid, or the corresponding breakdown voltage. For this purpose, the above end portions 20b, 21a of the terminals can be shaped accordingly, for example be bent and sized to fit into corresponding passages provided on the circuit support 23. The terminals 20 and 21 can be driven into respective passages provided in the body part 11 or, preferably, the body part 11 is overmoulded directly to such terminals.

As shown in the example of Figure 12, in various embodiments the circuit on the support 23 has at least two connecting elements 23a for connection, through the terminals 21, to the sensitive part of a detection element, described below. This circuit may optionally provide two additional connecting elements for a temperature detector, for example an NTC thermistor, arranged on the aforementioned detection element (in which case two additional terminals 21 will preferably be provided for the connection of the temperature detector to the circuit support 23). Again referring to the example in Figure 12, the circuit on the support 23 has three additional connecting elements 23b for the terminals 20, which realize with the tubular portion 13 the connector for the external connection of the sensor 10.

Particularly from Figures 11 and 12 it is noted that, in various embodiments, the body part 11 presents a second tubular end portion 24, which here extends axially from the wall or massive part 22 (in the example, in a position generally opposite to the first tubular portion 13), wherein - within this tubular portion 24 - are the ends 21b of the terminals 21. The second tubular portion 24 preferably has a peripheral wall substantially cylindrical, or more generally substantially complementary to the section of the cavity of the hollow portion 16 of the body part 15. Preferably, the peripheral wall of the second tubular portion 24 has at least one opening 24a, preferably two openings in opposite positions, which in the assembly phase of the sensor 10 enable the electrical connection - for example by welding - of the aforementioned portions 21b of the terminals 21 to the respective electrical connection elements (indicated with 36a and 36b for example in Figure 12) of a detection element of the sensor 10, indicated as a whole with 30. In various embodiments, the detection element 30, or a support thereof (designated by 31 for example in Figures 13-14), is arranged on the distal end of the second tubular portion 24, which can be provided for this purpose with centering and/or positioning elements (two of these elements are designated by 24b in Figures 10 and 11). The aforementioned support 31 may be glued or coupled on the tubular portion 24.

In various embodiments, in the assembled condition, the tubular portion 24 with the detection element 30, and possibly at least a portion of the massive part 22, is housed inside the cavity defined by the hollow portion 16 of the body part 15 (see for example Figures 10-11). For this purpose, preferably, between the two body parts 11 and 15 there may be provided sealing means, such as the annular gasket designated by 25; for this purpose, the peripheral wall of the second tubular portion 24 can be externally provided with a corresponding positioning seat, designated by 24b in Figure 12.

In various preferential embodiments, further sealing means can be provided between the detection element 30 and the body part 15. In the example, for this purpose there is an annular gasket, designated by 26 for example in Figures 10-12, designed to be sealingly set between the aforementioned support 31 (Figures 13-14) of the detection element 30 and the wall 16a of the hollow portion 16, in which the through openings 19 are located. For this purpose, the inner side of the wall 16a can define a corresponding positioning seat - not indicated - for the gasket 26. As can be imagined, the annular gasket 26 delimits, together with the respective portions of the wall 16a and the aforementioned support 31 of the detection element 30, a detection chamber, not indicated, at which the openings 19, and the possible recess 19a, open - at one side - and at which the sensitive part of the detection element 30 (described below) face to - at the opposite side.

A possible example of a detection element 30 is shown in Figures 13 and 14.

Element 30 includes a support 31, preferably made of electrically insulating material, for example ceramic or plastic: in the example, suppose that the support 31 is formed with alumina. Still referring to the non-limiting example shown, the support 31 preferably has a square or polygonal peripheral profile (here substantially octagonal), provided with through holes 32. This shape and the presence of the holes 32 is not essential, the shape being possibly different, for example circular.

On the upper face of the support 31 a sensitive part is present, designated by SGi in Figure 13, which comprises at least one pair of electrodes on the support, designated by El and E2, in particular microelectrodes.

The electrodes El and E2 are preferably in the form of thin film. As already mentioned, in various preferential embodiments, the thickness of the metal films that obtain the electrodes El, E2 is comprised between 50 nanometers and 2 micrometers, preferably from 100 to 500 nanometers. The electrodes El, E2 can be made of at least two layers of different metallic materials, or a single layer of metal material. In the following it is assumed that both electrodes El and E2 are formed by respective layers of platinum and chromium on the support 31, the platinum making the upper layer and the chromium making the lower layer.

The electrodes have respective portions set at a minimum or predefined distance between them, which is a micrometric or sub-micrometric or nanometric distance, preferably comprised between 100 nanometers and 20 micrometers, in order to define therebetween a fixed measurement gap.

In the following, suppose that at the respective points closest to each other, the two electrodes El and E2 are at a distance of about 2 microns.

