CONTROL ENTEROCOLITIS USING PROBIOTIC COMPOSITIONS AND/OR HISTAMINE DEGRADING ENZYMES

REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims priority to previously filed and co-pending application USSN, 62/953,299 filed December 24, 2019, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to use of probiotic compositions containing various bacterial and fungal species and/or histamine-degrading enzymes, which may reduce or eliminate the incidence of clostridial dermatitis, clostridial enteric disease, necrotizing enterocolitis, related inflammatory conditions in the gastrointestinal tract or the skin and improve behavior and immune functioning of farm production animals, companion animals, aquaculture, and humans. The invention also relates to the probiotic compositions and/or histamine degrading enzymes to control histamine production by a member of a microbiome.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

There is ongoing understanding on the role of commensal microbiota and their influence on behavior, health, and disease susceptibility. Commensal or commensalism refers to a relationship between organisms that feed from each other in a way that neither benefits nor harms the relationship of the microbiota. Infections in farm production animals, companion animals, aquaculture and humans can cause significant damage or behavioral changes to the animals/humans and cause significant economic harm in the instance of animal producers. Various infections and inflammatory conditions within the gut of these species, namely farm production animals, is a multi-billion dollar problem within the animal food production industry.

According to a 2012 Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service USDA report, 42.3 percent of turkey farms have problems with clostridial dermatitis (CD). CD can cause swelling, fluid accumulation, and vesicles on the subcutaneous breast region. Turkeys with this condition usually die; the 2012 report highlights the mortality rate of 4-17% due to CD outbreaks. CD is a disease of turkeys having significant economic impact on turkey producers across various geographic regions. Its prevalence and severity continues to increase and it has been identified as the most significant disease facing the turkey industry. The significant economic losses that turkey farmers have to bear result from bird mortality at marketable age, increased condemnation rates, and expensive medication costs for treatment. Economic losses ascribed to CD were projected to be $1.31 per affected bird. CD is a major health problem in commercial poultry raised on deep litter systems as are customary in US farms, however no known mechanisms other than the involvement of Clostridial spp. is known and more importantly no known effective treatments are known.

Similar to the deep litter systems used in turkey farms, the use of hardwood shavings as litter in chicken coops has been found to correlate with higher incidence of cellulitis. Moreover, survival of poultry pathogens in built-up litter is known to contribute to persistence and carry-over of related diseases to subsequent flocks in the bams. There has been little study into the impact of environmental risk factors on the incidence of CD in turkeys or the incident in cellulitis in chickens. However, the problems in the industry, causing reductions in avian farm production animals have gone unsolved.

However, bacterial infection are not the only way inflammatory or behavioral conditions can develop. As many of the microbiota, especially Clostridial species, are normal members of the gut microbiota (as described herein as commensal bacteria) in farm production animals as well as humans. As such, inflammation or behavioral conditions may result from dysregulation of the normal microbial diversity (such as by stress or other factor) thereby allowing those members of the microbiota to either become greater in number (abundance) or produce more histamine. Accordingly, there is a need for preventing/treating not only infections but also controlling effects of members of the microbiota that can cause increases in histamine production.

Accordingly, it is an objective of the invention to formulate probiotic compositions and/or histamine degrading enzymes capable reducing histamine production, such as by consuming histamine in the gut of a subject, including farm production animals, companion animals, aquaculture, and humans, to promote gut health any psychological well-being.

Another objective is to provide methods for prophylaxis and/or treatment of subjects in need of prevention and/or treatment of conditions caused by histamine overproduction, including for example clostridial dermatitis and clostridial enterocolitis.

A still further objective is to provide histamine degrading probiotics and/or histamine degrading enzymes.

Other objects, advantages and features of the present invention will become apparent from the following specification taken in conjunction with the accompanying figures.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF TUI IWI M ION

An advantage of the invention is the ability to reduce histamine overproduction which is known to cause various inflammatory and behavioral conditions in farm production animals, companion animals, aquaculture, and humans. Beneficially, the use of probiotics able to degrade histamine can prevent and/or treat the farm production animals, companion animals, aquaculture and human species having conditions associated with histamine overproduction. As a further benefit, the use of histamine degrading enzymes able to degrade histamine can prevent and/or treat the farm production animals, companion animals, aquaculture and human species having conditions associated with histamine overproduction.

The foregoing summary is illustrative only and is not intended to be in any way limiting. In addition to the illustrative aspects, embodiments, and features described above, further aspects, embodiments, and features will become apparent by reference to the drawings and the following detailed description. Accordingly, the drawings and detailed description are to be regarded as illustrative in nature and not restrictive. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Figure 1 shows the chemical reaction of a histamine-pyruvate aminotransferase transferring an amine from histamine to pyruvate and in the process generating alanine.

Figure 2 is a graph depicting that three Clostridium perfringens isolated from turkeys with clostridial dermatitis are able to produce large amounts of histamine in vitro. Figure 3 is a graph depicting that Brevibacterium spp. can degrade histamine.

Figure 4 shows a graph depicting C. septicum producing histamine.

Figure 5 shows a graph depicting Enterococcus cecorum degrading histamine.

Figure 6 shows a graph depicting Lactobacillus crispatus degrading histamine.

Figure 7 shows an example of histamine degradation in an overnight cecal cultures for chickens of 4 weeks of age enrolled as part of Histamine Feeding Trial #1. Cultures were grown in lOmL of l/3 ^rd BHI with ImM histamine at 41.5°C in a microaerophilic atmospheric environment. Samples were collected at 48 and 72 hours for ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) analysis of histamine content. Figure 8 shows an example of histamine degradation in an overnight cecal cultures for chickens of 5 weeks of age enrolled as part of Histamine Feeding Trial #1. Cultures were grown in lOmL of l/3 ^rd BHI with ImM histamine at 41.5°C in a microaerophilic atmospheric environment. Sample was collected at 48 and 72 hours for UHPLC analysis of histamine content.

Figure 9 shows an example of histamine degradation in fecal matter collected from Group #3 pen litter for chickens of 6 weeks of age from Histamine Feeding Trial #2 and cultured in l/3 ^rd BHI supplemented with ImM histamine in a microaerophilic atmospheric environment at 41.5°C. Cultures were sampled at 4, 5, and 6 days after initial inoculation for UHPLC analysis of histamine content. As substantial histamine degradation was shown, samples were then removed from the culture tubes and subjected to isolation using selective medium for the identification of histamine-degrading bacteria by culture.

Figure 10 shows an example of histamine levels in cecal matter of a chicken from Group #2, Histamine Feeding Trial #2 that was fed for 5 weeks was collected and cultured in l/3 ^rd BHI supplemented with ImM histamine in a microaerophilic atmospheric environment at 41.5°C. Cultures were sampled at 1, 2, and 4 days after initial inoculation for UHPLC analysis of histamine content. As substantial histamine degradation was shown, samples were then removed from the culture tubes and subjected to isolation using selective medium for the identification of histamine-degrading bacteria by culture. Figure 11 shows an example of histamine being degraded by Brevibacterium spp. grown over 96 hours in minimal mediums supplemented with histamine. Samples were incubated aerobically at 30°C and received constant agitation during the growth process. At indicated times samples were removed and assayed for histamine using UHPLC technique. “#” symbol in figure indicates no detectable values for histamine. ML# designates strain number.

Figure 12 shows an example of histamine being degraded by a Brevibacterium sp. grown over 72 hours in nutrient and depleted nutrient mediums supplemented with histamine (ImM). Samples were incubated aerobically at 30°C and received constant agitation during the growth process. Cultures were sampled at indicated times for processing of histamine concentration by UHPLC analysis. “#” symbol in figure indicates no detectable values for histamine. ML# designates strain number.

Figure 13 shows an example of Enterococcus spp. isolated from chickens fed a histamine-containing diet and subsequently identified using MALDI-TOF technologies which were inoculated into l/3 ^rd BHI medium and the amount of histamine culture. Samples were incubated in a microaerophilic environment at 41.5°C for 120 hours before sampling for UHPLC analysis of histamine content.

Figure 14 shows an example of Enterococcus spp. isolated from chickens fed a histamine-containing diet and subsequently identified using MALDI-TOF technologies which were inoculated into l/3 ^rd BHI or Histamine Minimal Medium (HMM) which contained lOmM histamine and the amount of histamine post culture. Samples were incubated in a microaerophilic environment at 41.5°C for 120 hours before sampling for UHPLC analysis of histamine content. Figure 15 shows examples of three different strains of the yeast Candida krusei were incubated aerobically in BHI supplemented with ImM of histamine at 41.5°C with rocking at a speed of 20 RPM and a platform tilt of 15-degree for 72 hours. At indicated times samples were withdrawn and analyzed for histamine using UHPLC technique. Figure 16 shows an example of histamine being degraded by material extracted from green pea shoots grown in a soil-free see tray in the dark and harvested at 10 days before being ground into pulp. Extracted plant material was filter-sterilized by passage through a 0.22pm syringe filter and was then inoculated into histamine-supplemented media (BHI, LB, and PBS) at a v/v ratio of 10% or less before being incubated over a 24 hours’ time range. At indicated times, samples were withdrawn from tubes and assayed for histamine content using UHPLC technique.

Figure 17 shows an example of histamine being degraded by material extracted from green pea shoots grown in a soil-free see tray in the dark and harvested at 10 days before being ground into pulp. Extracted plant material was filter-sterilized by passage through a 0.22pm syringe filter and was then inoculated into histamine supplemented medium (PBS) at a v/v ratio of 50% or less before being incubated over a 24 hours’ time range. At indicated times, samples were withdrawn from tubes and assayed for histamine content using UHPLC technique. Figure 18 shows and example of Brevibacterium spp. grown in l/3 ^rd BHI at 37°C over

72 hours in an aerobic environment on a rocking platform set at a 15-degree tilt and 20 RPM speed to provide constant agitation during the growth process. Cultures were sampled at indicated times for processing of histamine concentration by UHPLC analysis. “#” symbol in figure indicates no detectable values for histamine. ML# designates strain number. Figure 19 shows an example of Brevibacterium spp. grown in l/3 ^rd TSB at 37°C for

72 hours in an aerobic environment on a rocking platform set at a 15-degree tilt and 20 RPM speed to provide constant agitation during the growth process. Cultures were sampled at indicated times for processing of histamine concentration by UHPLC analysis. ML# designates strain number. Figure 20 shows an example of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from various animal species grown in HMM supplemented with lOmM histamine for 24 hours at 37°C in an aerobic environment. Cultures were sampled and processed for quantification of histamine by UHPLC analysis. Figure 21 shows a graphical example of the weekly bodyweight of chickens fed different histamine diets from Histamine Feeding Trial #1.

