CROSS-REFERENCE

[0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/329,516, filed Apr. 29, 2016, which is entirely incorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND

[0002] Particles are used in many household and industrial applications. The particles may be produced by various chemical processes. Performance and energy supply associated with such chemical processes has evolved over time.

SUMMARY

[0003] The present disclosure recognizes a need for more efficient and effective processes to produce particles, such as, for example, carbon particles. Also recognized herein is a need to increase speed of production, increase yields, reduce manufacturing equipment wear characteristics, etc. The present disclosure may provide, for example, improved processes for converting hydrocarbon-containing materials into carbon particles.

[0004] The present disclosure provides, for example, a carbon black particle generating reactor, comprising: a plasma generating section containing one or more sets of concentric electrodes configured to generate a plasma; a reactor section connected to the plasma generating section; and an injector located within the concentric electrodes, wherein temperature centrally within the concentric electrodes is less than a temperature of the plasma generated by the concentric electrodes. The injector may be located centrally within the concentric electrodes. The reactor may further comprise a plurality of injectors contained within the concentric electrodes. The injector may be cooled. The temperature centrally within the concentric electrodes may be less than half of the temperature of the plasma generated by the concentric electrodes.

[0005] The present disclosure also provides, for example, a process for making carbon black particles, comprising: generating a plasma arc in a high temperature zone of a reactor with concentric plasma generating electrodes; and injecting a hydrocarbon into the reactor to form the carbon black particles, wherein the hydrocarbon is injected into the reactor through at least one hydrocarbon injector located within the concentric plasma generating electrodes, and wherein heat loss during the process due to the at least one hydrocarbon injector is less than about 20% of total energy input into the process. The at least one hydrocarbon injector may be located centrally within the concentric plasma generating electrodes. Temperature centrally within the concentric plasma generating electrodes may be less than half of a temperature of the plasma arc. The hydrocarbon may be natural gas. The injected hydrocarbon may form the carbon black particles and hydrogen after passing through the high temperature zone. The carbon black particles and hydrogen may be produced at greater than 95% yield. N2SA of the carbon black particles may be between about 15 m ² /g and 150 m ² /g. STSA of the carbon black particles may be between about 15 m ² /g and 150 m ² /g. DBP of the carbon black particles may be greater than about 32 ml/100 g. The carbon black particles, as produced, may have L _c greater than about 3.5 nm and d002 less than about 0.36 nm. The heat loss during the process due to the at least one hydrocarbon injector may be less than about 5% of total energy input into the process. The heat loss during the process due to the at least one hydrocarbon injector may be less than or equal to about 2% of total energy input into the process. Hydrocarbon flow from the cooled injector may be allowed to proceed to an uncooled tube which may act as an injector but may be allowed to heat to a temperature greater than about 1600 °C. The tube may comprise or be made from carbon or silicon carbide or other high temperature material capable of surviving at temperatures greater than about 1600 °C. The reactor may be an enclosed particle generating reactor.

[0006] The present disclosure also provides, for example, a method for making carbon black particles, comprising: flowing a thermal transfer gas between electrodes in a reactor; generating a plasma arc with the electrodes; and injecting a hydrocarbon into the reactor to form the carbon black particles, wherein the hydrocarbon is injected into the reactor through at least one hydrocarbon injector located within the electrodes, and wherein the carbon black particles have a transmittance of toluene extract greater than or equal to about 94%. The carbon black particles may have a transmittance of toluene extract greater than or equal to about 99%. The method may further comprise flowing at least about 25% of the thermal transfer gas between the electrodes. The electrodes may comprise an inner electrode and an outer electrodes, and the method may further comprise flowing the thermal transfer gas outside of the outer electrode. The method may further comprise flowing at least about 20% of the thermal transfer gas outside of the outer electrode. The electrodes may comprise an inner electrode and an outer electrodes, and the method may further comprise flowing the thermal transfer gas inside of the inner electrode. The method may further comprise flowing at least about 10% of the thermal transfer gas around the at least one hydrocarbon injector. The method may further comprise flowing at least about 30% of the thermal transfer gas around the at least one hydrocarbon injector. The method may further comprise flowing at least about 40% of the thermal transfer gas around the at least one hydrocarbon injector. The method may further comprise varying insertion length of the at least one hydrocarbon injector within the electrodes. The method may further comprise varying the insertion length of the at least one hydrocarbon injector using a sliding seal. The method may further comprise varying a degree of pre-dilution of the hydrocarbon to control surface area and/or structure of the carbon black particles. The method may further comprise varying the degree of pre-dilution of the hydrocarbon by (i) varying the insertion length of the at least one hydrocarbon injector within the electrodes, (ii) varying a flow rate of the thermal transfer gas around the at least one hydrocarbon injector, or (iii) a combination thereof. The at least one hydrocarbon injector may be cooled by a cooling circuit, and the method may further comprise retracting the at least one hydrocarbon injector upon detection of a given increase in temperature difference between an inlet temperature and an outlet temperature of the cooling circuit. The method may further comprise retracting the at least one hydrocarbon injector based on a strain gauge that weighs how much electrode material remains. The method may further comprise varying a diameter of the reactor downstream of the electrodes to affect product quality and/or deposit formation. The reactor may comprise a liner that separates an inner reaction zone from an outer insulated area that contains a different gas than the inner reaction zone in order to reduce thermal conductivity of insulation in the outer insulated area. The inner reaction zone may comprise a gas comprising greater than or equal to about 50% hydrogen by volume.

[0007] These and additional embodiments are further described below.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

[0008] The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings or figures (also "FIG." and "FIGS." herein), of which:

[0009] FIG.1 shows a schematic representation of an example of a reactor/apparatus.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[00010] The particulars shown herein are by way of example and for purposes of illustrative discussion of the various embodiments of the present invention only and are presented in the cause of providing what is believed to be the most useful and readily understood description of the principles and conceptual aspects of the invention. In this regard, no attempt is made to show details of the invention in more detail than is necessary for a fundamental understanding of the invention, the description making apparent to those skilled in the art how the several forms of the invention may be embodied in practice. [00011] The present invention will now be described by reference to more detailed embodiments. This invention may, however, be embodied in different forms and should not be construed as limited to the embodiments set forth herein. Rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art.

[00012] Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. The terminology used in the description of the invention herein is for describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention. As used in the description of the invention and the appended claims, the singular forms "a," "an," and "the" are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are expressly incorporated by reference in their entirety.

[00013] Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities of ingredients, reaction conditions, and so forth used in the specification and claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term "about." Accordingly, unless indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in the following specification and attached claims are approximations that may vary depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by the present invention. At the very least, and not as an attempt to limit the application of the doctrine of equivalents to the scope of the claims, each numerical parameter should be construed in light of the number of significant digits and ordinary rounding approaches.

[00014] Notwithstanding that the numerical ranges and parameters setting forth the broad scope of the invention are approximations, the numerical values set forth in the specific examples are reported as precisely as possible. Any numerical value, however, inherently contains certain errors necessarily resulting from the standard deviation found in their respective testing measurements. Every numerical range given throughout this specification will include every narrower numerical range that falls within such broader numerical range, as if such narrower numerical ranges were all expressly written herein.

[00015] Additional advantages of the invention will be set forth in part in the description which follows, and in part will be obvious from the description, or may be learned by practice of the invention. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention, as claimed. It shall be understood that different aspects of the invention can be appreciated individually, collectively, or in combination with each other. [00016] The present disclosure provides systems and methods for affecting chemical changes. Affecting such chemical changes may include making particles (e.g., carbon particles, such as, for example, carbon black) using the systems and methods of the present disclosure. While such particles may be described herein primarily in terms of or in the context of carbon particles, the particles of the present disclosure may include other types of particles. The chemical changes described herein may be (e.g., primarily, substantially, entirely or at least in part) affected using energy not associated or closely connected with raw materials used to convert hydrocarbon- containing materials into carbon particles (e.g., carbon black). The systems and methods described herein may use electrical energy to affect the chemical changes. Processes implemented with the aid of the systems and methods herein may include heating a thermal transfer gas (e.g., a plasma gas). The thermal transfer gas may be heated with electrical energy (e.g., from a DC or AC source). The thermal transfer gas may be heated by an electric arc. Heated thermal transfer gas may be mixed with a hydrocarbon feedstock to generate the carbon particles (e.g., carbon black).