In the exemplified non-limiting case, on the upper face of the support 31 first electrically conductive tracks are provided, for example screen-printed tracks of metallic material or of a conductive paste, designated by 33a and 33b in Figure 13, which are electrically connected to similar electrically conductive tracks, designated by 34a and 34b in Figure 13, provided on the lower face of the support 31. The upper tracks 33a, 33b can each extend from the respective electrode El or E2 to a respective through hole of the substrate 31 (here the holes designated by 32a and 32b), which is filled or has the surface thereof covered with an electrically conductive material, with which the material of the track 33a or 33b is in contact. Similarly, the lower tracks 34a and 34b are in contact with the material filling, or covering the surface of, the respective hole 32a or 32b, and extend therefrom to a respective contact pads 35a or 35b, respectively, formed with electrically conductive material, from which there departs in turn a connecting element 36a or 36b of the sensing element 30, i.e., of the electrodes El and E2 of the sensitive part SGi; elements 36a and 36b can be, for example, represented by electrical conductors, possibly flexible ones.

As already mentioned, a temperature detector, such as an NTC thermistor, can possibly be mounted on the support 31, for example on the lower face thereof, as exemplified with RTi in Figure 14. In this case, at least two additional connecting elements or conductors for this detector will also extend from the support 31, for the purpose of connection to the control electronics via suitable terminals 21.

Referring to Figures 15-16, in various preferential embodiments, at least one of the electrodes (here the electrode El) has a portion of the respective peripheral profile which is generally pointed, indicated with El a, designed to face at a predefined distance, or minimum distance, a corresponding portion, indicated with E2b, of the peripheral profile of the other electrode (here the electrode E2), in order to define the measurement gap, indicated with G in the detail of Figure 16. The part at a shorter distance between the electrodes El and E2 may have relatively small radii of curvature, of the order of microns, at the corresponding pointed profile portion. The choice to provide at least one electrode with a pointed part is aimed at exploiting the so-called "tip effect", which enable use of a low voltage - in particular less than 50 V - in order to possibly obtain a partial electric discharge or a breakdown voltage at the part at a minimum distance between the two electrodes. In the example depicted in Figures 13-16 only the electrode El has a pointed configuration, but - as it will be see - this does not constitute an essential feature.

As mentioned, the sensor object of the invention is configured for carrying out detections aimed at determining possible losses by conduction in a fluid that is ideally insulating but which, under particular conditions, can partially lose this property. In other words, the sensor enables to directly deduce a possible decay of the dielectric strength of the dielectric fluid with respect to its initial or nominal value or range of nominal values, in particular a decay below a safety threshold.

The principle on which the sensor is based is the possibility of obtaining high electric fields using very small distances between the electrodes. For particular configurations, reported merely by way of non-limiting example, it is possible to create "pointed" electrodes to also exploit the so-called "tip effect", that is a physical phenomenon that occurs whenever there is an electrically charged conductor: this phenomenon consists in the formation of a more intense electric field in areas where the surface of the conductor has a smaller radius of curvature, since the electric field is inversely proportional to this radius. In the presence of a tip the radius of curvature ideally tends to zero, and consequently the electric field ideally tends to infinity.

In reality it is not possible to obtain a nil radius of curvature, but in presence of a tip having a very small radius of curvature (micrometric or sub-micrometric) even if not a nil one, it is possible to obtain electric fields of several tens of kV/cm even with a few Volts of potential. Therefore, using an electrode with a profile defining a tip, such as the electrode El, and a second electrode whose profile facing the tip is flat, such as the electrode E2 (whose profile could also be of another shape, as it will be seen below), placed at a sufficiently small distance, a flow of current can be obtained due to the corona effect (a phenomenon that is generated in presence of two conductors between which there is a high potential gradient and which consists of a passage of electric current in the fluid in which these electrodes are immersed, due to the ionization caused by the high electric field being present). The high electric field is obtained both by the pointed shape of one or both electrodes, and by the close distance between the two electrodes. It should also be noted that the very thin thickness of the film contributes to the increase in the local electric field to an even greater extent than the pattern in the plane. A further advantage of having a limited facing area of the two electrodes is to limit in any way the possible electric discharge to a limited and well-located volume.

Therefore, for example, by placing the two electrodes El and E2 immersed in the fluid being measured in parallel to a capacity electrically charged at an appropriate voltage level - depending on the monitored fluid and/or the minimum distance between the electrodes (i.e., the characteristic size of the detection gap) - it is possible to determine the level of degradation of the fluid based on the residual voltage level, measured on the capacity after a predetermined time interval.

The lower the voltage level, the higher the current between the electrodes, the more the fluid will have lost its insulating properties. It is therefore possible to correlate the residual voltage level on a capacity, after a predetermined time, to the insulating properties of the fluid, to deduce the dielectric strength thereof.

Figures 17 and 18 show possible alternative embodiments of a detection element 30, wherein on support 31 - here having a circular shape and formed for example with fiberglass and epoxy resin (vetronite) or other material suitable for printed circuit board or PCB, or with alumina - a substrate 31a is deposited, formed with silicon oxide obtained on a silicon wafer 31b, and on substrate 31a a plurality of pairs of electrodes E1-E2 are defined, to form the sensitive part SGi of the detection element 30.