Figure 22 shows a graphical example of the weekly bodyweight of chickens fed different histamine diets from Histamine Feeding Trail #2.

Reference to various embodiments does not limit the scope of the invention. Figures represented herein are not limitations to the various embodiments according to the invention and are presented for exemplary illustration of the invention. DESCRIPTION OF THF TNVFNTTON

The present invention relates to probiotic compositions and methods of treating a subject with a probiotic composition and/or histamine degrading enzymes. The embodiments are not limited to particular methods and compositions depicted herein, which can vary and may be understood by skilled artisans. It is further to be understood that all terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting in any manner or scope. For example, as used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” can include plural referents unless the content clearly indicates otherwise. Further, all units, prefixes, and symbols may be denoted in its SI accepted form.

Numeric ranges recited within the specification are inclusive of the numbers defining the range and include each integer within the defined range. Throughout this disclosure, various aspects of this invention are presented in a range format. It should be understood that the description in range format is merely for convenience and brevity and should not be construed as an inflexible limitation on the scope of the invention. Accordingly, the description of a range should be considered to have specifically disclosed all the possible sub ranges, fractions, and individual numerical values within that range.

The phrase “and/or,” when used between elements in a list, is intended to mean either (1) that only a single listed element is present, or (2) that more than one element of the list is present. For example, “A, B, and/or C” indicates that the selection may be A alone; B alone;

C alone; A and B; A and C; B and C; or A, B, and C. The phrase “and/or” may be used interchangeably with “at least one of’ or “one or more of’ the elements in a list.

In order to provide a clear and consistent understanding of the specification and the claims, including the scope given to such terms, the following definitions are provided. Units, prefixes, and symbols may be denoted in their SI accepted form.

The term “about,” as used herein, refers to variations in size, distance or any other types of measurements that can be resulted from inherent heterogeneous nature of the measured objects and imprecise nature of the measurements itself. The term “about” also encompasses variation in the numerical quantity that can occur, for example, through typical measuring and liquid handling procedures used for making media and reagents; through inadvertent error in these procedures; through differences in the manufacture, source, or purity of the ingredients used to make the compositions or carry out the methods, and moreover may modify the typical measurements referenced herein, and the like. Whether or not modified by the term “about”, the claims include equivalents to the quantities.

As used herein, the term “administering” refers to providing the probiotic or synbiotic composition to the subject. In one embodiment, the subject is provided the probiotic or synbiotic composition internally, and/or the administration of histamine-degrading enzyme either coated to protect activity, or alone, or as part of a mash, by a method or route which results in at least partial localization of the compound or composition to the gut or other hollow organ (e.g. oral cavity) such that a desired effect is produced. A composition described herein can be administered to the subject by any appropriate route known in the art including, but not limited to, oral or parenteral routes, including intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, transdermal, airway (aerosol), pulmonary, nasal, rectal, and topical (including buccal and sublingual) administration.

In another embodiment, the probiotic or synbiotic compositions may be provided “topically” to the skin. As used herein, the term “topically” includes providing the compositions externally or by a shallow injection under the skin.

As used herein, an “effective amount” or “therapeutically effective amount” refers to the amount of the probiotic composition and/or histamine degrading enzymes that is sufficient to prevent, treat, reduce and/or ameliorate the symptoms and/or underlying causes of a disorder or disease. In an exemplary aspect, an “effective amount” or “therapeutically effective amount” refers to the amount of probiotic that is sufficient to prevent, inhibit, and/or treat clostridial dermatitis, clostridial enteric disease, and/or gut inflammation in the gut of the subject, including farm production animals, companion animals, aquaculture, and humans.

Also, as used herein, the term “gut” refers to the gastrointestinal tract as well as the liver, spleen, pancreas, omentum, and other organs served by the blood supply to and from the gut.

The term “microbiome”, as used herein, refers to a population of microorganisms from a particular environment, including the environment of the body or a part of the body. The term is interchangeably used to address the population of microorganisms itself (sometimes referred to as the microbiota), as well as the collective genomes of the microorganisms that reside in the particular environment. The term “environment,” as used herein, refers to all surrounding circumstances, conditions, or influences to which a population of microorganisms is exposed. The term is intended to include environments in a subject, such as a bird. Specifically, the term “intestinal microbiota”, as used herein, refers to the population of microorganisms inhabiting the gastrointestinal tract. The term was previously referred to as the intestinal flora. The term “skin microbiota”, as used herein, refers to the population of microorganisms inhabiting the skin.

“Microorganism” refers to an organism or microbe of microscopic, submicroscopic, or ultramicroscopic size that typically consists of a single cell. Examples of microorganisms include bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi, certain algae, and protozoa. The term “microbial” indicates pertaining to, or characteristic of a microorganism.

“Non-pathogenic bacteria” refers to bacteria that under normal conditions do not cause a disease or harmful responses in a healthy host. In some embodiments, non-pathogenic bacteria are commensal bacteria. Examples of non-pathogenic bacteria include, but are not limited to Bacillus spp., Bacteroides spp., Bifidobacterium spp., Brevibacterium spp., Clostridium spp., Enterococcus spp., Escherichia coli , Lactobacillus spp., Lactococcus spp., Saccharomyces spp., and Staphylococcus spp. Naturally pathogenic bacteria may be genetically engineered to provide reduced or eliminate pathogenicity according to standard methods in the art. Non-pathogenic bacteria may be genetically engineered to enhance or improve desired biological properties, e.g., survivability. Non-pathogenic bacteria and/or yeast may be genetically engineered to provide probiotic properties. Bacteria and/or yeast may be genetically engineered to be non-pathogenic. Without being limited to a particular mechanism of the invention, probiotics differ in their ability to produce neurochemicals in the gut of a subject. Non-pathogenic bacteria may be used for probiotic or synbiotic compositions used to treat subjects, while either pathogenic or non-pathogenic bacteria may be used for production of dopamine in a bioreactor or media. Pathogenicity, or virulence, of E. faecium may be defined as in the European Food Safety Authority, Scientific Opinion on the safety and efficacy of Oralin® {Enterococcus faecium ) as a feed additive for calves for rearing, piglets, chickens for fattening, turkeys for fattening and dogs , EFSA Journal 2014;12(6):3727, 19 pp. (doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3727) in section 2.1.1.

The term “population”, as used herein, refers to a plurality of individual organisms, in the context of this invention, the term refers in particular to a collection of organisms of diverse taxonomic affiliation, in particular bacteria.

“Probiotic” is used to refer to live, non-pathogenic microorganisms, e.g. , bacteria or fungi which may confer health benefits to a host organism that contains an appropriate amount of the microorganism. In some embodiments, the host organism is a farm production animal, companion animal, aquaculture and/or human. Some species, strains, and/or subtypes of non-pathogenic bacteria are currently recognized as probiotics. Examples of probiotics include, but are not limited to, Candida spp., Debaryomyces spp., Debaryomyces spp., Enterococcus spp., Kluyveromyces spp., Kluyveromyces spp., Saccharomyces spp., Yarrowia spp., Bifidobacteria spp., Escherichia coli , Vagococcus spp., Carnobacterium spp., Melissococcus spp. and Lactobacillus spp., e.g., Candida humilis, Debaryomyces hansenii, Debaryomyces occidentalis, Kluyveromyces lactis, Kluyveromyces lodderae, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae , Saccharomyces boulardii , Yarrowia lipolytica, Bifidobacterium bifidum , Enterococcus faecium , Enterococcus faecalis , Enterococcus hirae,

Enterococcus casseliflavus , Enterococcus gallinarum , Escherichia coli strain Nissle, Lactobacillus acidophilus , Lactobacillus bulgaricus , Lactobacillus paracasei, Lactobacillus plantarum, Vagococcus fluvaialis (Dinleyici et al., 2014; U.S. Pat. No. 5,589,168; U.S. Pat. No. 6,203,797; U.S. Pat. No. 6,835,376). A probiotic may also be a variant or a mutant strain of bacterium (Arthur et al., 2012; Cuevas-Ramos et al., 2010; Olier et al., 2012; Nougayrede et al., 2006).

As used herein, the term “synbiotic” means a mixture of probiotic and prebiotics which may confer health benefits to a host organism. The term “prebiotic” as used herein means a cofactor that may improve the survivability of the probiotic microorganisms or induce the growth of activity of beneficial microorganisms such as bacteria or fungi. Therefore, a synbiotic composition is a probiotic composition comprising a probiotic and a cofactor, and, as such, probiotic and synbiotic are used interchangeably herein.

As used here, the term “pharmaceutically-acceptable carrier” means a pharmaceutically-acceptable material, composition or vehicle, such as a liquid or solid filler, diluent, excipient, manufacturing aid (e.g., lubricant, talc magnesium, calcium or zinc stearate, or steric acid), or solvent encapsulating material, involved in carrying or transporting the subject compound from one organ, or portion of the body, to another organ, or portion of the body. Each carrier must be “acceptable” in the sense of being compatible with the other ingredients of the formulation and not injurious to the subject. Some examples of materials which can serve as pharmaceutically-acceptable carriers include: (1) sugars, such as lactose, glucose and sucrose; (2) starches, such as corn starch and potato starch; (3) cellulose, and its derivatives, such as sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, methylcellulose, ethyl cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose and cellulose acetate; (4) powdered tragacanth; (5) malt; (6) gelatin; (7) lubricating agents, such as magnesium stearate, sodium lauryl sulfate and talc; (8) excipients, such as cocoa butter and suppository waxes; (9) oils, such as peanut oil, cottonseed oil, safflower oil, sesame oil, olive oil, corn oil and soybean oil; (10) glycols, such as propylene glycol; (11) polyols, such as glycerin, sorbitol, mannitol and polyethylene glycol; (12) esters, such as ethyl oleate and ethyl laurate; (13) agar; (14) buffering agents, such as magnesium hydroxide and aluminum hydroxide; (15) alginic acid; (16) pyrogen-free water; (17) isotonic saline; (18) Ringer's solution; (19) ethyl alcohol; (20) pH buffered solutions; (21) polyesters, polycarbonates and/or polyanhydrides; (22) bulking agents, such as polypeptides and amino acids (23) serum component, such as serum albumin, HDL and LDL; (22) C2-C12 alcohols, such as ethanol; and (23) other non-toxic compatible substances employed in pharmaceutical formulations. Wetting agents, coloring agents, release agents, coating agents, sweetening agents, flavoring agents, perfuming agents, preservative and antioxidants can also be present in the formulation. The terms such as “excipient”, “carrier”, “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” or the like are used interchangeably herein.

