Background of the invention

The alternative meat market continues to grow with an ever-increasing demand for meat analogue products driven by health awareness, climate concerns and lifestyle choices. Achieving high quality mimicking of specific types of meat, including appearance, flavor and texture, is an ongoing challenge.

Many meat analogue products require fat analogues to mimic a meat product but it is difficult to produce a fat substitute with the necessary characteristics, such as stability during cooking and texture and taste on eating. In known approaches, the fat can leak out of the meat analogue product during the production process, for example, and is therefore lost before the final product is ready to eat.

There is a clear need for improved fat analogues for use in meat analogue products.

Summary of the invention

The invention relates in general to a method of making a fat analogue product, said method comprising emulsifying a protein dispersion and a lipid phase to produce an emulsion and adding low bulk density starch to the emulsion.

The invention also relates in general to a fat analogue product comprising a protein isolate dispersion emulsified in a lipid phase and low bulk density starch.

In some embodiments, the invention also relates to a method of making a meat analogue product, said method comprising a. Preparing a fat analogue by emulsifying a plant protein dispersion and a lipid phase to produce an emulsion; preferably wherein the lipid phase comprises a meat flavoring and/or coloring; b. Adding starch with a bulk density of below about 30g/ml to the emulsion; c. Applying a binding agent to a plant protein extrudate and/or the fat analogue; d. Arranging the plant protein extrudate and fat analogue in layers, optionally also including one or more layers of a plant protein dispersion; e. Pressing the arranged layers; f. Heating to obtain a cohesive mass; and g. Cooling.

The invention also relates to a meat analogue product comprising i) protein extrudate and ii) a fat analogue comprising a protein isolate dispersion emulsified in a lipid phase and low bulk density starch.

Description of the invention

The invention relates to a method of making a fat analogue product, said method comprising a. Emulsifying a plant protein dispersion, preferably a soy protein dispersion, and a lipid phase to produce an emulsion and b. Adding starch with a bulk density of below about 30g/ml to the emulsion.

In some embodiments, the fat analogue is prepared by emulsifying a mixture of 30% to 50% w/w of a protein dispersion and 50% to 70% w/w of a lipid phase.

In some embodiments, the plant protein dispersion is a protein isolate dispersion or a protein concentrate dispersion, preferably a protein isolate dispersion. Preferably the protein isolate is dispersed in water. In some embodiments, the protein isolate dispersion comprises 8 to 16% w/w protein isolate. Typically, the protein isolate dispersion comprises between about 8% w/w and about 12% w/w protein isolate. Preferably the protein is soy protein.

In some embodiments, the protein dispersion is pre-heated at temperatures not greater than 95°C.

In some embodiments, the protein dispersion is a protein isolate dispersion prepared using a soy, potato, pea, pumpkin, or canola protein isolate, preferably a soy protein isolate.

In some embodiments, the final concentration of protein in the emulsifying mixture is between about 2% and 6% w/w.

In some embodiments, the lipid phase is a vegetable oil or a mixture comprising about 70% w/w vegetable oil and about 30% w/w solid fat. In an example, the vegetable oil is canola oil and the solid fat is shea stearin, coconut fat or cocoa fat.

In some embodiments, the starch can have a bulk density of about 26g/ml or below, including 11 to 26g/ml, including 11 to 20g/ml, preferably the low bulk density starch has a bulk density of 11 to 16g/ml. The starch is a low bulk density starch.

In some embodiments, between 2% and 10% w/w of low bulk density starch is added to the emulsion, including between 4% to 8% w/w, for example about 5% w/w.

In some embodiments, a flavoring and/or coloring is added to the lipid phase before preparation of the emulsion. For example, the flavoring can be ham or beef flavor. In some embodiments, between 2% and 10% w/w of liposoluble or lipo-dispersible flavor is added to the lipid phase, including between 3% to 8% w/w, for example about 4% w/w. Where the lipid phase comprises a vegetable oil, the flavoring can be added to the vegetable oil before preparation of the emulsion.

In some embodiments, the method comprises adding dietary fiber to the emulsion, such that the fat analogue further comprises dietary fiber. This is particularly useful when the fat analogue is for use in producing a bacon analogue product.

In some embodiments, the dietary fiber comprises a starch content of between 35 wt% to 40 wt%.