The electrodes El and E2 of each pair can possibly define detection gaps having different amplitude, for the reasons explained above. The substrate 31a preferably has a thickness of not less than the distance between the electrodes El and E2 at the smallest measurement gap, but preferably greater than said distance.

In the example, the various electrodes El and E2 are connected to the respective connecting conductors 36a, 36b by wire bonding, via micro- wires 37a and 37b, preferably based on a noble metal. In the example, however, the micro-wires 37b of the electrodes E2 are connected to a common pad, indicated with 35b in figure 18, from which a single connecting conductor 36b departs: in the example, therefore, the detection element 30 includes only three connecting conductors (without prejudice to the possible additional presence of the aforementioned temperature detector, in which case at least one additional conductor will be provided, preferably at least two additional conductors).

In embodiments of the type shown in Figures 17-18, the use of the silicon wafer allows to obtain a highly doped area, which can be used as a gate electrode, to modulate the partial discharge between the detection gap of the pair or of each pair of electrodes El- E2, in case it is desired to obtain particularly fine measurements of the transport phenomena inside the fluid, for example, by giving the sensor greater selectivity with respect to certain contaminants.

The polarization of the fluid molecules could in fact modify the electrical conduction thereof. In this perspective, a phenomenon that could be exploited is that of the remarkable electronegativity of the fluorine atoms present in the molecules of some fluids commonly used for insulation and cooling in batteries, such as hydrofluoroethers (HFE), for example l,l,l,2,2,3,3-Heptafluoro-3-methoxypropane.

During the discharge between the electrodes E1-E2, fluorine atoms tend to segregate free electrons, which is one of the reasons why fluids of this type have relatively high breakdown voltages. The presence of a gate voltage can influence the polarization of the molecules, creating different paths, to facilitate or hinder the discharge depending on the value and polarity of the gate voltage. It could therefore be obtained - through appropriate mapping - the detection of different contaminants by measuring the current between the main electrodes (the electrodes equipped with a "tip" or "tip - plane" for example, would become the source and the drain) as a function of the gate voltage.

The further advantage of using a substrate 31a at least partly in silicon consists in the possibility of integrating directly into the substrate the driving circuit of the sensitive part SGi, or at least a part of said circuit.

As mentioned, in any case, it is possible to use insulating supports or substrates, depositing directly on their surface the pair or pairs of electrodes E1-E2, or by else obtain a suitable gate electrode, and then depositing an insulating layer thereon (for example a polymer layer with a thickness of a few microns, for example 2-10 microns), on which forming subsequently at least one pair of electrodes E1-E2 between which the discharge takes place. An example of this type will be described with reference to figures 34-38.

In the event that the sensitive part SGi of a sensing element 30 comprises several pairs of electrodes E1-E2, the measurement gaps supplied at one and the same voltage may be individual, as in the case of Figure 17, or two electrodes El and E2 can define several measurement gaps therebetween working in parallel at the same voltage and with the same distance, as in the case of Figure 23, to have redundancy and avoid any malfunctions (such as gas bubbles or impurities at a gap).

Figures 19-20 illustrate a possible alternative geometry of two electrodes E1-E2, each distinguished by a respective pointed portion Ela and E2b of the respective peripheral profile. Such an embodiment can for example be advantageous to maximize the local electric field.

Figures 21-22 illustrate a further possible alternative geometry of two electrodes E1-E2, wherein the peripheral profile of the electrode El has an axially extended protruding portion Ela, which is insinuated between two extended and parallel parts of a shaped portion E2b of the peripheral profile of the electrode E2. Such an embodiment can, for example, be advantageous to improve the homogeneity of the chemical attack process of the thin film during the manufacture of the microelectrodes.

Figures 23-24 illustrate a further possible alternative geometry, wherein the facing portions of the peripheral profiles of the two electrodes E1-E2 have a substantially interdigitated-combs configuration, that is, with the succession of protrusions Ela of the electrode El received in the succession of recesses E2b of the electrode E2. As already mentioned, such an embodiment can for example be advantageous to define - by means of two electrodes only - a plurality of equal measurement gaps working in parallel, for reasons of redundancy and for avoiding occasional malfunctions due to external causes, such as bubbles or impurities at a single gap. Although in this case the value of the electric field - with the same applied voltage and the same minimum distance between the electrodes - can be reduced compared to the "tip-to-plane" or "tip-to-tip" case, the embodiment can be advantageous in the case of fluids with higher conductivity, for example because they are polluted and/or deteriorated, ensuring greater robustness of the electrodes that would be less subject to damage to the field itself applied during the discharge.

The sensor 10 is mounted so that its body part 15 is at least partially exposed - at least at its wall 16a - to the fluid being detected, as exemplified for example in Figures 3- 4.