By “treatment”, “treat,” “prevention,” “prevent” or the like of an adverse condition, infection and/or disease is meant delaying or preventing the onset of such a condition, infection and/or disease, reversing, alleviating, ameliorating, inhibiting, slowing down or stopping the progression, aggravation or deterioration the progression or severity of a condition associated with such an adverse condition. In one embodiment, at least one symptom of an adverse condition is alleviated by at least 1%, at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 20%, at least 30%, at least 40%, or at least 50%.

The term “sufficient amount of time,” as used herein, refers to the time it takes for a compound, probiotic strain, or the like which is effective for producing some desired effect in at least a sub-population of cells.

The term “E.C ” or “EC” as used herein, refers to the Enzyme Commission number. The E.C. number does not refer to specific enzymes, but to enzyme-catalyzed reactions.

Therefore, they represent a group of enzymes that catalyze the same reaction. The E.C. may have up to four numbers which each successive number representing a group of enzymes with a more specific function and/or substrate.

Histamine As used herein, the term “histamine” is a small organic molecule C5H9N3 that is a biogenic amine that participates in neural, immune and other general physiological activities. Specifically, histamine is a compound released by cells, primarily mast cells, in response to injury, infection, allergy and/or inflammatory reactions. Diet may also contribute to the amount of histamine present in the body as a reduction in histamine in the diet has been shown to be linked to the reduction of atopic dermatitis symptoms in humans. Histamine is generally formed across all species, both eukaryotic and prokaryotic, by decarboxylation of histidine though a histidine decarboxylase (E.C. 4.1.1.22).

Histamine, through its various receptors has been implicated in a wide range of physiological and behavioral processes. Through their receptors, histamines primarily act as immune mediators and neurotransmitters. The compound generally causes dilation of capillaries, contraction of smooth muscles, and stimulation of gastric acid secretion. Histamines may also affect behavior, such as locomotor activity like scratching, sleep-wake cycles and wakefulness, cognition, and feed intake.

There are currently four known histamine receptors (NCBI MeSH ID: D011968), abbreviated H1-H4 or H1R-H4R. These receptors are characterized by their binding affinity to various histamine agonists and show some organ and cell specificity. This affinity and specificity modulate the various physiological and behavioral responses to histamine.

Hi receptors (NCBI MeSH ID: DO 11969) generally work through the Gaq/11 pathway activating the inositol phosphate/diacylglycerol second messenger system to increase intracellular Ca ²⁺ . This increase results in smooth muscle contraction, increased vascular permeability, hormone and cytokine release, induces the production of chemokines, prostacyclin and platelet activating factor, and cerebral glyconeogenesis. Hence, almost all immediate hypersensitivity reactions and symptoms observed in the skin, such as erythema, pruritus, and edema, may be elicited through histamine. Hi receptors are primarily immune related receptors. They may enhance Thl and Th2 immune responses by releasing IL-4 and IL-13 to differentiate ThO cells as well as inhibiting INF-g and causing Th2 migration to the lungs. Their activation may also lead to B cell proliferation.

Hi receptors, like ¾ receptors below, have also been implicated in feeding behavior and energy homeostasis. Antipsychotic drugs may act as Hi antagonists and have been shown to cause significant weight gain in humans. Hence, systemic histamine may affect feeding behavior to such a degree as to cause disease in an organism and returning it to normal levels will return the behaviors to normal. The gut-brain axis consists of bidirectional communication between the central and the enteric nervous system, linking emotional and cognitive centers of the brain with peripheral intestinal functions. Therefore, a change in the histamine level in the gut may work through the gut-brain axis to change these behaviors.

Hi receptors are also expressed in dermal dendritic cells and keratinocytes in skin tissue. Here Hi receptors, in addition to differentiation and recruitment of immune cells, increase IL-31 production. This affects pruritus and skin barrier functions in allergic dermatitis. Therefore, Hi receptors may also induce the various symptoms related with skin diseases, such as atopic dermatitis, and the augmentation of the immune system with histamine may increase the immune response to skin diseases, such as Clostridial dermatitis, to exacerbate the dermatitis. As such, it may be desirable to reduce histamine in a subject to control symptoms.

Hz receptors (NCBI MeSH ID: D011970), unlike Hi receptors, are expressed on a wide range of cells and tissues, including B and T cells, dendritic cells, gastricparietal cells, smooth muscle cells, brain, and cardiac tissues. They are coupled to Gas stimulated adenylyl cyclases and can induce airway mucus production, vascular permeability, inotropic and chronotropic effects of heart muscle, relaxation of smooth muscle, and secretion of gastric acid. Impairment of H2 receptors have been associated with impaired immune functions, gastric acid secretion, and certain cognitive functions, including hippocampal potentiation impairments, which may affect learning and memory, and nociception abnormalities.

H3 receptors (NCBI MeSH ID: D018100) are expressed exclusively in neurons and coupled to God/o. Here they act as inhibitory auto-receptors and regulate the release of several neurotransmitters in the central and peripheral nervous systems. They are important for homeostatic regulation of energy levels, sleep-wake cycles, cognition, and inflammation. Impaired H3 receptors and/or antagonists may impair locomotion and effect behavior. This may result in metabolic syndrome characterized by late onset obesity due to hyperphagia and increased leptin and insulin levels. H3 antagonists have been shown to reverse diet-induced obesity. H3 receptor antagonists may also be myocardial ischemic arrhythmias, cognition disorders, and insomnia.

Taken together, the stimulation of Hi and H3 receptors are at least partially responsible for overall feeding behavior and effect it in such a way that may cause disease when perturbed. When perturbed by a loss of histamine, a subject may alter their normal behavior and exhibit hyperphagia which may result in late onset obesity. Therefore, increasing systemic histamine will decrease feed intake and prevent obesity. However, in healthy subjects the increased histamine may cause undesired weight loss.

H4 receptors (NCBI MeSH ID: D000074040) are Ga/io coupled and are also expressed on a variety of cells, including immune cells, including eosinophiles, T cells, dendritic cells and mast cells, as well as the spleen, intestinal epithelia, lungs, synovial tissue, central nervous system, sensory neurons, and cancer tissues. ¾ receptors mediates the pro- inflammatory responses of histamine in both an autocrine and paracrine manner. This causes an increased migration of eosinophils, mast cell activation, the expression of pro- inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. ¾ receptor activation, therefore, results in an increase in chemotaxis of mast cells and their accumulation at sites of allergic responses; primes mast cells for allergen-induced activation; and Ca ²⁺ dependent mast cell activation. As the recruitment of mast cells may lead to the amplification of an immune response, it may be desirable to reduce the histamine in a subject to prevent chronic inflammation. Hi receptors also increase bone marrow-derived basophils following antigen stimulation. This basophil regulation has been associated with allergic dermatitis by inducing chemotaxis of the basophils. Therefore, reducing histamine, such as by providing a probiotic containing a histamine degrading enzyme or organism, may treat and/or prevent dermatitis by lowering the stimulation of the immune cells through Hi and Hi receptors. Hi receptors are also preferentially expressed in Th2 cells over native T and Thl cells and may be involved in the pathogenesis of allergy and inflammation. Therefore, reduction of histamine may also prevent the pathogenesis related to chronic allergen exposure and inflammation similar to the treatment of dermatitis.

Taken together, reducing histamine, such as by providing a probiotic containing a histamine degrading enzyme or organism, may treat and/or prevent diseases related to inflammation, such as dermatitis, behavior, and digestion in a subject.

Breakdown of histamine has multiple pathways (KEGG Pathway ID: ko00340) but is typically performed by a class of enzymes belonging to oxidoreductases which act on the CH-NH2 group of the doner compound (E.C. 1.4). More preferably, enzymes belonging to E.C. 1.4.3.22. For example, the amine oxidase (copper containing) (AOC) family of enzymes: AOC1, AOC2, and AOC3, also known in the art as diamine oxidase (DAO), histaminase, histamine oxidase, amiloride-sensitive amine oxidase (copper-containing), amine oxidase copper domain-containing protein, amiloride-binding protein 1 (ABP1), and kidney amine oxidase. In other organism, such as those lacking an immune system, histamine may still be used in addition to produced. For example, while bacteria may produce histamine, they may also use histamine as a carbon source. Some strains of bacteria, for example strains of Brevibacterium , will survive in a minimal media supplemented with histamine as the only carbon source.

Subjects

The probiotic or synbiotic compositions and/or histamine degrading enzymes and methods of use described herein are particularly suitable for use with farm production animals, companion animals, aquaculture, and humans.

Farm production animals include for example, poultry, turkeys, and any avian species. Farm production animals further include ruminants and non-ruminants. Companion animals include for example, dogs, cats, and horses. Aquaculture includes all species.

The probiotic or synbiotic compositions and/or histamine degrading enzymes and methods of use described herein are particularly suitable for use in avian species. All birds are part of the Class Aves (Phylum Chordata and Subphylum Vertebrata). Examples of suitable avian species that may be treated with the probiotic compositions described herein include, but are not limited to, chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, guinea fowl, ostriches, pigeons, quails, and pheasants. Examples of avian farm production animals most often include chickens and turkeys.

Probiotic Compositions and/or Histamine Degrading Enzymes

The probiotic or synbiotic compositions may comprise one or more live bacteria and/or yeast, extracts or purified protein obtained thereof, and/or synthetic enzymes which may break down histamine if it is present in a subject. The probiotic compositions may include a strain(s) administered as a probiotic bacterial and/or yeast strain that utilizes histamine for its physiology. In one embodiment, the probiotic compositions may include a strain(s) administered as a probiotic bacterial strain that utilizes histamine for its physiology ( i.e . consumes or degrades histamine). The probiotic composition could alternatively administer a spore which then germinate into a histamine-degrader in the gut of the subject.

In a further embodiment, the probiotic bacterial strain may further be modified to knock down or knock out histidine decarboxylase to prevent additional histamine from being produced by the probiotic strain.

