TAG ARRAY

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0001] The present invention generally relates to remote sensing and more specifically, to remote sensing using radio frequency identification (RFID) tags.

BACKGROUND

[0002] Non-contact continuous monitoring of human vital signs can be important in healthcare applications as it can eliminate the need for long wires and physical contacts of bulky devices, which can result in discomforts and infections. Such wireless health-monitoring systems can enable home surveillance and deliver real-time vital-sign information to a remote caregiver. Wireless monitoring can also be used for patients who need constant monitoring such as those in intensive care units (ICUs) and newborn babies in incubators. Part of the latest research has been focusing on radars systems and noncontact impedance sensing. However, these technologies are generally prone to interferences caused by other human subjects, or are limited in operational range.

[0003] Ultra-high frequency (UHF, e.g. 860-960 MHz) radio-frequency identification (RFID) systems can be utilized for object identification. Conventional remote sensing with radar techniques suffer from spatial resolution limited by (i) the wavelength of the electromagnetic waves and (ii) the size of the aperture (antenna).

[0004] Furthermore, in recent years, a large number of studies have been exploring the use of the unlicensed 3.1 -10.6 GHz ultra-wideband impulse (IR-UWB) radio, which has a series of advantages such as compact size, low power consumption, and circuitry simplicity among others. Because of these merits, IR-UWB is especially popular for wearable and implantable devices. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0005] Systems and methods for long-distance remote sensing with sub-wavelength resolution using a wirelessly-powered sensor tag array in accordance with various embodiments of the invention are illustrated. In an embodiment, a remote sensing apparatus includes: a radio frequency identification (RFID) tag; an electromagnetic transmitter configured to emit electromagnetic waves; an ultra-wideband (UWB) receiver; a computer system, where: the RFID tag is configured to be operated without a battery, and to be powered by the electromagnetic waves emitted by the electromagnetic transmitter; where the RFID tag is configured to send out UWB impulses based on an amount of electromagnetic power received from the electromagnetic transmitter, such that a repetition rate of the UWB impulses varies with the amount of electromagnetic power received from the electromagnetic transmitter.

[0006] In a further embodiment, the computer system is configured to receive and process signals from the UWB receiver and to track movements of the RFID tag and/or to track changes in a communication channel between the electromagnetic transmitter and the RFID tag.

[0007] In still a further embodiment, the RFID tag is further configured to monitor a transmit channel between the electromagnetic transmitter and the RFID tag.

[0008] In still a further embodiment again, the electromagnetic transmitter is configured to use at least one of continuous wave and pulse electromagnetic signals to provide power to the RFID tag.

[0009] In yet a further embodiment, the RFID tag is further configured to use at least one of continuous wave and pulse electromagnetic signals to communicate with the UWB receiver.

[0010] In yet a further embodiment again still further includes an array of RFID tags, wherein each of the tags in the array of RFID tags is configured to monitor changes in an environment around each of the tags, and to produce an image of the environment around each RFID tag. [0011] In a further embodiment still the remote sensing apparatus further includes an analyzer, where the analyzer is configured to analyze initial signals from the array of RFID tags and to identify a location of each of the tags by utilizing unique signals radiated by each of the tags.

[0012] In yet a further embodiment, the RFID tag includes a receiver antenna.

[0013] In still a further embodiment, the receiver antenna is at least one of on-chip and off-chip.

[0014] In still a further embodiment again, the RFID tag includes a transmitter antenna.

[0015] In yet a further embodiment, the RFID tag is further configured to measure vibration of the RFID tag.

[0016] In still a further embodiment, the RFID tag is further configured to monitor changes in an environment around the RFID tag.

[0017] In still a further embodiment, the RFID tag is further configured to send UWB signals based on movements caused by heart rate and respiration rate to the UWB receiver.

[0018] In still a further embodiment, the RFID tag is fabricated in a silicon technology including as CMOS or BiCMOS.

[0019] In another embodiment, an ultra-wideband impulse transmitter, includes: an input signal; a positive edge including a first output node; a negative edge including a second output node; an antenna; where each transition of the input signal triggers a Gaussian mono-pulse on at least one of the first output node and the second output node and subsequently drives the antenna, and while at least one of the first output node and the second output node emits a pulse, the other of the first output node and the second output node is tied to GND.