In this way, part of fluid 5 can penetrate through the through openings 19, and reach the detection chamber delimited between the sealing element 26, the inner side of the wall 16a and the support 31 of the detection element 30; given that the sealing element 26 circumscribes a region of the upper face of the support 31 in which at least one pair of electrodes E1-E2 is located, said electrodes are both in contact with the fluid 5. Figure 25 shows schematically a possible principle of operation of a sensor 10, wherein Vdc indicates a low voltage source, SI and S2 indicate two switches (preferably of electronic or controllable type), C indicates a capacitor of a known or predefined electrical capacity, and SGi indicates a sensitive part with at least two electrodes of the type previously indicated with El and E2. OS designates a detection device or instrument, such as an oscilloscope. The sensor is, as mentioned, mounted so that the fluid subject to detection submerges the electrodes E1-E2, thus also creeping into the detection gap G.

By closing the switch SI, the capacitor C is charged at the voltage of Vdc. Then the switch SI is made to open and the switch S2 is made to close, so discharging the capacitor C on the measurement gap defined between the electrodes of the sensitive part SGi, between which part of the fluid is located.

The graph in Figure 26 shows typical discharge trends for some types of fluid, as detected by the Applicant by means of a sensor device in accordance with the invention and operating according to the principle indicated above. The tests were carried out using a Vdc voltage of 5 V, a capacitor C with a capacity of 100 nF and a sensitive part SGi with electrodes El and E2 in chromium, having a geometry of the type shown in Figure 15, and a detection gap G of 2 micrometers. In the graph, in abscissa the time t in seconds is expressed, while in ordinate the voltage U in volts is expressed.

Novec 7100™ is, for example, one of the fluids typically used for thermal conditioning of the electrochemical cells of a battery: the electrical discharge represented is substantially coinciding with that of air (the two curves on the graph are practically not distinguishable) and the time constant is that relating to the capacity of 100 nF on a resistor of 10 MOhm (internal resistance of the oscilloscope OS used).

The same fluids referred to in the graph of Figure 25 were also analyzed by means of a dielectric strength meter, the typical instrument used for measuring the dielectric strength of a material. The corresponding results are set out in Table 1 below:

Table 1 With the dielectric strength meter it was possible to measure for ultrapure water a discharge voltage of about 2.4 kV/cm, while with a benchtop instrument for measuring conductivity, sensitive to nS/cm, it was not possible to measure any conductivity: this is due to the fact that ultrapure water becomes conductive in presence of high electric fields caused by the generation of local charge, and not by virtue of free charges already present in the fluid. On the other hand, with the sensor 10 in accordance with the invention it is possible to verify the quality of the electrical insulation of the fluid in a direct way: as can be seen from the graph in Figure 26, in fact, the curve relating to ultrapure water is well distinguished both from that of Novec and from those of less pure waters (deionized water and mains water).

The sensor according to the invention can be made according to different circuit variants, for a capacitive- or resistive-type operation.

Figure 27 shows, for example, a scheme of principle for a unipolar driving of the sensor 10, with reference to the aforementioned capacitive operation. The figure shows the only essential components useful for understanding the operation, namely:

- with SGi there is schematized the sensitive part in which the electric field is generated at the measurement gap G, consisting of a pair of electrodes E1-E2 of the type described, or consisting of several pairs of electrodes possibly connected in parallel with each other;

- Ci indicates the capacitor that realizes the capacity of which the residual voltage is to be measured;

- with V _d the voltage at the ends of the capacitor Cl is indicated, where the arrow identifies its direction;

- Vi indicates a generic source of constant voltage;

- V indicates any system or device capable of measuring the level of voltage V _d on the capacitor Ci, such as a voltmeter or an analog-to-digital conversion system,

- with SWi, SW ₂ and SW ₃ generic controlled switches are indicated.

Not all the switches SWi, SW2 and SW3 are necessarily present, and may be arranged in circuit positions slightly different from the exemplified one. Preferably, the capacitance value of the capacitor Ci, the voltage supplied by the source Vi and the characteristic size of the detection gap (minimum distance between the electrodes El, E2) is chosen according to the type of fluid subject to monitoring.

According to a preferential control method, at a time To the switch stands open SWi, the switch SW3 is made to open and the switch SW2 is made to close, bringing to 0 V the voltage Vc at the terminals of the capacitor Ci.

At a later time Ti the switch SW2 is made to open and the switch SWi is made to close, keeping the switch SW3 open: in this way, the voltage V _d on the capacitor Ci is brought to a level equal to Vi (V _d ~ V i ).

At a later time T2 the switch SWi is made to open, with the switch SW2 always open, and the switch SW3 is made to close.

At a later time T3, i.e. after a predetermined and known time interval, the voltage V _d on the capacitor Ci is measured using the measuring device V _. The level of the measured voltage is in direct correlation with the insulating property of the fluid and is therefore transmitted as output data from sensor 10. The measurement cycle can be periodically performed starting from time To. In a configuration of this type, in the event that the residual voltage measured at the terminals of the capacitor falls below a determined threshold value, it can be deduced that the dielectric strength of the fluid is no longer sufficient to allow a safe use of the fluid itself, and a suitable alarm signal can be activated accordingly.

Note that the switches SWi and SW2 form a so-called half-bridge structure, which can be easily obtained by means of discrete transistors, or integrated circuits customized for this function, or by means of the push-pull outputs of a generic microcontroller or integrated circuit. The switch SW3 can be obtained by means of relays, or integrated analog switches, or FET transistors, or other systems suitable for this purpose.