In a further embodiment, the probiotic compositions may be provided as a mash in which the probiotic is incorporated and processed to release the enzymes contained within that can break down histamine in the gut. Exemplary enzymes include amine oxidase (copper containing). Examples of use of these enzymes in food preparations have been shown, such as the preparation of tuna soup containing very high levels of histamine, wherein the enzyme amine oxidase (copper containing) is shown to reduce histamine during the preparation of the soup. Without being limited to a particular mechanism of action, the activity of the amine oxidase (copper containing) was destroyed during the preparation in a final step of boiling, so no histamine degradation was ever proposed to occur following food consumption.

Analogous studies employ such enzymes only during preparation of food and then destroy the activity prior to consumption. See Naila et al. Prediction of the amount and rate of histamine degradation by diamineoxidase (DAO). Food Chemistry 135:2650-2660, 2012.

In other embodiments, the compositions may comprise of enzymes belonging to E.C. 1.4.3, such as amine oxidase (copper containing), facilitate the reaction RCH2NH2 (amine) +

H2O (water) to RCHO (aldehyde) + NEE (ammonia) + H2O2 (peroxide). Specifically, amine oxidase (copper containing) converts histamine (amine) into imidazole acetaldehyde (aldehyde), ammonia and peroxide. Many genera, including but not limited to bacteria, fungi, and plants, have been reported to possess this activity. Prominent examples of bacteria include strains of Staphylococcus including S. xylosus, S. cronusus ; strains of Brevibacterium spp. including B. linens ; Arthrobacter crystallopoietes some Lactobacilli spp. as well as Vergibacillus spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Escherichia spp. The efficacy of these enzymes is maximized under neutral to alkaline conditions and oxygen must be available. It has been reported that amine oxidase (copper containing) can be directly added to certain fermented foods to achieve a decrease in histamine levels.

In other embodiments, the compositions may contain enzymes which may degrade histamine by a dehydrogenase pathway. In this variant, histamine once again is utilized to generate imidazole acetaldehyde and ammonia. However, in contrast to oxidase pathways, dehydrogenase pathways frequently involve several steps including a transamination step and dehydrogenation step. This reaction also does not generate hydrogen peroxide. Consider the pathway recently described for Pseudomonas putida. In this pathway, several enzymes work in a concerted process. In particular HinC, a histamine-pyruvate aminotransferase (E.C. 2.6.1.58), transfers an amine from histamine to pyruvate and in the process generates alanine (Figure 1).

Imidazole acetaldehyde can be further processed by an aldehyde dehydrogenase (E.C. 1.2.1) enzyme like HinD to yield imidazole acetic acid. Pyruvate can also be regenerated from L-alanine, a process which liberates ammonia. Species notable for histamine degradation by dehydrogenase pathways include Rhizobium, Nocardioides simplex and Natrinema gari. Because this variant relies on transamination, it is conceivable that an abundance of a preferred amine bearing substrates may decrease the degradation of histamine whereas an abundance of pyruvate might enhance histamine degradation.

In an embodiment, probiotics may be grown in large fermenters and then pelleted, dried, and ground down. This processing destroys the viability of the organism yet preserves the activity of their enzymes to then allow the mash to be incorporated into the feed. Such methods must be done in accordance with accepted methods of preparation bacterial or fungal products for use in feeds.

In an embodiment, probiotics may be grown in large fermenters and then simply heat- inactivated with no further processing and then incorporated into the feed.

In an embodiment, the probiotics may not have a histidine decarboxylase (E.C.

4.1.1.22) enzyme or have been modified to knock down or knock out the function of histidine decarboxylase to prevent the probiotic from making histamine.

In yet a still further embodiment, the enzymes, such as in the form of purified enzyme (or one or more of the bacterial or yeast species listed herein) can be administered or incorporated into feed. Exemplary enzymes include amine oxidase (copper containing). In embodiments, enzymes can be coated to protect their activity during transit through the gut until they reach specific section of gut where the need for histamine degradation exists.

In further embodiments, for use in animal feeds, enzymes can be added “neat” but also can be coated to protect their activity. There are a number of coating strategies that are currently used to protect enzymes in feed. By way of nonlimiting example, different types of granulation or nanoparticle techniques may be used to coat the enzyme including providing a core or inner matrix to which the enzyme may be attached and then using one or more coatings to protect the enzyme from the heat, pressure, and moisture generated during feed manufacturing and then to allow delivery of a sufficient amount of the enzyme to the subject. Further see Hua S. (Advances in Oral Drug Delivery for Reginal Targeting in the Gastrointestinal Tract - Influence of Physiological, Pathophysiological and Pharmaceutical Factors, Front. Pharmacol , 2020, 11 :524, herein incorporated by reference in its entirety), Fenster, K., et al. (The Production and Delivery of Probiotics: A Review of a Practical Approach, Microorganisms 2019, 7, 83, herein incorporated by reference in its entirety), and Govender, M., et al. ( AAPS PharmSciTech , 2014, 15, 29, herein incorporated by reference in its entirety) for delivering compounds to the gastrointestinal tract in general. Histamine may be metabolized through at least four known mechanisms (as described in https://www.histaminintoleranz.ch/en/histaminosis_histaminem etabolism.html), including (1) Oxidative deamination through amine oxidase (copper containing), also known as DAO or histaminase, according to the following chemical equation: Histamine + H20 + 02 => (imidazole-4-yl)acetaldehyde + NH3 + H202; (2) Cyclical methylation through histamine N- methyltransferase (HNMT; E.C. 2.1.1.8), wherein the resulting product is N-methylhistamine

(NMH); (3) Acetylation into acetylhistamine, which is the degradation pathway most important in microbial degradation by enzymes in E.C. 2.3.1; and (4) Hydroxylase into hydantoin propionic acid, wherein the enzymes can be present in microorganisms.

Various strains are suitable for inclusion in the probiotic compositions or to extract enzyme and the listing of the genera name and representative strains are not meant to limit in any way that other strains belonging to that genus may be suitable histamine degraders. The various strains can also be given as a probiotic (non-spore) or as a spore. Exemplary bacterium include: Arthrobacter spp., including for example A. crystal lopoie tes ; Bacillus spp., including for example/? subtilis , B. coagulans, B. lichenformis , and/?. amyloliquefaciens ; Brevibacterium spp., including for example B. linens; Micrococcus spp.; Rhizobium spp.; Enterococcus spp., including for example A. cecorum ; Escherichia spp., including for example E. coll, Lactobacillus spp., including for example L. sakei, L. plantarum, and L. crispatus; Staphylococcus spp., including for example S. xylosus, S. caronusus; Agrobacterium spp., including for example A. tumefaciens; Vergibacillus spp., including for example V. halodenitrificans; Pseudomonas spp., including for example P. putida or P. aeruginosa ; Candida spp., including for example C. krusei ; Nocardioides spp., including for example N simplex; Rummeliibacillus spp., including for example Rummeliibacillus stabekisii; Natrinema spp., including for example Natrinema gari; Debaryomyces spp. (yeast), including for example/) hansenii (fungi); Saccharomyces spp. (yeast); Yarrowia spp., including for example Y lipolytica ; Aspergillus spp., including for example Aspergillus oryzae or Aspergillus niger ; Penicillium spp., including for example Penicillium italicum ; Pinchia spp., including for example Pichina pastoris ; and Gibberella spp., including for example Gibberella fujikuroi. In a preferred embodiment and without limitation to use of other bacteria and fungi described herein, the probiotic compositions described herein include a Brevibacterium spp. Without being limited to a particular mechanism of action, the Brevibacterium spp. degrades histamine. Exemplary Brevibacterium include Brevibacterium aurantiacum, Brevibacterium linens, and Brevibacterium epidermidis. Brevibacterium spp. are commercially available as they are used for inoculation of cheese rinds during ripening and/or can be established naturally from sources such as cheese rinds. They are most commonly found on surfaces of soft, semi-hard and hard cheeses. The strains are among the most abundant cheese rind bacteria, producing aroma compounds and having lipase and protease activity.

In some embodiments, the probiotic compositions include a therapeutically effective amount of at least one live, non-pathogenic probiotic strain, such as those listed above. The bacterial (or yeast) strains utilize histamine for its own survival and growth, thereby overcoming the excess histamine production by certain commensal microbiota.

In an embodiment, a therapeutically effective amount of the probiotic strain(s) is from about 10 ⁴ CFU to about 10 ¹⁴ CFU. In another embedment, a therapeutically effective amount of the histamine degrading enzyme is from about 10 ¹ histamine degrading units (HDU) to about 10 ¹⁰ HDU. In another embodiment, a therapeutically effect amount of the composition may be from about 10 ⁴ CFU to about 10 ¹⁴ CFU of a probiotic and from about 10 ¹ HDU to about 10 ¹⁰ HDU. As used herein, a HDU is the number of molecules of histamine that may be degraded.

The probiotic compositions and/or histamine degrading enzymes may be administered to reach the gut as a lyophilized powder or in a tablet form. The lyophilized powder may be added to a liquid such as, but not limited to, water or food for ingestion. The tablet may be a chewable tablet. The probiotic may be administered live or heat inactivated dead cells, and in whole or in part. The parts of the probiotic may include cellular components, such as, but not limited to, the DNA or protein which are capable of rendering their beneficial effects. The probiotic compositions may be administered in any pharmaceutically acceptable formulation such as, but not limited to, a tablet or as part of a composition comprising the substrate and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Tablets and capsules for administration to the gut may be in unit dose form, and may contain conventional excipients such as binding agents, for example syrup, acacia, gelatin, sorbitol, tragacanth, or polyvinyl-pyrrolidone; fillers for example lactose, sugar, maize-starch, calcium phosphate, sorbitol or glycine; tableting lubricant, for example magnesium stearate, talc, polyethylene glycol or silica; disintegrates for example potato starch, or acceptable wetting agents such as sodium lauryl sulphate. The tablets may be coated according to methods well known in normal pharmaceutical practice. Preferred coatings and encapsulation agents include pH-sensitive biocompatible polymers. By way of non-limiting example, these polymers may include poly-lactic acid, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), and chitosan. Other coatings, such as but not limited to hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate or carboxymethyl high amylose starch, may also be used to enhance the delivery of probiotics to the gut. Alternatively, the coating may take advantage of the bacteria found in the gut and comprise a polymer that show degradation specificity for different regions of the gut. While biodegradable coatings may be used, they are not preferred because they can suffer from premature drug release or bursting due to their hydrophilicity and solubility in regions various regions of the gut, for example, in the upper gastrointestinal tract. The coatings may also contain more than a single compound or layer. An example of a multilayer coating may include a first protective coating which becomes degraded in the stomach, a second layer of a pH-dependent polymer coating which becomes degraded in the small intestine, and a third coating which the microorganism commensal to the colon may break down to release the probiotic to the colon. For examples, see Hua S. (2020), Fenster, K. (2019), and Govender,

M. (2014).

Oral liquid preparations may be in the form of, for example, aqueous or oily suspensions, solutions, emulsions, syrups or elixirs, or may be presented as a dry product for reconstitution with water or other suitable vehicle before use. Such liquid preparations may contain conventional additives such as suspending agents, for example sorbitol, syrup, methyl cellulose, glucose syrup, gelatin hydrogenated edible fats; emulsifying agents, for example lecithin, Sorbian monooleate, polysorbate 80, or acacia; non-aqueous vehicles (which may include edible oils), for example almond oil, fractionated coconut oil, oily esters such as glycerin, propylene glycol, or ethyl alcohol; preservatives, for example methyl or propyl p- hydroxybenzoate or sorbic acid, and if desired conventional flavoring or coloring agents.