[0020] In a further embodiment, the antenna is at least one antenna selected from the group consisting of: a dipole antenna, a folded-dipole antenna, a loop antenna, a bow-tie antenna, a slot-bow-tie antenna, and a balanced antenna. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0021] Fig. 1 illustrates a wearable RFID tag for remote vital-sign monitoring in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0022] Fig. 2 illustrates a high-level circuit diagram of an ultra-high frequency (UHF)/ ultra-wide band (UWB) RFID tag in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0023] Fig. 3 illustrates a circuit diagram of a bandgap voltage reference in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0024] Fig. 4 illustrates a circuit diagram of a VDD-to-lsENs block in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0025] Fig. 5 illustrates simulation results of VGS.M-I , VGS,M2, and ISENS as a function of VDD in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0026] Fig. 6 illustrates a circuit diagram of an IsENs-to-F converter in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0027] Fig. 7A illustrates a circuit diagram of an impulse radio (IR)-UWB transmitter in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. Fig. 7B illustrates inductive and capacitive component values for the circuit diagram in Fig. 7A in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0028] Fig. 8 provides a graph of frequency response of an on-chip second-order bandpass filter in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0029] Fig. 9 provides a graph of transmit energy dissipation and efficiency in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0030] Fig. 10 provides a graph of frequency spectrum of an impulse as a function of VDD in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0031] Fig. 11 provides a graph of the current consumption of the IC in Fig. 2 in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0032] Fig. 12A provides a circuit diagram of a rectifier in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. Fig. 12B provides a circuit diagram of an equivalent circuit of the rectifier of Fig. 12A in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0033] Fig. 13 provides a graph of simulated conversion efficiency and RREC for different WGATE in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. [0034] Fig. 14 provides a layout diagram of the UHF and UWB antennas of the RFID tag in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0035] Fig. 15 provides a graph of h MATCH between the UFIF antenna and the on-chip rectifier in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0036] Fig. 16 provides a simulated graph of gain of the UFIF antenna in dB in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0037] Fig. 17 provides a graph of Sn of a monopole antenna in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0038] Fig. 18 provides a simulated graph of gain of the UWB antenna in dB at 4 GFIz in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0039] Fig. 19 provides a microscopic photograph of the fabricated RFID IC in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0040] Fig. 20 provides a graph of repetition rate of generated UWB impulses in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0041] Fig. 21 provides a graph of measured power dissipation of the RFID IC in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0042] Fig. 22 provides a photograph of a fabricated RFID tag in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0043] Fig. 23A provides a photograph of an experimental setup of a far-field energy harvesting measurement in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. Fig. 23B shows a photograph of an experimental setup of a transmitter and receiver in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. Fig. 23C shows a zoomed in photograph of the RFID tag of Fig. 23A in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0044] Fig. 24 provides a graph of a measured transient waveform of a typical received UWB impulse in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0045] Fig. 25 provides a circuit block diagram of a vital-sign receiver implemented by off-the-shelf components in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0046] Fig. 26 provides a photograph with settings of the vital-sign monitoring experiment in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. [0047] Fig. 27A provides a graph of transient waveform of a remotely retrieved vital-sign signal in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. Fig. 27B provides a graph of frequency spectrum of a remotely retrieved vital-sign signal in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0048] FIG. 28 illustrates a circuit schematic of an IR-UWB transmitter in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0049] FIG. 29A illustrates performance of a pulse generator that maximizes the power transfer efficiently to a 300 W load and Fig. 29B illustrates DC energy and the delivered impulse energy in different process corners in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0050] FIG. 30A illustrates normalized FFT of Outi-driven and Fig. 30B illustrates normalized FFT of Out2-driven pulses on 300 W load in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0051] FIG. 31 illustrates a top-down view of a folded-dipole antenna in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0052] FIG. 32A illustrates radiation patter of a folded-dipole antenna at 8 GFIz (unit: dB) and Fig. 32B illustrates Sn and matching efficiency of the antenna with respect to 300 W in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0053] FIG. 33A illustrates a photo of a transmitter and FIG. 33(B) layout of a pulse generator in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0054] FIG. 34A illustrates a setup of a wireless measurement of an IR-UWB transmitter and FIG. 34B illustrates Outi-driven and FIG. 34C illustrates Out2-driven pulse waveforms in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0055] FIG. 35A illustrates a spectrum analyzer measurement result for a transmitter operating at 100 Mpulses/s and FIG. 35B illustrates calculated EIRP of the transmitter in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0056] FIG. 36 illustrates a performance comparison of edge-combining based IR- UWB transmitters in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0057] Turning now to the drawings, systems and methods for long-distance remote sensing with sub-wavelength resolution using a wirelessly-powered sensor tag array in accordance with various embodiments of the invention are illustrated. In many embodiments, a wearable RFID tag is realized with increased energy-harvesting sensitivity for remote and object-specific vital-sign monitoring applications. In various embodiments, systems and methods for long-distance remote sensing with sub-wavelength resolution using a wirelessly-powered non-contact sensor tag array provide increased spatial and temporal resolution for sensing at a distance. In many embodiments, the RFID tag is realized to operate without a battery (battery-less) and to be powered by an electromagnetic transmitter, such as a UHF transmitter. In several embodiments, a UHF/ultra-wideband (UWB) hybrid system design can be used since the UWB impulse radio (IR-UWB) transmitter can consume extremely low amount of power and can address potential needs for precise indoor localization. Centimeter-level ranging accuracy can be achieved based on time-difference-of-arrival (TDOA) schemes.

