GENERATION REACTIONS

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[001] This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.

62/577,310 filed on October 26, 2017, the entire content of which is hereby incorporated by reference.

BACKGROUND

[002] Previous work has focused on the development of various interstitial vacancies

(within metallic alloys and metal-nonmetal materials) including defects and dislocations to form dense clusters of hydrogen and/or its isotope atoms. These alloys and materials are combined and produced in the form of nanoparticles. In a dense cluster state, an additional kinetic energy impulse can lead to a reaction of the hydrogen (or its isotope) atoms within the lattice

substructure of the nanoparticles. This energy impulse can be provided by a multitude of sources. By combining a reactor containing dense clusters and appropriately "triggering" the reaction, a heat generator capable of providing excess heat based on an intentional input is possible. In order to control the amount of heat output by the reaction, it is necessary to control the amount of hydrogen (and/or its isotopes) available for the reaction. By varying the frequency and direction of pressurization and magnetic flux to drive hydrogen (and/or its isotopes) into an out (herein referred to as loading and unloading, respectively) of the lattice substructure to repeatedly start or stop the "triggering," a method for controlling the output heat is described.

[003] The existence of high density hydrogen (and/or its isotopes) clusters has been demonstrated in metallic materials (and combinations of metallic/non-metallic materials).

Depending on the material and the structure of the materials (film or nanoparticles), various other methods of triggering have been proposed. These include electrolytic "triggering" whereby an electric current is passed through the material in order to cause the hydrogen atoms (and/or its isotopes) to react and generate heat. Other methods include heating the particles to high temperatures (1000° C+) followed by a low/modest pressure pressurization with hydrogen (and/or its isotopes). In electrolytic systems, loading and unloading occurs through polarity reversal. In high temperature systems, loading and unloading occurs through pressure reversal. However, at elevated temperatures, the required pressures (or vacuum level) for loading and unloading may not be attainable due to equipment limitations.

[004] In order to create an efficient "triggering" mechanism, the output energy (heat) needs to be significantly higher than the input energy. However, using electrolytic or high temperature pressurization methods requires a significant amount of energy and thereby reduced the efficiency of the "triggering." The electrolytic methods almost exclusively requires the use of films to achieve high enough current densities. Using the electrolytic method is difficult in nanoparticles due to the porosity and resulting reduced contact area between particles. In high temperatures nanoparticle environments, maintaining a high temperature requires significant energy. Any "triggered" reactions usually provide a low efficiency or Coefficient of Performance (COP).

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[005] The proposed solution describes the use of two methods— (1) low temperatures

(<300° C) pressurization and (2) magnetic flux— to "trigger" reactions within composite alloys described in the prior art. Two methods of triggering reactions using magnetic flux are proposed— (2a) bulk momentum transfer and (2b) high density cluster momentum transfer. The bulk transfer relates to the momentum transferred by the charged hydrogen into existing particles high density hydrogen clusters. The high density cluster momentum transfer approach deals with the magnetic permeability of palladium. By achieving a resonant frequency for the dislocations, existing hydrogen within the hydrogen clusters will experience momentum transfer and result in increased velocity of charged particles. The advantage of the proposed solution is that it requires relatively low energy input compared to other method of "triggering." Furthermore, the implementation of the proposed solution can be conducted using off the shelf equipment and can be implemented in various reactor setups. Varying parameters for both the pressure and magnetic flux based methods allows for easily reversing hydrogen flow in and out of the nanoparticle alloys to allow for easy loading and unloading. One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that references to hydrogen throughout the specification may refer to all stable isotopes of hydrogen including protium, deuterium, and/or tritium.

[006] In one embodiment of the present invention, a system for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys may include a first reactor comprising a first reaction chamber having prepared nanoparticle alloys. The system may further include a second reactor comprising a second reaction chamber having prepared nanoparticle alloys. The system may further include a compressor. The system may further include a first valve configured to: during a first cycle, receive hydrogen from the second reaction chamber and send said hydrogen to the compressor, and during a second cycle, receive hydrogen from the first reaction chamber and send said hydrogen to the compressor. The system may further include a second valve configured to: during the first cycle, receive compressed hydrogen from the compressor and send said compressed hydrogen to the first reaction chamber, and during a second cycle, receive compressed hydrogen from the compressor and send said compressed hydrogen to the second reaction chamber. During the first cycle, the compressed hydrogen may react with the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber to generate heat in the first reactor, and during the second cycle, the compressed hydrogen may react with the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the second reaction chamber to generate in the second reactor.

[007] In another embodiment of the present invention, a method for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys may include preparing the nanoparticle alloys by exposing the nanoparticle alloys to a pressure less than approximately 100 mtorr, heating the nanoparticle alloys to approximately 100° C, and repressurizing the nanoparticle alloys to approximately 150 psi. The method may further include placing an amount of the prepared nanoparticle alloys into a first reaction chamber of a first reactor, and placing an equivalent amount of the prepared nanoparticle alloys into a second reaction chamber of a second reactor. The method may further include, during a first cycle: depressurizing the second reaction chamber by removing hydrogen from the second reaction chamber, compressing the hydrogen using a compressor, and increasing the pressure in the first reaction chamber by placing the compressed hydrogen in the first reaction chamber. The compressed hydrogen may react with the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber to generate heat in the first reactor. The method may further include, during a second cycle: depressurizing the first reaction chamber by removing hydrogen from the first reaction chamber, compressing hydrogen using the compressor, and increasing the pressure in the second reaction chamber by placing the compressed hydrogen in the second reaction chamber. The compressed hydrogen may react with the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the second reaction chamber to generate heat in the second reactor.