In an alternative version it is possible to design a driving in which the presence of the switch SW3 is omitted. In this case the circuit is simplified, with corresponding reduction in costs and dimensions. The disadvantage is a higher current consumption and a possible faster degradation of the electrodes E1-E2.

The switch SW2 may be omitted, but in this case - generally - there will not be a complete discharge of the capacitor Ci between a measurement cycle and another one, which is however irrelevant in the proposed unipolar use. However, its usefulness in the case of bipolar use of the sensor 10 it will be clear below.

Figure 28 shows a scheme of principle for a bipolar driving of the sensor 10, always in relation to the aforementioned capacitive method; also in this case the figure highlights the only essential components useful for understanding the operation.

In order to improve the durability of the SGi sensing element, it is possible to use a bipolar driving, i.e., a driving such that the voltage V _d at the terminals of the capacitor Ci can take both positive and negative values. Through this expedient, the electric field that is generated between the two electrodes E1-E2 changes polarity depending on the V _d voltage present on the capacitor Ci, thus minimizing any deposition effects due to the galvanoplastic effect on said electrodes. To obtain this type of driving, a so-called "full- bridge" structure is used, as illustrated in the principle diagram of Figure 28, in which the components indicated with SGi, Ci, V _d , Vi and V are similar to those described with reference to Figure 27.

With SWi, SW2, SW3, SW4, SW5 and SW ₆ generic controlled switches are indicated, which also in this case are not necessarily all present, and can possibly be arranged in circuit positions slightly different from the one exemplified.

According to a preferential control method, at time To the switches SWi, SW3, SW5 and SW ₆ switches are open, the switch SW2 is closed, and the switch SW4 is also closed, bringing the V _d voltage level at the terminals of the capacitor Ci to 0 V.

Note that the condition of keeping the capacitor at 0 V can be omitted, that is, the state of the circuit at time To is optional.

At a later time Ti the switch SW2 is made to open and the switch SWi is made to close, maintaining the state of the other switches, and thus bringing the voltage V _d on the capacitor Ci to a level equal to Vi (V _d ~ V i ).

At a later time T2 the switch SWi is made to open and the switches SW5 and SW ₆ are made to close, maintaining the state of the other switches. Note that the condition of closing the switches SW5 and SW ₆ may be omitted, i.e., switches SW5 and SW ₆ may not be present, or the electrodes E1-E2 of the sensitive part SGi may always be connected in parallel to the capacitor Ci.

At a subsequent T3 time, i.e., after a predetermined and known time interval, the voltage on the capacitor Ci is measured using the device V, possibly following the opening of the switches SW5 and SW ₆ , if any. As mentioned for the case of Figure 28, the measured voltage level is in direct correlation with the insulating property of the fluid and is then transmitted as output data from the sensor 10.

At a later time T4 is closed the switch SW2 is made to close, maintaining the state of the other switches, and in particular the closed state of the switch SW4, thus bringing the level of the voltage V _d at the terminal of the capacitor Ci to 0 V.

At a later time T5 the switch SW4 is made to open and the switch SW3 is made to close switch, maintaining the state of the other switches, thus bringing the V _d voltage on the capacitor Ci to a level equal to -Vi (V _d ~ -Vi).

At a later time Te the switch SW3 is made to open and the switches SW5 and SW ₆ are made to close, maintaining the state of the other switches. As mentioned, closure of the switches SW ₅ and SW ₆ can be omitted, or they may not be present, or the electrodes El- E2 can always be connected in parallel to the capacitor Ci.

At a later time T7, i.e., after a predetermined and known time interval, the voltage on the capacitor Ci is measured, possibly following the opening of the switches SW ₅ and SW ₆ , if any. Again, the measured voltage level is in direct correlation with the insulating property of the fluid and is then transmitted as output data from the sensor 10.

The measurement cycle can then be performed again starting from time To.

The switches SW ₁ -SW ₂ and SW ₃ -SW ₄ form the aforementioned “H bridge” structure (full bridge), which also in this case can be easily obtained by means of discrete transistors, or integrated circuits specialized for this function, or by means of the push-pull outputs of a generic microcontroller or integrated circuit. Also in this case the switches SW ₅ and SW ₆ can be obtained by means of relays, or integrated analog switches, or FET transistors, or other systems suitable for the purpose.

As it can be sees, according to the scheme of principle of Figure 28, it is possible to carry out a driving of the V _d voltage on capacitor Ci of a bipolar type, that is, in which the voltage at the terminals of the capacitor Ci can be reversed, or be both positive and negative on the same terminal.