[0058] In several embodiments, an RFID tag can be used at a distance to sense and amplify small variations in close proximity of the RFID tag, and to transmit a signal representing these variations to a receiver at a remote distance. In various embodiments, spatial resolution in sensing can be limited by the RFID tag size and not the wavelength of the electromagnetic waves or aperture size of the remote transmitter or receiver. In many embodiments, a remote transmitter can provide wireless power to the tag. In certain embodiments, the tag can harvest electromagnetic energy and can transmit UWB pulses with varied repetition rate back to a remote receiver. In several embodiments, the repetition rate of the UWB pulses can depend on the amount of power received by the tag. In various embodiments, harvested power by the tag can decrease if a distance of the RFID tag to a power source increases, and the repetition rate of the UWB pulses radiated by the tag is reduced. In various embodiments, a computer system can receive and process signals from a UWB receiver in order to track movements of the RFID tag and/or to track changes in a communication channel between the electromagnetic transmitter and the RFID tag. In several embodiments, the RFID tag can send out UWB impulses based on an amount of electromagnetic power received from the electromagnetic transmitter, such that a repetition rate of the UWB impulses increases with the amount of electromagnetic power received from the electromagnetic transmitter.

[0059] In many embodiments, the harvested power by the RFID tag can be impacted if the environment around the tag changes, which can result in a change in the repetition rate of the UWB pulses radiated by the tag. In several embodiments, the RFID tag can be placed on a human subject to sense the heart rate and respiration rate by sensing a movement of the tag due to the subject’s heart beat and respiration. The heart beat and respiration of the human subject can result in a change of in repetition rate of pulses sent out by the tag. In certain embodiments, by measuring the change in the repetition rate, heart rate and respiration rate can be detected from a remote distance. In many embodiments, systems and methods for long-distance remote sensing with sub-wavelength resolution using a wirelessly-powered sensor tag array can be used to measure (i) any change in the path from a transmitter to a receiver and (ii) any change in an environment surrounding the tag. In several embodiments, this method can be employed for infrastructure monitoring such as monitoring vibration of bridges, vibration of wind turbines, and can be employed in security applications as well.

[0060] In many embodiments, a UFIF antenna and an integrated circuit (1C) can be codesigned in order to realize a high-quality factor (high-Q) conjugate impedance-matching interface. As a wearable RFID tag, such a high-Q frontend can be particularly sensitive to near-field effects caused by motions due to heartbeat and respiration. The motions due to heartbeat and respiration can be used by the RFID tag to modulate a repetition rate of UWB impulses sent out by the RFID tag. In various embodiments, the RFID tag utilizes UFIF-band energy-harvesting and achieves a sensitivity of 50-meter operation in air. In several embodiments, the 1C can be fabricated using CMOS process technology and can consume less than 1 pW power. In many embodiments, systems and methods for long-distance remote sensing with sub-wavelength resolution using a wirelessly-powered sensor tag array employs ultrasensitive far-field energy-harvesting system design and low-power implementation of an IR-UWB transmitter. In certain embodiments, remote vital-sign monitoring is validated on a human subject at low UHF power ratings. In various embodiments, the RFID tag is configured to measure vibration of the RFID tag.

[0061] Systems and methods for object-specific vital-sign monitoring with sub-wavelength resolution using a wirelessly-powered sensor tag array in accordance with an embodiment of the invention is illustrated in Fig. 1. As shown in Fig. 1 , a wearable RFID tag for remote vital-sign monitoring is utilized along with a UFIF power source, a base station for localization and an UWB vital-sign receiver in order to monitor the vital signs of patients. The UFIF power source can be a transmitter configured to emit electromagnetic waves in frequency range 860-960MFIz. The UWB receiver can receive signals from the RFID tag and send it to a reader. The RFID tag can provide UWB signals based on variation in an environment of the tag, such as movements caused by heart beat and/or by respiration of a human subject. The reader can provide the signals to a computer system, which can process the received signals and can derive heart rate and/or respiration rate of a human subject based upon the received signals.