[008] In another embodiment of the present invention, the first reaction chamber may be surrounded by water such that heat from the first reaction chamber is transferred to the water.

[009] In another embodiment of the present invention, the second reaction chamber may be surrounded by water such that heat from the second reaction chamber is transferred to the water.

[0010] In another embodiment of the present invention, during the first cycle, the pressure in the first reaction chamber may increase to at least approximately 150 psi, and the pressure in the second reaction chamber may decrease to at least approximately 1.0 mtorr.

[0011] In another embodiment of the present invention, during the second cycle, the pressure in the second reaction chamber may increase to at least approximately 150 psi, and the pressure in the first reaction chamber may decrease to at least approximately 1.0 mtorr.

[0012] In another embodiment of the present invention, the duration of the first and second cycles may be between approximately 10 second and approximately 300 seconds.

[0013] In another embodiment of the present invention, the system may further include a third valve configured to: during the first cycle, send cold water from a cold water source to the first reactor to be heated, and during a second cycle, send cold water from the cold water source to the second reactor to be heated. The system may further include a fourth valve configured to: during the first cycle, draw heated water from the first reactor, and during the second cycle, draw heated water from the second reactor.

[0014] In another embodiment of the present invention, the method may further include: during the first cycle, sending cold water from a cold water source to the first reactor to be heated, and drawing heated water from the first reactor, and during the second cycle, sending cold water from the cold water source to the second reactor to be heated, and drawing heated water from the second reactor.

[0015] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, a system for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys may include a hydrogen source, a first reactor comprising a first reaction chamber having prepared nanoparticle alloys, and a second reactor comprising a second reaction chamber having prepared nanoparticle alloys. The system may further include a first electrostatic accelerator configured to: in a first mode, convert hydrogen gas from the hydrogen source to ionized hydrogen and accelerate the ionized hydrogen towards the first reactor; and in a second mode, be turned off. The system may further include a second electrostatic accelerator configured to: in the first mode, be turned off; in the second mode, accelerate ionized hydrogen from the first reactor towards the second reactor; and in a third mode, accelerate ionized hydrogen from the second reactor towards the first reactor. The system may further include a first magnetic field disposed around the first reactor, wherein the first magnetic field is configured to: in the first mode, guide ionized hydrogen from the first electrostatic accelerator to the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber; in the second mode, guide ionized hydrogen from the first reactor to the second electrostatic accelerator; and in the third mode, guide ionized hydrogen from the second electrostatic accelerator to the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber. The system may further include a second magnetic field disposed around the second reactor, wherein the second magnetic field is configured to: in a first mode, guide ionized hydrogen from the second reactor to the second electrostatic accelerator; in a second mode, guide ionized hydrogen from the second electrostatic accelerator to the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the second reaction chamber; and in the third mode, guide ionized hydrogen from the second reactor to the second electrostatic accelerator.

[0016] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, a method for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys may include preparing the nanoparticle alloys by exposing the nanoparticle alloys to a pressure less than approximately 100 mtorr, heating the nanoparticle alloys to approximately 100° C, and repressurizing the nanoparticle alloys to approximately 150 psi. The method may further include placing an amount of the prepared nanoparticle alloys into a first reaction chamber of a first reactor, and placing an equivalent amount of the prepared nanoparticle alloys into a second reaction chamber of a second reactor. The method may further include, in a first mode: turning on a first electrostatic accelerator, turning on a first magnetic field disposed around the first reactor configured to guide ionized hydrogen from the first electrostatic accelerator to the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber, accelerating ionized hydrogen from a hydrogen source towards the first reactor using the first electrostatic accelerator, and allowing the ionized hydrogen to load into the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber. When loaded, the ionized hydrogen may react with the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber to generate heat in the first reactor. The method may further include, in a second mode: turning off the first electrostatic accelerator, turning on a second electrostatic accelerator, reversing the first magnetic field such that it is configured to guide ionized hydrogen from the first reactor to the second electrostatic accelerator, turning on a second magnetic field disposed around the second reactor configured to guide ionized hydrogen from the second electrostatic accelerator to the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the second reaction chamber, accelerating ionized hydrogen from the first reactor towards the second reactor using the second electrostatic accelerator, and allowing the ionized hydrogen to load into the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the second reaction chamber. When loaded, the ionized hydrogen may react with the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the second reaction chamber to generate heat in the second reactor. The method may further include, in a third mode: reversing the first magnetic field such that it is configured to guide ionized hydrogen from the second electrostatic accelerator to the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber, reversing the second magnetic field such that it is configured to guide ionized hydrogen from the second reactor to the second electrostatic accelerator, accelerating ionized hydrogen from the second reactor towards the first reactor using the second electrostatic accelerator, and allowing the ionized hydrogen to load into the prepared

nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber. When loaded, the ionized hydrogen reacts with the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber to generate heat in the first reactor.