In some embodiments, the dietary fiber has a water holding capacity of between 7.5 g/g and 12.5 g/g, preferably a water holding capacity of about 10 g/g.

In one embodiment, the fat analogue comprises about 5 wt% dietary fiber, more preferably about 2.5 wt% dietary fiber.

In one embodiment, the dietary fiber is pea cell wall fiber.

In one embodiment, the pea cell wall fiber is dispersed in the lipid phase to form a solution. In one embodiment, said solution is added under shear to the protein dispersion.

In some embodiments, the invention relates to a method of making a fat analogue product, said method comprising a. Adding beef and/or ham flavoring to vegetable oil b. Emulsifying a soy protein dispersion and a lipid phase comprising vegetable oil to produce an emulsion; and b. Adding starch with a bulk density of 11 to 26g/ml to the emulsion and mixing.

In some embodiments, the invention also relates to a method of making a meat analogue product, said method comprising a. Preparing a plant protein extrudate; b. Optionally preparing a plant protein dispersion; c. Preparing a fat analogue by i) emulsifying a plant protein dispersion and a lipid phase to produce an emulsion; preferably wherein the lipid phase comprises a meat flavoring and/or coloring and ii) adding starch with a bulk density of below 30g/ml to the emulsion; d. Applying a binding agent to the plant protein extrudate and/or fat analogue; e. Arranging the plant protein extrudate and fat analogue in layers, optionally including one or more layers of the plant protein dispersion; f. Pressing the arranged layers; g. Heating to obtain a cohesive mass; and h. Cooling.

In some embodiments, the method is for making a beef steak, ham or bacon meat analogue. In some embodiments, the heating of step g) is conducted at atmospheric pressure and/or in an unsealed container.

In some embodiments, the method is for making a beef analogue, for example, a beef roast, a cold cut analogue, for example, chicken slices, or a fish analogue, for example, salmon.

In some embodiments, the plant protein extrudate is prepared using a twin or mono-screw extruder.

In some embodiments, the plant protein extrudate is a textured plant protein extrudate.

In some embodiments, the plant protein extrudate is a fibrous plant protein extrudate.

In some embodiments, the plant protein extrudate has a water content of not less than 45% w/w.

In some embodiments, the plant protein extrudate is a blend of more than one plant protein.

In some embodiments, the plant protein extrudate has a water content of not less than the glass transition temperature of the plant protein extrudate at a consumption temperature of the meat analogue product of between 30 to 60 ⁰ C.

In some embodiments, the plant protein extrudate further comprises coloring and/or flavoring, for example beef, ham or bacon flavoring.

In some embodiments, the plant protein extrudate is cooked, preferably in vegetable broth.

Typically, the cooked plant protein extrudate is coated with a binding agent.

Typically, the plant protein extrudate has a maximal force of between 250 to 320 Newtons. In some embodiments, the binding agent is selected from soy protein isolate dispersion, soy protein isolate powder, egg white, gluten powder, transglutaminase, and dietary fiber and plant protein.

In some embodiments, the starch has a bulk density between 11 to 20g/ml, preferably the low bulk density starch has a bulk density of 11 to 16g/ml.

The composition of the binding agent that goes between the plant protein extrudate and fat analogue layers is the most critical parameter to ensure a good product cohesiveness after defrosting.

In one embodiment, the binding agent comprises dietary fiber and plant protein.

In one embodiment, the total wt% of dietary fiber and plant protein in the binding agent is less than 40 wt%.

In one embodiment, not less than 50 wt% of the dietary fiber is soluble, preferably 50 wt% to 70 wt% of the dietary fiber is soluble, preferably about 60 wt%. of the dietary fiber is soluble.

In one embodiment, the dietary fiber and plant protein are present in a ratio of about 67:33.

In one embodiment, the dietary fiber is potato fiber.

In one embodiment, the plant protein is potato protein.

In one embodiment, the dietary fiber is potato fiber and the plant protein is potato protein.

Typically, the binding agent further comprises an enzyme solution, wherein the enzyme is selected from transglutaminase, tyrosinase and oxidase, for example a polyphenol oxidase. If the enzyme is a polyphenol oxidase, then preferably it is a laccase. Typically, the enzyme solution is transglutaminase solution, preferably a 10% w/w transglutaminase solution.