[0062] While specific systems and methods for object-specific vital-sign monitoring with sub-wavelength resolution using a wirelessly-powered sensor tag array are described above, any of a variety of different configurations of systems and methods for object-specific vital-sign monitoring with sub-wavelength resolution using a wirelessly-powered sensor tag array can be utilized including using any number of readers and/or utilizing readers that include multiple antennas and/or phased antenna arrays. Circuit designs are disclosed further below.

Circuit Designs

A. System Overview

[0063] In many embodiments, a UFIF antenna and an on-chip rectifier can be codesigned for conjugate matching. A high-level circuit diagram of an ultra-high frequency (UFIF)/ ultra-wide band (UWB) RFID tag in accordance with an embodiment of the invention is shown in Fig. 2. As shown in the illustrated embodiment, the system can be a high-Q system, and as such, the frontend is particularly sensitive to near-field medium variations. In a wearable setting, heartbeats and respirations modulate the supply voltage, VDD, which can subsequently be converted to a repetition rate of UWB pulses. The system in the illustrated embodiment can be simple, low-power, and can require no discrete passive components.

[0064] While specific high-level circuit diagram of an ultra-high frequency/ultra-wide band RFID tag are described above with respect to Fig. 2, any of a variety of high-level circuit diagrams of an ultra-high frequency/ultra-wide band RFID tag can be utilized as appropriate to the requirements of specific applications in accordance with various embodiments of the invention. VDD-to-Frequency blocks are disclosed further below.

B. VDD-to-Frequency Blocks

[0065] A circuit diagram of a bandgap voltage reference in accordance with an embodiment of the invention is shown in Fig. 3. In the illustrated embodiment, the circuit topology features low VDD headroom. By choosing large values of Ri and R2, the circuit current consumption is reduced to approximately 200 nA. Note that the specific number for the current consumption can vary. Variation of VDD is converted to a current,

I SENS, by a circuit block shown in Fig. 4 in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. It should be noted that by proper gate sizing, ISENS can be designed to follow VDD linearly. The voltage of node A can be regulated by a series of diodes. Therefore, as VDD varies, the variation is applied to VGS.MI . Given that Mi and M2 are comparably sized (both operating in saturation or subthreshold regions), VGS,M2 and VGS.MI remain proportional. Source-degenerated M3 converts VGS,M2 to current. With M3 transconductance of 1/Rs, the overall conversion remains linear as a first-order approximation. Simulation results of VGS.MI , VGS,M2, and ISENS are shown in Fig. 5. ISENS is subsequently converted to an oscillation frequency by an l-to-F converter as shown in Fig. 6. ISENS charges a capacitor, Cose, that oscillates from 1 /6 VREF to VREF. Cose is selected such that the oscillation frequency is at around 1 50 Flz for VDD of 1 .6 V, which is sufficient for vital-sign signals. Note that the specific number for frequency of oscillation and for voltage of VDD can vary. [0066] While specific VDD-to-frequency blocks are described above with respect to Figs. 3-6, any of a variety of VDD-to-frequency blocks can be utilized as appropriate to the requirements of specific applications in accordance with various embodiments of the invention. IR-UWB transmitter is disclosed further below.

C. IR-UWB Transmitter

[0067] A circuit diagram of an IR-UWB transmitter in accordance with an embodiment of the invention is shown in Fig. 7A. The maximum power spectrum density (PSD) of a UWB transmitter is limited to -41.3 dBm/MFIz according to regulations on peak power. Theoretical calculations show that such requirements can be completely met by the sub-kFIz system in the illustrated embodiment. The edge combiner in the schematic diagram of Fig. 7A detects a difference of two chains of delay cells, which can be adjusted to accommodate a pulse spectrum centered at 4.5 GFIz. Note that the specific number for center frequency values can vary. Transistor Mo is biased at GND to operate in class C. Sizing of Mo is selected such that an output resistance approximately equals to 85 W as a tradeoff between power consumption and impedance matching. Note that the specific number for output resistance can vary. A second-order bandpass filter centered around 5 GFIz is implemented to regulate the pulse spectrum. Inductive and capacitive component values for the circuit diagram in Fig. 7A are shown in Fig. 7B in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. The drain capacitance of Mo is absorbed to the bandpass filter and all the component values are detailed in the diagram in Fig. 7B.