[0017] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the system is under a vacuum.

[0018] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the first reaction chamber is surrounded by water such that heat from the first reaction chamber is transferred to the water.

[0019] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the second reaction chamber is surrounded by water such that heat from the second reaction chamber is transferred to the water.

[0020] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the first magnetic field is generated by Helmholtz coils.

[0021] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the second magnetic field is generated by Helmholtz coils.

[0022] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the system may further include a first valve configured to: during the first mode, send cold water from a cold water source to the first reactor to be heated; during the second mode, send cold water from the cold water source to the second reactor to be heated; and during the third mode, send cold water from a cold water source to the first reactor to be heated. The system may further include a second valve configured to: during the first mode, draw heated water from the first reactor; during the second mode, draw heated water from the second reactor; and during the third mode, draw heated water from the first reactor.

[0023] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the method may further include during the first mode: sending cold water from a cold water source to the first reactor to be heated, and drawing heated water from the first reactor. The method may further include during the second mode: sending cold water from the cold water source to the second reactor to be heated, and drawing heated water from the second reactor. The method may further include during the third mode: sending cold water from a cold water source to the first reactor to be heated, and drawing heated water from the first reactor.

[0024] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, a method for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys may include preparing the nanoparticle alloys by exposing the nanoparticle alloys to a pressure less than approximately 100 mtorr, heating the nanoparticle alloys to approximately 100° C, and repressurizing the nanoparticle alloys to approximately 150 psi. The method may further include placing an amount of the prepared nanoparticle alloys into a reaction chamber of a reactor. The method may further include pressurizing the reaction chamber with hydrogen. The method may further include oscillating magnetic fields disposed around the reactor at a required frequency. The oscillating magnetic fields may cause heat generating reactions between the hydrogen and prepared nanoparticle alloys.

[0025] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the oscillating magnetic fields are generated by Helmhotz coils.

[0026] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the oscillating magnetic fields are generated by a solenoid. [0027] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the oscillating magnetic fields have a frequency in the MHz range.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0028] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a system for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys according to an embodiment of the present invention.

[0029] FIG. 2A is a schematic diagram of a first cycle of a system for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys according to an embodiment of the present invention.

[0030] FIG. 2B is a schematic diagram of a second cycle of a system for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys according to an embodiment of the present invention.

[0031] FIG. 3 is a flow diagram of a method for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys according to an embodiment of the present invention.

[0032] FIG. 4 is a time versus temperature graph of a heat generating reaction according to an embodiment of the present invention.

[0033] FIG. 5 is a time versus temperature graph of a heat generating reaction according to an embodiment of the present invention.

[0034] FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of a prior art electrostatic accelerator.

[0035] FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram of a system for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys according to an embodiment of the present invention.

[0036] FIG. 8A is a schematic diagram of a first mode of a system for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys according to an embodiment of the present invention.

[0037] FIG. 8B is a schematic diagram of a second mode of a system for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys according to an embodiment of the present invention.

[0038] FIG. 8C is a schematic diagram of a third mode of a system for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys according to an embodiment of the present invention.

[0039] FIG. 9 is a flow diagram of a method for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys according to an embodiment of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0040] In the following description, for the purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the embodiments of the invention. One skilled in the art will recognize that the embodiments of the invention may be practiced without these specific details or with an equivalent arrangement. In other instances, well-known structures and devices are shown in block diagram form in order to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the embodiments of the invention.

[0041] The presently disclosed subject matter is presented with sufficient details to provide an understanding of one or more particular embodiments of broader inventive subject matters. The descriptions expound upon and exemplify particular features of those particular embodiments without limiting the inventive subject matters to the explicitly described embodiments and features. Considerations in view of these descriptions will likely give rise to additional and similar embodiments and features without departing from the scope of the presently disclosed subject matter.

[0042] A method for pressurizing (with hydrogen) nanoparticle alloys which already have high density hydrogen clusters within the lattice substructure is described herein.

Fundamentally, the main components of the system include (1) a reactor containing the nanoparticle alloy, (2) an inlet for hydrogen, (3) an outlet through which a vacuum is applied, (4) an external heater to raise the temperature of the reactor, (5) a thermocouple to monitor the temperature of the nanoparticles and, (6) a heat transfer medium that encapsulates the reactor in order to use the heat generated from the "triggered" reaction. Other required miscellaneous items include (7) a source of hydrogen— a pressurized tank is most common, (8) a roughing and turbo- molecular pump to achieve a sufficient vacuum within the reactor, (9) a source of power for the heater, and (10) other Monitoring and Control (M&C) hardware such as temperature controllers, relays, and flow control equipment.