[00017] The thermal transfer gas may in some instances be heated in an oxygen-free environment. The carbon particles may in some instances be produced (e.g., manufactured) in an oxygen-free atmosphere. An oxygen-free atmosphere may comprise, for example, less than about 5% oxygen by volume, less than about 3% oxygen (e.g., by volume), or less than about 1% oxygen (e.g., by volume).

[00018] The systems and methods described herein may include heating hydrocarbons rapidly to form carbon particles (e.g., carbon nanoparticles). For example, the hydrocarbons may be heated rapidly to form carbon particles (e.g., carbon nanoparticles) and hydrogen. The carbon particles (also "particles" herein) may include, for example, carbon black particles. Hydrogen (e.g., hydrogen generated from methane in the process of forming carbon black) may in some cases refer to majority hydrogen. For example, some portion of this hydrogen may also contain methane (e.g., unspent methane) and/or various other hydrocarbons (e.g., ethane, propane, ethylene, acetylene, benzene, toluene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) such as naphthalene, etc.). In some examples, when referring to hydrogen, these minor constituents may be included as being part of this gas flow that is utilized within the system (e.g., within a carbon black generating system). Hydrogen generated in the processes described herein may be used for many applications.

[00019] The thermal transfer gas may comprise at least about 60% hydrogen up to about 100% hydrogen (by volume) and may further comprise up to about 30% nitrogen, up to about 30% CO, up to about 30% CH ₄ , up to about 10% HCN, up to about 30% C ₂ H ₂ , and up to about 30% Ar. For example, the thermal transfer gas may be greater than about 60% hydrogen. Additionally, the thermal transfer gas may also comprise polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons such as anthracene, naphthalene, coronene, pyrene, chrysene, fluorene, and the like. In addition, the thermal transfer gas may have benzene and toluene or similar monoaromatic hydrocarbon components present. For example, the thermal transfer gas may comprise greater than or equal to about 90% hydrogen, and about 0.2% nitrogen, about 1.0% CO, about 1.1% CH ₄ , about 0.1% HCN and about 0.1% C ₂ H ₂ . The thermal transfer gas may comprise greater than or equal to about 80% hydrogen and the remainder may comprise some mixture of the aforementioned gases, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, monoaromatic hydrocarbons and other components. Thermal transfer gas such as oxygen, nitrogen, argon, helium, air, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon (e.g. methane, ethane, unsaturated) etc. (used alone or in mixtures of two or more) may be used. The thermal transfer gas may comprise greater than or equal to about 50% hydrogen by volume. The thermal transfer gas may comprise, for example, oxygen, nitrogen, argon, helium, air, hydrogen, hydrocarbon (e.g. methane, ethane) etc. (used alone or in mixtures of two or more). The thermal transfer gas may comprise greater than about 70% H2 by volume and may include at least one or more of the gases HCN, CH ₄ , C ₂ H ₄ , C ₂ H ₂ , CO, benzene or polyaromatic hydrocarbon (e.g., naphthalene and/or anthracene) at a level of at least about 1 ppm. The thermal transfer gas may have at least a subset of such compositions before, during and/or after heating.

[00020] The hydrocarbon feedstock may include any chemical with formula C _n H _x or C _n H _x O _y, where n is an integer; x is between (i) 1 and 2n+2 or (ii) less than 1 for fuels such as coal, coal tar, pyrolysis fuel oils, and the like; and y is between 0 and n. The hydrocarbon feedstock may include, for example, simple hydrocarbons (e.g., methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc.), aromatic feedstocks (e.g., benzene, toluene, methyl naphthalene, pyrolysis fuel oil, coal tar, coal, heavy oil, oil, bio-oil, bio-diesel, other biologically derived hydrocarbons, and the like), unsaturated hydrocarbons (e.g., ethylene, acetylene, butadiene, styrene, and the like), oxygenated hydrocarbons (e.g., ethanol, methanol, propanol, phenol, ketones, ethers, esters, and the like), or any combination thereof. These examples are provided as non-limiting examples of acceptable hydrocarbon feedstocks which may further be combined and/or mixed with other components for manufacture. A hydrocarbon feedstock may refer to a feedstock in which the majority of the feedstock (e.g., more than about 50% by weight) is hydrocarbon in nature. The reactive hydrocarbon feedstock may comprise at least about 70% by weight methane, ethane, propane or mixtures thereof. The hydrocarbon feedstock may be natural gas. The hydrocarbon may be methane, ethane, or propane or mixtures thereof.

[00021] Carbon particles may comprise fine particles. A fine particle may be a particle that has at least one dimension that is less than 100 nm (nanometers). A fine particle may be an aggregate that is smaller than about 5 microns average size when measured in the largest dimension via scanning or tunneling electron microscopy. The carbon particles may comprise spherical and/or ellipsoidal fine carbon particles. Spherical or ellipsoidal particles may mean singular particles and may also mean a plurality of particles that are stuck together in a fashion analogous to that of a bunch of grapes or aciniform. Carbon black may be an example of this type of fine carbon particle. The carbon particles may comprise few layer graphenes (FLG), which may comprise particles that possess two or more layers of graphene and have a shape that is best described as flat or substantially flat. The carbon particles may be substantially in disk form. The carbon particles may comprise carbonaceous pigment. A carbon particle may include a carbon nanoparticle. A carbon nanoparticle may include, for example, any particle which is 90% or greater carbon, has a surface area greater than 5 m ² /g (square meters per gram), and the volume equivalent sphere possesses a diameter of less than 1 micron (displacement of liquid is equivalent to a 1 micron sphere or less per particle). This may comprise many different shapes including disks, bowls, cones, aggregated disks, few layer graphene (FLG), ellipsoidal, aggregated ellipsoidal, spheres, and aggregated spheres (e.g. carbon black), as non-limiting examples. The carbon nanoparticles may also comprise a plurality of these particle shapes. At least 90% of the particles in any given sample of carbon nanoparticles on a number basis may fall within the confines of this definition of carbon nanoparticles.

[00022] The thermal transfer gas may be provided to the system (e.g., to a reactor/apparatus) at a rate of, for example, greater than or equal to about 1 normal cubic meter/hour (Nm ³ /hr), 2 Nm ³ /hr, 5 Nm ³ /hr, 10 Nm ³ /hr, 25 Nm ³ /hr, 50 Nm ³ /hr, 75 Nm ³ /hr, 100 Nm ³ /hr, 150 Nm ³ /hr, 200 Nm ³ /hr, 250 Nm ³ /hr, 273 Nm ³ /hr, 300 Nm ³ /hr, 333 Nm ³ /hr, 350 Nm ³ /hr, 399 Nm ³ /hr, 400 Nm ³ /hr, 420 Nm ³ /hr, 440 Nm ³ /hr, 450 Nm ³ /hr, 451 Nm ³ /hr, 467 Nm ³ /hr, 477 Nm ³ /hr, 500 Nm ³ /hr, 502 Nm ³ /hr, 550 Nm ³ /hr, 600 Nm ³ /hr, 650 Nm ³ /hr, 700 Nm ³ /hr, 750 Nm ³ /hr, 800 Nm ³ /hr, 850 Nm ³ /hr, 900 Nm ³ /hr, 950 Nm ³ /hr, 1,000 Nm ³ /hr, 2,000 Nm ³ /hr, 3,000 Nm ³ /hr, 4,000 Nm ³ /hr, 5,000 Nm ³ /hr, 6,000 Nm ³ /hr, 7,000 Nm ³ /hr, 8,000 Nm ³ /hr, 9,000 Nm ³ /hr, 10,000 Nm ³ /hr, 12,000 Nm ³ /hr, 14,000 Nm ³ /hr, 16,000 Nm ³ /hr, 18,000 Nm ³ /hr, 20,000 Nm ³ /hr, 30,000 Nm ³ /hr, 40,000 Nm ³ /hr, 50,000 Nm ³ /hr, 60,000 Nm ³ /hr, 70,000 Nm ³ /hr, 80,000 Nm ³ /hr, 90,000 Nm ³ /hr or 100,000 Nm ³ /hr. Alternatively, or in addition, the thermal transfer gas may be provided to the system (e.g., to the reactor apparatus) at a rate of, for example, less than or equal to about 100,000 Nm ³ /hr, 90,000 Nm ³ /hr, 80,000 Nm ³ /hr, 70,000 Nm ³ /hr, 60,000 Nm ³ /hr, 50,000 Nm ³ /hr, 40,000 Nm ³ /hr, 30,000 Nm ³ /hr, 20,000 Nm ³ /hr, 18,000 Nm ³ /hr, 16,000 Nm ³ /hr, 14,000 Nm ³ /hr, 12,000 Nm ³ /hr, 10,000 Nm ³ /hr, 9,000 Nm ³ /hr, 8,000 Nm ³ /hr, 7,000 Nm ³ /hr, 6,000 Nm ³ /hr, 5,000 Nm ³ /hr, 4,000 Nm ³ /hr, 3,000 Nm ³ /hr, 2,000 Nm ³ /hr, 1,000 Nm ³ /hr, 950 Nm ³ /hr, 900 Nm ³ /hr, 850 Nm ³ /hr, 800 Nm ³ /hr, 750 Nm ³ /hr, 700 Nm ³ /hr, 650 Nm ³ /hr, 600 Nm ³ /hr, 550 Nm ³ /hr, 502 Nm ³ /hr, 500 Nm ³ /hr, 477 Nm ³ /hr, 467 Nm ³ /hr, 451 Nm ³ /hr, 450 Nm ³ /hr, 440 Nm ³ /hr, 420 Nm ³ /hr, 400 Nm ³ /hr, 399 Nm ³ /hr, 350 Nm ³ /hr, 333 Nm ³ /hr, 300 Nm ³ /hr, 273 Nm ³ /hr, 250 Nm ³ /hr, 200 Nm ³ /hr, 150 Nm ³ /hr, 100 Nm ³ /hr, 75 Nm ³ /hr, 50 Nm ³ /hr, 25 Nm ³ /hr, 10 Nm ³ /hr, 5 Nm ³ /hr or 2 Nm ³ /hr. The thermal transfer gas may be provided to the system (e.g., to the reactor apparatus) at such rates in combination with one or more feedstock flow rates described herein. The thermal transfer gas may be heated at such flow rates to one or more temperatures described herein.