Preferably, the binding agent comprises transglutaminase, dietary fiber and plant protein.

In some embodiments, the heating step g) comprises heating to a core temperature of between 80°C and 95°C, including about 85°C.

In some embodiments, heating step g) comprises heating to a core temperature of about 40°C; and heating to a core temperature of about 85°C.

Typically, heating step g) comprises heating to a core temperature of about 40°C for about 1 hour; and heating to a core temperature of about 85°C for about 1 hour.

In some embodiments, the invention also relates to a method of making a beef steak or roast, ham or bacon analogue product, said method comprising a. Preparing a fat analogue by emulsifying a soy protein dispersion and vegetable oil to produce an emulsion; wherein the vegetable oil comprises beef, ham or bacon flavoring and/or coloring; b. Adding starch with a bulk density of 11 to 26g/ml to the emulsion; c. Applying a binding agent to a plant protein extrudate and/or the fat analogue; d. Arranging the plant protein extrudate and fat analogue in layers, optionally including one or more layers of a plant protein dispersion; e. Pressing the arranged layers; f. Heating to a core temperature of 80°C to 95°C, preferably about 85°C; at atmospheric pressure and in an unsealed container and g. Cooling.

The invention also relates to a fat analogue product comprising a plant protein, preferably a plant protein dispersion, emulsified in a lipid phase and starch with a bulk density of 11 to 26g/ml.

In some embodiments, the starch has a bulk density between 11 to 20g/ml, preferably the low bulk density starch has a bulk density of 11 to 16g/ml.

The fat analogue product can comprise i) a plant protein emulsified in a lipid phase and ii) starch with a bulk density of 11 to 26g/ml incorporated in a protein gel matrix.

In some embodiments, the plant protein dispersion is a protein isolate dispersion or a protein concentrate dispersion, preferably a protein isolate dispersion.

In some embodiments, the protein isolate dispersion comprises 8 to 16% w/w protein isolate. Typically, the protein isolate dispersion comprises between about 8% w/w and about 12% w/w protein isolate.

In some embodiments, the protein dispersion is a protein isolate dispersion prepared using a soy, potato, pea, pumpkin, or canola protein isolate, preferably a soy protein isolate.

In some embodiments, the final concentration of protein in the fat analogue is between about 2% and 6% w/w.

In some embodiments, the lipid phase is a vegetable oil or a mixture comprising 70% w/w vegetable oil and 30% w/w solid fat. In an example, the vegetable oil is canola oil and the solid fat is shea stearin, coconut fat or cocoa fat.

In some embodiments, the starch can have a bulk density of about 26g/ml or below, including 11 to 26g/ml, including 11 to 20g/ml, preferably the low density starch has a bulk density of 11 to 16g/ml. The starch is a low density starch.

In some embodiments, the fat analogue comprises between 2% and 10% w/w of low density starch, including between 4% to 8% w/w, for example about 5% w/w.

In some embodiments, the fat analogue comprises flavoring and/or coloring. For example, the flavoring can be ham or beef flavor. In some embodiments, comprising between 2% and 10% w/w of liposoluble or lipo-dispersible flavor, including between 3% to 8% w/w, for example about 4% w/w.

In some embodiments, the fat analogue comprises dietary fiber. In one embodiment, the fat analogue comprises about 5 wt% dietary fiber, more preferably about 2.5 wt% dietary fiber.

In one embodiment, the dietary fiber is pea cell wall fiber. In some embodiments, the fat analogue is for use in producing a meat analogue product. In some embodiments, the fat analogue is for use in producing a beef steak, ham or bacon analogue product. In some embodiments, the fat analogue is for use in producing a cooked meat analogue product. In some embodiments, the fat analogue is for use in produced a meat analogue product that is not a sausage.

In some embodiments, the fat analogue is obtained or obtainable by a method according to the invention.

The invention also relates to a meat analogue product comprising plant protein extrudate, plant protein dispersion and the fat analogue of the invention.

In some embodiments, the plant protein extrudate is a fibrous plant protein extrudate. In some embodiments, the plant protein extrudate is a blend of more than one plant protein.