[0043] Referring now to FIGS. 1-2B, a system 1 for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys according to an embodiment of the present invention is shown. The system 1 may comprise a first reactor 10 comprising a first reaction chamber 11 having prepared nanoparticle alloys. The system 1 may further comprise a second reactor 20 comprising a second reaction chamber 21 having prepared nanoparticle alloys. The system 1 may further comprise a compressor 30. The system 1 may further comprise a first valve 31 configured to: during a first cycle, receive hydrogen from the second reaction chamber 21 and send said hydrogen to the compressor 30, and during a second cycle, receive hydrogen from the first reaction chamber 11 and send said hydrogen to the compressor 30. The system 1 may further comprise a second valve 32 configured to: during the first cycle, receive compressed hydrogen from the compressor 30 and send said compressed hydrogen to the first reaction chamber 11, and during a second cycle, receive compressed hydrogen from the compressor 30 and send said compressed hydrogen to the second reaction chamber 21. During the first cycle, the compressed hydrogen may react with the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber 11 to generate heat in the first reactor 10, and during the second cycle, the compressed hydrogen may react with the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the second reaction chamber 21 to generate heat in the second reactor 20.

[0044] In another embodiment of the present invention, the first reaction chamber 11 may be surrounded by water 12 such that heat from the first reaction chamber 11 is transferred to the water 12.

[0045] In another embodiment of the present invention, the second reaction chamber 21 may be surrounded by water 22 such that heat from the second reaction chamber 21 is transferred to the water 22.

[0046] In another embodiment of the present invention, the system 1 may further include a third valve 40 configured to: during the first cycle, send cold water from a cold water source to the first reactor 10 to be heated, and during a second cycle, send cold water from the cold water source to the second reactor 20 to be heated. The system may further include a fourth valve 41 configured to: during the first cycle, draw heated water from the first reactor 10, and during the second cycle, draw heated water from the second reactor 20.

[0047] In another embodiment of the present invention, during the first cycle, the pressure in the first reaction chamber 11 may increase to at least approximately 150 psi, and the pressure in the second reaction chamber 21 may decrease to at least approximately 1.0 mtorr.

[0048] In another embodiment of the present invention, during the second cycle, the pressure in the second reaction chamber 21 may increase to at least approximately 150 psi, and the pressure in the first reaction chamber 11 may decrease to at least approximately 1.0 mtorr.

[0049] In another embodiment of the present invention, the duration of the first and second cycles may be between approximately 10 second and approximately 300 seconds.

[0050] The procedure for preparing the nanoparticle alloys for use in the triggering reactions comprises the following steps:

[0051] (1) Load the required amount of nanoparticles into a reactor.

[0052] (2) Expose the reactor to a vacuum using both the roughing and turbo-molecular pump. The pressure at the nanoparticles should reach 100 mTorr or below.

[0053] (3) Apply heating (up to 100° C) to remove any contaminants on the surface of the particles while maintaining the relevant lattice substructure formation and associated density of hydrogen. The first instance of vacuum for the particles should occur over 24 hours.

Following the first vacuum, any subsequent vacuum time should be at least 15 seconds. If the reactor is not re-exposed to atmospheric air, this time is sufficient. Heating is only required during the first vacuum instance after exposure to atmospheric air.

[0054] (4) Pressurize the reactor quickly (within 1 second, with hydrogen) to at least 150 psi. This high level of pressurization delivers enough momentum to the high density clusters to "trigger" the reaction.

[0055] The "triggering" effect is seen by the high initial temperature peak obtained by the particles as shown in FIG. 4. The decrease in temperature after the peak is not desirable for continual heat production. Unloading the particles followed by reloading with hydrogen results in heat generation. Therefore, by repeatedly loading and unloading, a repeating peak can be established.

[0056] To control the reaction and produce a consistent heat output, two reactors are used. After the nanoparticle alloys undergo steps (l)-(4) of the preparation process described above, a vacuum is applied (<1.0 mtorr), and the nanoparticle alloys are transferred in a non- oxidizing environment (vacuum or inert gas) to the two reactor system described above. The particles should be divided evenly in both reactors 10, 20.

[0057] Once the particles have been transferred into the reactors 10, 20, the system is operated according to the following steps:

[0058] (1) Turn on the compressor 30 and adjust the first valve (electronically) to allow transfer of hydrogen from the second reaction chamber 21 to the first reaction chamber 11. The increased pressure in the first reaction chamber 11 (150 psi max) will cause the "triggering" of the nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber 11 and a vacuum (1.0 mtorr) in the second reaction chamber 21.

[0059] (2) Once the peak temperature has been reached (typically 10 seconds to 5 minutes, depending on the amount of particles), reverse the process described in step (1) to allow transfer of hydrogen from the first reaction chamber 11 to the second reaction chamber 21. This will result in "triggering" of the nanoparticle alloys in the second reaction chamber 21 and a vacuum in the first reaction chamber 11.

[0060] By repeating steps (1) and (2), a more consistent heat output can be achieved.

FIG. 5 shows the heat output from the described two reactor configuration and operations in relation to the pressure profile in each reactor. When the reactor is pressurized, the temperature increases. Sometime after the temperature peaks, the reactor is returned to vacuum and the hydrogen is moved to the other reactor.