[00023] The thermal transfer gas may be split into one or more flow paths. The thermal gas flow rate though a given flow path (e.g., through a shield path, through an annulus path and/or through an axial path described in greater detail elsewhere herein) may be, for example, greater than or equal to about 0%, 1%, 2%, 5%, 10%, 14%, 15%, 20%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 30%, 32%, 33%, 35%, 37%, 38%, 40%, 42%, 45%, 48%, 50%, 51 %, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 73%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 99%. Alternatively, or in addition, the thermal gas flow rate though a given flow path (e.g., through a shield path, through an annulus path and/or through an axial path) may be, for example, less than or equal to about 100%, 99%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 73%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 51%, 50%, 48%, 45%, 42%, 40%, 38%, 37%, 35%, 33%, 32%, 30%, 26%, 25%, 24%, 20%, 15%, 14%, 10%, 5%, 2% or 1%.

[00024] The feedstock (e.g., hydrocarbon) may be provided to the system (e.g., to a reactor/apparatus) at a rate of, for example, greater than or equal to about 50 grams per hour (g/hr), 100 g/hr, 250 g/hr, 500 g/hr, 750 g/hr, 1 kilogram per hour (kg/hr), 2 kg/hr, 5 kg/hr, 10 kg/hr, 15 kg/hr, 20 kg/hr, 25 kg/hr, 30 kg/hr, 32 kg/h, 35 kg/hr, 37 kg/h, 40 kg/hr, 42 kg/h, 45 kg/hr, 48 kg/h, 50 kg/hr, 55 kg/hr, 56 kg/h, 60 kg/hr, 65 kg/hr, 70 kg/hr, 75 kg/hr, 80 kg/hr, 85 kg/hr, 88 kg/h, 90 kg/hr, 95 kg/hr, 100 kg/hr, 150 kg/hr, 200 kg/hr, 250 kg/hr, 300 kg/hr, 350 kg/hr, 400 kg/hr, 450 kg/hr, 500 kg/hr, 600 kg/hr, 700 kg/hr, 800 kg/hr, 900 kg/hr, 1 ,000 kg/hr, 1,100 kg/hr, 1 ,200 kg/hr, 1,300 kg/hr, 1,400 kg/hr, 1,500 kg/hr, 1,600 kg/hr, 1,700 kg/hr, 1 ,800 kg/hr, 1,900 kg/hr, 2,000 kg/hr, 2,100 kg/hr, 2,200 kg/hr, 2,300 kg/hr, 2,400 kg/hr, 2,500 kg/hr, 3,000 kg/hr, 3,500 kg/hr, 4,000 kg/hr, 4,500 kg/hr, 5,000 kg/hr, 6,000 kg/hr, 7,000 kg/hr, 8,000 kg/hr, 9,000 kg/hr or 10,000 kg/hr. Alternatively, or in addition, the feedstock (e.g., hydrocarbon) may be provided to the system (e.g., to the reactor apparatus) at a rate of, for example, less than or equal to about 10,000 kg/hr, 9,000 kg/hr, 8,000 kg/hr, 7,000 kg/hr, 6,000 kg/hr, 5,000 kg/hr, 4,500 kg/hr, 4,000 kg/hr, 3,500 kg/hr, 3,000 kg/hr, 2,500 kg/hr, 2,400 kg/hr, 2,300 kg/hr, 2,200 kg/hr, 2,100 kg/hr, 2,000 kg/hr, 1,900 kg/hr, 1,800 kg/hr, 1,700 kg/hr, 1 ,600 kg/hr, 1,500 kg/hr, 1,400 kg/hr, 1,300 kg/hr, 1,200 kg/hr, 1 ,100 kg/hr, 1,000 kg/hr, 900 kg/hr, 800 kg/hr, 700 kg/hr, 600 kg/hr, 500 kg/hr, 450 kg/hr, 400 kg/hr, 350 kg/hr, 300 kg/hr, 250 kg/hr, 200 kg/hr, 150 kg/hr, 100 kg/hr, 95 kg/hr, 90 kg/hr, 88 kg/h, 85 kg/hr, 80 kg/hr, 75 kg/hr, 70 kg/hr, 65 kg/hr, 60 kg/hr, 56 kg/h, 55 kg/hr, 50 kg/hr, 48 kg/h, 45 kg/hr, 42 kg/h, 40 kg/hr, 37 kg/h, 35 kg/hr, 32 kg/h, 30 kg/hr, 25 kg/hr, 20 kg/hr, 15 kg/hr, 10 kg/hr, 5 kg/hr, 2 kg/hr, 1 kg/hr, 750 g/hr, 500 g/hr, 250 g/tir or 100 g/hr.

[00025] The thermal transfer gas may be heated to and/or the feedstock may be subjected to a temperature of greater than or equal to about 1,000 °C, 1 ,100 °C, 1,200 °C, 1,300 °C, 1 ,400 °C, 1,500 °C, 1,600 °C, 1,700 °C, 1 ,800 °C, 1,900 °C, 2,000 °C, 2050 °C, 2,100 °C, 2,150 °C, 2,200 °C, 2,250 °C, 2,300 °C, 2,350 °C, 2,400 °C, 2,450 °C, 2,500 °C, 2,550 °C, 2,600 °C, 2,650 °C, 2,700 °C, 2,750 °C, 2,800 °C, 2,850 °C, 2,900 °C, 2,950 °C, 3,000 °C, 3,050 °C, 3,100 °C, 3,150 °C, 3,200 °C, 3,250 °C, 3,300 °C, 3,350 °C, 3,400 °C or 3,450 °C. Alternatively, or in addition, the thermal transfer gas may be heated to and/or the feedstock may be subjected to a temperature of less than or equal to about 3,500 °C, 3,450 °C, 3,400 °C, 3,350 °C, 3,300 °C, 3,250 °C, 3,200 °C, 3,150 °C, 3,100 °C, 3,050 °C, 3,000 °C, 2,950 °C, 2,900 °C, 2,850 °C, 2,800 °C, 2,750 °C, 2,700 °C, 2,650 °C, 2,600 °C, 2,550 °C, 2,500 °C, 2,450 °C, 2,400 °C, 2,350 °C, 2,300 °C, 2,250 °C, 2,200 °C, 2,150 °C, 2,100 °C, 2050 °C, 2,000 °C, 1,900 °C, 1 ,800 °C, 1,700 °C, 1,600 °C, 1 ,500 °C, 1,400 °C, 1,300 °C, 1,200 °C or 1,100 °C. The thermal transfer gas may be heated to such temperatures by a thermal generator (e.g., a plasma generator). Such thermal generators may have suitable powers. The thermal generators may be configured to operate continuously at such powers for, for example, several hundred or several thousand hours in a corrosive environment.