[0068] A graph of frequency response of the on-chip second-order bandpass filter of Fig. 7A is shown in Fig. 8. The frequency response of the implemented filter, i.e. , S21, suffers from minimal passband attenuation. Energy consumption for each impulse generation and delivered impulse energy of the circuit of Fig. 7A (assuming a 50 W load) is plotted in Fig. 9. The overall power dissipation is dependent on VDD and around 100 pj. Transmission efficiency, defined as the ratio between the delivered impulse energy and the overall energy dissipation, is about 10%. Note that the specific numbers for load resistance, power dissipation and energy dissipation can vary. [0069] In many embodiments, power consumption of the tag is minimized by eliminating voltage regulators in the design of the chip. As a consequence, the frequency spectrum of the impulse is dependent on VDD. Simulations show that the maximum power spectral density of the tag still stays around 4.5 GHz in all possible cases, as is shown in Fig. 10 in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0070] While specific circuit diagram of an IR-UWB transmitter are described above with respect to Figs. 7A and 7B, any of a variety of circuit diagrams of an IR-UWB transmitter can be utilized as appropriate to the requirements of specific applications in accordance with various embodiments of the invention. Rectifier is disclosed further below.

D. Rectifier

[0071] The overall simulated current dissipation of the IC is shown in Fig. 11 in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. 540 nA@1.6 V is a typical operating point and is used for the subsequent design of the rectifier. Note that the specific numbers for current dissipation and operating voltage can vary. A circuit diagram of the rectifier is shown in Fig. 12A in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. In the illustrated embodiment, the circuit includes zero-threshold-voltage native transistors for the benefit of power conversion efficiency. The number of stages is selected to be three in order to optimize between power conversion efficiency and input voltage swing. Optimizing input voltage swings is important in order to increase the long-time endurance of the chip.

[0072] Input impedance of rectifiers is typically modeled as a resistor, RREC, and a capacitor, CREC, in parallel as is shown in Fig. 12B in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. A properly designed energy-harvesting antenna can conjugately match such a complex impedance. Given that each transistor can be implemented with a minimum gate length, for example, 0.5 pm for native transistors, the characteristics of the rectifier are primarily dependent on the gate width, WGATE. Simulated conversion efficiency is plotted in Fig. 13 in accordance with an embodiment of the invention for WGATE values from 1 pm to 8 pm. The plot in Fig. 13 shows that the efficiency of the rectifier increases to over 50 % with smaller WGATE, as it reaches a plateau for WGATE of about 1 pm and 2 pm. Meanwhile, RREC inverse proportionally increases with smaller WGATE. Compared with the case for WGATE of 2 pm, WGATE of 1 pm poses difficulty for the subsequent conjugate impedance matching with the antenna. Therefore, WGATE of 2 pm is selected in this design.

[0073] While specific circuit diagram of a rectifier is described above with respect to Figs. 12A and 12B, any of a variety of circuit diagrams of a rectifier can be utilized as appropriate to the requirements of specific applications in accordance with various embodiments of the invention. UHF/UWB antennas are disclosed further below.

UHF/UWB antennas

A. Energy-Harvesting UHF Antenna

[0074] In many embodiments, a meander dipole antenna can be used for UHF RFID for its radiation efficiency, compact size, and omnidirectional radiation patterns. An inductive loop can be added to match the imaginary input impedance of on-chip rectifiers, as conjugate impedance matching maximizes the power transfer.

[0075] In various embodiments, RREC and CREC of 64 kQ and 470 fF, respectively, are used for the antenna design, which converts to ZREC of 2.1 -368.5j W at 915 MHz. Note that the specific numbers for resistance, capacitance and frequency can vary. In several embodiments, the strong imaginary impedance compared to the real impedance, i.e. , high quality factor, can be an indication that a significant amount of power is stored and circulating in the near-field of the antenna. It suggests that such an energy-harvesting frontend can be particularly sensitive to any medium variations at the proximity, which applies to vital-sign monitoring applications.

[0076] Given complex impedances, the power reflection coefficient is calculated as

2

^Z REC~ ^Z ANT

l¾il ²

^Z REC ^+Z ANT

where Z _ANT represents the antenna input impedance. The corresponding power transmission coefficient, h _MATCH , equals 1 - |S _1:L | ² . The radiation efficiency of the antenna, h _ANT , is the other factor that affects the overall energy-harvesting sensitivity and can be represented as

In many embodiments, the product of h _{MAT H} and VANT ^can be used as the benchmark for the optimal design of far-field energy-harvesting systems.

