CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/852,236, entitled“Systems and Methods for C02 Sequestration in Marine Vessels” to Adkins et al. , filed May 23, 2019, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0002] The present invention generally relates to systems and methods for sequestering emissions from marine vessels.

BACKGROUND

[0003] Carbon dioxide (CO2) constitutes about 0.04% (400 parts per million) of the atmosphere. Despite its relatively small overall concentration, CO2 is a potent greenhouse gas that plays an important role in regulating the Earth's surface temperature. Presently, anthropogenic CO2 generation is taking place at a rate greater than it is being consumed and/or stored, leading to increasing concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere. There is a growing concern that rising levels of CO2 in the earth's atmosphere may present a substantial environmental challenge. As a result, there is an increased interest in developing methods for removing CO2 from emission streams and the atmosphere and storing it in a manner that prevents its future release into the atmosphere. This capture and storage is collectively known as CO2 sequestration.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0004] Many embodiments of the present invention are directed to systems and methods for sequestering emissions from marine vessels.

[0005] In one embodiment, an emissions sequestration reactor for a marine vessel includes a reaction vessel having at least a gas inlet in fluid communication with an emission output stream from a marine vessel, a seawater inlet in fluid communication with a source of seawater, and a fluid outlet, the reaction vessel further having at least a mixing region adjacent the seawater and gas inlets, and a reaction region disposed between the mixing region and the outlet, a reaction medium disposed within the reaction region and configured to sequester at least one of carbon and sulfur from the emission output, and a diffusion grating onto which the porous reaction medium is disposed, positioned between the mixing region and reaction region and configured to allow fluid to prevent the porous reaction medium from passing into the mixing region while allowing seawater to pass into the reaction region from the mixing region.

[0006] In a further embodiment, the seawater inlet is connected to a structural access point on the hull of the marine vessel.

[0007] In another embodiment, the fluid outlet directs water to a location near a propeller of the marine vessel.

[0008] In a still further embodiment, an emissions sequestration reactor further includes an inflow pump in fluid communication with the seawater inlet for pumping seawater into the reaction vessel at a desired flow rate.

[0009] In still another embodiment, an emissions sequestration reactor further includes an outflow pump in fluid communication with the seawater outlet for pumping seawater out of the reaction vessel at a desired flow rate.

[0010] In a yet further embodiment, an emissions sequestration reactor further includes a sensor to monitor a reaction parameter within the emissions sequestration reactor.

[0011] In yet another embodiment, the sensor measures a parameter selected from the group consisting of temperature, pH, pressure, pCC , alkalinity, ion concentration, turbidity, optical depth, spectral data, and flow rate.

[0012] In a further embodiment again, the sensor is in communication with a controller that is configured to control reaction kinetics.

[0013] In another embodiment again, the controller controls reaction kinetics via at least one of the group consisting of: introducing additional reaction media, increasing water inflow, increasing water outflow, decreasing water inflow, decreasing water outflow, release pressure, increase pressure, increase temperature, and decrease temperature.

[0014] In a further additional embodiment, an emissions sequestration reactor further includes a reaction medium inlet connected to the reaction vessel to provide additional reaction media to the reaction region. [0015] In another additional embodiment, an emissions sequestration reactor further includes a gravity feed system or conveyor system to provide the reaction medium to the reactor vessel.

[0016] In a still yet further embodiment, the reactor vessel is a closed system.

[0017] In still yet another embodiment, the reactor vessel comprises an excess pressure vent to maintain reaction vessel pressure.

[0018] In a still further embodiment again, the reaction medium is selected from at least one of the group consisting of carbonate and silicate.

[0019] In still another embodiment again, an emissions sequestration reactor further includes a system to control the flow of exhaust gas into the reaction vessel.

[0020] In a still further additional embodiment, an emissions sequestration reactor further includes a system to utilize heat of the exhaust gas to control temperature of the reactor vessel.

[0021] In still another additional embodiment, the reaction medium includes grains of approximately 500-700 pm in diameter.

[0022] In a yet further embodiment again, the reaction medium includes grains of approximately 70-100 pm in diameter.

[0023] In yet another embodiment again, an emissions sequestration reactor further includes a system to increase contact between a gaseous phase and a liquid phase.

[0024] In a yet further additional embodiment, an emissions sequestration for a marine vessel includes a first reaction vessel having at least a gas inlet in fluid communication with an emission output stream from a marine vessel, a seawater inlet in fluid communication with a source of seawater, a second reaction vessel having at least a fluid outlet, and a reaction medium disposed within the second reaction vessel and configured to sequester at least one of carbon and sulfur from the emission output, where the first reaction vessel and second reaction vessel are in fluid communication via a conduit.