[0061] Referring now to FIG. 3, a method for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys is shown. The method may comprise preparing the nanoparticle alloys by exposing the nanoparticle alloys to a pressure less than approximately 100 mtorr, heating the nanoparticle alloys to approximately 100° C, and repressurizing the nanoparticle alloys to approximately 150 psi 301. The method may further comprise placing an amount of the prepared nanoparticle alloys into a first reaction chamber of a first reactor, and placing an equivalent amount of the prepared nanoparticle alloys into a second reaction chamber of a second reactor 302. The method may further include, during a first cycle: depressurizing the second reaction chamber by removing hydrogen from the second reaction chamber 303,

compressing the hydrogen using a compressor 304, and increasing the pressure in the first reaction chamber by placing the compressed hydrogen in the first reaction chamber 305. The compressed hydrogen may react with the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber to generate heat in the first reactor 306. The method may further include, during a second cycle: depressurizing the first reaction chamber by removing hydrogen from the first reaction chamber 307, compressing hydrogen using the compressor 308, and increasing the pressure in the second reaction chamber by placing the compressed hydrogen in the second reaction chamber 309. The compressed hydrogen may react with the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the second reaction chamber to generate heat in the second reactor 310.

[0062] For magnetic flux triggered reactions, an electro-magnet is used to pulse the reactor in order to load and unload the hydrogen from the nanoparticles. A reversible

radiofrequency (RF) power supply is used to generate the required frequency. In the absence of an electric field, the use of a magnetic field on a charged particle results in a Lorentz Force which can be described by F=qv x B, where the v is the velocity of the particle, and B is the magnetic field vector, and q is the charge of the particle. The equation above means that the force vector on the particle is changing as its path changes. Effectively, for a constant charge and a constant magnetic field vector, the particle will travel in a circular motion. In order to ensure the charged particles impact the nanoparticle alloys with the highest possible momentum, the nanoparticle alloys must be placed in the same circular path. In other words, a linear tubing setup would not be adequate. The radius in the tubing will cause the hydrogen atoms to impact the tubing walls and cause a significant reduction in particle velocity and momentum, thereby reducing the effectiveness of the momentum transfer. To maximize the ion momentum into the bulk particles, a combination of an electric field and magnetic field is necessary to guide the charged particles into the bulk nanoparticles. This ion momentum can be achieved by existing electrostatic accelerators and/or ion beam generators. By using an electrostatic accelerator, which both accelerates and focuses ion beams, followed by a constant magnetic field, the particles can be guided around a circular path. The electrostatic accelerator (as shown in FIG. 6) could consist of a gas travelling through a plasma which ionizes the gas. The liquid cooled baffles lower the ionized gas temperature. The charge exchanger removes unwanted ions. The desired ions (H+) are then accelerated and focused. A magnetic field (generated by Helmholtz coils) is used to guide the particles into the reactor.

[0063] Referring now to FIGS. 7-8C, a system 2 for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys using bulk momentum transfer is shown. The system 2 may comprise a hydrogen source 110, a first reactor 120 comprising a first reaction chamber 121 having prepared nanoparticle alloys, and a second reactor 130 comprising a second reaction chamber 131 having prepared nanoparticle alloys. The system 2 may further comprise a first electrostatic accelerator 140 configured to: in a first mode, convert hydrogen gas from the hydrogen source 110 to ionized hydrogen and accelerate the ionized hydrogen towards the first reactor 120; and in a second mode, be turned off. The system 2 may further comprise a second electrostatic accelerator 141 configured to: in the first mode, be turned off; in the second mode, accelerate ionized hydrogen from the first reactor 120 towards the second reactor 130; and in a third mode, accelerate ionized hydrogen from the second reactor 130 towards the first reactor 120. The system 2 may further comprise a first magnetic field B ₀ disposed around the first reactor 120, wherein the first magnetic field B ₀ is configured to: in the first mode, guide ionized hydrogen from the first electrostatic accelerator 140 to the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber 121; in the second mode, guide ionized hydrogen from the first reactor 140 to the second electrostatic accelerator 141; and in the third mode, guide ionized hydrogen from the second electrostatic accelerator 141 to the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber 121. The system 2 may further comprise a second magnetic field Bi disposed around the second reactor 130, wherein the second magnetic field Bi is configured to: in a first mode, guide ionized hydrogen from the second reactor 130 to the second electrostatic accelerator 141; in a second mode, guide ionized hydrogen from the second electrostatic accelerator 141 to the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the second reaction chamber 131; and in the third mode, guide ionized hydrogen from the second reactor 130 to the second electrostatic accelerator 141.

[0064] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the system 2 may be under a vacuum.

[0065] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the first reaction chamber

121 may be surrounded by water such that heat from the first reaction chamber 121 is transferred to the water.

[0066] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the second reaction chamber

131 may be surrounded by water such that heat from the second reaction chamber 131 is transferred to the water. [0067] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the system 2 may further comprise a first valve configured to: during the first mode, send cold water from a cold water source to the first reactor 120 to be heated; during the second mode, send cold water from the cold water source to the second reactor 130 to be heated; and during the third mode, send cold water from a cold water source to the first reactor 120 to be heated. The system may further include a second valve configured to: during the first mode, draw heated water from the first reactor 120; during the second mode, draw heated water from the second reactor 130; and during the third mode, draw heated water from the first reactor 120.

[0068] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the first magnetic field B ₀ is generated by Helmholtz coils.

[0069] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the second magnetic field Bi is generated by Helmholtz coils.