[0077] The UHF energy-harvester antenna is shown in the upper part of Fig. 14 in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. The size of the antenna can be adjusted such that optimal matching occurs at 915 MFIz. The corresponding h MATCH is achieved to be over 80% as plotted in Fig. 15. Fig. 16 in accordance with embodiments of the invention. Figs. 15 and 16 demonstrates that an omnidirectional radiation pattern of the UFIF antenna at 915 MFIz. h _ANT is simulated to be 70%. Note that the specific numbers for the frequency and omnidirectional radiation pattern values can vary.

[0078] While specific energy-harvesting UFIF antenna is described above with respect to Fig. 14, any of a variety of an energy-harvesting UFIF antennae can be utilized as appropriate to the requirements of specific applications in accordance with various embodiments of the invention. UWB Antenna are disclosed further below.

B. UWB Antenna

[0079] In several embodiments, a monopole antenna can be selected for the UWB transmitter for its characteristic wide bandwidth, omni-directivity, and simple structure. In addition, the monopole antenna can provide simple matching to 50 W impedance of the IC output. By optimizing the length and width of the monopole antenna as shown in the lower part of Fig. 14 in accordance with an embodiment of the invention, acceptable impedance matching can be achieved from 3.5 GFIz to 5 GFIz as shown in Fig. 17 in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. Note that the specific numbers for the frequency values can vary. The monopole antenna also features an omnidirectional radiation pattern as shown in Fig. 18 in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0080] While specific UWB antenna is described above with respect to lower part of Fig. 14, any of a variety of an UWB antennae can be utilized as appropriate to the requirements of specific applications in accordance with various embodiments of the invention. Experimental measurements and IC fabrication and verification are disclosed further below.

Experimental Measurements

A. IC Fabrication and Verification

[0081] In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, the IC can be (but not limited to) fabricated in TSMC 180 nm process. A microscopic photograph of the fabricated IC is shown in Fig. 19. The pad-included area is 0.766 mm ² . The repetition rate of the generated UWB impulses as a function of VDD is measured and shown in Fig. 20 in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. The current consumption of the IC is measured and shown in Fig. 21 in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. The measured results matche well with the simulation results of Fig. 11. The calculated power consumption is 1 pW or less for a VDD above 1.7 V. Note that the specific numbers for the chip area, power consumption and operating voltage can vary. RFID tag is disclosed further below.

B. RFID Tag

[0082] In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, the UFIF and UWB antennas can be fabricated on 0.34 mm thick Rogers 4350B laminate with in-house printed-circuit-board facilities. A photograph of a fabricated RFID tag is shown in Fig. 22 in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0083] While specific RFID tag is described above with respect to Fig. 22, any of a variety of an RFID tags can be utilized as appropriate to the requirements of specific applications in accordance with various embodiments of the invention. Far-field energy-harvesting experiment is disclosed further.

C. Far-field Energy-harvesting Experiment

[0084] A UFIF far-field energy-harvesting is tested along a hallway as shown in Fig. 23 in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. UFIF systems are limited to 36 dBm (4 W) effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) at a designated band from 902 MFIz to 928 MFIz under FCC regulations. A 36 dBm EIRP power source operating at 909 MHz is placed as far as 51 meters away from the RFID tag to enable its operation. A UWB receiver positioned 13 meters away consists of a 3-to-5 GHz horn antenna and two low-noise amplifiers (Mini-Circuits Inc., ZX60-G63LN-S+), which connects to a 25 G samples/s oscilloscope. A typical received impulse waveform is demonstrated in Fig. 24. A comparison of UHF-band energy-harvesting tags based on antenna-and-rectifier codesign is summarized in Table I . This work achieves by far the longest operating distance with the smallest antenna size.

Table

Vital-sign-monitoring experiment is disclosed further below.

D. Vital-sign-monitoring Experiment

[0085] In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, a vital-sign receiver can be built with off-the-shelf components as shown in circuit block diagram in Fig. 25. The occurrence of a UWB impulse is detected by a high-speed comparator. A subsequent monostable multivibrator cab be used to elongate the pulse duration. As the final stage, a lowpass filter with a bandwidth of approximately 5 Hz can be used to retrieve the vital- sign signals. While specific vital-sign-monitoring experiment is described above with respect to Fig. 25, any of a variety of vital-sign-monitoring experiments can be utilized as appropriate to the requirements of specific applications in accordance with various embodiments of the invention. Note that the specific numbers for the lowpass filter with bandwidth frequency values can vary.