Topical compositions may be administered as live or heat inactivated dead cells, and in whole or in part. The parts of the probiotic may include cellular components, such as, but not limited to, the DNA or protein which are capable of rendering their beneficial effects. The probiotic compositions may be administered in any pharmaceutically acceptable formulation such as may be formulated as a lotion, shake lotion, cream, ointment, gel, foam, powder, solid, past, or tincture. In a further environment, the topical composition may further comprise a bandage, dressing, or combinations thereof. In a further embodiment, a bandage or dressing is provided comprising the topical probiotic compositions described above. In yet further embodiments, a bandage or dressing is provided comprising the topical probiotic compositions described above, glycerol, and any combination thereof. In various aspects, a bandage or dressing is provided the major constituents of which includes a matrix and a topical probiotic composition. In various aspects, a bandage or dressing is provided the major constituents of which includes a matrix and a probiotic. In various aspects, a bandage or dressing is provided the major constituents of which includes a matrix and glycerol.

Methods of Prevention and/or Treatment Using Probiotic Compositions and/or Histamine Degrading Enzymes Various conditions are suitable for prevention and/or treatment using the probiotic compositions and/or histamine degrading enzymes. In an embodiment, avian species are particularly in need of prevention and/or treatment using the probiotic compositions and/or histamine degrading enzymes for reducing gut inflammation, reducing incidence of Clostridial dermatitis, decreasing incidence and pathogenesis of potential pathogens for which histamine is a virulence factor, improving and stabilizing gut health, increasing feed efficiency, and/or improving behavior through decrease in stress-related histamine-mediated pathways.

In an embodiment, porcine species are particularly in need of prevention and/or treatment using the probiotic compositions and/or histamine degrading enzymes for reducing gut inflammation, decreasing incidence and pathogenesis of potential pathogens for which histamine is a virulence factor, improving and stabilizing gut health, increasing feed efficiency, and improving behavior through decrease in stress-related histamine-mediated pathways.

In an embodiment, ruminant species are particularly in need of prevention and/or treatment using the probiotic compositions and/or histamine degrading enzymes for reducing gut inflammation, decreasing incidence and pathogenesis of potential pathogens for which histamine is a virulence factor, improving and stabilizing gut health, increasing feed efficiency, and improving behavior through decrease in stress-related histamine-mediated pathways.

In an embodiment, aquaculture species are particularly in need of prevention and/or treatment using the probiotic compositions and/or histamine degrading enzymes for reducing gut inflammation, decreasing incidence and pathogenesis of potential pathogens for which histamine is a virulence factor, improving and stabilizing gut health, controlling and treating a variety of fish-related neoplastic diseases increasing feed efficiency, and improving behavior through decrease in stress-related histamine-mediated pathways.

In an embodiment, human species are particularly in need of prevention and/or treatment using the probiotic compositions and/or histamine degrading enzymes for reducing gut inflammation, managing and treating inflammatory and autoimmune disorders as the conditions can be influenced by the body's capacity for histamine degradation, treating gastrointestinal ailments including diffuse stomach ache, colic, flatulence, and diarrhea which are leading symptoms of histamine intolerance, controlling and treating a variety of neoplastic diseases such as Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis as well as other gastrointestinal conditions such as allergic enteropathy and food allergy which have been shown to involve elevated histamine concentrations and diminished histamine degradative enzymes in the gut such as diamine oxidase, use of histamine degradation strategies in the gut to manage airway impairments such as asthma and rhinorrhea as well as some sexual dysfunctions like dysmenorrhea, improving behavior through decrease in stress-related histamine-mediated pathways. In still further embodiments, methods of preventing and/or treating clostridial dermatitis in a subject with a probiotic composition and/or histamine degrading enzymes are herein provided. Further, methods of preventing and/or treating clostridial enteric disease with a probiotic composition and/or histamine degrading enzymes are provided. Further, methods of preventing and/or treating necrotizing enterocolitis with a probiotic composition and/or histamine degrading enzymes are provided. Still further, method of preventing and/or treating gut inflammation with a probiotic composition and/or histamine degrading enzymes are provided.

Further, method of preventing and/or treating all aspects of gut-related health in a subject, namely a human subject is provided. As Clostridium spp. and Escherichia spp. produce histamine there is a direct connection and relevance to gut-related diseases involving microbial-produced histamine.

The various infections, diseases and conditions for which prophylaxis and treatment according to the methods described herein are suited, may include a commensal microbiota, including Clostridium spp. causing an increase in histamine production in the subject. Exemplary Clostridium spp. include Clostridium perfringens and Clostridium septicum , including strains having Genbank accession no. KX674025, KX674031 and KX674026. Beneficially, the methods of preventing and/or treating using the probiotic compositions control histamine by providing a probiotic strain that degrades histamine, providing the subjects’ immune system time and ability to respond. The methods include delivering a probiotic composition and/or histamine degrading enzymes to the subject. The delivering of the compositions and/or histamine degrading enzymes can be provided in any conventional manner of dosing to birds. For example, the probiotic composition and/or histamine degrading enzymes can be provided in a feed source, such as pellets.

The methods include controlling histamine production from a commensal microbiota or an infection in the subject being dosed the probiotic composition and/or histamine degrading enzymes. These microorganisms include, but are not limited to, Clostridium spp., Salmonella spp., Escherichia spp., Proteus spp., Morganella spp., Enterobacter spp., Klebsiella spp., and Lactobacillus spp. In an embodiment, the commensal microbiota is a Clostridium perfringens. The delivering of the probiotic compositions and/or histamine degrading enzymes can include administering to a subject with a Clostridial infection, or the administering to a subject as prophylaxis.

Without being limited to a particular mechanism of action, the method for prevention and/or treatment of a subject for clostridial dermatitis, clostridial enteric disease, necrotizing enterocolitis, and/or gut inflammation with a probiotic composition and/or histamine degrading enzyme that beneficially controls histamine production caused by a commensal microbiota, including for example Clostridium perfringens which have been shown to result in excess histamine production. As one skilled in the art recognizes, there is a biochemical signaling in the gut-brain axis joining the microbiota, the alimentary tract (including the gastrointestinal tract) and the central nervous system. The gut-brain axis includes the microbiota in the alimentary tract, central nervous system, neuroendocrine and neuroimmune systems (e.g. hypothalamic- pituitary-adrenal axis), sympathetic and parasympathetic arms of the autonomic nervous system, and the gut microbiota. Beneficially, the methods of prophylaxis and treatment are suitable for adjuvant treatment of various pathologies of the gut. Exemplary gut inflammation can include various gastrointestinal conditions, including for example, ulcers, namely gastric ulcers, diarrhea, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and associated symptoms and conditions, feeding conditions causing behavioral abnormalities, enterocolitis-type inflammation, and the like. As described herein, a consequence of the dysregulated production of histamine is the effect on neuroimmune interactions driving inflammation and behavior.

The neuroimmune system includes the structures and processes involving the biochemical and electrophysiological interactions between the nervous system and immune system. These two systems are tightly integrated and have both local and systemic reflexes to restore homeostasis in response to injury and/or infection. The neuroimmune system is comprised primarily of glial cells and mast cells. As discussed above, histamine receptors, especially EE, are expressed on mast cells and drive their activation. They key role of mast cells in inflammation and in the disruption of the blood-brain barrier may be achieved through the activation of the mast cells through these receptors. Mast cells also seem to participate in neuroinflammation both directly and through microglia stimulation. These two systems also communicate using a system of broad, common cytokines, growth factors, and neuropeptides, allowing for bidirectional communication. This cross talk permits the amplification of maladaptive inflammatory feedforward loops. Hence, the activation of mast cells through histamine receptors may contribute to the pathogenesis of such conditions such as headaches, autism, chronic fatigue syndrome, allergy, asthma, chronic coughing, autoimmunity, itch, and pain. As the gut-brain axis connects the gut to the brain, this is also linked to the neuroimmune system through the communication between the immune and nervous systems. Therefore, histamine production in the gut may influence behavioral changes through the gut-brain axis and mediated by mast cells. Accordingly, the methods described herein able to control histamine production by probiotic compositions and/or histamine degrading enzymes beneficially control neuroimmune events, such as headaches, autism, chronic fatigue syndrome, allergy, autoimmunity, itch, and pain, in the subject. The methods include administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of at least one probiotic strain and/or histamine degrading enzyme. In an aspect, a therapeutically effective amount of the probiotic strain(s) in the composition includes from about 10 ⁴ CFU to about 10 ¹⁴ CFU, from about 10 ⁴ CFU to about 10 ¹² CFU, from about 10 ⁵ CFU to about 10 ¹¹ CFU, or from about 10 ⁵ CFU to about 10 ¹⁰ CFU. In another aspect, a therapeutically effective amount of the histamine degrading enzymes in the compositions include from about 10 ¹ to about 10 ¹⁰ , from about 10 ³ HDU to about 10 ¹⁰ HDU, from about 10 ⁴ HDU to about 10 ⁸ HDU, or from about 10 ⁵ HDU to about 10 ⁷ HDU. A composition may include a therapeutically effective amount of both the probiotic and the enzyme.