[0070] In the case of bulk momentum transfer, nanoparticle alloys may be prepared as discussed above, and placed into the first reaction chamber 121 and second reaction chamber 131. After turning on the hydrogen gas, the first electrostatic accelerator 140 may be used to focus the ionized hydrogen (H+) from the electrons. Once the ionized hydrogen enters the first magnetic field B ₀ , they will be guided into the first reaction chamber 121. The radii and strengths of the magnetic fields B ₀ , Bi are designed depending on the velocity of the ionized hydrogen exiting the first and second electrostatic accelerators 140, 141. Once the charged ionized hydrogen impact the bulk nanoparticle alloys, the reaction may be triggered and the temperature in the first reactor 120 increases. When the temperature peaks, the first electrostatic accelerator 140 may be turned off and the second electrostatic accelerator 141 may be turned on. The first magnetic field B ₀ may be reversed. While the first magnetic field B ₀ is reversed, the ionized hydrogens traveling from the first reactor 120 will be directed towards the second reactor 130. The second electrostatic accelerator 141 and second magnetic field Bi may be turned on to load the particles into the second reaction chamber 131. The cycling of magnetic fields B ₀ , Bi and electrostatic accelerators 140, 141 will cause the cycling of ionized hydrogen between the first and second reactors 120, 130. Periodic injection of ionized hydrogen from the hydrogen source 110 may be required to compensate for any recombination that occurs during system operation.

[0071] Referring now to FIG. 9, a method for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys using bulk moment transfer is shown. The method may comprise preparing the nanoparticle alloys by exposing the nanoparticle alloys to a pressure less than approximately 100 mtorr, heating the nanoparticle alloys to approximately 100° C, and repressurizing the nanoparticle alloys to approximately 150 psi 901. The method may further comprise placing an amount of the prepared nanoparticle alloys into a first reaction chamber of a first reactor, and placing an equivalent amount of the prepared nanoparticle alloys into a second reaction chamber of a second reactor 902. The method may further comprise, in a first mode: turning on a first electrostatic accelerator 903, turning on a first magnetic field disposed around the first reactor configured to guide ionized hydrogen from the first electrostatic accelerator to the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber 904, accelerating ionized hydrogen from a hydrogen source towards the first reactor using the first electrostatic accelerator 905, and allowing the ionized hydrogen to load into the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber 906. When loaded, the ionized hydrogen may react with the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber to generate heat in the first reactor. The method may further comprise, in a second mode: turning off the first electrostatic accelerator 907, turning on a second electrostatic accelerator 908, reversing the first magnetic field such that it is configured to guide ionized hydrogen from the first reactor to the second electrostatic accelerator 909, turning on a second magnetic field disposed around the second reactor configured to guide ionized hydrogen from the second electrostatic accelerator to the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the second reaction chamber 910, accelerating ionized hydrogen from the first reactor towards the second reactor using the second electrostatic accelerator 911, and allowing the ionized hydrogen to load into the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the second reaction chamber 912. When loaded, the ionized hydrogen may react with the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the second reaction chamber to generate heat in the second reactor. The method may further comprise, in a third mode: reversing the first magnetic field such that it is configured to guide ionized hydrogen from the second electrostatic accelerator to the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber 913, reversing the second magnetic field such that it is configured to guide ionized hydrogen from the second reactor to the second electrostatic accelerator 914, accelerating ionized hydrogen from the second reactor towards the first reactor using the second electrostatic accelerator 915, and allowing the ionized hydrogen to load into the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber 916. When loaded, the ionized hydrogen reacts with the prepared nanoparticle alloys in the first reaction chamber to generate heat in the first reactor.

[0072] Referring now to FIG. 10, a method for controlling heat generating reactions between hydrogen and nanoparticle alloys using high density cluster momentum transfer is shown. The method may comprise preparing the nanoparticle alloys by exposing the nanoparticle alloys to a pressure less than approximately 100 mtorr, heating the nanoparticle alloys to approximately 100° C, and repressurizing the nanoparticle alloys to approximately 150 psi 1001. The method may further comprise placing an amount of the prepared nanoparticle alloys into a reaction chamber of a reactor 1002. The method may further comprise pressurizing the reaction chamber with hydrogen 1003. The method may further comprise oscillating magnetic fields disposed around the reactor at a required frequency 1004. The oscillating magnetic fields may cause heat generating reactions between the hydrogen and prepared nanoparticle alloys 1005.

[0073] The high density cluster moment transfer method may be used with most existing reactor designs, but there may be a need to reduce the reactor thickness depending on the penetration of the magnetic field. Using high frequency RF coils (MHz range) wrapped around the reactor and tuning to the correct resonant frequency, may cause "rapid vibrations" within the high density clusters of the nanoparticle alloys to trigger the reactions. Small length scales of defects may require an acoustic frequency in the low THz. Longer dislocations may require frequencies in the MHz range.