[0086] In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, in this experiment RFID tag weighs only 0.93 g and can be taped on the chest of a human subject, as shown in Fig. 26. A power source is at placed a 1.6-meter distance from the human subject and transmits 15 dBm power or 27 dBm EIRP UHF signal at 909 MHz. Note that the specific numbers for the transmitted power and frequency can vary. The transient vital-sign signal can be retrieved on an oscilloscope as shown in Fig. 27A in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. The transient vital-sign signal shows heartbeats and respirations, and its Fourier-transform frequency spectrum is shown in Fig. 27B in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

ANTENNA-CO-DESIGNED UWB IMPULSE TRANSMITTER FOR SIZE-CONSTRAINT APPLICATIONS

[0087] Many embodiments provide an antenna co-design for realizing FCC-regulation- compliant IR-UWB transmitters. Many embodiments provide a compact design that significantly reduces energy consumption. In certain embodiments, a Gaussian mono pulse generator and a folded-dipole antenna may be co-optimized. The Gaussian mon pulse generator may be optimized to maximize the power transfer efficiency to a folded- dipole antenna with a bandwidth of 7.8-9.5 Ghz. The folded-dipole antenna may have a relatively wide bandwidth and a compact size. In certain embodiments, the energy consumption for each impulse emission is only 2.6 pJ and 100 Mpulse/s operation of the transmitter which may comply with the FCC mask. In many embodiments, the transmitter may be utilized for size-constraint and ultra-low power applications such as medical implants.

[0088] Studies have been exploring the use of the unlicensed 3.1 -10.6 GHz ultra- wideband impulse (IR-UWB) radio, which has a series of advantages such as compact size, low power consumption, and circuitry simplicity. Accordingly, IR-UWB may be utilized for wearable and implantable devices, among various other applications.

[0089] Edge-combining can be used as a method in generating IR-UWB pulses. It may provide a simple circuit structure and can eliminate the otherwise power-hungry local oscillators. In order to satisfy the FCC emission limit, two methods have been used to kill the low-frequency (<3.1 GHz) portion of radiation. First, multiple pules with different delays can be combined to create a short period of ringing with the center frequency amid 3.1 -10.6 GHz, e.g., pulse-combining. This may be, however, typically at the expense of higher power consumption. Second, a pulse-shaping filter can be added following the Gaussian mono-pulse generator (filtered edge-combining). The filter can be implemented with either extra passive components or an active differentiator.

[0090] Accordingly, many embodiments provide for directly utilizing the Tx antenna bandwidth to confine the spectrum of the radiated power. Many embodiments may eliminate pulse-shaping filters and can reduce power consumption. Accordingly, many embodiments provide for optimizing a Gaussian mono-pulse generator to maximize the power transfer efficiency to a folded-dipole antenna. In certain embodiments, the folded-dipole antenna may have a bandwidth of 7.8-9.5 GHz. In many embodiments, the folded-dipole antenna can have a relatively wide bandwidth and a compact size. In certain embodiments, each impulse emission may only consume 2.6 pJ energy. In several embodiments, operation at the pulse rate of 100 M/s can be demonstrated without violating the FCC mask.

System Overview

[0091] A circuit schematic of a transmitter in accordance with several embodiments of the invention is illustrated in Fig. 28. In many embodiments, each transition of the input signal can trigger a Gaussian mono-pulse either on Outi and Out2 nodes, which may subsequently drive a folded-dipole antenna. While either output node may emit a pulse, the other node may be tied to GND. In several embodiments, this transmitter can be used for non-return-to-zero inverted (NRZI) on-off keying (OOK) modulation scheme, in which the receiver may not differentiate Outi-driven and Out2-driven impulses. The folded-dipole antenna can be selected for its compact size, wide bandwidth, and omnidirectivity (e.g., which can be particularly suitable for medical implants in accordance with various embodiments of the invention). Importantly, in certain embodiments, the input impedance of a folded-dipole antenna is approximately 300 W at the resonant frequency, which may set the starting point of the following circuit design. In several embodiments, the center frequency may be selected to be around 8 GHz to further reduce the antenna dimension. Although Fig. 28 illustrates a particular circuit schematic of an IR-UWB transmitter, any of a variety of designs may be utilized as appropriate to the requirements of specific applications in accordance with embodiments of the invention.