[0025] In a further embodiment, the seawater inlet is connected to a structural access point on the hull of the marine vessel.

[0026] In another embodiment, the fluid outlet directs water to a location near a propeller of the marine vessel. [0027] In a still further embodiment, an emissions sequestration reactor further includes an inflow pump in fluid communication with the seawater inlet for pumping seawater into the reaction vessel at a desired flow rate.

[0028] In still another embodiment, an emissions sequestration reactor further includes an outflow pump in fluid communication with the seawater outlet for pumping seawater out of the reaction vessel at a desired flow rate.

[0029] In a yet further embodiment, an emissions sequestration reactor further includes a sensor to monitor a reaction parameter within the emissions sequestration reactor.

[0030] In yet another embodiment, the sensor measures a parameter selected from the group consisting of temperature, pH, pressure, pCC , alkalinity, ion concentration, turbidity, optical depth, spectral data, and flow rate.

[0031] In a further embodiment again, the sensor is in communication with a controller that is configured to control reaction kinetics.

[0032] In another embodiment again, the controller controls reaction kinetics via at least one of the group consisting of: introducing additional reaction media, increasing water inflow, increasing water outflow, decreasing water inflow, decreasing water outflow, release pressure, increase pressure, increase temperature, and decrease temperature.

[0033] In a further additional embodiment, an emissions sequestration reactor further includes a reaction medium inlet connected to the reaction vessel to provide additional reaction media to the reaction region.

[0034] In another additional embodiment, an emissions sequestration reactor further includes a gravity feed system or conveyor system to provide the reaction medium to the reactor vessel.

[0035] In a still yet further embodiment, the reactor vessel is a closed system.

[0036] In still yet another embodiment, the reactor vessel comprises an excess pressure vent to maintain reaction vessel pressure.

[0037] In a still further embodiment again, the reaction medium is selected from at least one of the group consisting of carbonate and silicate.

[0038] In still another embodiment again, an emissions sequestration reactor further includes a system to control the flow of exhaust gas into the reaction vessel. [0039] In a still further additional embodiment, an emissions sequestration reactor further includes a system to utilize heat of the exhaust gas to control temperature of the reactor vessel.

[0040] In still another additional embodiment, the reaction medium includes grains of approximately 500-700 pm in diameter.

[0041] In a yet further embodiment again, the reaction medium includes grains of approximately 70-100 pm in diameter.

[0042] In yet another embodiment again, an emissions sequestration reactor further includes a system to increase contact between a gaseous phase and a liquid phase.

[0043] In yet another additional embodiment, a method of sequestering carbon from a marine vessel includes providing a reaction medium disposed within a reaction region of a reaction vessel, the reaction medium being configured to sequester a pollutant from an emissions source, wherein the pollutant comprises at least one of carbon and sulfur, mixing seawater with emissions from a marine vessel together, and flowing the mixture of seawater and emissions through the porous medium such the pollutant is sequestered from the mixture.

[0044] In a further additional embodiment again, the reaction medium is selected from at least one of the group consisting of carbonate and silicate.

[0045] In another additional embodiment again, the reaction medium includes grains of approximately 500-700 pm in diameter.

[0046] In a still yet further embodiment again, the reaction medium includes grains of approximately 70-100 pm in diameter.

[0047] In still yet another embodiment again, the seawater is obtained from a structural access point on the hull of the marine vessel in fluid communication with the reaction vessel.

[0048] In a still yet further additional embodiment, the reaction vessel comprises a fluid outlet.

[0049] Additional embodiments and features are set forth in part in the description that follows, and in part will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon examination of the specification or may be learned by the practice of the disci :1 losed subject matter. A further understanding of the nature and advantages of the present disclosure may be realized by reference to the remaining portions of the specification and the drawings, which forms a part of this disclosure.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0050] These and other features and advantages of the present apparatus and methods will be better understood by reference to the following detailed description when considered in conjunction with the accompanying data and figures, which are presented as exemplary embodiments of the disclosure and should not be construed as a complete recitation of the scope of the inventive method, wherein:

[0051] Figs. 1A-1 B provide schematic illustrations of reactor systems, in accordance with embodiments.

[0052] Fig. 2 provides a method of sequestering emissions, in accordance with embodiments.

[0053] Fig. 3 provides data on a reactor system’s approach to steady state calculation, in accordance with embodiments.

[0054] Fig. 4 provides data on the effect of seawater mixing on a reactor system, in accordance with embodiments.

[0055] Fig. 5 provides data on the effect of volume and flow rate on a reactor system, in accordance with embodiments.

