Cross-reference to Related Applications

This application claims priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63/027,683, filed May 20, 2020, the entirety of which is incorporated herein by reference.

The present inventive subject matter relates to compositions and materials that provide unique combinations of properties, as well as methods.

Background

Metals, alloys, and their composites are used in a wide variety of markets for their very good strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, and thermal conductivity.

Companies and organizations serving aerospace, defense, transportation, and consumer electronics markets are looking for improved material properties that enable thinner, lighter, stronger, higher power, and higher temperature designs.

Brief Summary of the Inventive Subject Matter

Example embodiments of the invention provide compositions organized with bonding between nanoparticles and metallic materials (e.g., a metal matrix).

In accordance with a first aspect of the present inventive subject matter, there is provided a composition, comprising: at least a first metallic material, and a plurality of nanoparticles, at least some of the nanoparticles attached to the first metallic material.

In accordance with a second aspect of the present inventive subject matter, there is provided a method, comprising: dispersing a plurality of nanoparticles amongst at least a first metallic material to form a dispersed composition; incorporating the plurality of nanoparticles into the at least first metallic material to form an incorporated composition; and reacting the plurality of nanoparticles and the at least first metallic material to form inorganic compounds wherein at least some of the inorganic compounds comprise chemical bonds to at least some of the nanoparticles and the at least first metallic material.

The inventive subject matter may be more fully understood with reference to the accompanying drawings and the following detailed description of the inventive subject matter.

Brief Description of the Drawing Figures

Fig. 1 schematically depicts a representative embodiment of an apparatus 10 that can be used to make epitaxial h-BN/BNNT structures, as well as compositions and/or aggregates that comprise epitaxial h-BN/BNNT structures, in accordance with the first and second aspects of the present inventive subject matter.

Fig. 2 is an enlarged portion of Fig. 1.

Fig. 3 is an illustration of an epitaxial h-BN/BNNT structure.

Fig. 4 is an illustration of a metal composite with an incorporated nodule covered nanotube.

Fig. 5 is an illustration of a metal composite with an incorporated nodule covered nanotube with inorganic compounds.

Fig. 6 is a schematic representation of a lack of attachment (far left), geometric attachment (second from left), van der Walls attachment (second from right), and chemical attachment (far right).

Fig. 7 is a schematic representation of dispersing and incoporating nanoparticles in a metallic material. Fig. 7 depicts loading metallic material and nanoparticles in a mixing system or device (top region of Fig. 7), dispersing nanoparticles in metallic material (middle region of Fig. 7) in a cascading mode, and incorporating nanoparticles in metallic material (bottom region of Fig. 7) in a cataracting mode.

Fig. 8 is an example calculation of the strength of a composite (calculation UTS 0.25wt% = 0.4Vol%).

Fig. 9 is a mathematical model for thermal conductivity.

Fig. 10 is a chart showing thermal conductivity calculations.

Fig. 11 is a chart showing thermal conductivity calculations. Fig. 12 is a schematic representation of reacting in accordance with an aspect of the present inventive subject matter, to produce a nanotube with inorganic compounds attached.

Fig. 13 is a plot of ultimate strength enhancement for various compositions.

Fig. 14 is a table showing features of four of the aspects in accordance with the present inventive subject matter.

Fig. 15 is an illustration of a metal composite with a nodule covered nanotube with inorganic compounds and embedded in a metallic material.

Fig. 16 is a schematic illustration showing nanoparticles on the surface of a metallic particle, nanoparticles partially embedded in a metallic particle, and nanoparticles embedded in a metallic particle.

Fig. 17 is a schematic representation of a nanotube with nodules.

Fig. 18 is an SEM showing an example in which nanoparticles are not incorporated fully (nanobarbs are seen at the surface).

Fig. 19 is an SEM showing an example in which nanoparticles were fully incorporated.

Fig. 20 shows calculated improvements based on the equation shown in Fig. 8 applied to wrought aluminum alloys. The legends and labels indicate the weight percentage of nanobarbs.

Fig. 21 shows equations that are the Nan model for calculating thermal conductivity improvement in a composite. Those equations are all used together to calculate thermal conductivity (reference: Nan, et al., Effective thermal conductivity of particulate composites with interfacial thermal resistance , Journal of Applied Physics 81, 6692 (1997)).

Detailed Description of the Inventive Subject Matter

Unless otherwise defined, all terms (including technical and scientific terms) used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this inventive subject matter belongs. It will be further understood that terms, such as those defined in commonly used dictionaries, should be interpreted as having a meaning that is consistent with their meaning in the context of the relevant art and the present disclosure and will not be interpreted in an idealized or overly formal sense unless expressly so defined herein. Although the terms “first”, “second”, etc. are used herein in referring to various items (e.g., first metallic material, first elements, first axis, first region, first layer, first structure, first reactor section, first reaction chamber region, first exhaust line, etc.), such items are not limited by these numerical terms. These numerical terms are used only to identify individually each item from another.

The expression “attached,” as used herein, refers to any kind of attachment, including geometric attachment (including but not limited to on a surface, partially embedded, embedded, complementary shapes, etc.), chemical (e.g., ionic or covalent bonding) van der Waals force, hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole, etc. A mechanical bond is an entanglement in space between two or more component parts, such that they cannot be separated without breaking or distorting chemical bonds between atoms. It follows that a mechanical bond is as strong as the weakest participating chemical bond

(https://onlinelibrarv.wilev.com/doi/10.1002/978111904412 3.chi). A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between atoms, ions or molecules that enables the formation of chemical compounds. In general, strong chemical bonding is associated with the sharing or transfer of electrons between the participating atoms. Examples of intermolecular forces include: ionic compounds (electrostatic with other ionics - strong); ion-dipole (ionic species to covalent molecules - medium strength - strong); covalent compounds (van der Waals with other covalents — weak).

The expression “nanoparticle,” as used herein, refers to any solid particle (i.e., solid at room temperature) of which at least one of its three dimensions is nanoscale, i.e., is 1 micron or less. Such nanoparticles thus include a wide variety of particles. Included among nanoparticles are (among a wide variety of other particles) nanotubes (e.g., carbon nanotubes and boron nitride nanotubes), nanosheets (e.g., graphene and boron nitride nanosheets) as well as nanobarbs (i.e., nanotubes or nanosheets with nodules (defined below), e.g., boron nitride nanobarbs).

Persons of skill in the art are familiar with the concept of nanotubes (single-wall and multiple-wall), e.g., carbon nanotubes and boron nitride nanotubes. The expression “nanotube,” as used herein, encompasses much more than hypothetical idealized nanotubes, i.e., where every atom is in its proper location. In order to clearly describe the scope of the expression “nanotube,” as used herein, relative to the hypothetical idealized structure, the expression “hypothetical idealized nanotube,” is used herein to refer to the idealized concept of a nanotube, well known to persons of skill in the art, in which there are no defects (i.e., no missing atoms, no atoms that are misplaced, no discrepancies in the arrangement of atoms, etc.), i.e., the expression “hypothetical idealized nanotube,” as used herein, refers to an arrangement of atoms that consists of one or more tubular walls (where there are more than one wall, each is inside or outside with respect to each other, e.g., they can be coaxial or substantially coaxial), each wall comprising a generally tubular and continuous arrangement of atoms (e.g., carbon atoms in a hexagonal lattice in a carbon nanotube; alternating boron atoms and nitrogen atoms in a hexagonal lattice in a boron nitride nanotube).

The expression “nanotube,” as used herein, refers to an arrangement of atoms (at least 200 atoms) that has a ten percent or lower defect ratio (defined below) relative to a hypothetical idealized nanotube (discussed above) of the same length, diameter and number of walls. A “nanotube,” as defined herein, can have any number of walls (i.e., one or more) in any region (i.e., a nanotube can have a particular number of walls over its entirety, or one or more regions can have one number of walls and other regions can have any other numbers of walls.

The expression “defect ratio,” as used herein, refers to the percentage of atoms in a structure that are misplaced relative to a hypothetical idealized structure, i.e., the expression “arrangement of atoms that has a ten percent or lower defect ratio relative to a hypothetical idealized nanotube,” as used herein, encompasses structures in which the proportion of deviations from a hypothetical idealized nanotube (of the same length, diameter, and number of walls) is not more than 10 percent, such deviations being quantified in terms of the number of atoms in the actual nanotube structure that are in positions that do not correspond to their respective positions in the hypothetical idealized nanotube, divided by the total number of positions for atoms in the hypothetical idealized nanotube (or by subtracting, from 100 percent, the percentage of atoms in the actual nanotube structure that are in positions that correspond to their respective positions in the hypothetical idealized nanotube vs. the total number of positions in the hypothetical idealized nanotube). A single deviation is where a single atom in the hypothetical idealized nanotube is replaced by a different atom, or where a single shift occurs. For example, in comparing the arrangement of atoms in an actual nanotube structure with the arrangement of atoms in a hypothetical idealized nanotube, a single set of deviations can encompass a sequence of atoms (one atom wide) extending around the actual nanotube structure, with the atoms on the respective opposite sides of the sequence of atoms (and not including the sequence of atoms) being compared to the arrangement of atoms in the hypothetical idealized nanotube.