[00026] Thermal generators may operate at suitable powers. The power may be, for example, greater than or equal to about 0.5 kilowatt (kW), 1 kW, 1.5 kW, 2 kW, 5 kW, 10 kW, 25 kW, 50 kW, 75 kW, 100 kW, 150 kW, 200 kW, 250 kW, 300 kW, 350 kW, 400 kW, 450 kW, 500 kW, 540 kW, 550 kW, 600 kW, 650 kW, 700 kW, 750 kW, 800 kW, 850 kW, 900 kW, 950 kW, 1 megawatt (MW), 1.05 MW, 1.1 MW, 1.15 MW, 1.2 MW, 1.25 MW, 1.3 MW, 1.35 MW, 1.4 MW, 1.45 MW, 1.5 MW, 1.6 MW, 1.7 MW, 1.8 MW, 1.9 MW, 2 MW, 2.5 MW, 3 MW, 3.5 MW, 4 MW, 4.5 MW, 5 MW, 5.5 MW, 6 MW, 6.5 MW, 7 MW, 7.5 MW, 8 MW, 8.5 MW, 9 MW, 9.5 MW, 10 MW, 10.5 MW, 11 MW, 11.5 MW, 12 MW, 12.5 MW, 13 MW, 13.5 MW, 14 MW, 14.5 MW, 15 MW, 16 MW, 17 MW, 18 MW, 19 MW, 20 MW, 25 MW, 30 MW, 35 MW, 40 MW, 45 MW or 50 MW. Alternatively, or in addition, the power may be, for example, less than or equal to about 50 MW, 45 MW, 40 MW, 35 MW, 30 MW, 25 MW, 20 MW, 19 MW, 18 MW, 17 MW, 16 MW, 15 MW, 14.5 MW, 14 MW, 13.5 MW, 13 MW, 12.5 MW, 12 MW, 11.5 MW, 11 MW, 10.5 MW, 10 MW, 9.5 MW, 9 MW, 8.5 MW, 8 MW, 7.5 MW, 7 MW, 6.5 MW, 6 MW, 5.5 MW, 5 MW, 4.5 MW, 4 MW, 3.5 MW, 3 MW, 2.5 MW, 2 MW, 1.9 MW, 1.8 MW, 1.7 MW, 1.6 MW, 1.5 MW, 1.45 MW, 1.4 MW, 1.35 MW, 1.3 MW, 1.25 MW, 1.2 MW, 1.15 MW, 1.1 MW, 1.05 MW, 1 MW, 950 kW, 900 kW, 850 kW, 800 kW, 750 kW, 700 kW, 650 kW, 600 kW, 550 kW, 540 kW, 500 kW, 450 kW, 400 kW, 350 kW, 300 kW, 250 kW, 200 kW, 150 kW, 100 kW, 75 kW, 50 kW, 25 kW, 10 kW, 5 kW, 2 kW, 1.5 kW or 1 kW.

[00027] FIG. 1 shows a cross-section of an example of a reactor 100. The reactor may comprise, for example, a plasma chamber and a reactor section. A central injector (e.g., hydrocarbon injector) 104 having an injector tip (e.g., hydrocarbon injector tip) 105 may be oriented along the axis of two electrodes (inner electrode 103 and outer electrode 102). The electrodes may be, for example, concentric cylinder electrodes. Thermal transfer gas (e.g., plasma gas) 101 may enter the space between the inner and outer electrodes. There may be a gap between the inner and outer electrode referred to as an annulus. The central injector (also "stinger" and "torch stinger" herein) may be at a distance Dl (e.g., greater than or equal to zero) from the inner electrode. The lowest point of the central injector or the point at which injection takes place may be at a distance D2 (e.g., greater than or equal to zero, or less than zero) from a plane of the electrodes (e.g., the plane L2 created by connecting lines drawn from the lowest point of the outer electrode to inner electrode, as shown). The lowest point of the central injector or the point at which injection takes place may be above, at, or below the plane of the electrodes (e.g., if D2 is positive then injection of feedstock occurs above the plane L2, if D2 is negative then injection occurs below the plane L2, and if D2 is zero then injection occurs at/in the plane L2). Injection below the plane may be enabled, for example, through the use of a cooled injector (e.g., water-cooled copper (or other material)) injector or a cooled (e.g., water-cooled) injector attached to an uncooled tube. Sheathing material that acts as a radiation shield may be used to further protect the injector. A change in geometry may occur at the imaginary plane denoted by line LI . The reactor may become narrower or wider dependent upon the angle a. The angle a (e.g., up to 90°) may be the angle between an imaginary extension of a plasma chamber wall 106 and a reactor transition wall 107 leading to a reactor wall 108. The lowest point of the electrodes may be at a distance D3 (e.g., greater than or equal to zero) from the line LI. The plasma chamber wall 106 may be at a distance D4 (e.g., greater than or equal to zero) from the outer electrode 102. Reactor walls 108 may be at a distance D6 (e.g., greater than or equal to zero) from each other. In some examples, Dl may be about 85 millimeters (mm), D2 may be from about -200 mm to about 446 mm, D3 may be from zero to about 1350 mm, D4 may be from about 73 mm to about 450 mm, D6 may be about 1200 mm, and a may be from about 9° up to 90°.

[00028] The injector or stinger may comprise or consist of, for example, three concentric tubes. The tubes may create, for example, two annuli for cooling (e.g., water cooling) and a central path for hydrocarbon feedstock (e.g., natural gas) injection. The injector may be cooled via a cooling liquid. The injector may be cooled by, for example, water or a non-oxidizing liquid (e.g., mineral oil, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, synthetic organic fluids such as, for example, DOWTHERM™, etc.). The injector may be fabricated from suitable materials such as, for example, copper, stainless steel, graphite and/or other similar materials (e.g., alloys) with high melting points and good corrosion resistance (e.g., to hydrogen free radical environment). In some examples, a water-cooled metal may be used. Hydrocarbon flow from the cooled injector may be allowed to flow to an uncooled tube. The uncooled tube (also "tube" herein) may act as an injector but may be heated to a process temperature (e.g., temperature of the plasma or temperature of the thermal transfer gas) or to a temperature close to the process temperature (e.g., the uncooled tube may be allowed to float to, or close to, the process temperature). The tube may comprise or be made from, for example, carbon or silicon carbide or other high temperature material that may survive at temperatures greater than, for example, 1600 °C.

[00029] Tips (also "injector tips" herein) may comprise (e.g., have) single or multiple holes that are parallel to the axis of the injector, angled, or a combination thereof. Angled holes may in some instances provide faster mixing (e.g., since distinct streams may provide more surface for mixing into the surrounding gas). The injector may have (e.g., optionally) replaceable tips that may be switched out (e.g., to affect mixing). A replaceable tip in the injector may allow for the selection of desired flow velocities by varying tip diameter.

[00030] A stream of natural gas or other hydrocarbon feedstock may be injected into (e.g., into the center of) a heat generator (also "thermal generator" herein). The stream of natural gas or other hydrocarbon feedstock may be injected with the aid of a cooled (e.g., water cooled) injector inserted into the heat generator (e.g., a plasma torch). Using a sliding seal, the injector may be inserted to different depths in order to increase or decrease residence time in the heat generator (e.g., torch), and/or to maintain residence time in the heat generator (e.g., torch) at some fixed value (e.g., as the plasma torch electrodes wear).

[00031] The injector may be inserted into the heat generator (e.g., into the center of the heat generator). The heat generator may be, for example, a plasma torch (also "torch" herein). The torch may comprise electrodes. One or more (e.g., a plurality of) injectors may be located or contained within the electrodes (e.g., within concentric electrodes). The electrodes may be used to generate a plasma arc in a high temperature zone. A high temperature zone may be, for example, a zone that is at a temperature greater than about 1000 °C. The injected hydrocarbon may form carbon particles (e.g., carbon black) and hydrogen after passing through the high temperature zone. The temperature within a central location of the torch (e.g. centrally within the electrodes, such as, for example, inside of the inner electrode and/or adjacent to the injector) may be, for example, less than or equal to about 100%, 99%, 95%, 90%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5% or 1 % of the temperature of the plasma arc. The temperature within a central location of the torch (e.g. centrally within the electrodes, such as, for example, inside of the inner electrode and/or adjacent to the injector) may be, for example, greater than or equal to about 0%, 1 %, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 90% or 95% of the temperature of the plasma arc. In some examples, the temperature within the central location of the torch (e.g., centrally within the electrodes, such as, for example, inside of the inner electrode and/or adjacent to the injector) may be, for example, less than half of the temperature of the plasma arc.