In embodiments of the type described with reference to Figures 25, 27 and 28 the representative voltage that is measured varies as a function of the discharge time of the capacitor. The capacitor can discharge for two reasons: non-nil resistance in the measuring circuit (and this is inevitable in real circuits), and consequent current that flows in the circuit, or current flowing between the two electrodes of the detection gap. Above a certain threshold there is a discharge, meant as a current between the two electrodes due to an increase in charge carriers, tied not only to the corona or "tip" effect previously explained, but also to a dissociation of new charge carriers (electrons and positive ions) in the fluid. Whether the discharge of the capacitor is more or less gradual or sudden depends on the relative values of capacitance and current in the detection gap. For illustrative purposes, to completely discharge a 100 nF capacitor charged with a voltage of 5 V in 1 second, an average current of 0.5 microA is needed: this corresponds, through a detection gap of the type considered here, to a current density which can be estimated at around 500 A/ _cm ² , that is a current density certainly not small for a fluid that has to be considered as insulating.

The driving principles described with reference to Figures 25, 27 and 28 can be defined as "capacitive", as they exploit the discharge of a capacitor to provide the detection gap G with a defined amount of electric charge. In accordance with other embodiments of the invention, however, it is possible to use systems of a fully resistive type, both for unipolar driving, and for the bipolar driving. An example in this sense is shown in Figure 29, wherein only the essential components useful for understanding the operation are highlighted. Also in Figure 29 the components indicated with SGi, Vi and V are similar to those described with reference to Figures 27 and 28. In Figure 29:

- with SW _XL and SW _XH - with X ranging from one (1) to four (4) - generic controlled switches are indicated, which also in this case are not necessarily all present, and can possibly be arranged in circuit positions slightly different from the exemplified one;

- with RRx - with X ranging from one (1) to four (4) - reference resistors are indicated, through which a resistive divider is obtained, connecting them alternately to the sensitive part SGi through the various SW _XH and SW _XL switches;

- VS _G indicates the voltage between the two electrodes E1-E2 of the sensitive part SGi, the arrow indicating the direction;

The system or device V is configured here to measure the voltage level at the node indicated with N.

The principle of operation is that of the voltage divider. The detection gap is placed in series to another resistance R (the value of this resistance can be varied as described below, using more resistances and a suitable circuit configuration). When voltage is applied to the detection gap in series to a certain resistance R, the entire voltage Vi is present at the ends of the gap, since in the absence of current the potential of the node N is zero (ground). If this voltage V i is sufficient to generate a current through the detection gap, the potential of N will vary to a value V(t) = Ri(t), which will stabilize at a certain value V. This configuration allows to define an equivalent resistance of the gap as described in detail below.

Note that, in the exemplifying description, reference is made to a system that uses four (4) reference resistors R _R , but the circuit can also be extended to a greater number of resistors, or reduced to a smaller number.

Also in this case, preferably, the resistance value of the resistors R _R and their number, the voltage supplied by the source Vi and the characteristic dimension of the detection gap (minimum distance between the electrodes El, E2) is chosen according to the type of fluid subject to monitoring.

With reference to the diagram in Figure 29, in the case of unipolar driving there can be two cases: 1) the switches from SW _IL to SW ₄₁ . and SW _SH are not present, while the SW _SL switch can be replaced by a short-circuit, or always be closed; the switches from SWm to SW4 _H are alternately closed one at a time and the voltage at the node N is measured, after a settling time;

2) the switches from SWm to SW4 _H and SW _SL are not present, while the switch SW _SH can be replaced by a short-circuit, or always be closed; the switches from SWm to SW4 _L are alternately closed one at a time and the voltage at the node N is measured, after a settling time.

Still with reference to the scheme of Figure 29, in the case of bipolar driving, similarly, there can be two cases, very similar to the previous ones:

1) the switches SWm to SW4 _L and SW _SH switches are open, while the switch SW _SL is always closed; the switches SWm to SW _4H are alternately closed one at a time and the voltage at the node N is measured, after a settling time;

2) the switches SWm to SW4 _H and SW _SL are open, while the switch SW _SH is always closed; the switches SWm to SW _4L are alternately closed one at a time and the voltage at the node N is measured, after a settling time.

Both in the case of unipolar driving and in the case of bipolar driving, it can easily be deduced that the equivalent circuits shown in Figures 30 and 31 are obtained.

In the case of unipolar driving, for each measurement cycle, there will be only one of the two cases, depending on which configuration is chosen. Conversely, in the case of bipolar driving, the two circuit configurations that are determined depending on the state of the switches alternate between one measurement cycle and the next one.

Using this so-called “proportional” method, it is possible to carry out the measurement while always maintaining the same reference for the measuring system.

For convenience, but it is not a binding choice, consider using 0 V as a reference. In this way, in case 1) the voltage VS _G will be directly measured at the terminal of the sensitive part SGi (Figure 30), while in case 2) the voltage VRx will be measured at the terminals of the resistor RRX.

Note that, in case 2), if the same conventions are maintained as in case 1), the voltage VSG at the terminals of the sensitive part SGibecomes negative: this is evidenced by the fact that the electrical symbol of SGi is vertically reversed in Figures 30 and 31. From a physical viewpoint, what is obtained is the inversion of the electric field at the terminals of the sensitive part SGi, similarly to the capacitive method previously described.