Persons of skill in the art are familiar with the concept of nanosheets (single-layer and multiple-layer), e.g., carbon nanosheets (graphene) and boron nitride nanosheets. The expression “nanosheet,” as used herein, encompasses much more than hypothetical idealized nanosheets, i.e., where every atom is in its proper location. In order to clearly describe the scope of the expression “nanosheet,” as used herein, relative to the hypothetical idealized structure, the expression “hypothetical idealized nanosheet,” is used herein to refer to the idealized concept of a nanosheet, well known to persons of skill in the art, in which there are no defects (i.e., no missing atoms, no atoms that are misplaced, no discrepancies in the arrangement of atoms, etc.), i.e., the expression “hypothetical idealized nanosheet,” as used herein, refers to an arrangement of atoms that consists of one or more arrangement of atoms (e.g., carbon atoms in a hexagonal lattice in a carbon nanosheet; alternating boron atoms and nitrogen atoms in a hexagonal lattice in a boron nitride nanosheet).

The expression “nanosheet,” as used herein, refers to an arrangement of atoms (at least 200 atoms) that has a ten percent or lower defect ratio (defined below) relative to a hypothetical idealized nanosheet (discussed above) of the same dimensions, and number of layers. A “nanosheet,” as defined herein, can have any number of layers (i.e., it can be a single atom thick, i.e., a single layer, or it can have two layers, ten layers, one hundred layers, etc.) in any region (i.e., a nanosheet can have a particular number of layers over its entirety, or one or more regions can have one number of layers and other regions can have any other numbers of layers.

The expression “nodule,” as used herein, refers to any arrangement of atoms (e.g., a multi-atom structure) that is attached to a nanoparticle but is not part of the nanoparticle (i.e., the nodule has an arrangement of atoms that differs in geometry and/or orientation from the arrangement of atoms in the nanoparticle). For example, if a nanoparticle can be thought of as having a crystal structure, and an arrangement of atoms having any of the following conditions: a crystal structure the same as the nanoparticle but with different lattice dimensions, a crystal structure the same as the nanoparticle but with different orientation, or a crystal structure different than the nanoparticle, is attached to the nanoparticle, the arrangement of atoms is a nodule.

The expression “metallic material,” as used herein, refers to any material that comprises one or more metals which also may contain nonmetallic atoms and/or compounds. Persons of skill in the art are familiar with a wide variety of metals, metal alloys, and metal matrix composites, and are readily able to determine whether any particular material consists of or comprises one or more metallic material. Representative metals include lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, potassium, calcium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, rubidium , strontium, yttrium, zirconium , niobium , molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, cesium, barium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth, polonium, francium, radium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, lawrencium, rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium, hassium, copernicium and alloys of any of the above and composites comprising any of the above or alloys of any of the above plus a particles comprising a metal, metalloid, or non-metallic elements or compounds comprising combinations of metals, metalloids, or non-metallic elements.

The expression “nanobarb” as used herein, refers to a nanoparticle composite with at least one nodule attached to at least one nanoparticle.

The expression “boron nitride nanobarb” as used herein, refers to a nanobarb comprised of at least one boron nitride nanotube and of nodules comprised of boron and nitrogen atoms.

Where an amount of a material is described as being within a range at least a particular value (or a particular value or less), or the like, a range is defined by the context, e.g., one value is specified (e.g., “at least” a value) and the other can be determined based on the amount(s) of another specified material or materials (e.g., in a composition that comprises at least 98.75 weight percent of material A, at least 0.01 weight percent of material B, and 1.0 weight percent or less of other elements, the greatest weight percentage material A can be is 1.24 weight percent). Disclosure herein that in some embodiments, a first parameter is at least a first value, and in some embodiment, the first parameter is at least a second value also means that in some embodiments, the first parameter is between the first value and the second value, and all instances of disclosure herein that a value is at least a first value in some embodiments and is at least a second value in some embodiments is to be understood as such.

As noted above, in accordance with the first aspect of the present inventive subject matter, there is provided a composition, comprising: at least a first metallic material, and a plurality of nanoparticles, at least some of the nanoparticles attached to the first metallic material.

As discussed above, the expression “nanoparticle,” as used herein, refers to any solid particle (i.e., solid at room temperature) of which at least one of its three dimensions is nanoscale, i.e., is 1 micron or less.

In some embodiments, one or more nanoparticles have a high aspect ratio (i.e., with a defined set of three orthogonal axes, the dimension of a nanoparticle in a direction parallel to a first of the axes divided by the dimension of the nanoparticle in a direction parallel to a second of the axes) is at least 2:1 (and in some embodiments, at least 5:1, and in some embodiments, at least 10:1). In many cases, nanoparticles of high aspect ratio are preferred.

Nanoparticles can generally be of any suitable size. In some embodiments, at least some of the nanoparticles are nanotubes having diameter of 200 nm or less and length of at least 10 nm.

Nanobarbs can generally be of any suitable size. In some embodiments, at least some of the nanobarbs have diameter of 200nm or less and length at least 10 nm with an arithmetic average surface roughness of at least lnm.

Nanoparticles can be attached to metallic material in any of a variety of ways, as well as combinations of any of such ways, and any way of attaching nanoparticles to metallic material is within the scope of this aspect of the present invention. Representative examples of ways of attaching nanoparticles to metallic material are described below (but the attachment in this aspect of the present inventive subject matter is not limited to only the examples of attachment described herein and combinations thereof). Nanoparticles can be attached to a metallic material via chemical bonding (e.g., through van der Waals attraction, electrostatic attraction, and ion-dipole attraction), nanoparticles can be attached physically to metallic material via mechanical bonding (e.g., through entanglement in space such they cannot be separated without breaking or distorting chemical bonds between atoms), and nanoparticles can be attached to metallic material by a combination of chemical attachment and physical attachment.

In some embodiments according to the first aspect of the present inventive subject matter, which can include or not include, as suitable, any of the other features described herein, at least some of the nanoparticles are attached to the first metallic material by at least one form of attachment selected from among mechanical bonding and chemical bonding.

In some embodiments according to the first aspect of the present inventive subject matter, which can include or not include, as suitable, any of the other features described herein, at least some of the nanoparticles are attached to the first metallic material by the nanoparticle being chemically bonded to at least one inorganic compound and the inorganic compound also being chemically bonded to the first metallic material (i.e., to one or more surface regions of the metallic material, to one or more internal regions of the metallic material, or to both one or more surface regions and one or more internal regions of the metallic material). Any suitable inorganic compound can be used to attach a nanoparticle to a metallic material, i.e., such that (i) at least a first region of the inorganic compound is attached (e.g., by mechanical bonding or chemical bonding, particularly by chemical bonding) to the nanoparticle, and (ii) at least a second region of the inorganic compound is attached (e.g., mechanical bonding or chemical bonding, particularly by chemical bonding) to the metallic material. Representative examples of suitable inorganic materials include nitrides and borides. In some of such embodiments, at least some of the nanoparticles are attached to the first metallic material by the nanoparticle being chemically bonded to two or more inorganic compounds and each of the two or more inorganic compounds also being chemically bonded to the first metallic material (i.e., to a surface region and/or to an internal region of the metallic material).

In some embodiments according to the first aspect of the present inventive subject matter, which can include or not include, as suitable, any of the other features described herein, each of at least some of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one nanotube. In some embodiments according to any of the first aspect of the present inventive subject matter, which can include or not include, as suitable, any of the other features described herein, each of at least some of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one boron nitride nanotube and/or at least one boron nitride nanobarb.

In some embodiments according to the first aspect of the present inventive subject matter, which can include or not include, as suitable, any of the other features described herein, at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one nanosheet.

In some embodiments according to the first aspect of the present inventive subject matter, which can include or not include, as suitable, any of the other features described herein, at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one boron nitride nanosheet and/or at least one boron nitride nanobarb.

In some embodiments according to the first aspect of the present inventive subject matter, which can include or not include, as suitable, any of the other features described herein, at least some of the nanoparticles comprise nodules.

A nodule can be of atomic scale (e.g., it can have one or more dimension that is on the order of Angstroms, e.g., 2.5 - 6.6 Angstroms), or it can be much larger.

A representative example of a type of nanoparticle having nodules is an epitaxial h- BN/BNNT structure as disclosed in U.S. Patent Publication 2019/0292051, filed March 22, 2018, the entirety of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. In particular, the disclosure in U.S. Patent Publication 2019/0292051, filed March 22, 2018, of epitaxial h- BN/BNNT structures, and how to make such structures, is hereby incorporated by reference herein. As described in U.S. Patent Publication 2019/0292051, a nodule can comprise a hexagonal arrangement of atoms of boron and nitrogen that is epitaxial with respect to a nanoparticle. Such nodules, nanoparticles having nodules, and ways to make such structures are described in more detail below. Such epitaxial h-BN/BNNT structures are also referred to herein as “boron nitride nanobarbs.”

In some embodiments according to the first aspect of the present inventive subject matter, which can include or not include, as suitable, any of the other features described herein, at least some of the nanoparticles comprise hexagonal boron nitride nodules.

In some embodiments according to the first aspect of the present inventive subject matter, which can include or not include, as suitable, any of the other features described herein, the first metallic material is selected from the group of metallic materials consisting of lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, potassium, calcium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, rubidium , strontium, yttrium, zirconium , niobium , molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, cesium, barium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth , polonium, francium, radium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, lawrencium, rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium, hassium, copernicium and alloys of any of the above and composites comprising any of the above or alloys of any of the above plus particles comprising a metal, metalloid, or non-metallic elements or compounds comprising combinations of metals, metalloids, or non-metallic elements.