[0074] The magnetic field may be generated in one of two ways. In the Helmholtz coil configuration, two sets of two Helmholtz coils (four total) may be placed around the reactor. The two sets of coils ensure that a magnetic field is generated in both the x and y place. Depending on the strength of each set, a net field will be generated. Oscillating both fields at the required frequency, while exposing the nanoparticle alloys to hydrogen, may be used to both trigger (when hydrogen enters the reactor) and control (when hydrogen leaves the reactor) the reaction. In the solenoid configuration, a solenoid may be placed axially around the reactor, resulting in an oscillating magnetic field in the axial direction. Oscillating both fields at the required frequency while exposing the nanoparticle alloys to hydrogen may be used to both trigger (when hydrogen enters the reactor) and control (when hydrogen leaves the reactor) the reaction.

[0075] Due to the reaction mechanism, long term heat output is expected. If the heat output diminishes, it is possible to combine the methods described in the bulk momentum transfer described above with the high density cluster momentum transfer to increase the number of reactions taking place in the reactor.

[0076] The probability of fusion occurring between two particles can be estimated assuming quantum tunneling is the predominant mechanism for this type of reaction. In order for fusion to successfully occur, several factors must be considered. These include particle energy, coulomb barrier, and elastic/inelastic collisions.

[0077] Higher particle energies correspond to an increased probability of overcoming the coulomb barrier. In the two cases under consideration (pressure based triggering and magnetic triggering), the velocities of individual particles can be determined from calculations. For pressured based triggering, Bernoulli's principle may be used to calculate particle velocity. The velocity of particles as a function of time will decrease due to the increase in reactor pressure. However, the time dependency of velocity is outside the scope of this disclosure. Assuming a 150 psi source, and vacuum in the reactor, the maximum velocity of hydrogen can be calculated as 1.52xl0 ⁵ m/s. In reality, this velocity will be lower because it is difficult to maintain a perfect vacuum and collisions in the piping and reactor will slow down the particles.

[0078] For magnetic triggering, the velocity of charged particles travelling through a magnetic field can be calculated as v = rqb/m, where v is the velocity, r is the radius of the path of curvature, q is the charge of the particle, b is the magnitude of the magnetic field, and m is the mass of the particle. Assuming a proton with m = 1.64x10 - ^" 27 kg, q = 1.60x10 - ^" 19 , b = 4 Tesla, and r = 0.001 m, the velocity of a particle is 3.84xl0 ⁵ m/s.

[0079] The energy of these particles can be approximated using E = ½ (mv ) as 5.66x10 ^"

¹⁷ J and 1.23xlO ^"16 J for the pressure and magnetic methods, respectively. A modest 4 Tesla magnetic field, therefore, can provide an energy almost 3 times greater.

[0080] In order for particles to be close enough for fusion, they must overcome the coulomb barrier. For the cases under consideration (proton/proton interactions), a coulomb barrier energy of 4.5x10' K or 3.45 keV has to be overcome. The pressure and magnetic methods above correspond to an energy of 3.54x10 2 eV and 7.69x102 eV. Although it appears that these energies are close to the required coulomb barrier, these are the maximum energies. In other words, the average energy of the particles is much less. Assuming a Maxwell-Blotzmann distribution, this maximum energy makes up a very small percentage of the particles in the system.

[0081] The equivalent temperature of these particles is 4. lxlO ⁶ K and 8.92xl0 ⁶ K, respectively. Using a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, the probability of finding particles with the energy mentioned above, is 2.7xl0 ^"4 and 1.20xl0 ^"5 , respectively. In other words, the probability of finding particles at specific energies reduces as that energy increases. In fact, as shown the probability of finding particles at the maximum energy is extremely low.

[0082] The above energies are much lower than the required coulomb energy, 4.5x10 K.

In a classical consideration, the particles will not overcome the required energy. However, if quantum tunneling is assumed, the probability of the particles overcoming the coulomb barrier can be estimated. Assuming a square coulomb barrier with height U = U ₀ (4.5x10 K) and width of L = 1 femtometer (range for the relevant interactions), the following equation can be used:

[0083]

[0084] E is the energy of the incident particles, and:

[0085] [0086] The probabilities of the highest energy particles tunneling through the barrier are

[0087] Pressure: 94.35%

[0088] Magnetic: 97.32%

[0089] However, the fraction of particles with the required energy is extremely small, as shown above. Including the weighted particle energies, the overall probability of overcoming the coulomb barrier is

[0090] Pressure: 0.03%

[0091] Magnetic: 0.001%

[0092] Therefore, in order to increase the total probability of overcoming the coulomb barrier, the total average energy of the particles needs to be increased. To increase the probability to 1%, the proposed methods would need to be conducted in a very high energy environment. This could be achieved through a high ambient temperature (for the pressure based approach) or a high energy plasma (for the magnetic approach) which is typically seen in traditional plasma based fusion type experiments.

[0093] The above description and drawings are illustrative and are not to be construed as limiting the invention to the precise forms disclosed. Persons skilled in the relevant art can appreciate that many modifications and variations are possible in light of the above disclosure. Numerous specific details are described to provide a thorough understanding of the disclosure. However, in certain instances, well-known or conventional details are not described in order to avoid obscuring the description.

[0094] Reference in this specification to "one embodiment" or "an embodiment" means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the disclosure. The appearances of the phrase "in one embodiment" in various places in the specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment, nor are separate or alternative embodiments mutually exclusive of other embodiments. Moreover, various features are described which may be exhibited by some embodiments and not by others. Similarly, various requirements are described which may be requirements for some embodiments but not other embodiments.