[0056] Fig. 6 provides data on the effect of volume and flow rate on DIC flux from a reactor system, in accordance with embodiments.

[0057] Fig. 7 provides data on the effect of volume and flow rate on pC02 output from a reactor system, in accordance with embodiments.

[0058] Fig. 8 provides data on the effect of mixing ratios on a reactor system, in accordance with embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0059] Turning now to the drawings, systems and methods for sequestering carbon emissions (e.g., CO2) are provided. In various embodiments, carbon emissions are obtained from a source, such as ambient environmental capture (e.g., direct air capture), exhaust from a ship or other emitter, or from contained or compressed CO2. In certain embodiments, emissions (either flue gas from ship’s exhaust or CO2 carried on the ship under pressure in gas cylinders or CO2 obtained during the ships travel via capture is mixed in a reactor with sea water (e.g., via gas exchange through head-space equilibration or bubbling through a diffuser) until the sea water is acidified (e.g., possessing a pH of 5.5 to 6.5). Various embodiments of systems and reactors pump seawater through a reactor vessel containing particles of a reaction medium. Reaction media in accordance with various embodiments include one or more of carbonates (e.g., CaC03, aragonite, calcite, sodium bicarbonate, etc.) and/or silicates (e.g., MgSiCte, olivine, pyroxene, mafic rocks, etc.). Many embodiments utilize CaCCte having a mean particle size of 100 pm (e.g., fine sand size). Certain embodiments possess particle sizes finer than 100 pm. In some embodiments, the reactor produces an effluent that can be expelled into the ocean. An exemplary reaction with a CaC03 media includes CO2 + sea water + CaCCte where the effluent includes dissolved Ca ⁺² and HCO3 ions such that the water exiting the reactor vessel has approximately twice or greater the concentration of Dissolved Inorganic Carbon (DIC) and Alkalinity (Aik) as the incoming sea water and has an increased Ca ⁺² concentration above sea water values (e.g., about at least 10% above sea water values).

[0060] Similar as described above, further embodiments also remove sulfur emissions from sources, including exhaust, environmental capture, or storage, where sulfur dioxide (SO2) or other sulfur oxides (SOx) is mixed with seawater and reacted with a carbonate or silicate reaction media. In such embodiments SO2 + sea water + CaCCte to produce SO4 in the effluent.

Embodiments Implementing Reactor Systems

[0061] Turning to the drawings, embodiments of a system for treating emissions from marine vessels are provided. Figures 1A-1 B illustrate emission treatment reactors in accordance with many embodiments. In particular, Figure 1A illustrates a single stage reactor 100, while Figure 1 B illustrates a dual stage reactor 150.

[0062] In Figure 1A, many embodiments possess a reaction vessel 102 in fluid communication with an inlet 104 for emissions (e.g., gaseous carbon, sulfur, etc.). Additional embodiments include a water inlet 106 for seawater in fluid communication with reaction vessel 102. In many embodiments, inlet 106 is connected to a structural access point, such as a hole, pore, or scupper, in the hull of a ship, such that incoming water is able to flow directly into reaction vessel 102. Some embodiments include an inflow pump 108 in fluid communication with inlet 106 to assist moving seawater into the reaction vessel 102. Further embodiments include a water outlet 1 10 for seawater, where some embodiments include an outflow pump 1 12 in fluid communication with outlet 1 10 to assist water exiting the reaction vessel 102. A volume of a reaction medium 1 14 is disposed within a reactor vessel 102 of many embodiments, where reaction medium 1 14 is configured to sequester carbon from the emission output. In various embodiments, reaction medium 1 14 includes one or more of carbonates and silicates. In various embodiments, the reaction medium 1 14 is separated from inlet 104 by a diffusion grate 1 16. While some embodiments are configured to operate under ambient pressures, additional embodiments are configured to operate at a specific pressure or pressure range. Certain embodiments include an excess pressure vent 1 18 to maintain reaction vessel pressure either by expelling excess fluids (e.g., gases or water) and/or to act as a relief vent in the event pressure within reaction vessel 102 exceed a suitable limit. Further, some embodiments include a reaction medium inlet 120 connected to the reaction vessel 102 to provide additional reaction media 1 14 in reaction region 1 15. Certain embodiments further include a system 1 19 to increase contact between a gaseous phase arising from inlet 104 and a liquid phase arising from inlet 106. In certain embodiments, system 1 19 to increase contact between a gaseous phase and a liquid phase is a bubbler.