As noted above, in accordance with the second aspect of the present inventive subject matter, there is provided a method, comprising: dispersing a plurality of nanoparticles amongst at least a first metallic material to form a dispersed composition; incorporating the plurality of nanoparticles into the at least first metallic material to form an incorporated composition; and reacting the plurality of nanoparticles and the at least first metallic material to form inorganic compounds wherein at least some of the inorganic compounds comprise chemical bonds to at least some of the nanoparticles and the at least first metallic material.

In some embodiments according to the second aspect of the present inventive subject matter, which can include or not include, as suitable, any of the other features described herein, each of at least some of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one nanotube.

In some embodiments according to the second aspect of the present inventive subject matter, which can include or not include, as suitable, any of the other features described herein, each of at least some of the plurality of nanoparticles comprise at least one boron nitride nanotube and/or at least one boron nitride nanobarb.

In some embodiments according to the second aspect of the present inventive subject matter, which can include or not include, as suitable, any of the other features described herein, at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one nanosheet.

In some embodiments according to the second aspect of the present inventive subject matter, which can include or not include, as suitable, any of the other features described herein, at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one boron nitride nanosheet and/or at least one boron nitride nanobarb.

In some embodiments according to the second aspect of the present inventive subject matter, which can include or not include, as suitable, any of the other features described herein, at least some of the nanoparticles comprise nodules.

In some embodiments according to the second aspect of the present inventive subject matter, which can include or not include, as suitable, any of the other features described herein, at least some of the nanoparticles comprise hexagonal boron nitride nodules.

In some embodiments according to the second aspect of the present inventive subject matter, which can include or not include, as suitable, any of the other features described herein, the first metallic material is selected from the group of metallic materials consisting of lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, potassium, calcium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, rubidium , strontium, yttrium, zirconium , niobium , molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, cesium, barium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth, polonium, francium, radium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, lawrencium, rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium, hassium, copernicium and alloys of any of the above and composites comprising any of the above or alloys of any of the above plus a particles comprising a metal, metalloid, or non-metallic elements or compounds comprising combinations of metals, metalloids, or non-metallic elements. In some embodiments in accordance with the second aspect of the present inventive subject matter, the method comprises (1) dispersing a plurality of nanoparticles amongst at least a first metallic material to form a dispersed composition; then (2) incorporating the plurality of nanoparticles into the at least first metallic material to form an incorporated composition; and then (3) reacting the plurality of nanoparticles and the at least first metallic material to form inorganic compounds wherein at least some of the inorganic compounds comprise chemical bonds to at least some of the nanoparticles and the at least first metallic material in sequence (i.e., (1), then (2) and then (3), and in other embodiments there may be some overlap between any of (1), (2) and/or (3) (e.g., some reacting (i.e., (3)), e.g. , 10% of the chemical bonding, can be carried out/can occur during the incorporating (i.e., (2)); or all of the reacting (or almost all of it) can be carried out/can occur during the incorporating).

Reacting can be caused by raising temperature, e.g., to at least 475 degrees C. Reacting can be caused by higher temperatures, e.g., up to where melting occurs, or even higher than a temperature at which melting occurs

In any of the aspects of the present inventive subject matter described herein, the metallic material can be of any suitable shape or size. In some embodiments according to the present inventive subject matter, which can include or not include, as suitable, any of the other features described herein, at least some of the metallic material can be in the form of powders. In some of such embodiments, the powder metallic material can have dimensions of tens of nanometers to hundreds of microns and geometries of but not limited to flat, spherical, and irregular.

As noted above, Fig. 7 is a schematic representation of dispersing and incoporating nanoparticles in a metallic material, and it depicts loading metallic material and nanoparticles in a mixing system or device (top region of Fig. 7), dispersing nanoparticles in metallic material (middle region of Fig. 7) in a cascading mode, and incorporating nanoparticles in metallic material (bottom region of Fig. 7) in a cataracting mode. Such a sequence is a representative example of a way to provide dispersing and incorporating (and optionally at least some reacting) in accordance with the present inventive subject matter. For example, in some embodiments, dispersing is achieved by causing particles that comprise metallic material to cascade (i.e., at least some particles cascade at least part of the time) in the presence of nanoparticles, and/or incorporating is achieved by causing particles that comprise metallic material to undergo cataracting (i.e., at least some particles undergo cataracting at least part of the time) in the presence of nanoparticles. In some embodiments, dispersing and incorporating are both achieved by causing particles that comprise metallic material to undergo cataracting in the presence of nanoparticles. The expression “cascading,” as used herein, refers to particles moving stepwise from one part of a group of particles to another part of the group of particles (e.g., from a right side (higher side) of the group of particles to a left side (lower side) of the group of particles in a number of steps, e.g., five or six jumps). The expression “cataracting,” as used herein, refers to particles moving from one side of a group of particles to another side of the group of particles (or substantially from one side to another side) in a single step (e.g., from a right side or near a right side (higher side) of the group of particles to a left side or near a left side (lower side) of the group of particles in one jump). Cataracting encompasses such movement of any percentage of particles, e.g., 30 percent of the particles, 40 percent of the particles, 50 percent of the particles, 60 percent of the particles, 70 percent of the particles, 80 percent of the particles, 90 percent of the particles, or all or substantially all of the particles experiencing such movement (at least part of the time).

Persons of skill in the art are familiar with ways to provide for cascading and/or cataracting, as well as other particle movement that can achieve dispersing and/or incorporating, and are familiar with machines and devices through which cascading, cataracting and particle movement can be provided, and all such ways, machines and devices are included among the scope of components that can be used in making compositions in accordance with the present inventive subject matter and in performing methods in accordance with the present inventive subject matter. Representative examples include ball mills (e.g., a planetary ball mill), attritor mills, etc.

Persons of skill in the art are familiar with adjusting various parameters involved in operating equipment used for mixing materials, for dispersing one material in another, for incorporating one material in another, etc., in order to affect properties of products and/or to cause a feature to exist in at least in a percentage of the product (or to try to avoid a feature existing in at least some of the product). For example, materials can be supplied to a ball mill, and the ball mill is activated. Numerous parameters can be altered or selected in carrying out a design, and persons of skill in the art are familiar with how such parameters can be altered or selected to determine combinations that provide desired results and combinations that do not. Such parameters include (but are not limited to) the particular design (structures, geometry, etc.) of the ball mill (or other device), the particle size distribution, the densities (or mean densities) and hardnesses of any components or materials, the loading (yield coefficient), the absolute angular velocity of the plate, the absolute angular velocity (or respective velocities) of the vial(s), milling time (or the specifics of a regimen involving varying angular velocities of one or more components), etc.

A formula for calculating power per unit weight of powder is:

P* = -ON m _b t(W _p -W _v )[ W ³ (R _v -d _b /2)/ W _p + W _P W R _P ]( R _v -d _b /2)^PW, where:

P* = Power per unit weight of powder;

F = yield coefficient (0 = empty; 1 = one third full; other values determined empirically);

N _b = number of balls; m _b = mass of a ball; t = milling time;

W _p = absolute angular velocity of the plate;

Wv = absolute angular velocity of the vial;

Rv= distance from center of vial to vial wall; d _b = ball diameter;

R _p = distance from center of plate to center of the vial; and PW = powder weight.

By examining product, persons of skill in the art can determine whether sufficient incorporation (e.g., of nanoparticles in metallic material) has been achieved, and to make adjustments, such as increasing the power per unit weight of powder (e.g., according to the formula listed above) if nanoparticles are not fully incorporated. For example, Fig. 18 shows an example in which nanoparticles are not incorporated fully (nanobarbs are seen at the surface). The power per unit weight of powder applied in making the product shown in Fig. 18 was 1.65 Whg ¹ . In order to achieve full incorporation of the nanoparticles, the power per unit weight of powder was increased to 2.2 Whg ¹ . The product obtained with 2.2 Whg ¹ is shown in Fig. 19, which shows that the nanoparticles were fully incorporated.

Compositions in accordance with the first aspect of the present inventive subject matter, and compositions made by methods in accordance with the second aspect of the present inventive subject matter, provide numerous useful properties. Metals traditionally have been strengthened by work hardening, grain refinement, precipitation hardening, or solid solution strengthening. The magnitude of improvements from these traditional methods is continuing to decrease as they reach fundamental limits on grain size, solubility, and precipitate size and dispersion. Nanotubes are an attractive composite material, not only because of their incredible stiffness, strength, and aspect ratio, but because nanotubes provide a new mechanism for strengthening metals, stress transfer. Similar to strengthening mechanisms in short fiber composites, with a bond between the nanotube and the matrix, stress and can be transferred to the nanotube significantly improving the properties of a matrix. However, nanotube implementation into metal matrix composites has been limited by the high temperatures of metal processing, a lack of strong bonding between the nanotube and the matrix or stronger bonding via chemical reactions but that scavenge atoms from the nanotubes, reducing their length, and thus their effect. Boron Nitride Nanobarbs are ideally suited for metal matrix composites because of the high decomposition temperature, the boron nitride nodules that provide mechanical bonding and also atoms for reacting and chemical bonding while protecting the nanotube.