In an embodiment, the method of administering is by oral administration. Oral administration can include various dosage forms as one skilled in the art will ascertain, including for example, tablets, capsules, aqueous or oily suspensions, solutions, emulsions, syrups or elixirs, dry products for reconstitution with water or other suitable vehicle before use.

Tablets and capsules for oral administration may be in unit dose form, and may contain conventional excipients such as binding agents, for example syrup, acacia, gelatin, sorbitol, or polyvinyl-pyrrolidone; fillers for example lactose, sugar, maize-starch, calcium phosphate, sorbitol or glycine; tableting lubricant, for example magnesium stearate, talc, polyethylene glycol or silica; disintegrants for example potato starch, or acceptable wetting agents such as sodium lauryl sulphate. The tablets may be coated according to methods well known in normal pharmaceutical practice. Oral liquid preparations may be in the form of, for example, aqueous or oily suspensions, solutions, emulsions, syrups, or elixirs, or may be presented as a dry product for reconstitution with water or other suitable vehicle before use. Such liquid preparations may contain conventional additives such as suspending agents, for example sorbitol, syrup, methyl cellulose, glucose syrup, gelatin hydrogenated edible fats; emulsifying agents, for example lecithin, sorbitan monooleate, polysorbate 80, or acacia; non-aqueous vehicles (which may include edible oils), for example almond oil, fractionated coconut oil, oily esters such as glycerin, propylene glycol, or ethyl alcohol; preservatives, for example methyl or propyl p-hydroxybenzoate or sorbic acid, and if desired conventional flavoring or coloring agents. Tablets and capsules may be formulated as a time release tablet or capsule to target different organs along the alimentary track. Similarly, the use of encapsulated and/or coated preparations can be employed, such as for the histamine degrading enzyme preparations.

In an embodiment, the method of administering is by topical administration. Topical administration can include various dosage forms as one skilled in the art will ascertain, including for example, lotions, creams, shake lotion, cream, ointment, gel, foam, powder, solid, paste, or tincture.

In another embodiment, the method of administering is by a bandage or dressing comprising the topical compositions described above. In a further embodiment, a bandage or dressing is provided comprising the topical probiotic compositions described above, glycerol, and any combination thereof. In various aspects, a bandage or dressing is provided the major constituents of which includes a matrix and a topical probiotic composition. In various aspects, a bandage or dressing is provided the major constituents of which includes a matrix and a probiotic. In various aspects, a bandage or dressing is provided the major constituents of which includes a matrix and glycerol.

All publications, patent applications, issued patents, and other documents referred to in this specification are indicative of the level of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention pertains and are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated as incorporated by reference. Definitions that are contained in text incorporated by reference are excluded to the extent that they contradict definitions in this disclosure.

The present invention is further illustrated by the following examples, which should not be considered as limiting in any way.

EXAMPLES Example 1

As increased histamine has been associated with various dermatitis conditions, elevated histamine production by Clostridium perfringens may be the cause of the symptoms related to Clostridium dermatitis. Hence, the production of histamine by C. perfringens was determined in subjects presenting with Clostridium dermatitis.

Three Clostridium perfringens isolates from turkeys with clostridial dermatitis were grown in Brain Heart Infusion (BHI) media and assayed for histamine production in vitro. As shown in Figure 2, each of the isolates showed an increase in histamine production. Without being limited to a particular mechanism of action, the histamine overproduction mediated by Clostridium perfringens as measured and shown in Figure 2 demonstrates a pathway to treatment and/or prophylaxis of clostridial dermatitis in turkeys due to histamine’s role in the skin. Moreover, the histamine overproduction mediated by Clostridium perfringens is also expected to be a causal agent of enteric diseases as well as adversely impacting immune functioning in the gut through the overgrowth of C. perfringens and subsequent invasion of the tissues and spreading throughout tissue resulting in Clostridial dermatitis in other subjects including avian species, such as chickens. Using a bacteria either as a probiotic or as a source of enzymes in sufficient amounts, such as from 10 ⁴ to about 10 ¹⁴ CFUs of a probiotic and/or from about 10 ¹ HDU to about 10 ¹⁰ HDU of an enzyme, the over production of histamine caused by C. perfringens will be reduced in the gut. The reduction of histamine through this administration may result in a reduction or loss of symptoms, such as those found in Clostridial dermatitis or clostridial enteric disease.

Example 2

To establish which strains of bacteria are capable of degrading histamine, an initial experiment was conducted to demonstrate the ability of Brevibacterium aurantiacum to degrade histamine. B. aurantiacum was isolated from the rind of artisanal cheese and then inoculated into histamine minimalist medium supplemented with lOmM/L of histamine. Following overnight growth, the amount of histamine remaining was quantitated using UHPLC-based methodology as per Villageliu et al. (A microbial endocrinology -based simulated small intestinal medium for the evaluation of neurochemical production by gut microbiota, FEMS Microbiology Ecology, Volume 94, Issue 7, July 2018, fiy096, https://doi.org/10.1093/femsec/fiy096, herein incorporated by reference in its entirety).

As shown in Figure 3, Brevibacterium aurantiacum was capable of degrading effectively all of the histamine present within the media. This shows that it is possible to assess the ability of strains of bacteria to degrade histamine from the surrounding environment. Further, use of the identified strains either as a probiotic or as a source of enzymes in, for example, animal feed or through an oral dose may be used to decrease histamine levels in a subject. Example 3

While the media used in Examples 1 and 2 show that certain strains of bacteria may alter the amount of histamine within a minimal media using histamine as the only carbon source, a more complex media, with sources of carbon in addition to histamine, better reflect the gut environment. To further investigate different strains of Clostridium spp., the ability of Clostridium septicum to produce histamine was assessed in a complex medium.

C. septicum was isolated from lesions of turkeys suffering from clostridial dermatitis and then inoculated into the rich microbiological BHI medium. Following overnight growth, the amount of histamine produced was quantitated using UHPLC-based methodology as per Villageliu et al. (2018). As shown in Figure 4 all of the Clostridium septicum samples were able to produce histamine in the complex media. This shows that C. septicum is likely contributing to the increased histamine in the lesions, exacerbating the symptoms of the infection. Hence, it is desirable to prevent the spread of Clostridium spp. before they arrive to the dermal layers. As histamine production in the gut can lead to increased permeability and inflammation, preventing the histamine increase in the gut should help prevent the spread of Clostridium spp. from the gut to the skin layers. This in turn would reduce the symptoms associated with Clostridium dermatitis. To achieve this reduction of histamine, use of bacteria either as a probiotic or as a source of enzymes to use in, for example, animal feed in a sufficient amount of histamine degrading probiotics, such as 10 ⁴ to 10 ¹⁴ CFUs of a probiotic and/or from about 10 ¹ HDU to about 10 ¹⁰ HDU of an enzyme, may be administer to a subject. This would result in the decrease in histamine in the gut, thereby preventing the irregularities seen in inflammation and gut permeability by having a high level of histamine present. As such, the administration of a histamine degrading probiotic would decrease or prevent the conditions associated with Clostridium dermatitis. Example 4

While Experiment 2 shows that some bacterial strains may deplete histamine when it is the only carbon source, histamine may not be the most preferred target for degradation when other carbon sources are available, such as in the gut. Hence, additional strains of bacteria were assayed for their ability to degrade histamine in complex media containing histamine and other carbon sources. Enterococcus cecorum isolates were assayed for their ability to degrade histamine in a complex medium. E. cecorum were isolated from the intestinal tract of healthy chickens and then inoculated into the rich microbiological medium TSB supplemented with added histamine. Following overnight growth, the amount of histamine remaining was quantitated using UHPLC-based methodology as per Villageliu et al. (2018).

As shown in Figure 5 the Enterococcus cecorum strains isolated were capable of degrading histamine to various degrees in the complex media. This indicates that even with additional carbon sources available, isolates of bacteria will degrade histamine. Therefore, the use of bacteria either as a probiotic or as a source of enzymes will degrade histamine in more complex environments, such as the gut. Further, this Example provides a model assay for determining which isolates may degrade more histamine than others, even within the same species of bacteria. This would allow for the use of a probiotic mixture comprised of select community members may be used to degrading histamine in a subject.

Example 5

To show that this assay may be used across more species, the ability of Lactobacillus crispatus to degrade histamine in a complex medium was determined. L. crispatus was isolated from the intestinal tract of a healthy pig and then inoculated into the rich microbiological medium MRS supplemented with added histamine. Following overnight growth, the amount of histamine remaining was quantitated using UHPLC-based methodology as per Example 4.

As shown in Figure 6, the Lactobacillus crispatus were capable of degrading histamine in the complex media. Therefore, this assay may be used across multiple species of bacteria to determine species and isolates within species that are capable of degrading histamine in the presence of additional carbon sources.

Example 6

For a microorganism to be safe to administer to a subject, they must be non- pathogenic. One such location in which to identify non-pathogenic strains would be naturally occurring bacteria of the gut. This may be accomplished by feeding a subject a histamine- enriched diet that would force the subject’s microbiota to enrich for those gut bacteria that could utilize and degrade the exogenous histamine fed as part of the diet. This method differs from a more traditional in vitro screening approach where a whole bank of bacteria is screened for potential histamine degrading activity.

EXPERIMENTS and METHODOLODY:

A. Histamine Feeding Trial #1 One day old, unsexed, Cobb chickens were randomly divided into three separate groups. Each group was fed the same basal chicken diet supplemented or not with low amounts of histamine as follows:

1. Group 1 (21 chickens) - Control: no histamine added to feed

2. Group 2 (21 chickens) - Low Histamine: lmg of histamine dihydrochoride (TCI Chemicals, CAS #56-92-8) was added to lOOg of granular feed

3. Group 3 (21 chickens) - High Histamine: 3mg of histamine dihydrochoride was added to lOOg of granular feed

All chicken feed was prepared at the Iowa State University feed mill. This amount of histamine was selected to not harm the animals. The histamine was added in as a powder and mixed with the granular chicken feed to obtain a homogeneous mixture. Histamine concentration was verified by measuring on an ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) instrument as per following section. During the feeding trial, all chickens were fed, and watered ad libitum and appropriate enrichment items were placed in the pens. Bodyweights and fecal material were collected weekly starting at 1 week of age. Fecal material was collected by placing the individual chicken in a plastic rat cage for 10-30 minutes until the chicken defecated. One hundred mg of fecal material was collected and placed into a 10ml tube of l/3 ^rd BHI supplemented with 1 mM histamine for culturing and identification of histamine-degrading bacteria as described below. Equal numbers of chickens were euthanized at 2, 4, and 5 weeks of age. Chickens were euthanized via CO2 for 10 minutes with cervical dislocation as a secondary method. After death was confirmed the bifurcated cecum was removed and approximately lOOmg of cecal content was immediately extricated and placed into a tube of 1/3 BHI for culturing and identification of histamine-degrading bacteria. Additionally, lOOmg of fecal material was collected and placed into a tube for culturing and identification of histamine-degrading bacteria as described below.