In case 1) the equivalent resistance R _SG at the terminals of the two electrodes El- E2 of the sensitive part SGi is given by the following formula:

VSG

R SG R Rx ^x Vi - VSG

In case 2) the equivalent resistance to the terminals of the two electrodes E1-E2 of the sensitive part SGi is given instead by the following formula:

With reference to the example in Figure 29, it should be noted that the electrode E2 is at the fixed potential V. Consequently, measuring the voltage at node N with respect to ground or with respect to V is absolutely equal, less than a known constant represented by voltage V: the information content is therefore the same.

For the purpose of a correct operation of the sensor 10 on the entire temperature range provided by the application, a temperature measurement can also be used, through a suitable temperature detector located near the sensitive part SGq as mentioned, such a temperature detector can include an NTC-type thermistor.

Through the detection of the temperature, a correction can be applied to the voltage level measured at the terminals of the capacitor Ci of Figures 27-28, or to the equivalent resistance measured by the proportional method referred to in Figures 29-31, by means of a suitable compensation polynomial of grade 1 or higher. For the purpose of determining the coefficients of the compensating polynomial, for example, two or more measurements of the voltage level or resistance may be made at different and known temperatures in a reference fluid.

Figure 32 shows a simplified diagram of a possible implementation used for obtaining the sensor 10, based on the capacitive method with bipolar driving and with temperature detection for compensation purposes.

Omitting the passive and protection components, which are in any case necessary for the correct operation of the circuit, and given that the elements SGi, Ci and V _d elements are similar to those previously described, we have the following fundamental elements:

- with RTi a temperature detector is designated, placed near the electrodes E1-E2, used to carry out temperature compensation;

- with SWi, SW2, SW3 and SW4 switches are designated, of the type already indicated above, particularly in relation to Figure 28, which can be obtained for example via two outputs of GPIO type ( General Purpose Input/Output) of a generic microcontroller, which are configurable at will; - with V s _N s a generic source of constant voltage is indicated, through which the capacitor Ci is charged, i.e. the driving voltage of the sensor 10;

- with OAo and OAi two operational amplifiers are indicated, used as voltage trackers in order to decouple the measuring capacitor Ci from the input of the acquisition system, ensuring a very high input impedance (by acquisition system the part of the circuit from the electrodes E1-E2, excluded, to the converter ADC is meant); these operational amplifiers can possibly also be used in amplifier configurations, inverting or non-inverting, in alternative circuit implementations;

- with ADC a generic analog to digital converter is indicated;

- with ADC MUX a generic multiplexer is indicated, set between the inputs of the quantities to be acquired and the converter ADC;

- with D&AC ( Drive & Acquisition Control) a block, representing the control algorithm of the driving system, the ADC MUX multiplexer and the ADC converter, is indicated;

- with C&C ( Computation & Communication ) a block representing the temperature compensation algorithm, the calculation of the measured value and the communication protocols is indicated.

Preferably, the control algorithm of the switches SWi, SW ₂ , SW ₃ and SW ₄ switches is similar to that described with reference to Figure 28, in relation to the bipolar driving of the sensor 10. The part previously indicated with V, or the measuring system or device, consists here of the operational amplifiers OAo and OAi, the multiplexer ADC MUX and the converter ADC.

In operation, between two successive cycles of measurement of the voltage level on the capacitor Ci (inputs 0 and 1 of the multiplexer) a temperature detection is carried out (input 2 of the multiplexer) through the detector RTi, necessary to carry out the corresponding compensation as previously described, on the basis of the aforementioned polynomial, at the voltage level measured at the terminals of the capacitor Ci _.

Figure 33 shows a simplified scheme for a possible implementation that can be used for obtaining the sensor 10, based on the aforementioned resistive or proportional method with bipolar driving and with temperature detection for compensation purposes.

Also in this case the passive and protective components are omitted from the representation, which are in any case necessary for the correct operation of the circuit, and - given that the element SGi is similar to those previously described - the following fundamental elements are present: - with RRi, RR2, RR3 and RR4 reference resistors of the type indicated above are indicated, particularly with reference to Figure 29, by means of which four voltage dividers are obtained operating on different measuring ranges, in order to optimize the accuracy of sensor 10;

- with RTi a temperature detector is indicated, placed near the measuring electrodes E1-E2, used to carry out temperature compensation;

- with SWm, SW _2H , SW _3H , SW _4H , SWSH and SW _1L , SW _2L , SW _3L , SW _4L , SW _5L switches already described above are indicated, particularly with reference to Figure 29, which can be obtained through corresponding GPIO outputs of a generic microcontroller, which can be configured at will;

- with V s _N s a generic source of constant voltage is indicated, for the driving of the sensor 10;

- with OAo an operational amplifier is indicated, used as a voltage tracker in order to decouple the voltage divider from the measuring system, ensuring a very high input impedance; also in this case the operational amplifier OAo can possibly be used in amplifier configuration, inverting or non-inverting, in alternative circuit implementations;

- with ADC a generic analog to digital converter is indicated;

- with ADC MUX a generic multiplexer is indicated, placed between the inputs of the quantities to be acquired and the converter ADC;

- with D&AC ( Drive & Acquisition Control) a block, representing the control algorithm for the driving, the multiplexer ADC MUX and the converter ADC, is indicated;

- with C&C ( Computation & Communication ) a block representing the compensation algorithm, the calculation of the measured value and the communication protocols.