For example, such compositions can have one or more attributes from among: high thermal conductivity, high thermal diffusivity, high thermal stability, high strength, radiation- resistance, neutron absorption, fatigue resistance, and other properties, and therefore can be useful for making a wide variety of products, including (but not limited to):

(1) Lightweight structural materials (e.g., airframes; aerostructure skins,) e.g., because the nanoparticles can impart high strength through load transfer from the matrix to the nanoparticle.

(2) Heat sink materials, e.g., because the nanoparticles can impart high thermal conductivity and high thermal diffusivity, rapidly dissipating energy away from a heat source. As described in U.S. Patent Publication 2019/0292051, an epitaxial h-BN/BNNT structure (boron nitride nanobarb) comprises at least a first boron nitride nanotube structure (defined below) and at least a first hexagonal boron nitride structure (defined below), the first hexagonal boron nitride structure epitaxial (defined below) with respect to the first boron nitride nanotube structure.

The expression “boron nitride nanotube structure” is used herein to refer to a portion of an epitaxial h-BN/BNNT structure in which boron atoms and nitrogen atoms are in an arrangement of atoms that has a ten percent or lower defect ratio relative to an idealized boron nitride nanotube (discussed above) of the same length, diameter and number of walls.

The expression “hexagonal boron nitride structure,” as used herein, refers to a portion of an epitaxial h-BN/BNNT structure in which atoms of boron and nitrogen are in an arrangement of atoms that has a ten percent or lower defect ratio relative to an idealized hexagonal boron nitride structure (discussed below) of the same shape and number of layers.

As is well known by persons of skill in the art, the expression “epitaxial” is used extensively in relation to crystal nucleation and crystal growth.

A crystal is defined as atoms, molecules or ions arranged in an orderly repeating pattern - a crystal lattice - extending in all three spatial dimensions. Crystal growth is the process where a pre-existing crystal becomes larger as more atoms, molecules or ions are added in their ordered positions in the crystal lattice. During crystal growth, the atoms, molecules or ions must fall into the correct lattice positions in order for a well-ordered crystal to grow. When atoms, molecules or ions fall into positions different from those in the idealized crystal lattice, defects are formed. Typically, the atoms, molecules or ions in a crystal lattice are held in place, i.e., they cannot readily move from their positions, and so crystal growth is often irreversible in that once the molecules or ions have fallen into place in the growing lattice, they are fixed.

Crystallization is typically understood as comprising two processes, namely, crystal nucleation and crystal growth. Crystal nucleation is where a new crystal is formed (i.e., there is no pre-existing crystal; crystal growth is where a atoms, molecules or ions are added to an existing crystal, i.e., a crystal that has been nucleated (and optionally grown, i.e., adding to a crystal that has been nucleated is referred to as crystal growth; adding to a crystal that has been nucleated and already grown to some degree is also referred to a crystal growth). Epitaxy refers to nucleating a crystal of a particular orientation on another crystal, where the orientation is determined by the underlying crystal. A statement herein that a first structure (i.e., a hexagonal boron nitride structure) is epitaxial with respect to a second structure (i.e., a boron nitride nanotube structure), means that [1] the atoms in the second structure, and [2] the atoms in the first structure that are closest to the second structure, are arranged relative to each other in the manner that atoms in an idealized structure corresponding to the second structure are arranged relative to each other, i.e., they are arranged in the manner that results from (or would result from) nucleating the second structure on the first structure and growing the second structure on the nucleated second structure.

Accordingly, the expression “hexagonal boron nitride structure that is epitaxial with respect to the boron nitride nanotube structure” (and analogous expressions, e.g., “hexagonal boron nitride structures that are each epitaxial with respect to the boron nitride nanotube structure,” “each of the at least one hexagonal boron nitride structure(s) is/are epitaxial with respect to the boron nitride nanotube structure,” “hexagonal boron nitride that is epitaxial with respect to the boron nitride nanotube structure,” etc.), as used herein, means that for each such hexagonal boron nitride structure, [1] the atoms in the hexagonal boron nitride structure, and [2] the atoms in the boron nitride nanotube structure that are closest to the hexagonal boron nitride structure, are arranged relative to each other in the manner that atoms in an idealized hexagonal boron nitride structure (discussed below) are arranged relative to each other, i.e., they are arranged in the manner that results from (or would result from) nucleating a hexagonal boron nitride structure on a boron nitride nanotube structure and growing the hexagonal boron nitride structure on the nucleated hexagonal boron nitride structure.

The expression “idealized hexagonal boron nitride structure,” as used herein, corresponds to the concept of hexagonal boron nitride, well known to persons of skill in the art, in which there are no defects (i.e., no missing atoms, no atoms that are misplaced, no discrepancies in the arrangement of atoms, etc.), i.e., the expression “idealized hexagonal boron nitride,” as used herein, refers to a hypothetical arrangement of atoms that consists of one or more layers (where there are more than one layer, each is in contact with at least one other layer, e.g., the layers are stacked), each layer comprising an arrangement of boron atoms and nitrogen atoms that corresponds to defect-free hexagonal boron nitride crystal. As is well known to persons of skill in the art, the boron atoms and nitrogen atoms in hexagonal boron nitride crystal are arranged in a repeating hexagonal pattern in which boron atoms and nitrogen atoms alternate.

Hexagonal boron nitride is characterized by stacking of two-dimensional honeycomb lattices made of boron and nitrogen atoms that are strongly bound by highly polar B-N bonds. The layers of hexagonal boron nitride generally stack in an AA' stacking mode, i.e., a boron atom bearing a partial positive charge in one layer resides on the oppositely charged nitrogen atoms on the adjacent layers.

The expression “hexagonal boron nitride,” as used herein, refers to an arrangement of atoms (at least 100 nitrogen atoms and at least 100 boron atoms) that has a ten percent or lower defect ratio relative to an idealized hexagonal boron nitride arrangement of atoms (discussed above) of the same dimensions and number of layers. The expression “hexagonal boron nitride,” as used herein, therefore encompasses well known hexagonal boron nitride which is characterized by stacking of two-dimensional honeycomb lattices made of boron and nitrogen atoms that are strongly bound by highly polar B-N bonds, and in which the layers of hexagonal boron nitride generally stack in an AA' stacking mode, i.e., a boron atom bearing a partial positive charge in one layer resides on the oppositely charged nitrogen atoms on the adjacent layers.

Fig. 1 schematically depicts a representative embodiment of an apparatus 10 that can be used to make epitaxial h-BN/BNNT structures, as well as compositions and/or aggregates that comprise epitaxial h-BN/BNNT structures. Fig. 2 is an enlarged portion of Fig. 1, showing portions of the apparatus 10.

The apparatus 10 comprises a plasma generator 11, a collar region 12, a first reactor section 13 (which defines a first reaction chamber region) and a second reactor section 14 (which defines a second reaction chamber region). The expression “plasma” is used herein in accordance with its well known meaning to refer to matter that results when sufficient energy is provided to a gas to free electrons from atoms or molecules and to thus allow ions and electrons to coexist (also referred to as the fourth state of matter, i.e., solid, liquid, gas, plasma). The plasma generator 11 comprises a wall 15, an electromagnetic wave generator and waveguide 16 and a sparker 17. The waveguide is an inductor, and is in the form of coil with several turns (normally from three to six), e.g., of copper tubing (1/4" and up). A copper coil is a non-magnetic coil that provides high electrical conductivity. A number of turns is defined to match the inductor's inductance and electrical resistance, which provides matching with the high-frequency power supply output.

The wall 15 of the plasma generator 11 comprises an RF -transparent region 18 that is radio frequency-transparent (i.e., RF-transparent), electrically conductive and non-magnetic. A representative example of a suitable material out of which the RF-transparent region 18 can be made is alumina.

An AC power supply 19 supplies radio frequency energy to the electromagnetic wave generator 16, which generates electromagnetic waves at a plurality of frequencies selected from within a range of tens of kilohertz to thousands of gigahertz, and such electromagnetic waves pass through the RF-transparent portion 18 of the wall 15 of the plasma generation region 11.

A plasma generator space 21 is inside the plasma generator 11.

The sparker 17 comprises a movable electrode 29 and a discharge protrusion 30. The movable electrode 29 is configured to controllably extend into a region of the plasma generator space 21 that comprises maximal magnetic field density and maximum electric field density. The discharge protrusion 30 is made of electrically conductive, non-magnetic material and is configured to create a discharge point when approached by the movable electrode 29, such discharge creating a plasma. The movable electrode 29 is configured to retract out of the region of maximal magnetic field density and maximum electric field density after such discharge.

The plasma generator 11 has one or more ports 20 through which materials (e.g., nitrogen gas) can be introduced into the plasma generator space 21.

The plasma generator 11 has a plume opening 22 through which a plume of plasma generated in the plasma generator 11 enters a collar space 23 inside the collar region 12.

The collar region 12 comprises at least one reactant feed opening 24 through which feedstock (e.g., boron powder, boron nitride, boron carbide, boron trioxide, boric acid, etc.), optionally along with a carrier gas, can be introduced (e.g., injected) into the collar space 23 (and into the plasma plume).