[0063] During operation of embodiments of such a system, emission gases are piped into the reaction system 100 via inlet 104. In some such embodiments, a vessel exhaust is emitted through a manifold from the main engine through a stack located (typically) near the rear (stern) of a ship or vessel. In certain embodiments, inlet 104 includes valves, nozzles, connectors, special geometry (e.g., U-shape), blowers, and/or other fixtures to improve flow into reaction vessel 102 and/or to prevent backflow of any substances within reaction vessel 102 into inlet 104. Any method or system for capturing ship exhaust may be employed according to embodiments to direct exhaust through the seawater reaction system. It will be understood that reactor systems according to embodiments may be combined with other emissions systems typically incorporated with ship exhaust systems, including, for example, ‘scrubbers’ configured to remove particulate exhaust or criteria pollutants (e.g., NOx, SOx, PM, VOCs, etc.). Embodiments may also be employed with exhaust systems that mix exhaust gases with seawater, also referred to as‘wet exhaust’ systems, which are used on many inboard motor boats. In such a process, water is heated and gases cooled. The heating that occurs to the seawater may enhance its kinetic ‘power’ such that dissolution occurs more rapidly than that described below with respect to baseline measurements (baseline measurements for seawater at T = 21 °C). Various calculations and/or measurements have shown that the carbonate dissolution rates in sea water as a function of temperature at undersaturation levels, like those anticipated for the application, will be enhanced 3 to 4 times for a temperature increase from 5 to 37°C.

[0064] While the flue gas is directed into the system through gas inlet 104, a water inlet 106, with or without a pump 108, move seawater into the reaction vessel 102, and seawater exits reaction vessel 102 via outlet 1 10, with or without a second pump 1 12. The combination of inlet 106 and outlet 1 10 circulate water through the system at a desired rate (e.g., 1000 to 2000 L per second). Depending on the specific location of reactor 100, the specific configuration of inflow pump 108 and outflow pump 1 12 varies. For example, if reactor is located below a waterline of a ship, inlet 106 can be provided via gravity feed, such that water is pushed into reaction chamber 102 without the assistance of pump 108. However, an outflow pump 1 12 may be necessary to move water out of reaction vessel 102. As a corollary, if reactor 100 is above a waterline of a ship, an inflow pump 108 may be necessary to introduce water into reaction vessel 102, while outlet 1 10 can be processed via gravity feed. Pump strength of either an inflow pump 108 or outflow pump 1 12 depends on the specific location of a reactor 100, such that a greater distance from a waterline of a ship to a reactor 100 may necessitate a stronger pump.

[0065] In various embodiments, intake water is pumped into the reaction system from a sea-chest located under ship, which screens for large debris. Although one configuration is shown in the figures in which water is mixed with flue gas as it enters the bottom of reaction vessel 102, it will be understood that water may be mixed with flue gas in any configuration, such as from the top or sides of the reaction vessel. In some embodiments, seawater entering at surface ocean temperature (0-30°C) may be heated by flue gas (as described above), or from waste heat from engines using a heat exchanger. [0066] In many embodiments, the outflow pump 1 12 may be configured to remove water from the reaction vessel at same rate as it enters. In various embodiments, the removal of fine grained media (e.g., CaCCte) out the exit pump may be minimized by allowing for a column of water above the sediment-water slurry to act as a sediment trap. In various embodiments, a return pump may be omitted where the configuration allows seawater to return to the ocean by spillover or gravity feed.

[0067] In various embodiments, the seawater/gas is mixed at a mixing region 122 of reaction vessel 100. This mixing portion may be separated from the main reaction vessel 102 by a diffusion grating 1 16. On this grating is disposed a volume of a reaction medium (e.g., ~6” layer of limestone rock, ~1 .3 cm diameter). This layer of reaction medium serves as a permeable horizon for the water and gas mixture to move through before encountering the fine-sand sized limestone. On this permeable horizon a further volume of reaction medium (e.g., CaC03 (limestone) of 100 pm diameter size) is disposed such that it may react with seawater+C02 during the residence time (e.g. ~8 minute) of the water inside reactor. In embodiments, turbulence within the reaction vessel may mix the calcium carbonate thoroughly allowing permeation of the gas/seawater mixture with the reaction medium. It will be understood that in some embodiments the volume of the reaction vessel in which the gas and seawater mix may be adjusted by moving the position of the grating. In addition, although specific examples of grain sizes of reaction medium are provided, other sized grains can sit directly on top of the grating 1 16, as a layer of pebble-cobble sized limestone grains may be provided to help mix the water-gas mixture as it permeates through the pile of fine sand-sized limestone grains.