Circuit Design

[0092] In many embodiments, the gate sizing of the Gaussian mono-pulse generator may be designed to maximize the power transfer efficiency to 300 W, e.g., the input impedance of the folded-dipole antenna, while the close symmetry between Outi and Out2 nodes can be guaranteed. In certain embodiments, an optimized design is verified for different load resistances as illustrated in Fig. 29 in accordance with several embodiments of the invention. The pulse generator is further simulated in different process corners with focuses on the DC energy consumption and the delivered impulse energy, as illustrated in Fig. 29 in accordance with several embodiments of the invention. Both metrics can be very stable. In the typical process corner (TT), Outi- driven and Out2-driven pulses may consume only 2.75 pJ and 2.55 pJ energy, respectively.

[0093] Fig. 30A illustrates a normalized fast Fourier transform (FFT) of the Outi-driven and Fig. 30B illustrates Out2-driven pulses in different process corners in accordance with several embodiments of the invention. In certain embodiments, to accommodate many process variations, the antenna bandwidth should cover 8-9 GFIz.

Antenna Design

[0094] Fig. 31 illustrates a planar geometry of a folded-dipole antenna in accordance with several embodiments of the invention. The model may include the parasitics of the bond wires. Although Fig. 31 illustrates a particular planar geometry of a folded-dipole antenna, any of a variety of geometries may be utilized as appropriate to the requirements of specific applications in accordance with embodiments of the invention.

[0095] Fig. 32(a) illustrates a radiation pattern of an antenna at 8 GFIz in accordance with an embodiment of the invention with a maximum gain of 3.4 dB. Sn may be defined with regard to 300 W and plotted in Fig. 32(b) in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. The corresponding matching efficiency, i.e. , 1 -mag(S11 )2, is also plotted in the Fig. 32(b). As illustrated, -10 dB bandwidth of the antenna is 7.8- 9.5 GHz.

Experiment Results

[0096] In several embodiments, the IC may be fabricated in TSMC 180 nm CMOS process and the antenna may be fabricated on Rogers 4350 substrate. Fig. 33(a) illustrates a photo of the overall transmitter in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. The IC may only occupies an area of 52 pm ^c 42 pm. Fig. 33(b) illustrates the IC layout in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0097] In several embodiments, the transmitter can be wirelessly tested with a 6-12 GHz horn antenna (e.g., LB-OH-112-10, AINFO Inc.) that features a directivity of 10 dBi. The horn antenna may be positioned 20 cm above the transmitter and in the same polarization direction, as illustrated in Fig. 34(a) in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. It may be followed by a three-stage cascaded LNA (e.g., two ZX60- 14012L+, one ZX60-153LN-S+, Mini-Circuits, Inc.) with a total gain of 36 dB (including cable loss). Fig. 34(b) and (c) illustrate oscilloscope measurement of the waveforms of Outi-driven and Out2-driven pulses in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

[0098] In certain embodiments, with the transmitter operating at 100 Mpulse/s, the power spectral density measured on a spectrum analyzer (resolution bandwidth 1 MHz) is illustrated in Fig. 35(a) in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. The emission limit of UWB protocol can be defined in the equivalent isotropically radiated power (EIRP). The EIRP in the measurement can then be derived according to the Friis transmission equation,

[0099] where PR _X is the received power density, DR _X is the directivity of the Rx antenna, l is the frequency-specific wavelength, d is the Tx-Rx distance. The EIRP result is illustrated in Fig. 35(b) in accordance with an embodiment of the invention verifying that 100 Mpulse/s emission complies with the FCC mask. [0100] A performance comparison with state-of-the-art edge-combing based IR-UWB transmitters is shown in Fig. 36 in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. Accordingly, many embodiments of the invention may significantly reduce the power consumption and achieve a very small IC footprint. Furthermore, many embodiments, may not use any additional passive components either on-chip or off-chip.

[0101] While the above descriptions and associated figures have depicted systems and methods for long-distance remote sensing with sub-wavelength resolution using a wirelessly-powered sensor tag array, it should be clear that any of a variety of configurations for systems and methods for long-distance remote sensing with sub-wavelength resolution using a wirelessly-powered sensor tag array can be implemented in accordance with embodiments of the invention. More generally, although the present invention has been described in certain specific aspects, many additional modifications and variations would be apparent to those skilled in the art. It is therefore to be understood that the present invention may be practiced otherwise than specifically described. Thus, embodiments of the present invention should be considered in all respects as illustrative and not restrictive.