In some embodiments, the meat analogue product is beef steak, ham or bacon. In some embodiments, the method is for making a beef analogue, for example, a beef roast, a cold cut analogue, for example, chicken slices, or a fish analogue, for example, salmon. In some embodiments, the meat analogue product is a cooked product, it is not raw. In some embodiments, the meat analogue product is not a sausage.

In some embodiments, the meat analogue is devoid of all additives. The meat analogue can be devoid of methylcellulose.

In some embodiments, the meat analogue is obtained or obtainable by a method according to the invention.

Detailed description of the invention

Definitions

As used herein, "about" is understood to refer to numbers in a range of numerals, for example the range of -30% to +30% of the referenced number, or -20% to +20% of the referenced number, or -10% to +10% of the referenced number, or -5% to +5% of the referenced number, or -1% to +1% of the referenced number. All numerical ranges herein should be understood to include all integers, whole or fractions, within the range. Moreover, these numerical ranges should be construed as providing support for a claim directed to any number or subset of numbers in that range.

The products disclosed herein may lack any element that is not specifically disclosed herein. Thus, a disclosure of an embodiment using the term "comprising" includes a disclosure of embodiments "consisting essentially of" and "consisting of" the components identified. Similarly, the methods disclosed herein may lack any step that is not specifically disclosed herein. Thus, a disclosure of an embodiment using the term "comprising" includes a disclosure of embodiments "consisting essentially of" and "consisting of" the steps identified. Any embodiment disclosed herein can be combined with any other embodiment disclosed herein unless explicitly and directly stated otherwise.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms and any acronyms used herein have the same meanings as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art in the field of the invention. Although any compositions, methods, articles of manufacture, or other means or materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice of the present invention, the preferred compositions, methods, articles of manufacture, or other means or materials are described herein. As used herein, the term "additive" includes one or more of hydrocolloids (e.g. carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, konjac gum, carragenans, xanthan gum, gellan gum, locust bean gum, alginates, agar, gum arabic, gelatin, Karaya gum. Cassia gum, microcrystalline cellulose, ethylcellulose); emulsifiers (e.g. lecithin, mono and diglycerides, PGPR); whitening agents (e.g. titanium dioxide); plasticizers (e.g. glycerine); anti-caking agents (e.g. silicon-dioxide).

Fat analogue

The fat analogue of the invention can be prepared, for example, by emulsifying about 70% w/w lipid- phase and about 30% of a plant protein dispersion (PPD), preferably soy protein isolate (SPI). The resulting total concentration of soy protein can be between 4% and 5% in the emulsion. The lipid phase may contain vegetable oil, preferably canola oil or it may contain about 70% canola oil and about 30% solid fat.

The solid fat can be melted into the oil. A food processor can be used to make the emulsion. The oil phase may be slowly added to the PPD dispersion while constantly stirring. When all the oil is mixed in, about 1% sodium chloride and about 0.75% of, for example, a 10% transglutaminase solution (about 25 mg TG/ g PPD) can be added.

The emulsion can then be filled into flexible aluminum forms, for example ham molds, and heat treated, for example, in a heating chamber. First, it can be heated to a core temperature of about 40 °C. This can be kept constant for about one hour. This gives the transglutaminase the possibility to react. Next, the product can be heated at a chamber temperature of about 90 °C. It should reach a core temperature of about 85 °C to deactivate the enzyme and ensure protein gelation. It can then be cooled with a cold shower for about 10 min. It can then be stored at about 2 °C.

Starch

Starch used in accordance with the invention is a physically processed starch, processed to reduce the bulk density, such that the starch is a low density starch (LDS). The starch can have a bulk density of below about 30g/ml, including about 26g/ml or below, including 11 to 26g/ml, including 11 to 20g/ml, preferably the LDS has a bulk density of 11 to 16g/ml. The LDS can be produced by extruding then milling starch.

Bulk density is the ratio of the mass of an untapped powder sample and its volume including the contribution of the interparticulate void volume. The bulk density can be determined by measuring the volume of a known mass of powder sample that has passed through a sieve into a graduated cylinder.

Plant protein dispersion

Plant protein dispersions can be prepared using any plant protein. The dispersions can be prepared by mixing protein isolate or protein concentrate with water. Preferably soy protein isolate (SPI) is used.