[00032] The injector may be centered in the torch (e.g., the stinger may be aligned centrally within the electrodes). For example, the injector may be centered in the torch with one or more (e.g., at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10) adjustable rods or centering fingers. Such rods or centering fingers may be made of (e.g., machined out of) one or more high temperature materials such as, for example, carbon (e.g., graphite), silicon carbide, tungsten and/or molybdenum. To center the stinger along the axis of the torch, the inner electrode may comprise threaded holes (e.g., have threaded holes machined in) so that rods may be inserted. The tips of the rods may touch the outer diameter of the injector and guide it as it is inserted while allowing gas to flow down the inner electrode around the injector. Alternatively, or in addition, the stinger may be pushed through a tapered hole surrounded by a ring of holes or slots that allow gas to flow around the stinger. A plate may have a central hole with a taper to help guide the stinger during insertion, and slots or holes surrounding the central hole may allow for gas flow. A "stuffing box" comprising or consisting of compressed packing (e.g., flexible graphite or polytetrafluoroethylene) may allow the injector to be inserted and/or retracted while maintaining a seal. Tips may be altered (e.g., as described herein in relation to replaceable tips). Tips may be altered (e.g., switched, replaced, added or otherwise varied) during operation (e.g., with the system hot). For example, tips may be altered with the system hot with the aid of the "stuffing box" arrangement and isolation valves.

[00033] Insertion length of the injector within the heat generator (e.g., within the electrodes of a torch) may be varied as described elsewhere herein (e.g., using a sliding seal). A variation in insertion length may in some cases be expressed in terms of a variation in D2. The insertion length may be varied (e.g., increased or decreased) such that D2 is varied (e.g., increased or decreased, including inverted) by, for example, greater than or equal to about 0%, 1%, 2%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 99%, 100%, 125%, 150%, 175%, 200%, 225%, 250%, 275%, 300%, 325%, 350%, 375%, 400%, 425%, 450%, 475% or 500%. Alternatively, or in addition, the insertion length may be varied (e.g., increased or decreased) such that D2 is varied (e.g., increased or decreased, including inverted) by, for example, less than or equal to about 500%, 475%, 450%, 425%, 400%, 375%, 350%, 325%, 300%, 275%, 250%, 225%, 200%, 175%, 150%, 125%, 100%, 99%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 2% or 1%.

[00034] The cooling (e.g., water cooling) circuit for the injector may be closely monitored for increases in temperature difference between the inlet and outlet sides of the circuit. The circuit may be monitored, for example, in order to assess torch wear. An increased temperature difference may indicate that the torch has worn upwards and that the hot electrode tips are closer to the injector. Once a certain threshold is reached, the injector may be retracted to return cooling losses to original values. A retraction may be triggered, for example, upon an increase in temperature difference between the inlet temperature and the outlet temperature of the cooling circuit of greater than or equal to about 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 100%, 150%, 200%, 250% or 500%. A strain gauge may be integrated into the electrode holder to weigh how much electrode material remains. Such information may (e.g., also) be used to trigger retractions of the injector. The strain gauge may in some instances provide a more direct measurement of electrode wear. Other examples of testing and sensing for electrode length changes may include for example, using optical devices such as cooled cameras or laser diagnostics to sense electrode wear (e.g., to sense the height of the electrodes). A retraction may in some instances correspond to maintaining D2. A retraction may be triggered, for example, upon a change (e.g., decrease) in weight measured by the strain gauge of greater than or equal to about 0.5%, 1 %, 2%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% or 100%. A retraction may be triggered, for example, upon a change (e.g., a decrease in length of the electrodes, which may correspond to a change in height of the electrodes) measured by another measurement device such as, for example, an optical device (e.g., a cooled camera and/or laser diagnostics) of greater than or equal to about 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% or 100%.

[00035] One or more (e.g., three) gas (e.g., thermal transfer gas) flow paths may be arranged in and around (e.g., through) the heat generator (e.g., plasma torch). For example, one or more thermal transfer gas flow paths (e.g., a "shield" path, an "annulus" path, and/or an "axial" path) may be arranged in and around (e.g., through) the heat generator (e.g., plasma torch). The one or more thermal transfer gas flow paths may be configured, for example, to modulate the rate of mixing of the hydrocarbon feedstock (e.g., natural gas) stream with heated gases (e.g., to affect product morphology and/or product properties). The shield path may surround the torch. The shield path may aid in keeping the outside of the outer electrode and/or the reactor lining from accumulating deposits. The annulus path may be (e.g., may pass) between the electrodes. The annulus path may absorb (e.g., the most) heat from the arc. The axial path may flow down the inside of the inner electrode (e.g., around the injector). The axial gas, being cold, may provide some degree of dilution of the hydrocarbon feedstock (e.g., natural gas) prior to the hydrocarbon feedstock reaching temperatures where reactions may be initiated (e.g., pre-dilution). The degree of pre-dilution may (e.g., also) be a function of insertion length. Such factor(s) may affect how long the hydrocarbon feedstock (e.g., natural gas) and axial gas flow together before being exposed to heat and/or how fast the hydrocarbon feedstock reaches temperature(s) where reactions are initiated. The degree of pre-dilution may be used to control, for example, surface area and/or structure of the resultant carbon particles (e.g., carbon black). The pre-dilution (e.g., ratio of the axial gas flow to the injected hydrocarbon feedstock flow on a volumetric, molar or mass basis) may be varied (e.g., increased or decreased) by, for example, greater than or equal to about 0%, 1%, 2%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 99%. Alternatively, or in addition, the pre-dilution may be varied (e.g., increased or decreased) by, for example, less than or equal to about 100%, 99%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 2% or 1 % (e.g., on a weight or molar basis). The hydrocarbon feedstock (e.g., natural gas) and axial gas may (e.g., next) be exposed to the annulus gas, which may vary greatly in temperature depending on torch power and annulus gas flow rate. The annulus gas may strongly affect, for example, product surface area and/or structure. Greater than or equal to about 0%, 1%, 2%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of the thermal transfer gas may be directed to flow axially (e.g., around at least one hydrocarbon injector). Alternatively, or in addition, less than or equal to about 100%, 99%, 95%, 90%, 75%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 2% or 1 % of the thermal transfer gas may be directed to flow axially (e.g., around at least one hydrocarbon injector).

[00036] Downstream of the injector, the interior walls (also "liner" and "lining" herein) of the reactor may be arranged in various ways (e.g., to alter the amount of heat (radiation) that is radiating from the walls at the forming product (particles), and/or to give the forming particles sufficient time of flight and prevent buildup of deposits). The torch with injector may be combined with a reactor configured with a liner that may be used to separate an inner reaction zone and an outer insulated area that contains a different gas to reduce the thermal conductivity of the insulation. Product (particle) properties (e.g., product quality) may in some cases be controlled/affected by the configuration of the reactor lining downstream of the plasma torch. A liner with a relatively small diameter may absorb radiation from the torch and then re-radiate heat out toward forming particles, increasing the temperature ramp rate. The diameter may be increased to reduce the amount of radiation transferred and alter the time temperature history of forming particles. An increased diameter may (e.g., also) reduce deposits of product (particles) onto the liner walls. A conical configuration (e.g., a conical liner) may be used. The conical liner may provide strong radiation transfer to the forming product at first, while the increasing diameter further downstream may reduce the chance of deposit buildup as the hydrocarbon feedstock (e.g., natural gas) spreads outward toward the walls. Any suitable combination of small diameter, large diameter and conical (or other) geometries may be used to affect resulting carbon particle properties (e.g., surface area, structure, morphology, etc.) and/or deposit formation.

[00037] Considering that the stinger may be located within close proximity to the heat generation (e.g., plasma generation), heat loss(es) due to injectors of the present disclosure may be surprisingly low. The heat loss(es) due to injectors described herein may be below a given value. Heat loss(es) during a process described herein due to the presence of at least one such injector may be, for example, less than or equal to about 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, 1 %, 0.5%, 0.1% or 0.05% of total energy input into the process. Alternatively, or in addition, heat loss(es) during a process described herein due to the presence of at least one such injector may be, for example, greater than or equal to about 0%, 0.05%, 0.1 %, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40% or 45% of total energy input into the process. In some examples, heat loss(es) resulting from injectors of the present disclosure (e.g., heat losses due to a water-cooled stinger) may be less than about 2% of the energy (e.g., heating energy) added to the system (e.g., to crack methane into carbon black and hydrogen).