The control algorithm of the switches SWm, SW _2H , SW _3H , SW _4H , SW _SH and SWm, SW _2L , SW _3L , SWm, SW5 _L is similar to that described with reference to Figure 33, in relation to the bipolar driving of the sensor 10. Also in this case the part previously indicated with V is here constituted by the operational amplifier OAo, the multiplexer ADC MUX and the converter ADC.

In operation, also in this case, between two successive measurement cycles as described in relation to Figure 29 (input 0 of the multiplexer) a temperature detection is carried out (input 1 of the multiplexer) through the detector TRi, necessary to carry out the corresponding compensation as previously described, on the basis of the aforementioned polynomial, to the equivalent resistance measured. In order to compensate, in addition to temperature variations, also the construction and assembly tolerances, the sensor according to the invention can be subjected to calibration. In the event that the sensor 10 provides for temperature detection, the calibration of the sensor, which can be carried out according to a technique known in itself, must be made before the calculation of the coefficients of the temperature compensation polynomial.

The acquisition system (which, as mentioned above includes the part of the circuit between the sensitive element SGi, excluded, and the converter ADC) can be subjected to calibration using a reference sample resistor (therefore of a precisely known value), to be set in parallel to the capacitor Ci, at a predetermined and stable temperature, to determine the real value of capacitance in input to the acquisition system, through the measurement of the time constant RC of the circuit. The measured capacity value is then stored in a non volatile memory inside the sensor 10 and used to carry out the appropriate correction to the measured values.

A calibration of the acquisition system can also be provided in the case of a sensor operating according to the resistive or proportional method (Figures 29-31 and 33).

The sensitive part SG ¹ , with its connections to the acquisition system, can also be calibrated. In this case, one or more measurements of the residual voltage level on the capacitor Ci are made by means of a reference sample fluid, placed at a predetermined and stable temperature, and the variance with respect to the expected nominal value is determined. This information is stored in a non-volatile memory inside the sensor, and used to carry out the appropriate correction to the measured values.

A calibration of the sensitive part SGi can also be provided in the case of a sensor operating according to the resistive or proportional method (Figures 29-31 and 33).

As previously indicated, the two electrodes El and E2 of a pair - or each pair - present in the sensitive part SGi can be operatively associated with a third electrode, performing source and gate functions, and the third electrode performing gate functions. As mentioned, if the sensitive part SGi includes a silicon wafer, the aforementioned third electrode can be obtained by appropriately doping a portion of said wafer. Figures 34-37 instead exemplify the case wherein, on the electrically insulating substrate 31 of a detection element 30, bearing a sensitive part SGi having electrodes El and E2 of the type already described, there is a third electrode, for example also made in the form of a thin film as already explained above, indicated with E3 in Figure 36. As particularly visible in Figure 37, the electrode E3, with a corresponding connection track E3a, can be obtained on the substrate 31, and then covered with a layer of dielectric material 31c on which the electrodes El and E2 are then arranged.

Figure 38 exemplifies a possible circuit arrangement including the aforementioned third electrode E3. In the case exemplified, the circuit shown is - for simplicity - very similar to that of Figure 27, that is, with the switches SWi and SW2 that form a half-bridge structure, but the concepts are evidently also translatable to the other circuits described. Compared to Figure 27, in Figure 38 there are additional switches indicated with SW4 and SW5, and the related circuit branches, for driving the gate electrode E3.

With reference to the example in Figure 38, it is possible to polarize the gate electrode E3 by closing the switch SW4 switch the switches SWi and SW5 open. Closing the switch SW3 after having previously charged the capacitor Ci leads to applying the voltage on the gap in the presence of the polarization of the gate electrode E3.

The characteristics of the present invention are clear from the given description, as are its advantages.

It is clear that numerous variants are possible for the person expert in the art to the sensor device described as an example, without departing from the scope of the invention as defined in the attached claims.

Reference has been made previously to the possible "indirect" use of the sensor 10 as a sensor of minimum level. Such use may be envisaged, for example, in applications where the electrical part of a generic device must always be at least partially immersed in a fluid having electrical insulation characteristics which are lower and clearly distinguishable from air, for example with an arrangement of the type shown in Figures 1- 4 in relation to a battery. It will be appreciated that, in normal operation, with the sensitive part of the sensor 10 in contact with the fluid 5, the sensor itself will provide output information relating to a certain value of the dielectric strength of the fluid 5, which may be variable within certain limits (depending on the possible decay of the insulation characteristics), but which will always be clearly distinguishable from the value of dielectric rigidity of air.

On this basis, if the sensor 10 detects a dielectric strength value similar to that of air, it can be deduced that the level of the fluid 5 has fallen below the installation position of the sensor, to initiate any corrective actions, such as an alarm signal or the start of an automatic fluid top-up system.