The first reactor section 13 can comprise one or more access ports 25 to provide access to the first reaction chamber region 26 inside the first reactor section 13. The one or more access ports 25 (if included) can provide access for diagnostics (such as optical monitoring of the reaction), for inserting structures into the reaction chamber (e.g., quench modifiers, such as wires or meshes), or for removing product.

Similarly, the second reactor section 14 can comprise one or more access ports 27 to provide access to the second reaction chamber region 28 inside the second reactor section 14. The one or more access ports 27 (if included) can provide access for diagnostics (such as optical monitoring of the reaction), for inserting structures into the reaction chamber (e.g., quench modifiers, such as wires or meshes), or for removing product.

The apparatus 10 further comprises an outer shell 31 outside the plasma generator 11 to enable cooling and/or to provide gas/liquid sealing. In the embodiment depicted in Fig. 1, the outer shell 31 is substantially coaxial with respect to the plasma generator 11, with the plasma generator 11 as an inner tube and the outer shell 31 as an outer tube. Holes 32 at the ends of the outer shell 31 enable coolant, e.g. water, to flow into the bottom (in the orientation depicted) of a chamber 33 within the outer shell 31 and out the top of the chamber 33. The outer shell 31 also assists in sealing the plasma generator 11, thereby assisting in avoiding or reducing any plasma and gas leakage. The outer shell 31 is preferably RF- transparent. Representative examples of suitable materials out of which the outer shell 31 can be made include quartz and ceramic materials.

In some embodiments, product can be removed from the first reaction chamber region 26 and/or the second reaction chamber region 28 continuously or semi-continuously (e.g., by a conveyor that carries product out of the first reaction chamber region 26 and/or the second reaction chamber region 28) (i.e., rather than batch) operation.

An exit port 34 is formed in the second reactor section 14, and a first exhaust line 35 is connected to the exit port 34. A pressure regulator 36 is connected to the first exhaust line 35, and a second exhaust line 37 is connected to the pressure regulator 36, whereby gases (e.g., nitrogen, argon and hydrogen) can be exhausted and the pressure within the first and second reaction chamber regions 26 and 28 can be regulated. Any suitable pressure regulator (e.g., a needle valve) can be employed as the pressure regulator 36.

In the discussion above, the plasma generator is an inductively coupled plasma generator. As an alternative, the plasma generator may instead be a DC arc plasma generator (i.e., a plasma generator driven by a DC power source). Persons of skill in the art are familiar with DC arc plasma generators, and any such plasma generator arrangement can be use. In some embodiments, an inductively coupled plasma generator is advantageous (relative to a DC arc plasma generator) in the fabrication of compositions and/or aggregates that comprise boron nitride nanotubes with hexagonal boron nitride structures that are epitaxial with respect to a boron nitride nanotube, because an inductively coupled plasma generator provides larger plasma volume, lower plasma gas velocity, and longer reaction time. In addition, due to the absence of electrodes in an inductively coupled plasma generator, an inductively coupled plasma generator may be relatively maintenance free and (unlike a DC arc plasma generator, which must include electrodes) does not introduce contamination from electrodes in the materials being fabricated.

The power density and volume of the plasma plume are adjustable by varying the input power to the plasma generator, by varying the pressure within the plasma generator space 21, and/or by varying the flow rates of materials supplied to the apparatus 10 (e.g., nitrogen gas, boron powder with nitrogen gas carrier, etc.).

One specific representative embodiment of a method by which epitaxial h-BN/BNNT structure can be made comprises: supplying 50 liters per minute of a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen (96 parts by mass nitrogen and 4 parts by mass hydrogen) into a plasma generator space 21 of an apparatus 10 as depicted in Fig. 1 (through a port 20 of an apparatus 10 as depicted in Fig. 1), the apparatus further characterized in that the outside diameter of the plasma generator 11 is 3.5 inches, the inside diameter of the plasma generator 11 is 2.0 inches, the length of the plasma generator 11 (vertical in the orientation depicted in Fig. 1) is 10.0 inches, the outside diameter of the collar region 12 is 3.5 inches, the inside diameter of the collar region 12 is 1.40 inches, the length of the collar region 12 (vertical in the orientation depicted in Fig. 1) is 3.0 inches, the diameter of the plume opening 22 (connection section between the plasma generator space 21 and the collar space 23) is 1.38 inches, the reactant feed opening 24 is halfway along the length of the col lar region 12, the inside diameter of the first reactor section 13 is 8.0 inches, the length of the first reactor section 13 (vertical in the orientation depicted in Fig. 1) is 24 inches, the inside diameter of the second reactor section 14 is 8.0 inches, the length of the second reactor section 14 (vertical in the orientation depicted in Fig. 1) is 24 inches (i.e., the first reactor section 13 and the second reactor section 14 together define a cylindrical chamber region of uniform diameter, which is a combination of the first reaction chamber region 26 and the second reaction chamber region 28, and that is 8 inches in diameter and 48 inches in length), and the diameter of the reactant feed opening 24 is 1/16 inch; ionizing nitrogen and hydrogen in the plasma generator space 21 by supplying

35 - 45 kW to the electromagnetic wave generator 16; and supplying into the collar space (via the reactant feed opening 24, at a location at which the highest temperatures within the apparatus 10 are) 20 - 90 mg/minute of solid elemental boron powder (at room temperature before entering the apparatus 10) entrained in nitrogen gas (e.g., 0.1 to 10.0 liters per minute), while maintaining the pressure within the first reactor section 13 and the second reactor section 14 in the range of from 10 psi to 20 psi (the pressure can fluctuate within this range).

In this representative embodiment, the temperature within at least part of the collar region 12 is about 8,000 K, the heat provided by the plasma, while temperatures in the first reactor section 13 and the second reactor section 14 are lower at farther distances from the collar region 12. The epitaxial h-BN/BNNT structures in accordance with the present inventive subject matter resemble rock candy, in which (continuing with the analogy) a boron nitride nanotube structure is the string, and nucleated and grown hexagonal boron nitride is the sugar.

Boron and nitrogen ions that are not transformed to boron nitride nanotube structures in the hottest zone of the apparatus are supersaturated in the apparatus, and they build up on the boron nitride nanotube structures, where they nucleate hexagonal boron nitride structures on boron nitride nanotube structures (i.e., making a structure having boron and nitrogen atoms nucleated on a boron nitride nanotube structure) and/or grow on previously nucleated boron nitride structures.

Diameters of boron nitride nanotube structures formed in accordance with the above representative embodiment are generally (e.g., 90% or more of them) in the range of from 3 to 30 nm.

Lengths of boron nitride nanotube structures formed in accordance with the above representative embodiment are generally (e.g., 90% or more of them) in the range of from 10 nm to 50 micrometers.

Nodules of hexagonal boron nitride that is epitaxial with and covering boron nitride nanotube structures formed in accordance with the above representative embodiment are generally (e.g., 90% or more of them) 1 nm to 200 nm thick (and are easy to identify, e.g., in TEM images).

Fig. 3 is an illustration of an epitaxial h-BN/BNNT structure.

Portions of boron nitride nanotube structures that are not covered by hexagonal boron nitride structures, and independent boron nitride nanotubes (if present), are very smooth and easy to identify (e.g., in transmission electron microscopy images (i.e., TEM images)). The expression “independent boron nitride nanotube” is used herein to refer to a structure that comprises boron atoms and nitrogen atoms in an arrangement of atoms [1] that has a ten percent or lower defect ratio relative to an idealized boron nitride nanotube (as discussed above) of the same length, diameter and number of walls, and [2] with respect to which there is no hexagonal boron nitride structure that is epitaxial (i.e., there is no hexagonal boron nitride that is epitaxial with respect to the nitrogen and boron atoms in the arrangement of atoms that has a ten percent or lower defect ratio relative to an idealized boron nitride nanotube). Portions of residual boron (in products of the representative embodiment described above) are generally amorphous (and are easy to identify, e.g., in TEM images). The expression “residual boron,” as used herein, refers to clumps comprising (or mostly comprising) boron and/or boron compounds. A representative product comprises 65 parts by mass of epitaxial h-BN/BNNT structures, and 35 parts by mass of residual boron and/or independent hexagonal boron nitride (typically including not greater than 1 part by mass of independent hexagonal boron nitride). The expression “independent hexagonal boron nitride” is used herein to refer to a structure that comprises (or a plurality of structures that each comprise) boron atoms and nitrogen atoms in an arrangement of atoms [1] that has a ten percent or lower defect ratio relative to an idealized hexagonal boron nitride structure (as discussed above) of the same shape and number of layers, and [2] with respect to which there is no boron nitride nanotube structure that is epitaxial (i.e., there is no boron nitride nanotube with respect to which the arrangement of atoms that has a ten percent or lower defect ratio relative to an idealized hexagonal boron nitride structure is epitaxial).

In general, increasing (i.e., above 4 weight percent) the proportion of hydrogen in the mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen supplied into the port 20 of the apparatus 10 increases the amount of epitaxial hexagonal boron nitride structures that are formed, and decreasing the proportion of hydrogen (i.e., below 4 weight percent) in the mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen supplied into the port 20 of the apparatus 10 decreases the amount of epitaxial hexagonal boron nitride structures that are formed). While the present inventive subject matter is not limited to any particular theory, it is believed that the hydrogen supplied in the mixture supplied into the port 20 provides energy that assists in the nucleation of hexagonal boron nitride structures on boron nitride nanotube structures.