[0068] During the process, this fine reaction medium (e.g., limestone sand) is converted to ionic products (e.g., Ca and HCO3) and thus has to be continuously replenished. Accordingly, in many embodiments access components may be provided to ensure a continuous supply of media is provided within the reaction vessel (e.g., via gravity feed, conveyor system, or other loading device). For example, in various embodiments the reaction medium may be provided via a transport mechanism comprising a slurry with surface seawater. In such configurations, water is carried by this input (e.g., water with flue gas may enter via inlet 104 and inlet 106). Such a limestone slurry may be disposed within shipping containers (e.g., within a removable bladder) such that the slurry can flow by gravity to its mixing destination. Embodiments of such bladders may be removable such that at the destination they can be folded and returned to the port of origin so as to free up containers for cargo on the return trip. In various other embodiments, special purpose shipping containers may be used to contain the slurry mixture. In some such embodiments, containers may be made collapsible so that they could be returned without displacing as many cargo containers.

[0069] However, a standard shipping container, or twenty-foot equivalent unit (TEU) may not allow for the mass to be filled with media, e.g., a TEU filled with carbonate media may exceed the loading limit of a TEU. Thus, certain embodiments use various alternative methods for holding and/or storing media. Some embodiments may use a towed bag of slurry such that no cargo space is taken up by the reaction medium. Embodiments of such bags could have one or more mechanisms to get the slurry to the ship, including, for example, electric power disposed through the tow line to pump the slurry aboard, an internal bladder that expands via water (fresh or sea) being pumped in so as to squeeze out the slurry, and mechanical means to squeeze out or vacuum out the slurry. The slurry system in various embodiments may also be integrated into the ballast mechanism of the ship. In such embodiments, slurry gets loaded and then displaced with seawater as the slurry is consumed. Bladders and/or other mechanisms can maintain separation in such embodiments. It will be understood that any and all of the foregoing may be provided with monitoring, control and safety mechanisms. Additional embodiments use hoppers or another storage system built and configured to hold an amount of media.

[0070] Although the above discussion provides CaCCb as a possible reaction medium, it will be understood that any reaction medium capable of sequestering CO2 may also be used. Exemplary materials include, for example, calcites, aragonites, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, magnesium silicate, etc. Certain embodiments incorporate a combination of carbonate and silicate media for the reaction. Various embodiments use a carbonate to silicate ratio of 1 : 1 , 2: 1 , 3: 1 , 4: 1 , 5: 1 , 6: 1 , 7:1 , 8: 1 , 9: 1 , 10: 1 , 1 1 : 1 , 12:1 , 13:1 , 14: 1 , 15:1 , 16: 1 , 17: 1 , 18: 1 , 19: 1 , 20: 1 , or greater to optimize reaction conditions and/or kinetics. Certain embodiments are capable of altering a carbonate to silicate ratio to optimize reaction conditions and/or reaction kinetics. [0071] Additionally, reaction media does not need to be pure, such that some media may contain additional components, so long as the reaction media is capable of reacting in a reactor to sequester carbon, sulfur, or other emissions. Where the reaction material is CaC03, it may be ground up limestone that is high purity or may be CaCCte obtained from dredging carbonate-rich sediments (including calcium carbonate-rich sediments). The composition of the CaCCte, whether it is pure calcite or pure aragonite or something else, will impact the rate of dissolution and hence the rate of CO2 and/or sulfur neutralization. For example, in various embodiments the dissolution rate of the reaction may be enhanced if aragonite is used instead of calcite. The reaction rate can also be modified by changing the grain size of the reactant material (e.g., carbonate, silicate, etc.). For example, grains approximately 500-700 pm diameter will dissolve 30 times more slowly than grains approximately 70-100 pm. Accordingly, in many embodiments, reaction rates may be enhanced using finer grained media (e.g., carbonate and/or silicate). Furthermore, grain size may be adjusted to control bubble size, which can increase interaction between gaseous and liquid phases.

[0072] In further embodiments, pressure, temperature, and/or other relevant reaction parameters are altered to control reaction kinetics. Certain embodiments adjust temperature by using engine heat through the use of circulating lines that are configured to capture heat generated from one or more engines. Additional embodiments are configured to utilize heat from exhaust gas to increase temperature for the reaction. Certain embodiments comprise systems for cooling a reactor or reactor vessel. In some such embodiments, reactor cooling is accomplished through circulating lines that run through a body of water. Other embodiments may control temperature through the use of secondary heating or cooling elements, such as heaters and chillers.