[0095] Unless the context clearly requires otherwise, throughout the description and the claims, the words "comprise," "comprising," and the like are to be construed in an inclusive sense, as opposed to an exclusive or exhaustive sense; that is to say, in the sense of "including, but not limited to." As used herein, the terms "connected," "coupled," or any variant thereof, means any connection or coupling, either direct or indirect, between two or more elements; the coupling of connection between the elements can be physical, logical, or any combination thereof. Additionally, the words "herein," "above," "below," and words of similar import, when used in this application, shall refer to this application as a whole and not to any particular portions of this application. Where the context permits, words in the above Detailed Description using the singular or plural number may also include the plural or singular number respectively. The word "or," in reference to a list of two or more items, covers all of the following interpretations of the word: any of the items in the list, all of the items in the list, and any combination of the items in the list.

[0096] The teachings of the disclosure provided herein can be applied to other systems, not necessarily the system described above. The elements and acts of the various embodiments described above can be combined to provide further embodiments.

[0097] These and other changes can be made to the disclosure in light of the above

Detailed Description. While the above description describes certain embodiments of the disclosure, and describes the best mode contemplated, no matter how detailed the above appears in text, the teachings can be practiced in many ways. Details of the system may vary

considerably in its implementation details, while still being encompassed by the subject matter disclosed herein. As noted above, particular terminology used when describing certain features or aspects of the disclosure should not be taken to imply that the terminology is being redefined herein to be restricted to any specific characteristics, features, or aspects of the disclosure with which that terminology is associated. In general, the terms used in the following claims should not be construed to limit the disclosure to the specific embodiments disclosed in the

specification, unless the above Detailed Description section explicitly defines such terms.

Accordingly, the actual scope of the disclosure encompasses not only the disclosed

embodiments, but also all equivalent ways of practicing or implementing the disclosure under the claims.

[0098] The terms used in this specification generally have their ordinary meanings in the art, within the context of the disclosure, and in the specific context where each term is used. Certain terms that are used to describe the disclosure are discussed above, or elsewhere in the specification, to provide additional guidance to the practitioner regarding the description of the disclosure. For convenience, certain terms may be highlighted, for example using capitalization, italics and/or quotation marks. The use of highlighting has no influence on the scope and meaning of a term; the scope and meaning of a term is the same, in the same context, whether or not it is highlighted. It will be appreciated that same element can be described in more than one way.

[0099] Consequently, alternative language and synonyms may be used for any one or more of the terms discussed herein, nor is any special significance to be placed upon whether or not a term is elaborated or discussed herein. Synonyms for certain terms are provided. A recital of one or more synonyms does not exclude the use of other synonyms. The use of examples anywhere in this specification including examples of any terms discussed herein is illustrative only, and is not intended to further limit the scope and meaning of the disclosure or of any exemplified term. Likewise, the disclosure is not limited to various embodiments given in this specification.

[00100] Without intent to further limit the scope of the disclosure, examples of instruments, apparatus, methods and their related results according to the embodiments of the present disclosure are given below. Note that titles or subtitles may be used in the examples for convenience of a reader, which in no way should limit the scope of the disclosure. Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure pertains. In the case of conflict, the present document, including definitions will control.

[00101] Some portions of this description describe the embodiments of the invention in terms of algorithms and symbolic representations of operations on information. These algorithmic descriptions and representations are commonly used by those skilled in the data processing arts to convey the substance of their work effectively to others skilled in the art. These operations, while described functionally, computationally, or logically, are understood to be implemented by computer programs or equivalent electrical circuits, microcode, or the like. Furthermore, it has also proven convenient at times, to refer to these arrangements of operations as modules, without loss of generality. The described operations and their associated modules may be embodied in software, firmware, hardware, or any combinations thereof.

[00102] Finally, the language used in the specification has been principally selected for readability and instructional purposes, and it may not have been selected to delineate or circumscribe the inventive subject matter. It is therefore intended that the scope of the invention be limited not by this detailed description, but rather by any claims that issue on an application based hereon. Accordingly, the disclosure of the embodiments of the invention is intended to be illustrative, but not limiting, of the scope of the invention, which is set forth in the following claims.

[00103] Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood to one of ordinary skill in the art to which the presently disclosed subject matter pertains. Although any methods, devices, and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the presently disclosed subject matter, representative methods, devices, and materials are now described.

[00104] Following long-standing patent law convention, the terms "a", "an", and "the" refer to "one or more" when used in the subject specification, including the claims. Thus, for example reference to "an additive" can include a plurality of such additives, and so forth.

[00105] Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities of components, conditions, and so forth used in the specification and claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term "about". Accordingly, unless indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in the instant specification and attached claims are

approximations that can vary depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by the presently disclosed subject matter.

[00106] As used herein, the term "about", when referring to a value or to an amount of mass, weight, time, volume, concentration, and/or percentage can encompass variations of, in some embodiments +/-20%, in some embodiments, +/-10%, in some embodiments +1- 5%, in some embodiments +/-1%, in some embodiments +/-0.5%, and in some embodiments, +/-0.1%, from the specified amount, as such variations are appropriate in the disclosed products and methods.