[00038] Radiation shielding may be used to aid in the protection of the stinger. The radiation shielding may comprise high temperature material (e.g., graphite or silicon carbide) that may absorb and re-emit radiation. The radiation shielding may absorb at least a portion (e.g., a majority) of the radiation. The radiation shielding may re-emit at least a portion of the radiation. The radiation shielding may prevent the injector (e.g., a cooled injector, such as, for example, a water-cooled injector) from being exposed to the full heat load (e.g., radiative heat load) of the plasma arc (e.g., which may exceed 5000 °C in some areas). The radiation shielding may be, for example, cylindrical, conical, square or rectangular.

[00039] Carbon particles (e.g., carbon black), or carbon particles (e.g., carbon black) and hydrogen, may be generated at a yield (e.g., yield of carbon particles based upon feedstock conversion rate, based on total hydrocarbon injected, on a weight percent carbon basis, as measured by moles of product carbon vs. moles of reactant carbon, or based on total conversion rate of feedstock) of, for example, greater than or equal to about 1%, 5%, 10%, 25%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91 %, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5% or 99.9%. Alternatively, or in addition, the carbon particles may be generated at a yield (e.g., yield of carbon particles based upon feedstock conversion rate, based on total hydrocarbon injected, on a weight percent carbon basis, as measured by moles of product carbon vs. moles of reactant carbon, or based on total conversion rate of feedstock) of, for example, less than or equal to about 100%, 99.9%, 99.5%, 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 94%, 93%, 92%, 91 %, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 25% or 5%. In some examples, the carbon particles (e.g., carbon black) and hydrogen may be produced at greater than 95% yield. In some examples, yield of carbon nanoparticles based upon hydrocarbon (e.g., methane) conversion rate may be greater than 90%, 94% or 95%.

[00040] The geometry as well as the parametric inputs, described in greater detail elsewhere herein, may in some cases drastically affect surface area, structure and/or other properties of as- produced carbon particle(s) (e.g., carbon black). The carbon particle(s) (e.g., carbon black particle(s)) described herein may have various combinations of the properties described herein (e.g., the particle(s) may have a given property in combination with one or more other properties described herein). For example, the carbon particle(s) may have various combinations of N2SA, STSA, DBP, tote, d002 and L _c values described herein.

[00041] Surface area of the carbon particle(s) (e.g., carbon black particle(s)) may refer to, for example, nitrogen surface area (N2SA) (e.g., nitrogen-based Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area) and/or statistical thickness surface area (STSA). The N2SA and STSA may be measured via ASTM D6556 (e.g., ASTM D6556-10). The surface areas described herein may refer to surface areas excluding (internal) porosity (e.g., excluding porous surface area due to any internal pores). The surface area (e.g., N2SA and/or STSA) may be, for example, greater than or equal to about 5 m ² /g, 10 m ² /g, 11 m ² /g, 12 m ² /g, 13 m ² /g, 14 m ² /g, 15 m ² /g, 16 m ² /g, 17 m ² /g, 18 m ² /g, 19 m ² /g, 20 m ² /g, 21 m ² /g, 22 m ² /g, 23 m ² /g, 24 m ² /g, 25 m ² /g, 26 m ² /g, 27 m ² /g, 28 m ² /g, 29 m ² /g, 30 m ² /g, 31 m ² /g, 32 m ² /g, 33 m ² /g, 34 m ² /g, 35 m ² /g, 36 m ² /g, 37 m ² /g, 38 m ² /g, 39 m ² /g, 40 m ² /g, 41 m ² /g, 42 m ² /g, 43 m ² /g, 44 m ² /g, 45 m ² /g, 46 m ² /g, 47 m ² /g, 48 m ² /g, 49 m ² /g, 50 m ² /g, 51 m ² /g, 55 m ² /g, 60 m ² /g, 61 m ² /g, 63 m ² /g, 65 m ² /g, 70 m ² /g, 72 m ² /g, 75 m ² /g, 79 m ² /g, 80 m ² /g, 81 m ² /g, 85 m ² /g, 90 m ² /g, 95 m ² /g, 100 m ² /g, 110 m ² /g, 119 m ² /g, 120 m ² /g, 121 m ² /g, 125 m ² /g, 130 m ² /g, 140 m ² /g, 150 m ² /g, 160 m ² /g, 170 m ² /g, 180 m ² /g, 190 m ² /g, 200 m ² /g, 210 m ² /g, 220 m ² /g, 230 m ² /g, 240 m ² /g, 250 m ² /g, 260 m ² /g, 270 m ² /g, 280 m ² /g, 290 m ² /g or 300 m ² /g. Alternatively, or in addition, the surface area (e.g., N2SA and/or STSA) may be, for example, less than or equal to about 300 m ² /g, 290 m ² /g, 280 m ² /g, 270 m ² /g, 260 m ² /g, 250 m ² /g, 240 m ² /g, 230 m ² /g, 220 m ² /g, 210 m ² /g, 200 m ² /g, 190 m ² /g, 180 m ² /g, 170 m ² /g, 160 m ² /g, 150 m ² /g, 140 m ² /g, 130 m ² /g, 125 m ² /g, 121 m ² /g, 120 m ² /g, 119 m ² /g, 110 m ² /g, 100 m ² /g, 95 m ² /g, 90 m ² /g, 85 m ² /g, 81 m ² /g, 80 m ² /g, 79 m ² /g, 75 m ² /g, 72 m ² /g, 70 m ² /g, 65 m ² /g, 63 m ² /g, 61 m ² /g, 60 m ² /g, 55 m ² /g, 51 m ² /g, 50 m ² /g, 49 m ² /g, 48 m ² /g, 47 m ² /g, 46 m ² /g, 45 m ² /g, 44 m ² /g, 43 m ² /g, 42 m ² /g, 41 m ² /g, 40 m ² /g, 39 m ² /g, 38 m ² /g, 37 m ² /g, 36 m ² /g, 35 m ² /g, 34 m ² /g, 33 m ² /g, 32 m ² /g, 31 m ² /g, 30 m ² /g, 29 m ² /g, 28 m ² /g, 27 m ² /g, 26 m ² /g, 25 m ² /g, 24 m ² /g, 23 m ² /g, 22 m ² /g, 21 m ² /g, 20 m ² /g, 19 m ² /g, 18 m ² /g, 17 m ² /g, 16 m ² /g, 15 m ² /g, 14 m ² /g, 13 m ² /g, 12 m ² /g, 11 m ² /g, 10 m ² /g or 5 m ² /g. In some examples, the N2SA and/or the STSA (e.g., excluding pores that are internal to the primary particles) of the resultant carbon particles (e.g., carbon black) may be between 15 and 150 m ² /g.