1. Culturing technique to identify presence of histamine-degrading bacteria:

The culture technique utilized l/3 ^rd concentration of Brain-Heart Infusion (BHI) medium that was prepared by diluting a one-third volume of full strength BHI prepared according to manufacturer’s instructions with 2/3 ^rd volume of phosphate buffered saline (PBS). For example, to achieve lOmls of l/3 ^rd BHI, 3.33mls of full-strength BHI was added to 6.67mls of PBS+ 2/3 PBS and the final pH adjusted to 6.5. Additionally, the l/3 ^rd BHI medium was supplemented with ImM of histamine. After collection of cecal or fecal material from chickens, approximately lOOmg of fecal material was placed into the medium containing tube and then repeatedly inverted to achieve a homogenous dispersion of the material into the medium. Tubes were then placed into a microaerophilic environment that was achieved with the use of the Anoxomat gas generating system. All tubes were incubated in a 41 5°C incubator for up to 72 hours with sampling at 48 and 72 hours for UHPLC analysis of histamine content. A decrease in histamine content in those tubes which contained either fecal or cecal material from control tubes that did not contain either fecal or cecal material indicated that histamine degradation occurred due to the presence of histamine degrading bacteria.

2. Use of UHPLC for histamine quantitation: Nine hundred microliters of culture supernatants were collected at designated times as shown in figures from culture tubes and added to 100 pL of 2M perchloric acid in a 2mL Eppendorf tube. The tube was then vortexed to mix the samples and then centrifuged at 15,000 rpm for 10 minutes at 4°C to pellet the bacterial contents and provide a cell-free supernatant to be used for histamine quantitation. One-hundred microliters of cell-free supernatant was transferred into a 2mL, 9mm wide amber vial containing 900 pL of MD-TM mobile phase.

To analyze on the UHPLC instrument, the quantitation was based on published methodology (Frattini V, Lionetti C. Histamine and histidine determination in tuna fish samples using high-performance liquid chromatography. Derivatization with omicron- phthalaldehyde and fluorescence detection or UV detection of "free" species. J Chromatogr A. 1998;809(l-2):241-5; doi: 10.1016/s0021-9673(98)00157-5; Cicero A, Galluzzo FG, Cammilleri G, Pulvirenti A, Giangrosso G, Macaluso A, et al. Development of a Rapid and Eco-Friendly UHPLC Analytical Method for the Detection of Histamine in Fish Products. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020; 17(20); doi: 10.3390/ijerphl7207453; and Vitali L, Valese AC, Azevedo MS, Gonzaga LV, Costa AC, Piovezan M, et al. Development of a fast and selective separation method to determine histamine in tuna fish samples using capillary zone electrophoresis. Talanta. 2013;106:181-5; doi: 10.1016/j.talanta.2012.12.020, each herein incorporated by reference in their entirety). In brief, the amber vials were transferred to the carousel that was cooled to 4°C in order of sequence determined by the sequence created in the Chromeleon 7 instrument program. The samples were analyzed using an Ultimate 3000 UHPLC system including electrochemical detector (ECDRS) and variable wavelength detector (VWD). ECDRS was set to 400m V with a column temperature of 27°C using a Cl 8 Hypersil (150mm length, 3mm diameter, and 2.6pm) column. VWD had two channels with wavelengths set to 210 and 280nm. Flow rate was set to 0.6mL/min using MD-TM from ThermoFisher (10% acetonitrile) and 10% IPA as a rear seal wash. All analyses were completed in the Chromeleon 7 instrument program by analyzing every peak of interest using analytical standards purchased from ThermoFisher Scientific. Results were transferred and calculated in Microsoft Excel and graphed using the Prism 8 statistical program (GraphPad, San Diego, CA).

3. Results from Histamine Feeding Trial #1

As shown in Figures 7 and 8, substantial histamine degradation occurred in the cecal cultures from 4-week old and 5-week old chickens from Groups 2 and 3 who were fed increasing amounts of histamine. There was no significant reduction of histamine in cultures from Group 1 chickens that were fed the control, non-histamine, containing diet.

Also, while the addition of the histamine did not result in an increase in blood histamine, there is a slight, non-statistically significant decrease in body weight of the chickens fed the histamine diets, with the higher histamine diet trending toward lower body weights (Figure 21). This trend shows that even non harmful amounts of histamine may be affecting the feeding behavior, causing the chickens to eat less as all cohorts were fed ab libitum. As it is detrimental for production animals to not quickly gain weight, it would be a beneficial use of bacteria either as a probiotic or as a source of enzymes to use in animal feed to degrade the histamine in a subject by promoting natural feeding behavior. 4. Identification of histamine-degrading bacteria:

From cultures which were found to contain at least 10% histamine degradation as quantitated by UHPLC, colonies were isolated onto selective standard microbiological agar including EMB, MacConkey, CNA and m-Enterococcus selective agars. Individual colonies were then picked off plates and MALDI-TOF technology was used to obtain genus and species identification. The following species were identified as being capable of greater than 10% histamine degradation:

Escherichia coli Enterococcus avium Enterococcus faecium Enterococcus spp. Enterococcus gallinarum Klebsiella pneumonia Pseudomonas aeruginosa

B. Histamine Feeding Trial #2

A second chicken Histamine Feeding Trial utilized 59, 1-day old and non-sexed Cobb chickens. The groups were as follows:

1. Group 1 (20 chickens) - Control: no histamine added to feed

2. Group 2 (20 chickens) - Low Histamine: 5mg of histamine dihydrochoride (TCI Chemicals, CAS #56-92-8) was added to lOOg of granular feed

3. Group 3 (19 chickens) - High Histamine: lOmg of histamine dihydrochloride was added to lOOg of granular feed

Fecal matter was collected from pen litters and cultured for the identification of histamine-degrading bacteria as described for the Histamine Feeding Trial #1.

1. Results from Histamine Feeding Trial #2

As shown in Figure 9, histamine-degrading bacteria were found in the fecal matter from a Group #3, high histamine chicken. Following isolation of the bacteria onto selective medium and then MALDI-TOF, the identity of the bacteria responsible for the histamine degradation were shown to be comprised of Enterococcus faecalis , Lactobacillus reuteri , and Klebsiella pneumoniae. There appeared to be cooperativity between each of the bacteria genus/species to aid in the degradation of the histamine. Similar evidence of cooperativity between different genus/species was observed in cecal matter from a chicken from Group #2, low histamine fed diet. Thawed cecal matter was cultured in l/3 ^rd BHI supplemented with ImM histamine. Following the demonstration that substantial histamine degradation occurred as shown in Figure 10, the cultures were sampled in duplicate and then plated onto CNA, m-Enterococcus selective agar, MacConkey and MRS agar media that were supplemented with 2mM histamine. MALDI-TOF analysis of isolated colonies on histamine-containing selective agar resulted in the identification of Enterococcus faecium , Lactobacillus reuteri , and Escherichia coli in the first duplicate sample. The second duplicate demonstrated the presence, as shown by MALDI-TOF, of Enterococcus gallinarum , Enterococcus faecium , and Escherichia coli.

Also, like the first feeding trial, as shown in Figure 22, there is a non-statistically significant trend over time for the animals being fed the non-harmful amounts of histamine to present with a lower body weight. At even higher levels, such as levels high enough to be harmful or cause inflammation to increase, this would cause the animals to lose even more weight, both through a decrease in appetite due to histamine induced behavioral changes and through the energy required to activate or increase the activity of the immune system. As such, it would be a beneficial use of bacteria either as a probiotic or as a source of enzymes to use in animal feed to degrade the histamine in a subject by promoting natural feeding behavior and to prevent the activation of the immune system due to high histamine levels.

Example 7

Examination of banked bacterial strains such as Brevibacterium spp. were performed for their ability to degrade histamine as a rapid and cost-effective means to identify potential histamine degrading bacteria that could be utilized as a histamine-degrading probiotic. Also, bacteria identified in the in vivo experiments above, were further quantified for their ability to degrade histamine.

EXPERIMENTS and METHODOLODY:

A. Brevibacterium Brevibacterium spp. are known to be capable of degrading histamine. As such,

Brevibacterium isolates were evaluated in a histamine minimal medium (HMM) and a histamine-supplemented PBS broth. The HMM basal medium was composed of 6.8g of potassium phosphate, l.Og of ammonium sulfate and 0.125g of magnesium sulfate heptahydrate in 500ml of deionized water that was sterilized by autoclaving at standard conditions of 121°C for 20 minutes. Additionally, a stock vitamin solution in 10ml of deionized water was prepared which consisted of 3mg of biotin, 12mg of thiamine hydrochloride and 1.5mg of calcium pantothenate. Prior to use the vitamin stock solution was filter sterilized by passage through a 0.22pm syringe filter. Also, a stock iron solution was prepared which consisted of 25mg of iron (III) sulfate heptahydrate dissolved in 5ml of deionized water and then filter sterilized by passage through a 0.22pm syringe filter. To assemble the complete HMM, to the 500ml of autoclaved medium, 500pL of the sterile vitamin mix and 50pL of the sterile iron solution was added and thoroughly mixed and the final pH adjusted to 6.5. The PBS basal medium was obtained from Life Technologies (Gibco product #20012027). The HMM and PBS media were further sterilely supplemented copper sulfate (lOpM, final concentration), zinc sulfate (lOpM, final concentration), and pyridoxal phosphate (20pg/ml, final concentration). The supplemented HMM and PBS media were further supplemented with histamine at a final concentration of lOmM and then inoculated with Brevibacterium spp. strains and incubated at 31°C for 96 hours. Culture supernatants were then obtained and processed for histamine quantitation as described above. Additionally, l/3 ^rd dilution of full-strength BHI was prepared as a growth medium as described above. Also, a l/3 ^rd dilution of full-strength Tryptic Soy Broth (TSB) was similarly prepared. Both media, in addition to full strength BHI and TSB, were further supplemented with histamine (ImM, final concentration), copper sulfate (IOmM, final concentration), zinc sulfate (IOmM, final concentration), and pyridoxal phosphate (20pg/ml, final concentration). A Brevibacterium strain plated onto Tryptic Soy agar and grown aerobically at 30°C overnight was then inoculated into the growth media using a 10pL inoculation loop. Tubes were then cultured aerobically at 30°C for 72 hours on a shaker platform. Culture tubes were sampled at regular time intervals for determination of extent of histamine degradation. 1. Results from Brevibacterium evaluation

As shown in Figure 11, three different isolates of Brevibacterium spp., namely ML 1292, Brevibacterium spp.; ML 1293, Brevibacterium spp.; and ML 1233, Brevibacterium spp. were able to substantially decrease the amount of histamine in two different types of histamine-supplemented minimal media over a 96 hours’ time course. As shown in Figure 12, ML1293, Brevibacterium spp. was able to substantially decrease the amount of histamine in two different types of histamine-supplemented minimal media over a 72 hours’ time course.