Plant protein dispersions can be made with about 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20% w/w isolate. The dispersions can be prepared by mixing isolate powder and coagulants with water. For example, the dispersions can be prepared in a food processor. (After every 30 seconds, the dispersion can be additionally mixed by hand.)

In some cases, SPI dispersions for use in layering to make a meat analogue product are made with 14 to 16 % w/w SPI.

CaCL, MgCL, or CaSO ₄ can be added in concentrations between 1 and 5 %. One or more of CaCL, MgCL, and CaSO ₄ can be added to a soy protein dispersion with, for example, about 14% SPI. Transglutaminase, MgCh and/or CaCL can be added at concentrations of, for example, between 3 to 5 %. When preparing protein dispersion for layering in a meat analogue product, the protein dispersion can be filled into one or more receptacles. It can then be heated for about 30 minutes at 70, 80, 85 or 90 °C. Any temperature in the range 70 to 90°C may be used.

A heating temperature of about 85 °C may be used. SPI dispersions can be heated for about 30 minutes. The samples can then be cooled to room temperature, and stored at about 2 °C.

The hardness of the fat analogue and SPI gels can be analyzed at room temperature by a puncture test with a texture analyzer, for example an Instron, Model 3365. For example, tests can be performed with a cylindrical stainless-steel geometry (diameter 13 mm) penetrating the samples at a speed of 1.5 mm/s up to a deformation of 75% or a cylindrical stainless-steel geometry (diameter 20 mm) penetrating the samples at a speed of 1 mm/s up to a deformation of 75%.

Binder or binding agent

A binder or binding agent may be applied to the plant protein extrudate or fat analogue. The binding agent may be applied or coated on plant protein extrudate, for example cooked plant protein extrudate. The binding agent can be selected, for example, from soy protein isolate dispersion, soy protein isolate powder, gluten powder, transglutaminase, dietary fiber and plant protein.

In one embodiment, the binding agent comprises dietary fiber and plant protein. In one embodiment, the total wt% of dietary fiber and plant protein in the binding agent is less than 40 wt%. In one embodiment, not less than 50 wt% of the dietary fiber is soluble, preferably 50 wt% to 70 wt% of the dietary fiber is soluble, preferably about 60 wt%. of the dietary fiber is soluble. In one embodiment, the dietary fiber and plant protein are present in a ratio of about 67:33. In one embodiment, the dietary fiber is potato fiber. In one embodiment, the plant protein is potato protein. In one embodiment, the dietary fiber is potato fiber and the plant protein is potato protein. In one embodiment, the binding agent comprises potato fiber and potato protein wherein the ratio of potato fiber to potato protein is about 67:33.

The binding agent may further comprise an enzyme solution. The enzyme can be selected from transglutaminase, tyrosinase and oxidase, for example a polyphenol oxidase. Transglutaminase may be used, for example, at a final concentration in the product of between 0.35 to 0.5% (w/w), or at about 0.42% (w/w).

In one embodiment, the binding agent comprises potato fiber, potato protein, and transglutaminase. In one embodiment, the binder is egg white.

The binding agent may be soy protein isolate dispersion, for example at 16 % (w/w). The binding agent may be gluten coated on cooked extrudate, or a combination of transglutaminase solution and gluten powder, or a combination of transglutaminase solution and soy protein isolate powder coated on cooked extrudate.

The extrudate can be first coated with a 10 % (w/w) transglutaminase solution and then with gluten or SPI powder or directly coated with gluten or SPI powder.

The extrudate may be cooked in vegetable broth. It may be cooked at about 90 °C. It can be cooked for about 15 minutes. This can be done to change the texture and taste.

Layering The extrudate and the fat analogue of the invention can be cut and layered, for example in a flexible aluminum form such as a ham mold, which can be closed with pressure. The extrudate layer can be added, followed by a defined amount of SPI dispersion. The dispersion can be spread on top as evenly as possible. The fat analogue may then be added. The form can be closed with pressure. A weight can be placed on top to press the product while heating. Heating can be for about 1 hour at about 40 °C and then for about

1 hour at about 85 °C. After heating, it can be cooled to room temperature. It can then be stored at about

2 °C.