Supplying solid elemental boron powder entrained in 0.1 to 10.0 liters per minute of nitrogen gas into the collar space via the reactant feed opening 24 (having a diameter of 1/16 inch) equates to a nitrogen gas flow rate of about 53.3 cm/sec - 5,330 cm/sec. While the present inventive subject matter is not limited to any particular theory, it is believed that this high nitrogen gas flow rate causes a significant amount of boron to pass unreacted through the region in which boron nitride nanotube structures are being formed, thereby providing boron that can be involved in nucleating hexagonal boron nitride on the thus-formed boron nitride nanotube structures. In the event that a larger apparatus were employed, the nitrogen gas flow rate in which the boron feed is entrained would be increased to adjust for the larger reaction zone through which hydrogen and boron would pass through unreacted. Similarly, in the event that larger a flow rate of nitrogen and hydrogen is supplied to the plasma generator space 21 (e.g., in a larger apparatus), the power supplied to the electromagnetic wave generator 16 would be increased sufficiently to ionize nitrogen and hydrogen.

Below are a series of numbered paragraphs (i.e., numbered paragraphs 1-217), each of which defines subject matter within the scope of the present inventive subject matter:

1. A composition, comprising: at least a first metallic material, and a plurality of nanoparticles, at least some of the nanoparticles attached to the first metallic material.

2. A composition as recited in numbered paragraph 1, wherein the first metallic material comprises at least one element selected from the group of elements consisting of lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, potassium, calcium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, rubidium, strontium, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, cesium, barium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth , polonium, francium, radium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, lawrencium, rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium, hassium, and copernicium.

3. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 2, wherein the first metallic material comprises at least one type from a group of types consisting of elemental metal, metal alloys, metal matrix composites. 4. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 3, wherein the first metallic material comprises at least one form from a group of forms consisting of powder, sheet, plate, rod, tube, bar, shot, grain, channel, angle, beam, mesh, and sphere.

5. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 4, wherein the first metallic material comprises a powder of particles with at least one shape from a group of shapes consisting of acicular, irregular rod like, flake, dendritic, spherical, irregular, rounded, porous, and angular.

6. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 5, wherein the first metallic material comprises a powder of particles with each particle comprising a minimum dimension at least 30 nanometers.

7. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 6, wherein the first metallic material comprises a powder of particles with each particle comprising a maximum dimension of 1000 microns or less.

8. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 7, wherein at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one nanotube.

9. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 8, wherein at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one nanosheet.

10. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 9, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles comprise nodules.

11. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 10, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles comprise nanobarbs.

12. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 11, wherein each of at least some of the plurality of nanoparticles comprise at least one boron nitride nanotube and at least one boron nitride nanobarb.

13. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 12, wherein at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one boron nitride nanosheet and at least one boron nitride nanobarb. 14. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 13, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles comprise hexagonal boron nitride nodules.

15. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 14, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles are attached to the first metallic material by at least one form of attachment selected from among mechanical bonding and chemical bonding.

16. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 15, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles are attached to the first metallic material by the nanoparticle being mechanically bonded to the first metallic material.

17. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 16, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles are attached to the first metallic material by the nanoparticle being chemically bonded to the first metallic material.

18. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 17, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles are attached to the first metallic material by the nanoparticle being mechanically bonded to the first metallic material and wherein at least some of the nanoparticles are attached to the first metallic material by the nanoparticle being chemically bonded to the first metallic material.

19. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 18, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles are attached to the first metallic material by the nanoparticle being both mechanically bonded and chemically to the first metallic material. 20. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 19, further comprising a plurality of inorganic compounds, wherein at least some of the inorganic compounds are attached to both said nanoparticles and the first metallic material.

21. A composition as recited in numbered paragraph 20, wherein at least some of the inorganic comprise boride compounds. 22. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 20 to 21, wherein at least some of the inorganic compounds comprise nitride compounds.

23. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraph s 20 to 22, wherein at least some of the inorganic compounds comprise at least one boride compound that comprises the element boron and at least one element selected from the group of elements consisting of lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, potassium, calcium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, rubidium, strontium, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, cesium, barium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth , polonium, francium, radium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, lawrencium, rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium, hassium, and copernicium. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 20 to 23, wherein at least some of the inorganic compounds comprise at least one nitride compound that comprises the element nitrogen and at least one element selected from the group of elements consisting of lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, potassium, calcium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, rubidium, strontium, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, cesium, barium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth , polonium, francium, radium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, lawrencium, rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium, hassium, and copernicium. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 20 to 24, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles are attached to the first metallic material by the nanoparticle being chemically bonded to at least one inorganic compound and the at least one inorganic compound also being chemically bonded to the first metallic material. 26. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 20 to 25, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles are attached to the first metallic material by the nanoparticle being chemically bonded to at least one inorganic compound and the nanoparticle being mechanically bonded to the first metallic material. 27. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 20 to 26, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles are attached to the first metallic material by the nanoparticle being mechanically bonded to at least one inorganic compound and the at least one inorganic compound chemically bonded to the first metallic material.

28. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 20 to 27, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles are attached to the first metallic material by the nanoparticle being mechanically bonded to at least one inorganic compound and the at least one inorganic compound mechanically bonded to the first metallic material.

29. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 98.75% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 0.01% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

30. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 98.5% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 0.376% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

31. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 98.25% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 0.626% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials. 32. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 98.0% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 0.876% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials. 33. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 97.75% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 1.126% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials. 34. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 97.5% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 1.376% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

35. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 97.25% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 1.626% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

36. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 97.0% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 1.876% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

37. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 96.75% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 2.26% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

38. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 96.5% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 2.376% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials. 39. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 96.25% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 2.626% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials. 40. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 96.0% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 2.876% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials. 41. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 95.75% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 3.126% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

42. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 95.5% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 3.376% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

43. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 95.25% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 3.626% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

44. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 95.0% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 3.876% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

45. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 94.75% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 4.126% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials. 46. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 94.5% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 4.376% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials. 47. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 94.25% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 4.626% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials. 48. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 94.0% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 4.876% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

49. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 93.0% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 5.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

50. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 92.0% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 6.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

51. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 91.0% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 7.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

52. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 90.0% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 8.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials. 53. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 89.0% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 9.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials. 54. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 86.5% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 11.26% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials. 55. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 84% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 13.76% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

56. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 81.5% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 16.26% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

57. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 79.0% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 18.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

58. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 74.0% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 22.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

59. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 69% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 27.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials. 60. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 64% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 32.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials. 61. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 59% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 37.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials. 62. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 28, wherein the composition comprises at least 54% by weight metallic material and comprises at least 42.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises 1.0% or less by weight of other materials.

63. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 62, wherein the composition comprises at least 0.1% nanobarbs by weight and a metallic material wherein the metallic material comprises at least 92.9% aluminum by weight, comprises at least 2% copper by weight and comprises 6.0% or less other materials by weight.

64. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 62, wherein the composition comprises at least 0.1% nanobarbs by weight and a metallic material wherein the metallic material comprises at least 97.5% aluminum by weight, comprises at least 0.2% manganese by weight and comprises 2.2% or less other materials by weight.

65. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 62, wherein the composition comprises at least 0.1% nanobarbs by weight and a metallic material wherein the metallic material comprises at least 85.0% aluminum by weight, comprises at least 1.0% silicon by weight and comprises 3.0% or less other materials by weight.

66. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 62, wherein the composition comprises at least 0.1% nanobarbs by weight and a metallic material wherein the metallic material comprises at least 93.5% aluminum by weight, comprises at least 0.4% magnesium by weight and comprises 2.6% or less other materials by weight. 67. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 62, wherein the composition comprises at least 0.1% nanobarbs by weight and a metallic material wherein the metallic material comprises at least 95.5% aluminum by weight, comprises at least 0.4% silicon by weight, and comprises at least 0.5% magnesium by weight and comprises 3.0% or less other materials by weight.

68. A composition as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 1 to 62, wherein the composition comprises at least 0.1% nanobarbs by weight and a metallic material wherein the metallic material comprises at least 85.5% aluminum by weight, comprises at least 1.0% zinc by weight and comprises 5% or less other materials by weight.

69. An aluminum matrix composite comprising: aluminum, a plurality of nanobarbs, wherein the nanobarbs are dispersed within the aluminum; wherein at least some of the aluminum is chemically bonded to external surfaces of said nanobarbs; and wherein at least some of the aluminum is mechanically bonded to external surfaces of said nanobarbs.

70. The aluminum matrix composite of numbered paragraph 69 wherein the content of nanobarbs is 5% or less by weight with an ultimate tensile strength of at least 2 GPa as measured by ASTM Standard B557M.

71. The aluminum matrix composite of any one of numbered paragraphs 69-70 wherein the content of nanobarbs is 10% or less by weight with a resistance of at least 10 GPa to tensile stress before fracture as measured by ASTM Standard B557M. 72. The aluminum matrix composite of any one of numbered paragraphs 69-71 wherein the content of the nanobarbs is 5% or less by weight with a thermal conductivity of at least 300 W/mK measured by hot disk transient plane source method. 73. The aluminum matrix composite of any one of numbered paragraphs 69-72 wherein the content of the nanobarbs is 10% or less by weight with a thermal conductivity of at least 350 W/mK measured by hot disk transient plane source method.