2. Results from Brevibacterium isolated from poultry feces collected in poultry litter

Fecal containing poultry litter from 4-6 week unsexed, Cobb chickens was collected and Brevibacterium isolated and then tested for their ability to degrade histamine using the l/3 ^rd BHI and TSB formulations as described above for the Brevibacterium methodology.

As shown in Figure 18, Brevibacterium spp. isolated from poultry fecal matter in the poultry litter and identified by MALDI-TOF as well as Sanger sequencing, specifically ML1 197, Brevibacterium aureum ; ML1205, Brevibacterium sediminis ; and ML1268, Brevibacterium epidermis were able to substantially decrease the amount of histamine in l/3 ^rd BHI-supplemented medium over a 72 hours’ time course.

As shown in Figure 19, Brevibacterium spp. isolated from poultry fecal matter in the poultry litter, specifically ML1197, Brevibacterium aureum ; ML1205, Brevibacterium sediminis ; and ML 1268, Brevibacterium epidermis , and ML 1203, Brevibacterium sediminis decrease the amount of histamine in l/3 ^rd TSB-supplemented medium over a 72 hours’ time course.

B. Use of histamine-degrading bacteria from Histamine Feeding Trial #1: Overnight cultures from Histamine Feeding Trial #1 that were stored at 4°C were inoculated onto l/3 ^rd BHI supplemented with lOmM histamine agar plates using 10pL inoculation loop. Following growth, a 10pL inoculation loopful of bacteria was harvested for subsequent inoculation and dispersal into 3ml of sterile PBS. One-hundred microliters of the bacterial culture solution was then inoculated into l/3 ^rd BHI, HMM, and Brevi Histamine broth (BHB) supplemented with histamine ranging in concertation from ImM to 30mM. All growth experiments were conducted in a microaerophilic environment maintained at 41.5°C. Culture supernatants were then obtained and processed for histamine quantitation as described above.

1. Results from use of histamine-degrading bacteria from Histamine Feeding Trial #1:

As shown in Figure 13, Enterococcus spp. isolated from individual chickens from Group #3 fed a histamine containing diet were able to substantially decrease the amount of histamine in l/3 ^rd BHI-supplemented histamine medium over a 120 hours’ time course. The medium initially contained lOmM of histamine at the start of the incubation period. Similarly, as shown in Figure 14, Enterococcus spp. isolated from individual chickens from Group #3 fed a histamine containing diet were able to substantially decrease the amount of histamine in l/3 ^rd BHI-supplemented histamine medium as well as in HMM-supplemented histamine medium over a 72 hours’ time course. The media initially contained lOmM of histamine at the start of the incubation period.

C. Ability of Pseudomonas spp. to degrade histamine

As data from the Histamine Feeding Trial #1 had identified Pseudomonas aeruginosa as a strain capable of degrading histamine, further experiments were conducted to examine if this ability was solely restricted to Pseudomonas spp. isolated from poultry. P. aeruginosa that had been previously isolated from dogs at different anatomical sites and a Pseudomonas taetrolens isolate from a pig were inoculated into HMM supplemented with lOmM histamine at the start of the incubation period. As shown in Figure 20, Pseudomonas spp. strains from all animal species substantially decreased the amount of histamine following 24 hours incubation. I). Ability of yeast to degrade histamine

The yeast Candida krusei is a potential probiotic that was examined for its ability to degrade histamine. Following overnight aerobic growth in BHI at 41.5°, it was inoculated into full strength BHI broth supplemented with ImM histamine and placed on a rocking platform set with a speed of 20RPM and 8° tilt. At the end of the incubation period culture supernatants were then obtained and processed for histamine quantitation as described above.

1. Results from use of histamine-degrading yeast:

As shown in Figure 15, Candida krusei was capable of substantially reducing the amount of the amount of histamine in BHI-supplemented histamine medium over a 72 hours’ time course. The medium initially contained 1 mM of histamine at the start of the incubation period.

These results also show that it may be preferrable to knock down or knock out the function of histidine decarboxylase in growth conditions that provide carbon sources other than histamine. As shown in Figure 15, the level of histamine raises initially, but decreases over time.

Example 8

The ability of amine oxidase (copper containing) from animal sources to degrade histamine has been well established in the scientific literature for decades. Further, amine oxidase (copper containing) exists in plants and has been shown to be of potential benefit to human disease.

EXPERIMENTS and METHODOLODY:

A. Diamine production by pea shoots Certified organic dried green pea sprouting seeds ( Lathyrus sativus ) were grown in a soil -free seed sprouting tray in the dark as per published studies. Sprouts were harvested at 10 days and immediately frozen at -20°C freezer pending subsequent processing for diamine oxidase. Following thawing, the shoots were ground in a pre-chilled mortar and pestle to obtain a fine pulp that was then transferred to a 15ml conical tube and approximately 1 lmls of pre-chilled PBS, pH 7 was then added to suspend the pulp. All tubes were placed in a rotating rack at 4°C and spun end over end at low speed for 30 minutes. After rotation, the tubes are transferred to a centrifuge and centrifuged at 2000 rpm at 4°C for 10 minutes to pellet any undissolved material. The supernatant was then removed, and syringe filtered using a 0.22pm filter to ensure there were no possible contaminants or large particles. The supernatant was used to inoculate histamine supplemented PBS, LB broth, and BHI broth at a final v/v ratio between 10 and 1%. The amount of histamine supplementation of all broth media was ImM. Tubes were next incubated aerobically at 37°C for up to 24 hours on a rocker with a 15-degree tilt at 20RPM. At designated time intervals as shown in the figures, an aliquot from each tube was removed and analyzed for extent of histamine degradation as described above for bacterial cultures.

1. Results from use of pea shoots to produce sufficient diamine oxidase to degrade histamine:

As shown in Figure 16, a crude extract of amine oxidase (copper containing) from 10- day green pea shoots grown in the dark contained significant amounts of amine oxidase

(copper containing) as evidenced by the ability of the extract to decrease histamine content in a number of the indicated histamine-supplemented media.

As shown in Figure 17, a crude extract of amine oxidase (copper containing) from 10- day green pea shoots grown in the dark contained significant amounts of amine oxidase (copper containing) that exhibited dose-dependency as evidenced by the ability of greater amounts of the extract to decrease greater amounts of histamine content over a 24-hour time period.

Therefore, plants, in addition to microorganisms, may be a source of enzymes for histamine breakdown.

Example 9

Examples 1-8 show that it is possible to identify safe probiotic microorganism which may be used either as a probiotic or as a source of enzymes to degrade histamine levels of the gut. As there is a link between neurotransmitters and other compounds of the gut and the rest of the body, for example, the gut-brain axis, this degradation of histamine would be expected to have system effects.

These effects would be mediated through the Hi through Hi receptors as discussed above. For example, it would be predicted that the loss of histamine in the gut would lead to an increase in feeding behavior as both the Hi and ¾ receptors would receive less signal.

The decrease of histamine would also be predicted to lower allergic reactions as histamine provides a powerful pro-inflammatory signal through Hi, H2, and Hi receptors. Further, as cancer cells express histamine receptors and use histamine to regulate proliferation and angiogenesis, the loss of histamine may be used to treat neoplastic diseases. Therefore, diseases and symptoms throughout a subject may be treated by a probiotic which degrades histamine.

More locally, the decrease in histamine would decrease the symptoms caused by pathogens which rely on histamine as a virulence factor, such as Clostridium spp., as the histamine would be degraded before it could cause disease. Further, it would also reduce gut inflammation as the pro-inflammatory signal would be reduced. This reduction in inflammation in the gut would be predicted to lower the inflammation during necrotizing enterocolitis and may prevent the gut from becoming permeable, preventing the spillage of stool into the body cavity. Therefore, bacteria in the gut may be regulated and local gut heath may be improved by probiotics which degrade histamine.

To achieve this, a therapeutically effective amount of probiotic, such as between 10 ⁴ to about 10 ¹⁴ CFUs of histamine degrading bacteria or fungi, may be administered to the subject. Preferably, the probiotic may be administered neat, coated or encapsulated and administered in a feed source and/or as a synbiotic. Instead of bacterium or fungi, or in addition to, the compositions may contain from about 10 ¹ HDU to about 10 ¹⁰ HDU enzyme. The administered probiotic, synbiotic, and/or enzyme would then decrease histamine in the gut and treating the symptoms of related histamine conditions.

Further, by administration of the composition prior to the formation of the histamine related conditions, the probiotic may act as a prophylactic. For example, a probiotic, synbiotic, and/or enzyme may be administered prior to a high histamine meal, such as fermented foods or fish meal, to prevent an acute rise in histamine. Or, if the diet will be maintained, the composition could be provided with the feed to prevent a chromic increase of histamine in the gut, preventing excessive inflammation, gut permeability, or the buildup of pathogenic microorganisms which rely on histamine from arising in a subject.

Further, as shown in Example 3, as C. septicum was isolated from lesions, applying the compositions topically would decrease the histamine overproduction within the lesion.

Therefore, use of bacteria or fungi either as a probiotic or as a source of enzymes (in addition to plants) to use for oral or topical administration may be used to treat and/or prevent clostridial dermatitis, clostridial enteric disease, pathogens for which histamine is a virulence factor, gut inflammation, necrotizing enterocolitis, neoplastic diseases, behavior, and/or dysregulated histamine production.