[00042] The structure of the carbon particles (e.g., carbon black particles) may be expressed in terms of dibutyl phthalate (DBP) absorption, which measures the relative structure of carbon particles (e.g., carbon black) by determining the amount of DBP a given mass of carbon particles (e.g., carbon black) can absorb before reaching a specified visco-rheologic target torque. A lower DBP number may indicate a lower degree of particle aggregation or structure. The term structure may be used interchangeably with the term DBP (e.g., a high structure material possesses a high DBP value). The structures described herein may refer to structure after pelletization (e.g., post-pelletized DBP). DBP absorption (also "DBP" herein) may be measured in accordance with ASTM D2414 (e.g., ASTM D2414-12). The DBP may be, for example, greater than or equal to about 1 ml/100 g, 5 ml/100 g, 10 ml/100 g, 15 ml/100 g, 20 ml/100 g, 25 ml/100 g, 32 ml/100 g, 40 ml/100 g, 45 ml/100 g, 50 ml/100 g, 55 ml/100 g, 56 ml/100 g, 57 ml/100 g, 58 ml/100 g, 59 ml/100 g, 60 ml/100 g, 61 ml/100 g, 62 ml/100 g, 63 ml/100 g, 64 ml/100 g, 65 ml/100 g, 66 ml/100 g, 67 ml/100 g, 68 ml/100 g, 69 ml/100 g, 70 ml/100 g, 71 ml/100 g, 72 ml/100 g, 73 ml/100 g, 74 ml/100 g, 75 ml/100 g, 76 ml/100 g, 78 ml/100 g, 80 ml/100 g, 81 ml/100 g, 82 ml/100 g, 83 ml/100 g, 84 ml/100 g, 85 ml/100 g, 86 ml/100 g, 87 ml/100 g, 88 ml/100 g, 89 ml/100 g, 90 ml/100 g, 91 ml/100 g, 92 ml/100 g, 93 ml/100 g, 94 ml/100 g, 95 ml/100 g, 96 ml/100 g, 97 ml/100 g, 98 ml/100 g, 99 ml/100 g, 100 ml/100 g, 101 ml/100 g, 105 ml/100 g, 109 ml/100 g, 110 ml/100 g, 111 ml/100 g, 112 ml/100 g, 113 ml/100 g, 114 ml/100 g, 115 ml/100 g, 116 ml/100 g, 117 ml/100 g, 118 ml/100 g, 119 ml/100 g, 120 ml/100 g, 121 ml/100 g, 122 ml/100 g, 123 ml/100 g, 124 ml/100 g, 125 ml/100 g, 126 ml/100 g, 127 ml/100 g, 128 ml/100 g, 129 ml/100 g, 130 ml/100 g, 131 ml/100 g, 132 ml/100 g, 134 ml/100 g, 135 ml/100 g, 136 ml/100 g, 137 ml/100 g, 138 ml/100 g, 140 ml/100 g, 142 ml/100 g, 145 ml/100 g, 150 ml/100 g, 155 ml/100 g, 160 ml/100 g, 165 ml/100 g, 170 ml/100 g, 175 ml/100 g, 180 ml/100 g, 185 ml/100 g, 190 ml/100 g, 195 ml/100 g, 200 ml/100 g, 205 ml/100 g, 210 ml/100 g, 215 ml/100 g, 220 ml/100 g, 225 ml/100 g, 230 ml/100 g, 235 ml/100 g, 240 ml/100 g, 245 ml/100 g, 250 ml/100 g, 255 ml/100 g, 260 ml/100 g, 265 ml/100 g, 270 ml/100 g, 275 ml/100 g, 280 ml/100 g, 285 ml/100 g, 290 ml/100 g, 295 ml/100 g or 300 ml/100 g. Alternatively, or in addition, the DBP may be, for example, less than or equal to about 300 ml/100 g, 295 ml/100 g, 290 ml/100 g, 285 ml/100 g, 280 ml/100 g, 275 ml/100 g, 270 ml/100 g, 265 ml/100 g, 260 ml/100 g, 255 ml/100 g, 245 ml/100 g, 240 ml/100 g, 235 ml/100 g, 230 ml/100 g, 225 ml/100 g, 220 ml/100 g, 215 ml/100 g, 210 ml/100 g, 205 ml/100 g, 200 ml/100 g, 195 ml/100 g, 190 ml/100 g, 185 ml/100 g, 180 ml/100 g, 175 ml/100 g, 170 ml/100 g, 165 ml/100 g, 160 ml/100 g, 155 ml/100 g, 150 ml/100 g, 145 ml/100 g, 142 ml/100 g, 140 ml/100 g, 138 ml/100 g, 137 ml/100 g, 136 ml/100 g, 135 ml/100 g, 134 ml/100 g, 132 ml/100 g, 131 ml/100 g, 130 ml/100 g, 129 ml/100 g, 128 ml/100 g, 127 ml/100 g, 126 ml/100 g, 125 ml/100 g, 124 ml/100 g, 123 ml/100 g, 122 ml/100 g, 121 ml/100 g, 120 ml/100 g, 119 ml/100 g, 118 ml/100 g, 117 ml/100 g, 116 ml/100 g, 115 ml/100 g, 114 ml/100 g, 113 ml/100 g, 112 ml/100 g, 111 ml/100 g, 110 ml/100 g, 109 ml/100 g, 105 ml/100 g, 101 ml/100 g, 100 ml/100 g, 99 ml/100 g, 98 ml/100 g, 97 ml/100 g, 96 ml/100 g, 95 ml/100 g, 94 ml/100 g, 93 ml/100 g, 92 ml/100 g, 91 ml/100 g, 90 ml/100 g, 89 ml/100 g, 88 ml/100 g, 87 ml/100 g, 86 ml/100 g, 85 ml/100 g, 84 ml/100 g, 83 ml/100 g, 82 ml/100 g, 81 ml/100 g, 80 ml/100 g, 78 ml/100 g, 76 ml/100 g, 75 ml/100 g, 74 ml/100 g, 73 ml/100 g, 72 ml/100 g, 71 ml/100 g, 70 ml/100 g, 69 ml/100 g, 68 ml/100 g, 67 ml/100 g, 66 ml/100 g, 65 ml/100 g, 64 ml/100 g, 63 ml/100 g, 62 ml/100 g, 61 ml/100 g, 60 ml/100 g, 59 ml/100 g, 58 ml/100 g, 57 ml/100 g, 56 ml/100 g, 55 ml/100 g, 50 ml/100 g, 45 ml/100 g, 40 ml/100 g or 32 ml/100 g. In some examples, the DBP of the resultant carbon particles (e.g., carbon black) may be greater than 32 ml/100 g.

[00043] Transmittance of toluene extract (TOTE) of the carbon particle(s) (e.g., carbon black particle(s)) may be quantified, for example, using ASTM D1618 (e.g., ASTM D1618-99). The tote (also "TOTE" herein) may be, for example, greater than or equal to about 50%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91 %, 91.5%, 92%, 92.5%, 93%, 93.5%, 94%, 94.5%, 95%, 95.5%, 96%, 96.5%, 97%, 97.5%, 98%, 98.5%, 99%, 99.1 %, 99.2%, 99.3%, 99.4%, 99.5%, 99.5%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9% or 100%. Alternatively, or in addition, the tote may be, for example, less than or equal to about 100%, 99.9%, 99.8%, 99.7%, 99.5%, 99.5%, 99.4%, 99.3%, 99.2%, 99.1%, 99%, 98.5%, 98%, 97.5%, 97%, 96.5%, 96%, 95.5%, 95%, 94.5%, 94%, 93.5%, 93%, 92.5%, 92%, 91.5%, 91%, 90%, 89%, 88%, 87%, 86%, 85%, 80%, 75% or 50%.

[00044] Crystallinity of the carbon particle(s) (e.g., carbon nanoparticle(s)) may be measured, for example, via X-ray crystal diffractometry (XRD). For example, Cu K alpha radiation may be used at a voltage of 40 kV (kilo volts) and a current of 44 mA (milliamps). The scan rate may be 1.3 degrees/minute from 2 theta equal 12 to 90 degrees. The 002 peak of graphite may be analyzed using the Scherrer equation to obtain L _c (lattice constant) and d002 (the lattice spacing of the 002 peak of graphite) values. Larger L _c values may correspond to greater degree of crystallinity. Smaller lattice spacing (d002) values may correspond to higher crystallinity or a more graphite-like lattice structure. Larger lattice spacing (d002) of, for example, 0.36 nm or larger may be indicative of turbostratic carbon. The L _c may be, for example, greater than or equal to about 0.1 nm, 0.5 nm, 1 nm, 1.1 nm, 1.2 nm, 1.3 nm, 1.4 nm, 1.5 nm, 1.6 nm, 1.7 nm,