[0073] Certain embodiments are open systems allowing the reaction to proceed at ambient pressures at a particular locale. Additional embodiments are closed systems, which allow for pressure to build and/or be regulated within a reaction vessel. Reaction pressure may build with the introduction of water and gases into a reactor. In some embodiments, the reaction pressure is regulated using a valve, such as excess pressure vent 1 18, which can open to release or maintain pressure, while pressure increases through the introduction of exhaust gases. [0074] Certain embodiments possess one or more sensors 124 to monitor a reaction parameter, such as temperature, pH, pressure, pC02, alkalinity, ion concentration, turbidity, optical depth, spectral data, flow rate, and/or any other relevant parameter. In many of these embodiments, sensors 124 are in communication (e.g., wired or wireless) with a monitor or controller 126 to provide readouts, alarms, and/or to record a status of the ongoing reaction(s). In further embodiments, monitor or controller 126 is configured to control reaction kinetics through the introduction of additional reaction media, increase or decrease water inflow or outflow, release or increase pressure, increase or decrease temperature, and/or any other relevant parameter for controlling reaction kinetics. An advantage of monitoring and controlling reaction parameters is to maintain reactor efficiency and maintain effluent water chemistry. For example, introduction of too much alkalinity in effluent can result in precipitation of carbonate, resulting in a release of CO2, thus negating some or all of capture efficiency.

[0075] Within the reaction vessel of many embodiments, CO2 equilibrates with seawater and dissolves in water; however, other gases (e.g., N2 and/or Ar) and unreacted CO2 may be directed to an excess pressure vent 118 (e.g., via a suitable vent stack). Similarly, outflow 110, with or without outflow pump 112, directs water from the reaction vessel to exit the vessel back to the ocean via a suitable pipeline. In many embodiments, this water may exit the ship through a diffusion pipe (tapered and perforated) located in any suitable location. Allowing effluent water to pass out of the discharge pipe in smaller quantities along the perforations enhances the mixing and dilution of the effluent with ambient seawater. In various embodiments, an outlet may be located near a ship propeller. In such embodiments, instantaneous dilution (50x) of the reaction vessel effluent is achieved. Water is subsequently further mixed with surface seawater by the action of the propeller blades and turbulence within a ship’s wake.

[0076] Figure 1 B illustrates a two-stage reaction reactor 150 in accordance with many embodiments. In a two-stage reactor 150 of many embodiments, a first reaction vessel 152 is used to mix a gas coming entering via inlet 104 with water entering via inlet 106 to generate acidified water, where both inlets 104, 106 are in fluid communication with the first reaction vessel 152. Additionally, a second reaction vessel 154 allows for a reaction between acidified water produced in the first reaction vessel 152 and reaction medium 1 14. Neutralized effluent from second reaction vessel 154 is expelled through outlet 1 10 in fluid communication with the second reaction vessel 154. As noted elsewhere herein, inflow and outflow of water can be assisted with the use of one or more pumps 108, 1 12 that are in fluid communication with the water inlet 106 or outlet 1 10. In certain embodiments, first reaction vessel 152 is in fluid communication with second reaction vessel 154 via conduit 156 to allow acidified water from first reaction vessel 152 to travel to second reaction vessel 154. In many embodiments, flow through conduit 156 is supported with a pump 158 in fluid communication with conduit 156. However, certain embodiments use gravity assisted transport by placing first reaction vessel 152 above second reaction vessel 154. Excess pressure within either reaction chamber 152, 154 can be expelled through an excess pressure vent 1 18, and additional reaction media can be input to second reaction vessel 154 via a reaction medium inlet 120. One or more sensors 124 may be added to one or both reaction vessels 152, 154 to monitor reaction conditions. As noted elsewhere herein, sensors 124 can be in communication a monitor or controller 126 to monitor or control reaction conditions within reaction vessels 152, 154.

[0077] It will be understood that reaction vessels 102, 152, 154 may take any suitable size or volume. For example, an increased size of a ship or other marine vessel correlates to an increased power plant source, which produces more emissions. Larger reaction vessels 102, 152, 154 will compensate for increased CO2 production from such increases in size. Additionally, increased speed of a ship or other marine vessel increases CO2 emissions from increased propulsion, thus additional reaction vessel sizes would compensate for faster ocean transit.

[0078] In various embodiments, a reaction vessel may be a multiple of standard containers (or twenty foot equivalent units or TEUs). For example, in some embodiments a reaction vessel may be 10 m x 10 m x 10 m hence approximate volume of 1000 m ³ (=35,000 ft ³ ), which is equivalent to 27 TEUs or a stack of 20’ containers in a 3x3x3 configuration. It will be understood that such reaction vessels would be configured to hold corrosive (pH 6) seawater that could weigh 48,000 lbs. In some embodiments, such a reaction vessel may be made from stainless steel, titanium, or any other suitable metal, for example. Although one specific volume of reaction vessel is described, such vessel may be provided in a variety of volumes such that CO2 neutralization at various rates and volumes may be implemented according to desired operating conditions.