EXAMPLES

Example 1 - Preparation and testing of fat analogues

Ingredient preparation

Soy protein isolate (SPI) (protein content minimum 90% on dry basis according to the manufacturer) was used to prepare protein dispersions. Processed starch with a bulk density of 11- 16g/ml was used as low density starch.

Method

Four fat analogues (1A, IB, 2A and 2B) were prepared, as follows:

SPI dispersions with 8% w/w SPI were prepared by mixing the SPI powder and coagulants with tap water in a food processor (for 15 minutes at Thermomix speed level 3).

A food processor was used to make the emulsion by slowly adding the oil phase (which contained canola oil (70%) and shea stearin (30%), which was melted into the liquid oil) to the SPI dispersion while constantly stirring.

In fat analogue IB and 2A, 4.8% of the low density starch was added to the emulsion and directly mixed.

In fat analogues 2A and 2B, 4% of liposoluble or lipo-dispersible flavor was added to the canola oil prior to the emulsion preparation.

Table 1 states the proportions in each fat analogue type.

Table 1

Viscosity of the unheated fat analogue was measured.

Then, the emulsion was cooked in a steam oven at between 85 °C and 87 °C to gellify the protein suspension and form an emulsion gel (emulgel) and maximum force was determined.

Results

The measurements of the emulsion viscosity and of the gel firmness are presented in Table 2.

Table 2

The addition of the 4.8% low density starch to the emulsion (analogue IB) significantly increases the viscosity of the emulsion (by five times) and the firmness of the emulsion gel (by seven times) obtained after cooking, when compared to the emulsion and emulgel without addition of the low density starch.

Observation of the resulting gelled emulsion (emulgel) by Cryo - Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) as shown in Figure 1 illustrated that for the analogues with low density starch (see Figures 1C and ID):

1) No fragments of the low density starch could be distinguished once integrated in the emulgel, indicating potential starch dissolution (considering it is starch based and followed a thermal treatment at 87 °C) and

2) When low density starch is integrated in the emulgel, a fine gel-like network, linking the fat droplets is observed. Low density starch addition seems to hinder emulsion fat droplet coalescence.

The formation of this emulgel with small fat droplets and a denser protein gel network explains the increased viscosity of the emulsion and the firmer emulgel. This modification of the structure by the addition of low-density starch improves fat retention during cooking of meat analogues, which is particularly useful for meat analogues such as steak and ham, where fat loss during preparation can be a significant problem.

When liposoluble flavor is added to the oil before emulsion preparation (analogues 2A and 2B) the viscosity of the emulsion is still significantly increased as compared to the reference emulgel (four times) and the resulting emulgel is also firmer even if at a lower level than without the addition of flavor (see Table 2).

The addition of the flavor molecules results in a partial coalescence of the fat droplets and a less dense protein gel network as shown in Figure 1 - see Figure ID (emulgel, low density starch and flavor). In the water rich phase, some insoluble features were also observed, suggestive of protein aggregates. Example 2 - Preparation of meat analogues comprising the fat analogue

Method

The fat analogue (as prepared in Example 1) was adhered to plat protein extrudate with binder.

Soy protein extrudates were coated with liquid binder (recipe below), and then layered in a ham mold. Some unheated fat analogue was added with a piping bag in between the extrudate layers. This layering was repeated to the desired height and the ham mold closed while applying a defined pressure. The loaf was then cooked in a steam oven at between 85 °C and 87 °C to form a cohesive mass. The final loaf was made up of 1300g protein extrudate, 100g fat analogue and 500g binder.

In one sample, pork/ham flavoring was added to the canola oil used to produce the emulsion.

Results

The addition of low-density starch was observed to result in a viscous and firm emulsion and when added in the meat analogue assembly resulted in significantly better retention of the fat analogue and oil/fat in the finished product.

The sensory profile comparison of the finished products 2A with low density starch addition and 2B without low density starch demonstrated a significant improvement when low density starch was added.

As shown in Figure 2, the addition of low density starch significantly improved the pork ham flavour intensity and juice body. For each pair of results shown in figure 2, the left hand bar corresponds to recipe 2B and the right hand bar corresponds to recipe 2A.

This is consistent with fact that more material (fat and binder) is retained in the loaf made from the recipe containing low density starch, demonstrated in Table 3 (almost 3% greater retention using the recipe containing low density starch). This greater retention leads to improved taste and moisture.

Table 3