1.8 nm, 1.9 nm, 2 nm, 2.1 nm, 2.2 nm, 2.3 nm, 2.4 nm, 2.5 nm, 2.6 nm, 2.7 nm, 2.8 nm, 2.9 nm, 3 nm, 3.1 nm, 3.2 nm, 3.3 nm, 3.4 nm, 3.5 nm, 4 nm, 4.5 nm, 5 nm, 5.5 nm, 6 nm, 6.1 nm, 6.2 nm, 6.3 nm, 6.4 nm, 6.5 nm, 6.6 nm, 6.7 nm, 6.8 nm, 6.9 nm, 7 nm, 7.1 nm, 7.2 nm, 7.3 nm, 7.4 nm, 7.5 nm, 7.6 nm, 7.7 nm, 7.8 nm, 7.9 nm, 8 nm, 8.1 nm, 8.2 nm, 8.3 nm, 8.4 nm, 8.5 nm, 8.6 nm, 8.7 nm, 8.8 nm, 8.9 nm, 9 nm, 9.1 nm, 9.2 nm, 9.3 nm, 9.4 nm, 9.5 nm, 9.6 nm, 9.7 nm, 9.8 nm, 9.9 nm, 10 nm, 10.1 nm, 10.2 nm, 10.3 nm, 10.4 nm, 10.5 nm, 10.6 nm, 10.7 nm, 10.8 nm, 10.9 nm, 11 nm, 11.1 nm, 11.2 nm, 11.3 nm, 11.4 nm, 11.5 nm, 11.6 nm, 11.7 nm, 11.8 nm, 11.9 nm, 12 nm, 12.1 nm, 12.2 nm, 12.3 nm, 12.4 nm, 12.5 nm, 12.6 nm, 12.7 nm, 12.8 nm, 12.9 nm, 13 nm, 13.1 nm, 13.2 nm, 13.3 nm, 13.4 nm, 13.5 nm, 13.6 nm, 13.7 nm, 13.8 nm, 13.9 nm, 14 nm, 14.5 nm, 15 nm, 15.5 nm, 16 nm, 16.5 nm, 17 nm, 17.5 nm, 18 nm, 18.5 nm, 19 nm, 19.5 nm or 20 nm. Alternatively, or in addition, the L _c may be, for example, less than or equal to about 20 nm, 19.5 nm, 19 nm, 18.5 nm, 18 nm, 17.5 nm, 17 nm, 16.5 nm, 16 nm, 15.5 nm, 15 nm, 14.5 nm, 14 nm, 13.9 nm, 13.8 nm, 13.7 nm, 13.6 nm, 13.5 nm, 13.4 nm, 13.3 nm, 13.2 nm, 13.1 nm, 13 nm, 12.9 nm, 12.8 nm, 12.7 nm, 12.6 nm, 12.5 nm, 12.4 nm, 12.3 nm, 12.2 nm, 12.1 nm, 12 nm, 11.9 nm, 11.8 nm, 11.7 nm, 11.6 nm, 11.5 nm, 11.4 nm, 11.3 nm, 11.2 nm, 11.1 nm, 11 nm, 10.9 nm, 10.8 nm, 10.7 nm, 10.6 nm, 10.5 nm, 10.4 nm, 10.3 nm, 10.2 nm, 10.1 nm, 10 nm, 9.9 nm, 9.8 nm, 9.7 nm, 9.6 nm, 9.5 nm, 9.4 nm, 9.3 nm, 9.2 nm, 9.1 nm, 9 nm, 8.9 nm, 8.8 nm, 8.7 nm, 8.6 nm, 8.5 nm, 8.4 nm, 8.3 nm, 8.2 nm, 8.1 nm, 8 nm, 7.9 nm, 7.8 nm, 7.7 nm, 7.6 nm, 7.5 nm, 7.4 nm, 7.3 nm, 7.2 nm, 7.1 nm, 7 nm, 6.9 nm, 6.8 nm, 6.7 nm, 6.6 nm, 6.5 nm, 6.4 nm, 6.3 nm, 6.2 nm, 6.1 nm, 6 nm, 5.5 nm, 5 nm, 4.5 nm, 4 nm, 3.5 nm, 3.4 n2.7 nm, m, 3.3 nm, 3.2 nm, 3.1 nm, 3 nm, 2.9 nm, 2.8 nm, 2.6 nm, 2.5 nm, 2.4 nm, 2.3 nm, 2.2 nm, 2.1 nm, 2 nm,

1.9 nm, 1.8 nm, 1.7 nm, 1.6 nm or 1.5 nm. The d002 may be, for example, less than or equal to about 0.5 nm, 0.49 nm, 0.48 nm, 0.47 nm, 0.46 nm, 0.45 nm, 0.44 nm, 0.43 nm, 0.42 nm, 0.41 nm, 0.4 nm, 0.395 nm, 0.39 nm, 0.385 nm, 0.38 nm, 0.375 nm, 0.37 nm, 0.369 nm, 0.368 nm, 0.367 nm, 0.366 nm, 0.365 nm, 0.364 nm, 0.363 nm, 0.362 nm, 0.361 nm, 0.360 nm, 0.359 nm, 0.358 nm, 0.357 nm, 0.356 nm, 0.355 nm, 0.354 nm, 0.353 nm, 0.352 nm, 0.351 nm, 0.350 nm, 0.349 nm, 0.348 nm, 0.347 nm, 0.346 nm, 0.345 nm, 0.344 nm, 0.343 nm, 0.342 nm, 0.341 nm, 0.340 nm, 0.339 nm, 0.338 nm, 0.337 nm, 0.336 nm, 0.335 nm, 0.334 nm, 0.333 nm or 0.332 nm. Alternatively, or in addition, the d002 may be, for example, greater than or equal to about 0.332 nm, 0.333 nm, 0.334 nm, 0.335 nm, 0.336 nm, 0.337 nm, 0.338 nm, 0.339 nm, 0.340 nm, 0.341 nm, 0.342 nm, 0.343 nm, 0.344 nm, 0.345 nm, 0.346 nm, 0.347 nm, 0.348 nm, 0.349 nm, 0.350 nm, 0.351 nm, 0.352 nm, 0.353 nm, 0.354 nm, 0.355 nm, 0.356 nm, 0.357 nm, 0.358 nm, 0.359 nm, 0.360 nm, 0.361 nm, 0.362 nm, 0.363 nm, 0.364 nm, 0.365 nm, 0.366 nm, 0.367 nm, 0.368 nm, 0.369 nm, 0.37 nm, 0.375 nm, 0.38 nm, 0.385 nm, 0.39 nm, 0.395 nm, 0.4 nm, 0.41 nm, 0.42 nm, 0.43 nm, 0.44 nm, 0.45 nm, 0.46 nm, 0.47 nm, 0.48 nm or 0.49 nm. In some examples, as-produced particles (e.g., carbon particles such as, for example, carbon black) may have an L _c of greater than about 3.5 nm and a d002 of less than about 0.36 nm.

EXAMPLES

Example 1

[00045] Samples are manufactured using a setup similar to that shown in FIG. 1 with Dl of 85 mm, D2 of 446 mm, D3 of 1350 mm, D4 of 73 mm, D6 of 1200 mm and a of 40°. A water- cooled hydrocarbon injector is inserted into the center of two concentric electrodes. The electrodes are operated at 650 kW. The hydrogen flow rate in the annulus between the electrodes is 243 Nm ³ /hr (normal cubic meters/hour). The axial flow of hydrogen within the inner electrode is 45 Nm ³ /hr. The shield flow of hydrogen outside the outer electrode is 45 Nm ³ /hr. Natural gas is injected at a rate of 88 kg/hour. Yield of carbon nanoparticles based upon methane conversion rate is greater than 95%. The nitrogen surface area is 25 m ² /g, STSA is 27 m ² /g, and the DBP is 70 ml/100 g. Transmittance of toluene extract is 94%. L _c according to powder XRD is 6.8 nm and d002 is 0.347 nm. Heat losses due to the water-cooled stinger are less than 8 kW.

Example 2

[00046] Samples are manufactured using a setup similar to that shown in FIG. 1 with Dl of 85 mm, D2 of 446 mm, D3 of 1350 mm, D4 of 73 mm, D6 of 1200 mm and a of 40°. A water- cooled hydrocarbon injector is inserted into the center of two concentric electrodes. The electrodes are operated at 600 kW. The hydrogen flow rate in the annulus between the electrodes is 177 Nm ³ /hr (normal cubic meters/hour). The axial flow of hydrogen within the inner electrode is 140 Nm ³ /hr. The shield flow of hydrogen outside the outer electrode is 150 Nm ³ /hr. Natural gas is injected at a rate of 48 kg/hour. Yield of carbon nanoparticles based upon methane conversion rate is greater than 95%. The nitrogen surface area is 48 m ² /g, STSA is 51 m ² /g, and the DBP is 137 ml/100 g. Transmittance of toluene extract is 100%. L _c according to powder XRD is 9.8 nm and d002 is 0.345 nm. Heat losses due to the water-cooled stinger are less than 8 kW.

[00047] Thus, the scope of the invention shall include all modifications and variations that may fall within the scope of the attached claims. Other embodiments of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the specification and practice of the invention disclosed herein. It is intended that the specification and examples be considered as exemplary only, with a true scope and spirit of the invention being indicated by the following claims.