[0079] It should be understood that reactors 100, 150 can be included on any number of vessels or uses, including cargo ships, ferries, tankers, cruise liners, ocean liners, and other marine vessels. It will also be understood that reactors 100, 150 as described herein are applicable for capture or sequestration of many types of emissions and is not limited to ships or other marine vessels. Certain embodiments are configured to be static and capture atmospheric carbon, sulfur, or other emission, such that a reactor is coupled with a direct air capture system. Further, when implemented on marine vessels, various embodiments are configured as a standalone system that can be installed during a retrofit of an existing marine vessel, while additional embodiments are integrally constructed during construction of newly built vessels.

[0080] Turning to Figure 2, additional embodiments are directed to methods of sequestering carbon using a carbon sequestration reactor, such as described herein. In particular, Figure 2 illustrates method 200 for sequestering carbon using reactor embodiments. At 202, many embodiments provide a reaction medium in a reaction vessel, such as described elsewhere herein, disposed within a reaction vessel. At 204, various embodiments mix seawater and emissions from a source within a reaction vessel. As noted elsewhere herein, one or more reaction vessels may be used, depending on the use of a one- or two-stage reactor. As such, some embodiments may provide a reaction media 202 and mix seawater and emissions 204 in a single reaction vessel or may provide a reaction media 202 to a first reaction vessel, while mixing seawater and emissions 204 in a second reaction vessel. At 206, many embodiments flow the mixture of seawater and emissions through the reaction media such that carbon is sequestered from the mixture. It should be noted that various embodiments will perform features of method 200 simultaneously and/or in a different order than described and illustrated in Figure 2.

[0081] Certain embodiments include more than one reactor 100, 150 within a larger system for sequestering carbon, sulfur, or other emission. In such embodiments, multiple reactors 100, 150 are placed in series or in parallel. For example, in series, effluent from one reactor may be fed into a second reactor to allow for additional reaction and neutralization of acidity in the water. When using a two-stage reactor 150, some systems use only second reaction chamber 154 to allow for continued neutralization of the water via reaction media 1 14. In embodiments using a parallel system, one gas inlet 104 may be fed to multiple reactors 1 10, 150 to increase the amount of carbon, sulfur, or other emission that is dissolved into and acidifies the water.

EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS

[0082] Although specific embodiments of reaction systems, reaction system functionalities and reaction system applications are discussed in the following sections it will be understood that these embodiments are provided as exemplary and are not intended to be limiting.

Exemplary Set-up

[0083] In one exemplary prophetic example, a supply of 1 .25x10 ⁹ g CaC03 per day will titrate the CO2 produced by one ship burning 175 tons of diesel fuel per day (10,000 TEU ship traveling at 21 knots). This mass (and hence volume) of granular CaCCte can be carried in the volume equivalent of 24.3 three standard 20’ shipping containers (TEUs), assuming 50% porosity. A shipping container (one TEU) is 8’x8.5’x20’. This is 38.14 m ³ . Accordingly, it would be necessary to use ~24 shipping containers/day of CaCCte (at 50% porosity) to neutralize a >10,000 TEU ship going 20 knots. This is based on 175 tons fuel/day and a conversion factor of 0.855 to C. This is ~15x10 ⁷ grams CaCCte (514,890 moles C) fit in one TEU.

[0084] In the following example simulations the following assumptions are made:

• 5% CO2 in the flue gas,

• a reactor that is 10x10x10 meters3 in volume,

• a seawater flow rate of 250 Liters/sec through a volume that is 50% rock and 50% prebubbled C02/seawater,

• starting alkalinity (Aik) of 2200 pmol/L, a starting dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) of 2000 pmol/L and a starting [Ca] of 10.3 mmol/L

• a limestone reaction medium ground to 100 pm diameter,

• a 21 °C dissolution rate data (uncatalyzed) as determined from experiment,

In these embodiments, the calculation happens in 3 steps: 1 . Bubble flue gas into seawater and assume complete equilibration.

2. Calculate the time progression of dissolution reaction in the reactor.

3. Take the steady-state reactor output and mix it with various amounts of ambient seawater.

[0085] Based on these parameters and an average transit time across the Atlantic (9 days) and Pacific (16 days) would require ships to carry 219 to 389 volume equivalent of shipping containers (TEUs) full of CaCCte. However, the mass of a TEU filled with CaCCte may exceed the weight specifications of a TEU, thus a TEU may not be filled entirely with reaction media. As such, additional TEUs may be necessary to hold all of the reaction media and/or hoppers installed to hold reaction media.