74. The aluminum matrix composite of any one of numbered paragraphs 69-73 wherein the content of the nanobarbs is 15% or less by weight with a thermal conductivity of at least 400 W/mK measured by hot disk transient plane source method.

75. A copper matrix composite comprising: a plurality of copper, a plurality of nanobarbs, wherein the nanobarbs are dispersed within the copper; and wherein at least some of the copper is chemically bonded to external surfaces of said nanobarbs.

76. The copper matrix composite of numbered paragraph 75 wherein the content of the nanobarbs is 5% or less by weight with a thermal conductivity of at least 450 W/mK measured by hot disk transient plane source method. 77. The copper matrix composite of any one of numbered paragraphs 75-76 wherein the content of the nanobarbs is 10% or less by weight with a thermal conductivity of at least 500 W/mK measured by hot disk transient plane source method.

78. The copper matrix composite of any one of numbered paragraphs 75-77 wherein the content of the nanobarbs is 15% or less by weight with a thermal conductivity of at least 550 W/mK measured by hot disk transient plane source method.

79. An aluminum matrix composite comprising: aluminum, a plurality of nanobarbs, a plurality of aluminum boride compounds and a plurality of aluminum nitride compounds; wherein the nanobarbs are dispersed within the aluminum; wherein at least some of the aluminum is chemically bonded to at least some of said aluminum boride compounds that are chemically bonded to external surfaces of said nanobarbs; and wherein at least some of the aluminum is chemically bonded to at least some of said aluminum nitride compounds that are chemically bonded to external surfaces of said nanobarbs.

80. The aluminum matrix composite of numbered paragraph 79 wherein the content of nanobarbs is 5% or less by weight with a resistance of at least 2 GPa to tensile stress before fracture as measured by ASTM Standard B557M.

81. The aluminum matrix composite of numbered paragraphs 79 to 80 wherein the content of nanobarbs is 10% or less by weight with a resistance of at least 10 GPa to tensile stress before fracture as measured by ASTM Standard B557M. 82. The aluminum matrix composite of numbered paragraphs 79 to 81 wherein the content of the nanobarbs is 5% or less by weight with a thermal conductivity of at least 300 W/mK measured by hot disk transient plane source method.

83. The aluminum matrix composite of numbered paragraphs 79 to 82 wherein the content of the nanobarbs is 10% or less by weight with a thermal conductivity of at least 350 W/mK measured by hot disk transient plane source method.

84. The aluminum matrix composite of numbered paragraphs 79 to 83 wherein the content of the nanobarbs is 15% or less by weight with a thermal conductivity of at least 400 W/mK measured by hot disk transient plane source method.

85. A copper matrix composite comprising: copper, a plurality of nanobarbs, a plurality of copper boride compounds and a plurality of copper nitride compounds; wherein the nanobarbs are dispersed within the copper; wherein at least some of the copper is chemically bonded to at least some of said copper boride compounds that are chemically bonded to external surfaces of said nanobarbs; and wherein at least some of the aluminum is chemically bonded to at least some of said copper nitride compounds that are chemically bonded to external surfaces of said nanobarbs.

86. The copper matrix composite of numbered paragraph 85 wherein the content of the nanobarbs is 5% or less by weight with a thermal conductivity of at least 450 W/mK measured by hot disk transient plane source method.

87. The copper matrix composite of numbered paragraphs 85 to 86 wherein the content of the nanobarbs is 10% or less by weight with a thermal conductivity of at least 500 W/mK measured by hot disk transient plane source method. 88. The copper matrix composite of numbered paragraphs 85 to 87 wherein the content of the nanobarbs is 15% or less by weight with a thermal conductivity of at least 550 W/mK measured by hot disk transient plane source method.

89. A method for producing a metal composite which comprises: dispersing a plurality of nanoparticles amongst at least a first metallic material to form a dispersed composition; incorporating the plurality of nanoparticles into the at least first metallic material to form an incorporated composition; and reacting the plurality of nanoparticles and the at least first metallic material to form inorganic compounds wherein at least some of the inorganic compounds comprise chemical bonds to at least some of the nanoparticles and the at least first metallic material.

90. A method as recited in numbered paragraph 89, wherein at least part of the method is conducted in an ambient environment comprising at least one selected from the group consisting of air, argon, nitrogen, helium, neon, krypton, xenon, and radon. 91. A method as recited in numbered paragraphs 89 to 90, wherein each of at least some of the plurality of the nanoparticles comprises at least one nanotube. 92. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 91, wherein each of at least some of the plurality of nanoparticles comprise at least one boron nitride nanotube and at least one boron nitride nanobarb.

93. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 91, wherein at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one nanobarb.

94. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 93, wherein at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one nanosheet.

95. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 94, wherein at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one boron nitride nanosheet and at least one boron nitride nanobarb.

96. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 95, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles comprise nodules.

97. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 96, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles comprise hexagonal boron nitride nodules.

98. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 97, wherein the first metallic material is selected from at least one metallic materials from the group of metallic materials consisting of lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, potassium, calcium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, rubidium, strontium, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, cesium, barium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth , polonium, francium, radium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, lawrencium, rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium, hassium, and copernicium. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 98, wherein said dispersion is accomplished using at least one mixing system selected from a group of mixing systems consisting of sonicator, sonifier, ball mill, tumbler ball mill, planetary ball mill, attritor, ribbon blender, paddle blender, inline blender, cone blender, twin rotor blender, continuous blender, pneumatic blender, tumbler blender, and friction stirrer.. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 99, wherein said incorporation is accomplished using at least one mixing system selected from a group of mixing systems consisting of sonicator, sonifier, ball mill, tumbler ball mill, planetary ball mill, attritor, ribbon blender, paddle blender, inline blender, cone blender, twin rotor blender, continuous blender, pneumatic blender, tumbler blender, and friction stirrer. . A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 100, wherein at least part of the method is conducted in at least one mixing container. . A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 101, wherein at least part of the method is conducted in the presence of a mixing media comprising at least one mixing medium material selected from the group consisting of ceramic, glass, steel, and plastic. . A method as recited in numbered paragraph 102, wherein the mixing media has a shape selected from at least one of a group of mixing media shapes consisting of ball, bead, and satellite. . A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 102 to 103, wherein the mixing media has a minimum cross section distance at least 0.05 millimeters. . A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 104, wherein at least part of the method is conducted in the presence of at least one process control agent selected from the group of processing control agents consisting of stearic acid, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium stearate, alcohol, benzene, wax, didodecyl dimethyl ammonium acetate, dodecane, ethanol, ethyl acetate, ethylenebis distearamide, heptane, methanol, ostane, polyethylene glycol, toluene, sodiuml 2-bis (dodecyl carbonyl)ethane-l -sulfonate, lithium-1,2- bisdodecyloxycarbonylsul-fasuccinate, didodecyl dimethyl ammonium acetate, didodecyl dimethyl ammonium bromide, trichlorotrifluoroethane, and others such as polyethylene glycol, oxalic acid, boric acid, and borax.

106. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 105, wherein the media charge level is at least 40% the volume of the mixing container.

107. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 106, wherein the rotation speed is at least 20 RPM.

108. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 107, wherein the ratio of media to powder is at least 3 to 1.

109. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 108, wherein the process control agent is 5% or less by weight of the sum of the metallic material and nanoparticles.

110. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 109, wherein the mixing system cascades the mixing media.

111. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 110, wherein the media charge level is at least 15% the volume of the mixing container.

112. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 111, wherein the rotation speed is at least 50 RPM.

113. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 112, wherein the ratio of media to powder is at least 3 to 1.

114. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 113, wherein the process control agent is 5% or less by weight of the sum of the metallic material and nanoparticles.

115. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 114, wherein the system cataracts the mixing media.

116. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 115, wherein said reacting is conducted in the presence of energy provided by at least one energy source selected from the group of energy sources consisting of radiation, convection, conduction, and kinetic.

117. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 116, comprising providing energy from at least one energy source selected from a group of energy sources consisting of laser, thermal radiator, microwave, oven, heat exchanger, furnace, friction stirrer, cold spray, flame spray, plasma spray, hot plate, and torch.

118. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 117, wherein the dispersed composition is heated to a temperature of at least 475 degrees Celsius for a time of at least 30 seconds.

119. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 118, wherein the dispersed composition is milled in a planetary ball mill.

120. A method as recited in numbered paragraph 119, wherein the planetary ball mill rotation speed is at least 300 revolutions per minute.

121. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 119 to 120, wherein the ball-to- dispersed composition ratio is at least 10 to 1.

122. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 119 to 121, wherein the environment comprises Argon.

123. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 122, comprising heating the dispersed composition to a temperature of at least 475 degrees Celsius.

124. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 123, comprising heating the incorporated composition to a temperature of at least 475 degrees Celsius.

125. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 124, wherein at least part of the method is conducted in a container rotating at a rotation speed of at least 50 RPM.

126. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 125, wherein the first metallic material is in the form of powder, at least part of the method is conducted in the presence of at least one mixing medium, and a ratio of mixing medium to powder is at least 3 to 1.

127. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 126, wherein at least part of the method is conducted in the presence of a process control agent, and the process control agent is 5% or less by weight of the sum of the metallic material and nanoparticles.

128. A method as recited in any of numbered paragraphs 89 to 127, wherein at least part of the method is conducted in the presence of at least one mixing medium, and at least part of the method comprises cataracting the mixing medium.

129. A composition, comprising: at least a first metallic material, a plurality of nanoparticles, and a plurality of inorganic compounds, at least some of the inorganic compounds attached to both said nanoparticles and the first metallic material.

130. A composition as recited in numbered paragraph 129, wherein the first metallic material comprises at least one element from group of elements consisting of lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, potassium, calcium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, rubidium, strontium, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, cesium, barium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth , polonium, francium, radium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, lawrencium, rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium, hassium, and copernicium. 131. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-130, wherein at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one nanotube.

132. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-131, wherein at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one nanosheet.

133. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-132, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles comprise nodules.

134. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-133, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles comprise nanobarbs.

135. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-134, wherein each of at least some of the plurality of nanoparticles comprise at least one boron nitride nanotube and/or at least one boron nitride nanobarb.

136. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-135, wherein at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one boron nitride nanosheet and/or at least one boron nitride nanobarb.

137. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-136, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles comprise hexagonal boron nitride nodules.

138. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-137, wherein at least some of the inorganic comprise boride compounds.

139. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-138, wherein at least some of the inorganic comprise nitride compounds. 140. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-139, wherein the boride compound comprise of the element boron and at least one element from group of elements consisting of lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, potassium, calcium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, rubidium, strontium, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, cesium, barium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth , polonium, francium, radium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, lawrencium, rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium, hassium, and copernicium.

141. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-140, wherein the nitride compound comprise of the element nitrogen and at least one element from group of elements consisting of lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, potassium, calcium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, rubidium, strontium, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, cesium, barium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth , polonium, francium, radium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, lawrencium, rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium, hassium, and copernicium.

142. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-141, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles are attached to the first metallic material by the nanoparticle being chemically bonded to at least one inorganic compound and the at least one inorganic compound also being chemically bonded to the first metallic material. 143. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-142, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles are attached to the first metallic material by the nanoparticle being chemically bonded to at least one inorganic compound and the nanoparticle being mechanically bonded to the first metallic material.

144. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-143, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles are attached to the first metallic material by the nanoparticle being mechanically bonded to at least one inorganic compound and the at least one inorganic compound chemically bonded to the first metallic material.

145. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-144, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles are attached to the first metallic material by the nanoparticle being mechanically bonded to at least one inorganic compound and the at least one inorganic compound mechanically bonded to the first metallic material.

146. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 98.75% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 0.001% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

147. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 98.5% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 0.376% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials. 148. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 98.25% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 0.626% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials. 149. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 98.0% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 0.876% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

150. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 97.75% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 1.126% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

151. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 97.5% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 1.376% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

152. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 97.25% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 1.626% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

153. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 97.0% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 1.876% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

154. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 96.75% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 2.26% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

155. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 96.5% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 2.376% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials. 156. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 96.25% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 2.626% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

157. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 96.0% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 2.876% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

158. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 95.75% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 3.126% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

159. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 95.5% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 3.376% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

160. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 95.25% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 3.626% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

161. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 95.0% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 3.876% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

162. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 94.75% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 4.126% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials. 163. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 94.5% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 4.376% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

164. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 94.25% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 4.626% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

165. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 94.0% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 4.876% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

166. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 93.0% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 5.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

167. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 92.0% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 6.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

168. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 91.0% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 7.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

169. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 90.0% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 8.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials. 170. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 89.0% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 9.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

171. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 86.5% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 11.26% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

172. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 84% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 13.76% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

173. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 81.5% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 16.26% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

174. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 79.0% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 18.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

175. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 74.0% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 22.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

176. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 69% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 27.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

177. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 64% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 32.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials. 178. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 59% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 37.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

179. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-145, wherein the composition comprises greater than 54% by weight metallic material and comprises greater than 42.6% by weight nanobarbs and comprises less than 1.0% by weight of other materials.

180. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-179, wherein the composition comprises greater than 0.1% nanobarbs by weight and a metallic material wherein the metallic material comprises greater than 92.9% aluminum by weight, comprises greater than 2% copper by weight and comprises less than 6.0% other materials by weight.

181. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-179, wherein the composition comprises greater than 0.1% nanobarbs by weight and a metallic material wherein the metallic material comprises greater than 97.5% aluminum by weight, comprises greater than 0.2% manganese by weight and comprises less than 2.2% other materials by weight.

182. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-179, wherein the composition comprises greater than 0.1% nanobarbs by weight and a metallic material wherein the metallic material comprises greater than 85.0% aluminum by weight, comprises greater than 1.0% silicon by weight and comprises less than 3.0% other materials by weight.

183. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-179, wherein the composition comprises greater than 0.1% nanobarbs by weight and a metallic material wherein the metallic material comprises greater than 93.5% aluminum by weight, comprises greater than 0.4% magnesium by weight and comprises less than 2.6% other materials by weight. 184. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-179, wherein the composition comprises greater than 0.1% nanobarbs by weight and a metallic material wherein the metallic material comprises greater than 95.5% aluminum by weight, comprises greater than 0.4% silicon by weight, and comprises greater than 0.5% magnesium by weight and comprises less than 3.0% other materials by weight.

185. A composition as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 129-179, wherein the composition comprises greater than 0.1% nanobarbs by weight and a metallic material wherein the metallic material comprises greater than 85.5% aluminum by weight, comprises greater than 1.0% zinc by weight and comprises less than 5% other materials by weight.

186. A method, comprising: reacting a plurality of nanoparticles with at least a first metallic material to form inorganic compounds.

187. A method as recited in numbered paragraph 186, wherein each of at least some of the plurality of the nanoparticles comprises at least one nanotube.

188. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 186-187, wherein each of at least some of the plurality of nanoparticles comprise at least one boron nitride nanotube and/or at least one boron nitride nanobarb.

189. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 186-188, wherein at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one nanosheet.

190. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 186-189, wherein at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one boron nitride nanosheet and/or at least one boron nitride nanobarb.

191. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 186-190, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles comprise nodules. 192. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 186-191, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles comprise hexagonal boron nitride nodules.

193. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 186-192, wherein the first metallic material is selected from the group of metallic materials consisting of lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, potassium, calcium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, rubidium, strontium, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, cesium, barium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth , polonium, francium, radium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, lawrencium, rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium, hassium, and copernicium.

194. A method, comprising: heating a plurality of nanoparticles with at least a first metallic material to form inorganic compounds.

195. A method as recited in numbered paragraph 194, wherein each of at least some of the plurality of the nanoparticles comprises at least one nanotube.

196. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 194-195, wherein each of at least some of the plurality of nanoparticles comprise at least one boron nitride nanotube and/or at least one boron nitride nanobarb.

197. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 194-196, wherein at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one nanosheet. 198. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 194-197, wherein at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one boron nitride nanosheet and/or at least one boron nitride nanobarb.

199. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 194-198, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles comprise nodules.

200. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 194-199, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles comprise hexagonal boron nitride nodules.

201. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 194-200, wherein the first metallic material is selected from the group of metallic materials consisting of lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, potassium, calcium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, rubidium, strontium, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, cesium, barium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth , polonium, francium, radium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, lawrencium, rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium, hassium, and copernicium.

202. A method, comprising: mechanically milling a plurality of nanoparticles with at least a first metallic material to form inorganic compounds

203. A method as recited in numbered paragraph 202, wherein each of at least some of the plurality of the nanoparticles comprises at least one nanotube. 204. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 202-203, wherein each of at least some of the plurality of nanoparticles comprise at least one boron nitride nanotube and/or at least one boron nitride nanobarb.

205. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 202-204, wherein at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one nanosheet.

206. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 202-205, wherein at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one boron nitride nanosheet and/or at least one boron nitride nanobarb.

207. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 202-206, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles comprise nodules.

208. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 202-207, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles comprise hexagonal boron nitride nodules.

209. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 202-208, wherein the first metallic material is selected from the group of metallic materials consisting of lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, potassium, calcium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, rubidium, strontium, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, cesium, barium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth , polonium, francium, radium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, lawrencium, rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium, hassium, and copernicium. 210. A method, comprising: mixing a plurality of nanoparticles and at least a first metallic material.

211. A method as recited in numbered paragraph 210, wherein each of at least some of the plurality of the nanoparticles comprises at least one nanotube.

212. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 210-211, wherein each of at least some of the plurality of nanoparticles comprise at least one boron nitride nanotube and/or at least one boron nitride nanobarb.

213. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 210-212, wherein at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one nanosheet.

214. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 210-213, wherein at least one of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises at least one boron nitride nanosheet and/or at least one boron nitride nanobarb.

215. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 210-214, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles comprise nodules.

216. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 210-215, wherein at least some of the nanoparticles comprise hexagonal boron nitride nodules.

217. A method as recited in any one of numbered paragraphs 210-216, wherein the first polymeric material is selected from the group of metallic materials consisting of lithium, beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, potassium, calcium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, rubidium, strontium, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, cesium, barium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth , polonium, francium, radium, actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, lawrencium, rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium, hassium, and copernicium.