[0086] As will be discussed in greater detail below, according to rates determined via kinetic analysis, to achieve this degree of CO2 neutralization, seawater must be pumped out of the surface ocean, into the gas equilibration chamber and through the reaction chamber (containing the CaCCte) at a rate of 36,000-72,000 L/sec (571 ,000 to 1 , 141 ,000 gallons per minute). Given a ship speed of 20 knots (~10 m/sec), this largest flux of water requires a hull opening of 7.25 m ² (about 9’ X 9’) to get the needed 72,000 L/sec.

Example 1 : Study of Time Progression of Reactor to Steady-State

[0087] Methods: In a first study, the time progression of a reactor, according to embodiments, towards a steady-state for a variety of parameters, including pH, pC02, [CO3], alkalinity (Aik), dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), and saturation (omega, which is a measure of the thermodynamic potential for the mineral to form or dissolve according to: provided.

[0088] Results: This data is summarized in Figure 3. In this study, the ambient seawater has a DIC of 2000 pmol/L and Aik of 2200 peq/L. The reactor input (post mixing between seawater and flue gas) has a DIC of 3768 pmol/L, Aik of 2200 peq/L, and pC02 of 5000ppm. The output after reaction is calculated to be: DIC of 4880 pmol/L, Aik of 4425 peq/L and a pC02 of 1562 ppm. This shows that the reaction does dissolve a substantial fraction of the carbon introduced to the reactor. Specifically, this reaction dissolves 1 .05x10 ⁵ moles C/day, which equates to a TEU of carbonate every 4 days. As discussed this would not be sufficient to capture all the CO2 emission based on the estimates. However, also as shown, the omega, or saturation level within the reactor is only 0.73 (where 1 represents saturation).

[0089] Conclusion : This implies that the reactor conditions (e.g., volume, flow, etc.) may be further engineered to increase the rate of the reaction. Further discussion of how the rate of reaction within reactors (according to embodiments) will be provided in the following section.

Example 2: Study of Mixing on PCO2 Output

[0090] Methods: As discussed above, the pCC output at steady-state in a reactor is ~1562 ppm. This output of pCC is high and could lead to outgassing from the effluent of the reactor, which would diminish the net carbon sequestration. According to some embodiments, the effluent may be mixed with seawater at the output to reduce this pCC .

[0091] Results: As shown in the data plots of Figure 4, mixing the effluent output with seawater dramatically reduces the pCC of the output. Specifically, at a 5x mixing ration the pC02 drops to ~1350 ppm, at 10x to ~889 ppm, and at 30x to ~641 ppm.

Example 3: Effect of Reactor Volume and Flow Rate Reactor Efficiency

[0092] Methods: In a third study, as summarized in Figures 5-7, the effect of reactor volume and flow rate on a number of reactor parameters is studied.

[0093] Results: Specifically, as shown in Figure 5, lower flow rates and larger volumes allow the reaction to go more to completion, e.g., increasing DIC, alkalinity, etc. in the outflow of the reactor. However, the more important parameter is DIC flux (e.g., the product of [DIC] and flow rate) through the system. Data from studies of this DIC flux is provided in Figure 6. As shown, the DIC flux is independent of reactor volume, but the flow rate changes are large compared the DIC changes. [0094] Conclusion ^· . According to these studies, a flow rate of ~2000 L/s would provide a residence time of 0.66 TEU/day, which would mean with four to five such systems it would be possible to arrive at the target sequestration rate of 3 TEU/day. The output of pC0 ₂ , as shown in Figure 7, is affected by both flow and volume. Larger reactor volumes lead to smaller pC0 ₂ values at a given flow rate. This effect is further discussed in the section below.

Example 4: Effect of Volume Post-Mixing

[0095] Methods: As previously discussed, it has been shown that by engineering flow rate and post-reaction mixing it is possible to improve the efficiency of embodiments of reactors in capturing carbon. As shown in Figure 8, while reactor volume does have an effect on the pC02 after mixing with seawater.

[0096] Conclusion: Accordingly, the volume of the reactor may be engineered (as allowed by the footprint of the vessel) to further increase the efficiency of embodiments of reactors.

DOCTRINE OF EQUIVALENTS

[0097] While several alternative configurations for systems have been depicted, it should be clear that any of a variety of system configurations can be implemented in accordance with many embodiments of the invention.

[0098] More generally, as can be inferred from the above discussion, the above- mentioned concepts can be implemented in a variety of arrangements in accordance with embodiments of the invention. Accordingly, although the present invention has been described in certain specific aspects, many additional modifications and variations would be apparent to those skilled in the art. It is therefore to be understood that the present invention may be practiced otherwise than specifically described. Thus, embodiments of the present invention should be considered in all respects as illustrative and not restrictive.